Chapter 8

Viscous Flow in Pipes

8.1 General Characteristics of Pipe Flow

We will consider round pipe flow, which is completely filled with the fluid.

8.1.1 Laminar or Turbulent Flow

The flow of a fluid in a pipe may be laminar flow or it may be turbulent flow. Osborne Reynolds experiment --typical dye streaks

V8.2 Laminar/turbulent pipe flow

Instantaneous velocity fluctuation

Time dependence of fluid velocity at a point.

V8.3 Intermittent turbulent burst in pipe flow

Turbulent Re>4000 Transitional 2100<Re<4000 Laminar Re<2100

For pipe flow the most important dimensionless parameter is the Reynolds number, Re, the rate of the inertia to viscous effect in the flow.
Re =

VD

EX. 8.1 Laminar or turbulent flows?

8.1.2 Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow

Consider a pipe flow with uniform inlet velocity

A boundary layer in which viscous effect are important is produced along the pipe wall such that the initial velocity profile changes with distance along the pipe.

Entrance length

Typical entrance lengths are given by

le for laminar flow = 0.06 Re D le 16 for turbulent flow = 4.4 ( Re ) D

e.g.

Re = 1.0 Re = 2000

l e = 0.6 D l e = 120 D

For practical engineering problems 10 4 < Re < 105 so that 20 D < l e < 30 D

Calculation of the velocity profile and pressure distribution within the entrance region is quite complex.

8.1.3 Pressure and Shear Stress

Fully developed steady flow in a constant diameter pipe may be driven by gravity and/or pressure force. For horizontal pipe flow, gravity has no effect except for a hydrostatic pressure variation across the pipe, that is usually negligible. Viscous effects provide the restraining force that exactly balances the pressure force, allowing the fluid to flow through the pipe with no acceleration. In non-fully developed flow, the fluid accelerates or decelerates as it flows, therefore there is a balance between pressure, viscous and inertia (acceleration) flow.

Integral Analysis for Increased Pressure Drop in the Entrance Region

(From S.R. Turns, Thermal-Fluid Sciences, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006)

The increased pressure drop in the entrance region result from two reasons: 1. flow acceleration, 2. increased wall shear stress. 1. Flow acceleration Integral momentum balance for the control volume below leads to 4 Increased momentum flow & avg mv & avg P0 Ax -sec P2 Ax -sec w dAw = mv or flow acceleration Aw 3

2. Increased Wall Shear Stress:

dA dA > w w Aw w w Aw developing fully region developed

Increased wall shear stress

Pressure distribution

Pressure distribution drag a horizontal pipe

p p > = constant x entrance x fully developed region

region

Nature of flow

The nature of the pipe flow is strongly dependent on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, which is a direct consequence of the differences in the nature of the shear stress. Flow rate as a function of pressure drop in a given horizontal pipe.

p D V= 32 l

D 4 p Q= Hagen-Poiseuille flow 128 l

Laminar flow Re<2100

8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow

Consider a fully developed flow in long straight, constant diameter sections of a pipe. There are numerous ways to derive important results pertaining to fully developed laminar flow.

8.2.1 From F=ma Applied Directly to a Fluid Element

Consider a element within a pipe

Free body diagram of a cylinder of fluid

The force balance becomes, (a=0, the fluid is not accelerating)

( p1 ) r 2 ( p1 p ) r 2 ( ) 2 rl = 0

p 2 = r l

Since neither p nor l are functions of the radial coordinate, r , it follows that 2 r must also be independent of r .
i.e.,
= Cr 2 w
C= where C is a constant where w is the wall shear stress

D 2 r = w D

Thus the pressure drop and wall shear stress are related by, 4l w
p = D

A small shear stress can produce a large pressure difference if the pipe is relatively long l >> 1
D

The above analysis is valid for both laminar and turbulent flow. To proceed further we must determine the relationship between shear stress and velocity. For laminar Newtonian flow,
du For pipe flow = dr ( > 0 ) p p 2 du Then = , = r l r dr 2 l
p du = 2 l rdr p 2 u = where C1 is a constant r + C1 , 2 l D pD 2 B.C.: u = 0., r = , so that C1 = 2 16 l

u = y

Hence the velocity profile can be written as,

pD 2 u (r ) = 16 l 2r 2 2r 2 1 = Vc 1 D D pD 2 where Vc = is the centerline velocity 16 l

In terms of wall shear stress,

wD r u (r ) = 1 4 R

2

D R where is the pipe radius. = 2

Volume flow rate

Q = udA = =
r=R r =0

u ( r )2 rdr = 2 Vc

r 2 1 rdr R

R 2Vc
2

Average velocity

R 2Vc Vc p D 2 V= = = 2 2 R 2 32 l D 4 p Q= Hagen-Poiseuille flow 128 l

Laminar flow Re<2100

A 2% error in pipe diameter gives rise to 8% error in flow rate.

Q ~ D 4 , Q ~ 4 D 3 D Q 4 D = Q D

For nonhorizontal pipe

Thus instead of
p l sin 2 = l r and

p 2 = l r

p l sin ) D 2 ( , V=

( p l sin ) D 4 Q= 32 l 128 l If V = 0, p = l sin = z

8.2.2 From the Navier-Stokes Equation

Basic equations u r V = 0, u r r u r r u r V u p u 2 + V V = + g + v V t For steady fully developed flow in a pipe

u r V = 0, r u r 2 p + gk = V

In terms of polar coordinate

p 1 u + g sin = r x r r r f ( x ) = g ( r ) = constant,

8.2.3 From Dimensional Analysis

Consider pressure drop in the horizontal pipe

p = F (V , l, D, ) k r = 53 = 2 D p l = V D

dimensionless groups

If we assume that the pressure drop is directly proportional to the pipe length.
D p C l = V D or , p C V p D 2 = V= 2 l l C D 4C ) p D 4

( Q = AV =

D 4 p = 128 l

The value of C must be determined by theory or experiment. C = 32 for round pipe.

It is advantageous to describe in terms if dimensionless quantities.

p = 32 lV D2 l 64 l 32 lV D 2 p 64 = = = 2 2 1 1 V V VD D Re D 2 2

l V 2 i.e., p = f D 2

where f = p ( D l ) ( V 2 2 ) friction factor or Darcy friction factor

64 f = For laminar fully developed pipe flow Re 4 l w Alternatively, since p = D p ( D l ) 4 l w D 1 8 w f = 1 = = 2 2 2 1 V D V V l 2 2

(8.19)

(8.20)

8.2.4 Energy Consideration

Consider the energy equation for incompressible, steady flow between flow locations.

p1

V12 p2 V22 + 1 + z1 = + 2 + z2 + h2 2g 2g

For fully developed flow

p + z1 2 + z2 = hL 2 l p 2 = hL = l r r p1

1 = 2 , V1 = V2
p l sin 2 = l r p l sin = 2 l r

4l w , hL = D

(Recall p1 = p2 + p , z2 z1 = l sin )

Which indicates that it is the shear stress at the wall ( which is directly related to the viscosity and the shear stress throughout the fluid ) that is responsible for the head loss.

EX. 8.3 Laminar pipe flow properties

8.3 Fully developed turbulent flow

Turbulent pipe flow is actually more likely to occur than laminar flow in practical situation. Consider flow in a pipe

Velocity variation at a point.

Turbulent processes and heat and mass transfer processes are considerably enhanced in turbulent flow compared to laminar flow. Mix a cup of coffee (turbulent flow) Mix two colors of a viscous paint (laminar flow)
V8.4 Stirring color into paint V8.5 Laminar and turbulent mixing V8.7 Turbulence in a bowl

8.3.2 Turbulent shear stress

Turbulent flow is random and chaotic and can only be characterized using stately terms.
u = u ( x, y , z , t )

Mean part

time average

1 u= T

t0 + T

t0

u ( x, y , z , t ) dt

where T is longer than the period of the longest fluctuations, but is shorter than any unsteadiness of the average velocity.

Turbulence intensity

Fluctuating part
u = u + u or u = u u t0 + T 1 t0 + T 1 t0 + T u = ( u u ) dt = u dt u dt t0 t0 T t0 T 1 = (Tu Tu ) = 0 T 1 t0 +T 2 2 u = u dt > 0 T t0

Turbulence intensity

1 u 2 T I= = u

t0 + T

t0

u 2 dt u

12

Well designed wind tunnel: I 0.01 (may be down to 0.0002)

Time-averaged Navier-Stokes Equations

Let u = u + u , = + , w = w + w and then take time average
u 2u 2u 2u u u u u u u p x-dir: +u + u + + +w + w = + gx + 2 + 2 + 2 x x y y z z x y z x t

u u2 u u u u uw w But u ; w = u ; = u = u x x x y y y z z z u w and + + = 0 (from continuity equation) x y z u 2u 2u 2u u u2 u u u u w p +u + + + +w + = + gx + 2 + 2 + 2 t x x y y z z x y z x

Terms with fluctuations moved and merged to the r.h.s. Finally,

u p u u u 2 + u + u w = + gx + x x x y y z z p +u + +w u + 2 + w = + gy + x y z y x x y y t z z w w w w w p w w 2 +u + +w = + + + + g u w w w z x y z z x x y y t z z u u u u +u + +w x y z t

Origin of shear stress

The shear stress for turbulent flow can not be evaluated as for laminar flow, i.e.,

u t y

Laminar flow : random motion of molecules.

Turbulent flow: random motion of 3D eddies.

The eddy structure greatly enhances and promotes mixing within the fluid.

Total stress

Total stress
=
du u = lam + turb dy

if the flow is laminar,

u = = 0 , u = 0

u ( w, K) --Reynolds stresses

Structure of turbulent flow in a pipe

Typically the value of turb is 100 to 1000 times greater than lam in the outer region, while the converse is true in the in the viscous sublayer. The viscous sublayer is usually a very thin layer. (cf. Ex. 8.4)
An alternate way of expressing turbulent shear stress
turb =
du dy

where : eddy viscosity which is a function of both the fluid and flow conditions.

Prandtl mixing length 2 du = l m dy

turb

du = l dy
2 m

lm = ?

8.3.3 Turbulent Velocity Profile

Typical Structure of the turbulent velocity profile in a pipe

law

of the wall

u yu * = u*

u yu * = 2.5 ln + 5.0 u*

where the coefficients are determined experimentally

w u *or u =

friction velocity

viscous sublayer 0 yu * 5 In the central region,

R Vc u = 2.5ln u* y

is often used

Appendix: Derivation of the law of the wall

For the sublayer, Prandtl suggested in 1930 that u be independent of sublayer thickness, and
u = f ( , w , , y )

Using the pi method:

1 1 1 = u a = 0, b = , c = 2 2 1 1 d e f 2 = y w d = 1, e = , c = 2 2 1 = u / w / = u / u*, where w / u *
a b w c

2 =

w / =

yu *

u yu * = f u* u yu * Experimentally, it is found that . = u*

Turbulent Velocity Profile

Empirical powerlaw velocity

u r = 1 Vc R
1n

the value of n is a function of the Reynolds number.

EX. 8.4 Turbulent pipe flow properties

V8.8 Laminar to turbulent flow from a pipe V8.9 Laminar/turbulent velocity profiles

8.3.4 Turbulence Modeling

Time-averaging approach: need to solve the closure
problem for the Reynolds stresses, such as u , etc. Different methods for Reynolds stress closure: Algebraic (zero-equation) modelsby modeling the eddy viscosity or mixing length One-equation modelssolve one additional transport equation Two-equation modelssolve two more additional transport equations, such as k- model, k- model Reynolds stress transport modelssolve the transport equation for Reynolds stresses Large eddy simulations (LES)explicitly solve for the large eddies in a calculation and implicitly account for the small eddies by using a subgrid-scale model (SGS model). Direct numerical simulations (DNS)directly solve the transient 3-D Navier-Stokes equations with very fine grids and time steps

8.3.5 Chaos and Turbulence

Chaos theory involves the behavior of nonlinear dynamical systems and their response to initial and boundary conditions. The flow of viscous fluid, governed by the complex nonlinear Navier-Stokes equations, is such a system. The chaotic behavior associated with the logistic equation with increase of r:

X next = rX (1 X )
r=3

(from Chaos, by James Gleick)

The Butterfly Effect

The phrase refers to the idea that a butterflys wings might create tiny changes in the atmosphere that may ultimately alter the path of a tornado or delay, accelerate or even prevent the occurrence of a tornado in a certain location. The flapping wing represents a small change in the initial condition of the system, which causes a chain of events leading to large-scale alterations of events. Had the butterfly not flapped its wings, the trajectory of the system might have been vastly different. Of course the butterfly cannot literally cause a tornado. The kinetic energy in a tornado is enormously larger than the energy in the turbulence of a butterfly. The kinetic energy of a tornado is ultimately provided by the sun and the butterfly can only influence certain details of weather events in a chaotic manner. (from Wikipedia)

About the difficulty to understand turbulence

On his death bed, Heisenberg is reported to have said, "When I meet God, I am going to ask him two questions: Why relativity? And why turbulence? I really believe he will have an answer for the first." A similar witticism has been attributed to Horace Lamb (who had published a noted text book on Hydrodynamics)his choice being quantum mechanics (instead of relativity) and turbulence. Lamb was quoted as saying in a speech to the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1932, "I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic."

8.4 Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow

Most turbulent pipe flow analyses are based on experimental data and semi-empirical formulas. hL=hLmajor+hLminor Major losses : loss associated with the straight portion of the pipe p = F (V , D, l, , , ) pressure drop and head loss in a pipe

For laminar flow the pressure drop is found to be independent of the roughness of the pipe. For turbulent flow, the pressure drop is expected to be a function of the roughness.

Pressure drop

For turbulent flow, the pressure drop is expected to be a function of the roughness.

Pressure drop in pipe

We will consider
k r = 73 = 4 p % VD , l , = 2 1 V D D 2

0 D 0.05

Experiments indicate that pressure drop is proportional to the pipe length.

p l l V 2 = Re , , p = f 2 1 V D D D 2 2 or f =

- valid for horizontal pipe

pD Re , = 2 1 V D l 2

friction factor

Friction coefficient

For laminar flow

64 f = Re

independent of

For turbulent flow

f = Re , D

Moody chart

f =

64 Re

Energy Equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 + 1 + z1 = + 2 + z2 + hL 2g 2g

(cf. Eq. 5.89 in Section 5.3.4)

if D1 = D2 , z1 = z2 (horizontal pipe) with fully developed flow 1 = 2 thus

l V 2 p = p1 p2 = hL = f D 2 l V2 hL = f D 2 g - Darcy Weisbach

equation valid for fully developed steady incompressible pipe flow horizontal or on a hill.

Determination of friction coefficient

In general with

l V 2 p1 p2 = ( z2 z1 ) + hL = ( z2 z1 ) + f D 2

V1 = V2

Part of the pressure change is due to the elevation change and part is due to the heat loss associated with friction effects.

Moody chart 10% accuracy is best expected Colebrook formula

D 1 2.51 = 2.0 log + f 3.7 Re f

8.4.2 Minor Losses

Major losses : loss associated with the straight portion of the pipe Minor losses : loss associated with valves, bends, tees,..

Minor losses

Loss coefficients for minor loss

The head loss information for essentially all components is given in dimensionless form and based on experimental data. loss coefficient
KL =

hL p = 2 1 V V 2 2g 2

2 so that p = K L 1 V 2

or V2 hL = K L 2g K L = ( geometry, Re )

Loss coefficients for minor loss

For many practical applications, Re is large, the flow is dominated by inertia effect.
p thus K L = ( geometry )

1 2

V 2

Equivalent length
l eq V 2 V2 hL = K L = f 2g D 2g K D or l eq = L f

loss coefficients An obvious way to reduce loss is to round the entrance region.

Entrance and Exit Flows

Figure 8.22 (p. 438)

Entrance flow conditions and loss coefficient (Refs. 28, 29). (a) Reentrant, KL = 0.8, (b) sharp-edged, KL = 0.5, (c) slightly rounded, KL = 0.2 (see Fig. 8.24), (d) wellrounded, KL = 0.04 (see Fig. 8.24).

Figure 8.25 (p. 440)

Exit flow conditions and loss coefficient. (a) Reentrant, KL = 1.0, (b) sharp-edged, KL = 1.0, (c) slightly rounded, KL = 1.0, (d) well-rounded, KL = 1.0.

V8.10 Entrance/exit flows

Pressure loss

Flow patter and pressure distribution for a sharp edge entrance.

The majority of the loss is due to inertia effects that are eventually dissipated by the shear stresses within the fluid. Only a small portion of the loss is due to the wall shear stress within the entrance region.

Loss coefficient

Loss coefficients

Loss coefficient

Loss coefficients

Loss coefficient

Loss coefficients

Loss coefficient

Loss coefficients for a sudden expansion

AV 1 1 = A3V3 p1 p1 A3 p3 A3 = A3V3 (V3 V1 ) V12 p3 V32 + = + + hL 2g 2g
2

pa = pb = pc = p1 A2 = A3
V8.11 Separated flow in a diffuser

hL A1 = 1 KL = 2 V1 2 g A2

Loss coefficient

Loss coefficient

Loss coefficient

8.4.3 Noncircular Conduits

For noncircular duct

f =

C Re h

where Re h =

VDh 4A , Dh = P
Dh

l V2 , hL = f Dh 2 g

relative roughness,

Noncircular Conduits

For noncircular duct C value

C l V2 f = , hL = f , relative roughness, Re h Dh 2 g Dh