Communication

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For other uses, see Communication (disambiguation).
"Communicate" redirects here. For other uses, see Communicate (disambiguation).
Communication (from Latin communicare, meaning "to share" [1]) is the activity o
f conveying information through the exchange of ideas, feelings, intentions, att
itudes, expectations, perceptions or commands, as by speech, gestures, writings,
behaviour and possibly by other means such as electromagnetic, chemical or phys
ical phenomena. It is the meaningful exchange of information between two or more
participants that might or might not be living creatures.[2][3]
Communication requires a sender, a message, a medium and a recipient, although t
he receiver does not have to be present or aware of the sender's intent to commu
nicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast di
stances in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating parties
share an area of communicative commonality. The communication process is comple
te once the receiver understands the sender's message.[citation needed]
Communicating with others involves three primary steps:[4]
Thought: First, information exists in the mind of the sender. This can be a conc
ept, idea, information, or feeling.
Encoding: Next, a message is sent to a receiver in words or other symbols.
Decoding: Lastly, the receiver translates the words or symbols into a concept or
information that a person can understand.
There are a variety of verbal and non-verbal forms of communication. These inclu
de body language, eye contact, sign language, haptic communication, and chronemi
cs. Other examples are media content such as pictures, graphics, sound, and writ
ing. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also defines the
communication to include the display of text, Braille, tactile communication, la
rge print, accessible multimedia, as well as written and plain language, human-r
eader, augmentative and alternative modes, means and formats of communication, i
ncluding accessible information and communication technology.[5] Feedback is a c
ritical component of effective communication.
Contents [hide]
1 Verbal communication
2 Nonverbal communication
3 Oral communication
4 Business communication
5 Written communication and its historical development
6 Effective communication
7 Barriers to effective human communication
7.1 Physical barriers
7.2 System design
7.3 Attitudinal barriers
7.4 Ambiguity of words/phrases
7.5 Individual linguistic ability
7.6 Physiological barriers
8 Nonhuman communication
8.1 Animal communication
8.2 Plants and fungi
8.3 Bacteria quorum sensing
9 Communication cycle
10 Communication noise
10.1 Environmental noise
10.2 Physiological-impairment noise
10.3 Semantic noise
10.4 Syntactical noise
10.5 Organizational noise
10.6 Cultural noise
10.7 Psychological noise
11 Communication as academic discipline
12 See also
13 References
14 Further reading
Verbal communication[edit]
Main article: Human communication
Human spoken and pictorial languages can be described as a system of symbols (so
metimes known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are mani
pulated. The word "language" also refers to common properties of languages. Lang
uage learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of t
he thousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols whi
ch enable communication with others around them. Languages seem to share certain
properties although many of these include exceptions. There is no defined line
between a language and a dialect. Constructed languages such as Esperanto, progr
amming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restri
cted to the properties shared by human languages. Communication is the flow or e
xchange of information within people or a group of people.
Nonverbal communication[edit]
Main article: Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying meaning in the form o
f non-word messages. Some forms of non verbal communication include chronemics,
haptics, gesture, body language or posture, facial expression and eye contact, o
bject communication such as clothing, hairstyles, architecture, symbols, infogra
phics, and tone of voice, as well as through an aggregate of the above. Speech a
lso contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage. This form of communicatio
n is the most known for interacting with people. These include voice lesson qual
ity, emotion and speaking style as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, int
onation and stress. Research has shown that up to 55% of human communication may
occur through non verbal facial expressions, and a further 38% through paralang
uage.[6] Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting
style, spatial arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotional
expressions in pictorial form.
Oral communication[edit]
Oral communication, while primarily referring to spoken verbal communication, ca
n also employ visual aids and non-verbal elements to support the conveyance of m
eaning. Oral communication includes speeches, presentations, discussions, and as
pects of interpersonal communication. As a type of face-to-face communication, b
ody language and choice tonality play a significant role, and may have a greater
impact upon the listener than informational content. This type of communication
also garners immediate feedback.
Business communication[edit]
Main article: Business communication
A business can flourish only when all objectives of the organization are achieve
d effectively. For efficiency in an organization, all the people of the organiza
tion must be able to convey their message properly.[citation needed]
Written communication and its historical development[edit]
Over time the forms of and ideas about communication have evolved through the co
ntinuing progression of technology. Advances include communications psychology a
nd media psychology, an emerging field of study.
The progression of written communication can be divided into three "information
communication revolutions":[7]
Written communication first emerged through the use of pictographs. The pictogra
ms were made in stone, hence written communication was not yet mobile.
The next step occurred when writing began to appear on paper, papyrus, clay, wax
, etc. with common alphabets. Communication became mobile.
The final stage is characterized by the transfer of information through controll
ed waves of electromagnetic radiation (i.e., radio, microwave, infrared) and oth
er electronic signals.
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an
attempt to create shared understanding. This process, which requires a vast repe
rtoire of skills in interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, qu
estioning, analyzing, gestures, and evaluating enables collaboration and coopera
tion.[8]
Misunderstandings can be anticipated and solved through formulations, questions
and answers, paraphrasing, examples, and stories of strategic talk. Written comm
unication can be clarified by planning follow-up talks on critical written commu
nication as part of the every-day way of doing business. A few minutes spent tal
king in the present will save valuable time later by avoiding misunderstandings
in advance. A frequent method for this purpose is reiterating what one heard in
one's own words and asking the other person if that really was what was meant.[9
]
Effective communication[edit]
Effective communication occurs when a desired effect is the result of intentiona
l or unintentional information sharing, which is interpreted between multiple en
tities and acted on in a desired way. This effect also ensures that messages are
not distorted during the communication process. Effective communication should
generate the desired effect and maintain the effect, with the potential to incre
ase the effect of the message. Therefore, effective communication serves the pur
pose for which it was planned or designed. Possible purposes might be to elicit
change, generate action, create understanding, inform or communicate a certain i
dea or point of view. When the desired effect is not achieved, factors such as b
arriers to communication are explored, with the intention being to discover how
the communication has been ineffective.
Barriers to effective human communication[edit]
Barriers to effective communication can retard or distort the message and intent
ion of the message being conveyed which may result in failure of the communicati
on process or an effect that is undesirable. These include filtering, selective
perception, information overload, emotions, language, silence, communication app
rehension, gender differences and political correctness [10]
This also includes a lack of expressing "knowledge-appropriate" communication, w
hich occurs when a person uses ambiguous or complex legal words, medical jargon,
or descriptions of a situation or environment that is not understood by the rec
ipient.
Physical barriers[edit]
Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the environment. An example of
this is the natural barrier which exists if staff are located in different build
ings or on different sites. Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly t
he failure of management to introduce new technology, may also cause problems. S
taff shortages are another factor which frequently causes communication difficul
ties for an organization. While distractions like background noise, poor lightin
g or an environment which is too hot or too cold can all affect people's morale
and concentration, which in turn interfere with effective communication.
System design[edit]
System design faults refer to problems with the structures or systems in place i
n an organization. Examples might include an organizational structure which is u
nclear and therefore makes it confusing to know whom to communicate with. Other
examples could be inefficient or inappropriate information systems, a lack of su
pervision or training, and a lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities which
can lead to staff being uncertain about what is expected of them.
Attitudinal barriers[edit]
Attitudinal barriers come about as a result of problems with staff in an organiz
ation. These may be brought about, for example, by such factors as poor manageme
nt, lack of consultation with employees, personality conflicts which can result
in people delaying or refusing to communicate, the personal attitudes of individ
ual employees which may be due to lack of motivation or dissatisfaction at work,
brought about by insufficient training to enable them to carry out particular t
asks, or just resistance to change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas.[citati
on needed]
Ambiguity of words/phrases[edit]
Words sounding the same but having different meaning can convey a different mean
ing altogether. Hence the communicator must ensure that the receiver receives th
e same meaning. It is better if such words are avoided by using alternatives whe
never possible.
Individual linguistic ability[edit]
The use of jargon, difficult or inappropriate words in communication can prevent
the recipients from understanding the message. Poorly explained or misunderstoo
d messages can also result in confusion. However, research in communication has
shown that confusion can lend legitimacy to research when persuasion fails.[11][
12]
Physiological barriers[edit]
These may result from individuals' personal discomfort, causedfor exampleby ill he
alth, poor eyesight or hearing difficulties.
Nonhuman communication[edit]
See also: Biocommunication (science) and Interspecies communication
Every information exchange between living organisms i.e. transmission of signals
that involve a living sender and receiver can be considered a form of communica
tion; and even primitive creatures such as corals are competent to communicate.
Nonhuman communication also include cell signaling, cellular communication, and
chemical transmissions between primitive organisms like bacteria and within the
plant and fungal kingdoms.
Animal communication[edit]
The broad field of animal communication encompasses most of the issues in etholo
gy. Animal communication can be defined as any behavior of one animal that affec
ts the current or future behavior of another animal. The study of animal communi
cation, called zoo semiotics (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study
of human communication) has played an important part in the development of ethol
ogy, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition. Animal communication, and
indeed the understanding of the animal world in general, is a rapidly growing fi
eld, and even in the 21st century so far, a great share of prior understanding r
elated to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, an
imal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well unde
rstood, has been revolutionized.
Plants and fungi[edit]
Communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and
between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between
plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the root zone. Plant roots commun
icate in parallel with rhizome bacteria, with fungi and with insects in the soil
. These parallel sign-mediated interactions are governed by syntactic, pragmatic
, and semantic rules, and are possible because of the decentralized "nervous sys
tem" of plants. The original meaning of the word "neuron" in Greek is "vegetable
fiber" and recent research has shown that most of the microorganism plant commu
nication processes are neuronal-like.[13] Plants also communicate via volatiles
when exposed to herbivory attack behavior, thus warning neighboring plants. In p
arallel they produce other volatiles to attract parasites which attack these her
bivores. In stress situations plants can overwrite the genomes they inherited fr
om their parents and revert to that of their grand- or great-grandparents.[citat
ion needed]
Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their growth and development such a
s the formation of Marcelia and fruiting bodies. Fungi communicate with their ow
n and related species as well as with non fungal organisms in a great variety of
symbiotic interactions, especially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryote, plants
and insects through biochemicals of biotic origin. The biochemicals trigger the
fungal organism to react in a specific manner, while if the same chemical molec
ules are not part of biotic messages, they do not trigger the fungal organism to
react. This implies that fungal organisms can differentiate between molecules t
aking part in biotic messages and similar molecules being irrelevant in the situ
ation. So far five different primary signalling molecules are known to coordinat
e different behavioral patterns such as filamentation, mating, growth, and patho
genicity. Behavioral coordination and production of signaling substances is achi
eved through interpretation processes that enables the organism to differ betwee
n self or non-self, a biotic indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or
non-related species, and even filter out "noise", i.e. similar molecules withou
t biotic content.[14]
Bacteria quorum sensing[edit]
Communication is not a tool used only by humans, plants and animals, but it is a
lso used by microorganisms like bacteria. The process is called quorum sensing.
Through quorum sensing, bacteria are able to sense the density of cells, and reg
ulate gene expression accordingly. This can be seen in both gram positive and gr
am negative bacteria. This was first observed by Fuqua et al. in marine microorg
anisms like V. harveyi and V. fischeri.[15]
Communication cycle[edit]
Main article: Models of communication
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional Model of Communication
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
The first major model for communication was introduced by Claude Shannon and War
ren Weaver for Bell Laboratories in 1949[16] The original model was designed to
mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model
consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was
the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itsel
f, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other per
son. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interfer
es with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view
of communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is
sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a des
tination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication simply view
s communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths o
f this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following el
ements:
An information source, which produces a message.
A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communica
tion within this theory.
The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect beha
vior?
Daniel Chandler[17] critiques the transmission model by stating:
It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver's (1949) linear model of com
munication and created the SMCR Model of Communication.[18] The Sender-Message-C
hannel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and
has been expanded upon by other scholars.
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what t
ype of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), f
orm (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination / receiver / ta
rget / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1954) also indicated that
we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesire
d) on the target of the message.[19] Between parties, communication includes act
s that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask quest
ions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communica
tion. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, co
mmunication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination.
The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a co
rporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by t
hree levels of semiotic rules:
Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their user
s)
Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represe
nt) and
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting ag
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