DEFINITIONS OF MOTIVATION

“The degree to which an individual wants and

chooses to engage in certain specified behaviour.”
Motivation - The energy and commitment a person
dedicates to a task.
• Motivating - What is done to release the energy and
commitment in others.
• Performance is a product of motivation, ability and
environment (Mullins: 1996,480)
 The Nature of Motivation
• Intensity (how hard a person tries)

• Direction (efforts are not aimless)

• Persistence (how long a person can try)

The Motivation Framework
 TYPES OF MOTIVATORS

• Extrinsic Motivation - Tangible rewards

• Intrinsic Motivation - Psychological rewards

 Workplace Motivators
Extrinsic Motivation(Economic rewards)
• Pay, fringe benefits, pension rights, material goods and security
• This is an ‘instrumental’ orientation to work and concerned with
‘other things’
Intrinsic Motivation
• Derived from the nature of the work itself
• Interest in the job
• Personal growth and development
• This is a ‘personal’ orientation to work and concerned with ‘oneself’
 Workplace Motivators
Social relationships
• Friendships/informal groups
• Group working
• Desire for affiliation, status and independence - a
‘relational’ orientation to work and concerned with ‘other people’

• A person’s motivation, job satisfaction and work

performance will be determined by the comparative
strength of these sets of needs and expectations and
the extent to which they are fulfilled.
I.Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Based on the assumption that human needs are
inexhaustible
• A satisfied need is no longer a motivator

• Maslow categorises the needs in ascending order –

physiological, security, affiliation, esteem and self-actualisation.

• Gradual emergence of higher-level/higher-order needs as lower-

level needs become more satisfied

• Relative importance of needs changes during the psychological

development of the individual
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Source: Adopted from Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychology Review, 1943, Vol. 50, pp. 370-396.
 Theory X & theory Y (McGregor)

• Proposed two distinct views of human being Negative

(theory X) Positive (theory Y)
• Theory X (people are lazy, dislike work, wants to be
controlled, avoid responsibility, show little ambition)
• Theory Y (self motivated to do work, self-direction,
self-control, like work naturally, seek responsibility,
innovative decision)
 III. HERZBERG’S TWO-
FACTOR THEORY
Herzberg avoids using the word ‘need’ and maintains
that in any work situation, you can distinguish
between two sets of factors.
Hygiene factors
• features of the work environment which, if present, help avoid
dissatisfaction with work.
• concerned with job context e.g work environment, status, company
procedures, quality of supervision.
• Can be related roughly to Maslow’s lower-level needs.
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Ttheory

Motivators

• features of the job itself that people find enjoyable and

that have a motivational effect.
• Mainly intrinsic in nature e.g. sense of achievement,
recognition, responsibility.
• can be related to Maslow’s higher-level needs.
The Two Factor Theory of
Motivation
The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)
(cont’d)
• Motivation is a two-stage process:
– Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient and not
blocking motivation.
– Providing employees the opportunity to experience increase
motivational factors through the use of job enrichment and
the redesign of jobs.

• Criticisms of the Two-Factor Theory

– Interview findings are subject to different explanations.
– Sample population was not representative.
– Subsequent research has not upheld theory.
 II. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

• Condenses Maslow’s model into three levels

• Based on core needs of existence, relatedness

and growth

• Individuals progress through the ERG needs

hierarchy though Alderfer suggests that it is a
continuum rather than a hierarchy
ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

• More than one need may be activated at the

same time.

• Individuals may progress down the hierarchy.

• If needs are blocked at one level then attention

will be focused on satisfaction of needs at other
levels.
 IV. McCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT
MOTIVATION THEORY

• Need for affiliation – to interact with, and be liked

by, other people (nAff)

• Need for power – to control the activities of other

people (nPow)

• Need for achievement – to succeed or excel in

areas of significance to the person (nAch)
McCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT
MOTIVATION THEORY

– People with a high need for achievement:

– have a major preoccupation with succeeding in
whatever they do
– prefer moderate task difficulty
– want personal and full responsibility for
performance
– like to receive clear and unambiguous feedback
– tend not to value money for itself but more as a
symbol of success.
 VI.VROOM’S EXPECTANCY
THEORY

• Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality

Valence: value or strength of outcome or reward.

Expectancy: relates efforts to performance.

Instrumentality: the belief that performance is related to

rewards
 Expectancy Theory
• Motivation depends on how much we want something
and how likely we are to get it.
• Assumes that:
– Behavior is determined by a combination of personal and
environmental forces.
– People make decisions about their own behavior in
organizations.
– Different people have different types of needs, desires, and
goals.
– People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting
one that that leads to a desired outcome.
 Expectancy Theory (cont’d)
• Model of Motivation
– Suggests that motivation leads to effort, when
combined
with ability and environmental factors, that results
in performance which, in turn, leads to
various outcomes that have value
(valence) to employees.
The Expectancy Model of
Motivation
 VII. Porter-Lawler Extension of
Expectancy Theory
• Assumptions:
– If performance in an organization results in equitable and fair
rewards, people will be more satisfied.
• High performance can lead to rewards and high
satisfaction.
• Types of rewards:
– Extrinsic rewards—outcomes set and awarded by external parties
(e.g., pay and promotions).
– Intrinsic rewards—outcomes that are internal to the individual
(e.g., self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).
The Porter-Lawler Model
 Evaluation and Implications

•Research studies have confirmed:

– The association of both kinds of expectancies
and valences with performance and outcomes.
– That motivated behavior by people arises from
their valuing expected rewards, believing effort
will lead to performance, and that performance
will lead to desired rewards.
 Guidelines for the Use of
Expectancy Theory
• Practical use of the theory by managers:
– Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.
– Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to
meet organizational goals.
– Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.
– Link desired outcomes and desired performance.
– Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.
– Make sure the rewards are large enough.
– Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.
 VIII. Goal Setting Theory

• Assumptions
– Behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions.
– Setting goals influences the behavior of people in
organizations.
• Characteristics of Goals
– Goal difficulty
• Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.
• People work harder to achieve more difficult goals.
• Goals should be difficult but attainable.
• Characteristics of Goals (cont’d)
– Goal specificity
• Clarity and precision of the goal.
• Goals vary in their ability to be
stated specifically.
– Acceptance
• The extent to which persons
accept a goal as their own.
– Commitment
• The extent to which an individual is
personally interested in reaching a goal.
The Expanded Goal-Setting Theory
of Motivation

Source: Reprinted by permission of the publisher, from Organizational Dynamics, Autumn/1979, copyright © 1979 by American Management
Association, New York. All rights reserved. (http://www.amanet.org)
 IX. The Equity Theory of
Motivation
•Equity Theory
– Based on the relatively simple premise that people in
organizations want to be treated fairly.
•Equity
– The belief that we are being
treated fairly in relation to others.
•Inequity
– The belief that we are being
treated unfairly in relation to others.
 Forming Equity Perceptions
Step 1
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their treatment through a four- alternatives.
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The Equity Comparison Process
• Equity theory describes the equity comparison process
in terms of an outcome-to-input ratio.

Outcomes (self) Outcomes (other)

compared with
Inputs (self) Inputs (other)
Responses to
Perceptions
of Equity
and Inequity
ENHANCING PERFORMANCE IN
ORGANISATIONS

If a manager is to improve the work of an

organisation, attention must be given to
the level of motivation of its members.
 ENHANCING PERFORMANCE IN
ORGANISATIONS/Motivating Tools

• JOB DESIGN is how organisations define and

structure jobs and can have a positive or a negative
impact on the motivation, performance and job
satisfaction of those who perform them.

• Job Specialisation – e.g. FW TAYLOR. Consequent

boredom and monotony for workers led to managers
formulating a new approach.
 ENHANCING PERFORMANCE IN
ORGANISATIONS

• Job Rotation – systematic rotation of workers from one job

to another to reduce boredom

• Job Enlargement – greater task variety

• Job Enrichment – Because rotation and enlargement did not

have the desired effect, a more complex approach was taken i.e.
enlargement of the job both horizontally and vertically to give
more responsibility and control to the employee
 THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS
THEORY (Hackman and Oldham)

Three Critical Psychological States

• Experienced meaningfulness of the work

• Experienced responsibility for work outcomes
• Knowledge of results
 THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS
THEORY (Hackman and Oldham)
Enhancement of the three critical psychological
states can improve a variety of personal and work
outcomes:

– high internal work motivation

– high quality work performance
– high satisfaction with the work
– low absenteeism and turnover
 ENHANCING PERFORMANCE
IN ORGANISATIONS
Hackman and Oldham suggest that the three
critical psychological states are triggered by five
characteristics of the job - core job dimensions:
• Skill variety
• Task identity
• Task significance
• Autonomy
• Feedback
Popular Motivational Strategies
• Empowerment and Participation
– Empowerment
• The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make
decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence.
– Participation
• The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about
their work.
– Areas of Participation for Employees
• Making decisions about their jobs.
• Making decisions about administrative matters.
• Participating in decision making about broader issues of product
quality.
 New Forms of Working
Arrangements
• Variable Work Schedules
– Compressed work schedule—working a full forty-hour week
in less than five days.
– “Nine-eighty” schedule—working one full week (five days)
and one compressed week (four days), yielding one off-work
day every other week.
• Flexible work schedules (flextime)
– Allowing employees to select, within broad parameters, the
hours they will work.
• Job sharing
– When two part-time employees share one full-time job.
 Effects of Organizational Rewards

• Effect of Rewards on Attitudes

– Satisfaction is influenced by how much is received
and how much the person thinks should have been
received.
– Satisfaction is affected by comparison with others.
– The rewards of others are often misperceived.
– Overall job satisfaction is affected by employee
satisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
 Effects of Organizational Rewards

• Effect of Rewards on Behaviors

– Extrinsic rewards affect employee satisfaction and
reduce turnover.
– Rewards influence patterns of attendance and
absenteeism.
– Employees tend to work harder for rewards based
on performance.
Effects of Organizational Rewards

• Effect of Rewards on Motivation

– Employees will work harder when performance will
be measured.
– Employees will work harder if performance is
closely followed by rewards.
 Conclusions

MOTIVATION AND MONEY

• Money, in the form of pay or some other sort of

remuneration, is the most obvious extrinsic reward.
• Herzberg cast doubts on the effectiveness of money as
a motivator.
• However, different people have different needs and
some will be more motivated by money than others.
 Conclusions

• Money is a powerful force as it is linked directly, or

indirectly, to the satisfaction of many needs eg survival
and security, self-esteem and status.

• Financial incentives motivate those people who

are strongly motivated by money and who expect to
receive a financial reward for their effort.
Thank You