MODELING GUIDELINES FOR VERY FAST TRANSIENTS

IN GAS INSULATED SUBSTATIONS

Report Prepared by the Very Fast Transients Task Force
of the IEEE Working Group on Modeling and Analysis of System Transients
J.A. Martinez (Chairman), P. Chowdhuri, R. Iravani, A. Keri, D. Povh

Abstract- This document is aimed at providing modeling

guidelines for digital simulation of very fast transients (VFT) in
gas insulated substations (GIS). A short explanation about the
origin of VFT overvoltages, their propagation and effects on GIS
equipment is included. The document presents modeling
guidelines of GIS components proposed in some previous works.
The accuracy of digital computations using these guidelines is also
discussed. Several examples corresponding to actual cases with
detailed data input and validated simulation results are
presented.

Keywords : Gas Insulated Substations, Very Fast Transients,

Modeling, Digital Simulation.

occurred at system voltages above 420 kV, they have been

correlated with disconnect switch and circuit breaker operation.
The generation and propagation of VFT from their original
location throughout a GIS can produce internal and external
overvoltages. The main concern are internal overvoltages
between the center conductor and the enclosure. However,
external VFT can be dangerous for secondary and adjacent
equipment. These external transients include transient voltages
between the enclosure and ground at GIS-air interfaces,
voltages across insulating spacers in the vicinity of GIS current
transformers, when they do not have a metallic screen on the
outside surface, voltages on the secondary terminals of GIS
instrument transformers, radiated electromagnetic fields (EMF)
which can be dangerous to adjacent control or relay equipment.

1. INTRODUCTION
An accurate representation of each component of a system is
essential for a reliable simulation of its transient performance.
This representation must be done taking into account the
frequency range of the transients to be simulated. Very Fast
Transients (VFT) belong to the highest frequency range of
transients in power systems. Component models to be used in
VFT simulations must be suitable for frequencies varying from
100 kHz up to 50 MHz [21].
VFT arise within a gas-insulated substation (GIS) any time
there is an instantaneous change in voltage. Most often this
change occurs as the result of the opening or closing of a
disconnect switch, but other events, such as the operation of a
circuit breaker, the closing of a grounding switch, or the
occurrence of a fault, can also cause VFT. These transients
generally have a very short rise time, in the range of 4 to 100
ns, and are normally followed by oscillations having
frequencies in the range of 1 to 50 MHz. Their magnitude is in
the range of 1.5 to 2.0 per unit of the line-to-neutral voltage
crest, but they can also reach values as high as 2.5 per unit.
These values are generally below the BIL of the GIS and
connected equipment of lower voltage classes. VFT in GIS are
of greater concern at the highest voltages, for which the ratio
of the BIL to the system voltage is lower. Some equipment
failures and arcing problems between grounded parts have

6-1

VFT can also occur during switching of vacuum breakers and

with certain lightning conditions. The objective of this
document is to present an explanation of the VFT phenomena
that can occur in GIS and provide guidelines for representing
GIS components in digital simulations. Some examples with
detailed input data are presented. A discussion about the
accuracy of the simulations and their verification with field
measurements is also included.

2. BACKGROUND
2.1 ORIGIN OF VFT IN GIS
VFT overvoltages are generated in a GIS during disconnector
or breaker operations, or by line-to-ground faults. During a
disconnector operation a number of pre- or restrikes occur due
to the relatively slow speed of the moving contact. Figure 1
shows the simplified configuration used to explain the general
switching behavior and the pattern of voltages on closing and
opening of a disconnector at a capacitive load [4], [17].
During closing, as the contacts approach, the electric field
between them will rise until sparking occurs. The first strike
will almost inevitably occur at the crest of the power frequency
voltage, due to the slow operating speed. Thereafter current

will flow through the spark and charge the capacitive load to
the source voltage. As it does so, the potential difference across
the contacts falls and the spark will eventually extinguish. The
behavior on opening is very nearly a complete reversal of the
above description.
In case of a line-to-ground fault, the voltage collapse at the
fault location occurs in a similar way as in the disconnector gap
during striking. Step-shaped travelling surges are generated
and injected to GIS lines connected to the collapse location.
The rise time of these surges depend on the voltage preceding
the collapse.

outcoupling at the transition to the overhead line.

In case of power transformers feeding the GIS, overall
transients with frequencies in the range of 20 to 100 kHz can
be observed caused by the oscillation of the whole system
consisting of the GIS and the transformer.
Due to the travelling wave behavior of the VFT, the
overvoltages caused by disconnector switches show a spatial
distribution. Normally the highest overvoltage stress is reached
at the open end of the load side. The maximum value of the
local VFT overvoltages is dependent on the voltage drop at the
disconnector just before striking and on the location
considered.

2.2 PROPAGATION OF VFT IN GIS

VFT in GIS can be divided into internal and external. Internal
transients can produce overvoltages between inner conductors
and the encapsulation, external transients can cause stress on
secondary and adjacent equipment. A summary about the
propagation and main characteristics of both types of
phenomena follows.

2.2.1 Internal transients

Breakdown phenomena across the contacts of a disconnector
during a switch operation or line-to-ground faults generate very
short rise time travelling waves which propagate in either
direction from the breakdown or fault location. Surges
travelling throughout GIS and to other connected equipment
are reflected and refracted at every transition point. As a
consequence of multiple reflections and refractions, travelling
voltages can increase above the original values and very high
frequency oscillations occur.
The propagation of VFT throughout GIS can be analyzed by
representing GIS sections as low-loss distributed parameter
transmission lines. Each section may be characterized by a
surge impedance and a transit time. Travelling waves are
reflected and refracted at every point where they encounter a
change in the surge impedance. The generated transients
depend on the GIS configuration and on the superposition of
the surges reflected and refracted on line discontinuities like
breakers, "T" junctions or bushings. The main frequencies
depend on the length of the GIS sections affected by the
disconnector operation and are in the range of 1 to 50 MHz.
The internal damping of the VFT influencing the highest
frequency components is determined by the spark resistance.
Skin effects due to the aluminum enclosure can be neglected.
The main portion of the damping of the VFT occurs by

6-2

For the calculation of VFT stresses, the trapped charge

remaining on the load side of the disconnector must be taken
into consideration. For a normal disconnector with a slow
speed, the maximum trapped charge reaches 0.5 pu resulting in
a most unfavorable voltage collapse of 1.5 pu. For these cases,
the resulting overvoltages are in the range of 1.7 pu and reach
2.0 pu for very specific cases. For a high speed disconnector,
the maximum trapped charge could be 1.0 pu and the highest
overvoltages reach values up to 2.5 pu. Extremely high values
of more than 3.0 pu have been reported. It can be shown,
however, that these values have been derived by calculation
using unrealistic simplified simulation models.
An example of these transient phenomena measured in an
actual GIS is given in Figure 2, where one prestrike of a
disconnector switching is depicted showing the steep voltage
transients at the supply and load sides. The basic frequency
component of the VFT in the MHz range, the overall transient
and the steady state waveform are also shown.
The two following examples will be useful to illustrate the
generation of VFT in GIS, and the influence of some
parameters on the frequency and maximum values of these
transients. Figure 3 shows a very simple case, a GIS bus duct
represented as a lossless distributed parameter transmission
line is fed from a step-shaped source. The reflections of the
travelling wave at both terminals of the duct will produce at the
open terminal a pulse-shaped transient of constant magnitude 2 pu - and constant frequency. The frequency of this pulse can
be calculated from the following expression

1
4 -

(1)

being - the transit time of the line. If the propagation velocity

is close to that of light, the frequency, in MHz, of the voltage

generated at the open terminal will be

f w

75
d

evaluated as it will have an important influence on the

maximum generated overvoltage; the second plot of Figure 4.c
was obtained assuming that the trapped charge was 0.5 pu.

(2)
2.2.2 External transients

where d is the duct length, in meters. In this case, d = 12 m,

then the frequency is 6.25 MHz, which corresponds to a period
of 160 ns, as shown in Figure 3.b. Therefore, the main reason
why VFT are generated in GIS is due to the short length of
ducts.
Each GIS section, represented as a lossless distributed
parameter transmission line, may be characterized by a surge
impedance and a transit time. In the previous case, the surge
impedance of the bus was 50 6; however, this value was
unimportant because the supplying source was assumed ideal.
Figure 3.b shows the simulation result obtained with a more
realistic representation of the source, R = 10 6. One can
observe than now the frequency is still the same, but the
maximum overvoltage at the open terminal is lower than 2 pu,
and the transient is damped. At the end, the voltage value at
this terminal is equal to that of the source. The equivalent
impedance at the source side of an actual GIS disconnector will
be different from a pure resistance; this representation has be
considered here to facilitate the introduction to VFT
generation.
As mentioned above, trapped charge remaining on the load side
of a disconnector must be taken into consideration. Figure 3.c
shows that the voltage at the open terminal can reach 3 pu if
the transient is started with a 1 pu trapped charge on the
transmission line. This increase is due to the fact that now the
travelling wave is a 2 pu step, which duplicates at the open
terminal; the final 3 pu value is the result of subtracting the
remaining trapped charge. A more accurate simulation should
assume that the equivalent impedance at the source side is not
negligible and a lower trapped charge. The second plot of
Figure 3.c depicts the new results with a non-zero source
resistance and a lower trapped charge.
Maximum voltages can reach higher values in more complex
GIS configurations. Figure 3 shows a "T" junction GIS
network. The simulations performed with the previous case
were repeated with this new configuration. All bus ducts had
the same surge impedance - 50 6 - and the same propagation
velocity, that of light. The simulations show that node 4 in
Figure 4.a is the open terminal where overvoltages are higher.
From the new plots one can deduce that VFT as higher as 4.5
pu can be generated; however, as with the previous case, a
realistic simulation cannot neglect the source impedance. In
addition, the value of the trapped charge has to be accurately

6-3

An internally generated VFT propagates throughout the GIS

and reaches the bushing where it causes a transient enclosure
voltage and a travelling wave that propagates along the
overhead transmission line. An explanation about the
generation of external transients and some comments on their
main characteristics follow.
a) Transient enclosure voltages
Transient enclosure voltages (TEV), also known as transient
ground potential rise (TGPR), are short duration high voltage
transients which appear on the enclosure of the GIS through
the coupling of internal transients to enclosure at enclosure
discontinuities. The usual location for these voltages is the
transition GIS-overhead line at an air bushing, although they
can also emerge at other points such as visual inspection ports,
insulated spacers for CTs or insulated flanges at GIS/cables
interfaces. The simplified circuit shown in Figure 5 will be
used to explain the generation of TEV [20].
At the GIS-air interface three transmission lines can be
distinguished : the coaxial GIS transmission line, the
transmission line formed by the bushing conductor and the
overhead line, the GIS enclosure-to-ground transmission line.
Each of them has a different surge impedance. When an
internal wave propagates to the gas-to-air bushing, a portion of
the transient is coupled onto the overhead line-to-ground
transmission line, and a portion is coupled onto the GIS
enclosure-to-ground transmission line. The latter constitutes
the TEV.
In general, TEV waveforms have at least two components, the
first one has a short initial rise time and is followed by high
frequency oscillations determined by the lengths of various
sections of the GIS, they are concentrated in the range of 5 to
10 MHz. The second component is of lower frequency,
hundreds of kHz, and is often associated with the discharge of
capacitive devices with the earthing system.

a) Diagram of the capacitive circuit

b) Opening operation

c) Closing operation
Figure 1. Variation of load and source side voltages during disconnector switching [4].

6-4

a) steep voltage transients

b) basic frequency component of the VFT in the MHZ range
c) overall transients in the kHZ range
d) low frequency transient and steady state condition
Figure 2. Transients on the source and load side of a GIS due to disconnector switching.

6-5

a) Scheme of the network

v [mV]

v [mV]

1800

1800

1600

1600

1400

1400

1200

1200

1000

1000

800

800

600

600

400

400

200

200

0
0

100

( 1) NUDO1

200

300

400

t [ns]

( 2) NUDO2

100

( 1) NUDO1

200

300

400

t [ns]

( 2) NUDO2

R = 10 6

R=0
b) Simulation results without trapped charge
v [mV]

v [mV]
3000

3000

2500

2500

2000

2000

1500

1500

1000

1000

500

500

-500

-500

-1000

-1000

-1500

-1500
0

100

( 1) NUDO1

200

300

400

t [ns]

( 2) NUDO2

100

( 1) NUDO1

200

300

( 2) NUDO2

R = 10 6

R=0
c) Simulation results with trapped charge
Figure 3. Generation of VFTs in a GIS bus duct.

6-6

400

t [ns]

a) Scheme of the network

[mv]

[mv]

3000

3000

2500

2500

2000

2000

1500

1500

1000

1000

500

500

-500
0

200

( 1) NUDO1

400

600

-500

800

200

400

600

800

t [ns]

( 4) NUDO4

( 1) NUDO1

t [ns]

( 4) NUDO4

R = 10 6

R=0
b) Simulation results without trapped charge
[v]

v [V]
5

-1

-1

-2

-2
0

200

( 1) NUDO1

400

600

800

t [ns]

( 4) NUDO4

200

( 1) NUDO1

400

600

( 4) NUDO4

R = 10 6

R=0
c) Simulation results with trapped charge

Figure 4. Generation of VFTs in a GIS with a bifurcation point.

6-7

800

t [ns]

Both components are damped quickly as a result of the lossy

nature of the enclosure-to-ground plane transmission mode.
TEV generally persists for a few microseconds. The magnitude
varies along the enclosure; it can be in the range of 0.1 to 0.3
pu of the system voltage, and reaches the highest magnitude
near the GIS-air interface.
The TEV wave which couples onto the enclosure encounters
earthing connections which form transmission line
discontinuities and attenuate TEV. Mitigation methods include
grounding using low surge impedance, short length leads and
the installation of metal-oxide arresters across any insulating
spacers.
b) Transients on overhead connections
a) Propagation of travelling waves caused by a disconnector
operation
1 inside coaxial bus duct
2 on overhead line
3 between ground and encapsulation

A portion of the VFT travelling wave incident at a gas-air

transition is coupled onto the overhead connection and
propagates to other components. This propagation is lossy and
results in some increase of the waveform rise time, although
transients can have rise times in the range of 10 to 20 ns if the
air connection is relatively short. In general, external
waveforms have two different characteristics
* the overall waveshape is dictated by lumped circuit
parameters, such as the capacitance of voltage
transformers or line and earthing inductance; the rise time
is in the range of a few hundred nanoseconds
* a fast front portion which is dictated by transmission line
effects; it has a rise time in the range of 20 ns and is
usually reduced in magnitude due to discontinuities in the
transmission path.
The fast rise time of the initial portion is possible as capacitive
components, such as bushings, are physically long and
distributed, and they cannot be treated as lumped elements.

b) Equivalent circuit

The magnitude of the rise time portion of external transients is

generally lower than that of internal VFT, the voltage rate-ofrise can be in the range of 10-30 kV/s. However, as VFT
occur during normal conditions in GIS and each disconnector
operation can generate tens to hundreds of individual
transients, possible aging on the insulation of external
components must be considered. These overvoltages can cause
stress on adjacent equipment, and resonance phenomena can
occur in exposed transformers.
c) Transient electromagnetic fields
c) Single-line diagram
Figure 5. Diagram to explain the generation of TEV [20].

6-8

EMF are radiated from the enclosure and can cause some stress
on secondary equipment, especially when sophisticated
computer-controlled equipment may be affected. Their
frequency depends on the GIS arrangement, but is typically in

the range of 10 to 20 MHz.

assuming the external enclosure to be perfectly earthed. If TEV

have to be considered, it is necessary to add one more mode
(enclosure-ground) since at these high frequencies, the earth
connections assume significant impedance values.

2.3 EFFECTS ON EQUIPMENT

The level reached by VFT overvoltages originated by
disconnector switching or line-to-ground faults inside a GIS are
below the BIL of substation and external equipment. However,
aging of the insulation of external equipment due to frequent
VFT must be considered.
TEV is a low energy phenomenon, and it is not considered
dangerous to humans. The main concern is in the danger of the
surprise-shock effect. TEV can also cause interference with or
even damage to the substation control, protection and other
secondary equipment, and radiate EMF which may induce
voltages and currents within electric circuits.
The main effects caused by VFT to equipment and the
techniques which can be used to mitigate these effects are
summarized in Table 1.

3. MODELING GUIDELINES
Due to the travelling nature of VFT, modeling of GIS
components makes use of electrical equivalent circuits
composed of lumped elements and distributed parameter lines.
At very high frequencies, the skin losses can produce a
noticeable attenuation. However, due to the geometrical
structure of GIS and the enclosure material, skin losses are
usually neglected, which gives conservative results. Only the
dielectric losses in some components, e.g. capacitively graded
bushing, need be taken into account.
The next two subsections present modeling guidelines to
represent GIS equipment in computation of internal transients
and TEV.

3.1 COMPUTATION OF INTERNAL TRANSIENTS

All the distributed parameter lines take into account the
internal mode (conductor-enclosure) only, assuming that the
external enclosure is perfectly grounded. If TEV is of concern,
then a second mode (enclosure-ground) is to be considered.
Table 2 shows the equivalent circuits proposed to represent
main components of a typical GIS [17]. More accurate models
were presented in [27].
Distributed parameter models shown in Tables 2 take into
account the internal mode (conductor-enclosure) only,

6-9

A short explanation about the representation of the most

important GIS components follows.
a) Bus ducts
For a range of frequencies lower than 100 MHz, a bus duct can
be represented as a lossless transmission line. The surge
impedance and the travel time can be calculated from the
physical dimensions of the duct. Empirical corrections are
usually needed to adjust the propagation velocity. Experimental
results show that the propagation velocity in GIS ducts is close
to 0.95 - 0.96% of the speed of light [14], [24]. The error
committed by ignoring skin effect losses is usually negligible.
Other devices such as elbows or closed disconnectors can also
be modeled as lossless transmission lines.
b) Surge arresters
A surge arrester model should take into account the steep front
wave effect : the voltage developed across the arrester for a
given discharge current increases as the time to crest of the
current increases, and reaches crest prior to the crest of the
discharge current. A detailed model must represent each
internal shield and block individually, and include the travel
times along shield sections, as well as capacitances between
these sections, capacitances between blocks and shields, and the
blocks themselves. The model shown in Table 2 considers two
sections, represented as lossless transmission lines, and a
capacitance paralleled by a resistance between sections.
Experimental results show that switching operations do not
produce voltages high enough to cause MOVs to conduct.
Although sophisticated models have been developed to
represent an MOV, only its capacitance needs to be taken into
account.
c) Circuit breakers
The representation of a circuit breaker is very complicated due
to internal irregularities. In addition, circuit breakers with
several chambers contain grading capacitors. As these
components are not arranged symmetrically, a circuit breaker
has a different transient response depending upon which
terminal is connected to the surge source.

TABLE 1 - EFFECTS OF VERY FAST TRANSIENTS [17]

EQUIPMENT

TRANSFORMERS

DISCONNECTORS
& BREAKERS

SF6 INSULATION

VFT EFFECTS
Direct connected transformers can experience
- an extremely nonlinear voltage distribution along the high voltage winding,
connected to the oil-SF6 bushings, due to steep fronted wave impulses
- extremely high part-winding resonance voltages due to transient oscillations
generated within the GIS.

Transformers can withstand the stress built up by steep front waves. In critical cases, it might
be necessary to install varistors to protect tap changers against very high frequency transient
oscillations.

The insulation system of breakers and loadbreak switches is not endangered by VFT
overvoltages generated in adjacent GIS equipment.
Ground faults induced by VFTO have been observed in disconnectors operations, as
residual leader branches can be activated by enhanced field gradient to ground and by
feeding them with GIS-generated VFTO.

The development of a ground fault by branching of the leader discharge during a

disconnector operation can be avoided by a proper disconnector design.

Breakdown caused by VFT overvoltages is improbable in a well-designed GIS insulation

system during normal operations. However, breakdown values can be reduced by
insulation irregularities like edges and fissures.
The breakdown probability is very low for low VFTO amplitudes, it increases with the
frequency of the oscillations and the degree of the field homogeneity.
TEV can cause sparking across insulated flanges and to insulated busbars of CTs, and
puncture of insulation which is intended to limit the spread of circulating currents within
the enclosure.

TEVs can be minimized

- by a proper design and arrangement of substation mats
- by keeping ground leads as short and straight as possible in order to minimize the
inductance
- by increasing the number of connections to ground
- by introducing shielding to prevent internally generated VFT from reaching the
outside of the enclosure
- by installing voltage limiting varistors where spacers must be employed.

SF6 insulated bushings can be affected as other SF6 equipment.

Very few problems have been reported with capacitively graded bushings.

Avoid high impedance in the connection of the last graded layer to the enclosure.

No problems have been experienced on the main insulation.

VFT effects appear always in grounded circuits and are originated by TEVs.

Grounding connections must be modified to eliminate troubles.

TEV may interfere with secondary equipment or damage sensitive circuits

- by raising the housing potential if they are directly connected
- or via cable shields to GIS enclosure by emitting free radiation which may
induce currents and voltages in adjacent equipment.

Correct cable connection procedures may minimize interference. The coupling of radiated
energy may be reduced
- by mounting control cables closely along the enclosure supports and other
grounded structures
- by grounding cable shields at both ends by leads as short as possible
- by using optical coupling services.
Voltage limiting devices may have to be installed.

ENCLOSURE

BUSHINGS
CABLES

SECONDARY
EQUIPMENT

MITIGATION TECHNIQUES

TABLE 2 - GIS COMPONENT MODELS [17]

COMPONENT

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

NOTES

Bus duct

Loss-free distributed parameter

transmission line

Spacer

( C  20 to 30 pF)

Elbow
(C  few pF)

Spherical shield
Surge arrester
Closed switch
Open switch

(n = number of breaking
chambers)

Closed disconnector
Open disconnector
r = r(t) ; R = a few 6
C = a few tens pF

Disconnector during sparking

Bushing (capacitive type)

n = number of equivalent
shields (5 to 8) simulated

Bushing (gas filled)

C = a few tens pF
Zs 250 6

Power transformer
(termination)

parameters evaluated from the

frequency response of the
transformer

Current transformer

sometimes negligible

Capacitive voltage transformer

Earth connection
Aerial line or long cable
(termination)

r = surge impedance

6-11

A closed breaker can be represented as a lossless transmission

line. The surge impedance is calculated from the diameters of
the conductor and enclosure. The electrical length is equal to
the physical length. The propagation velocity is also reduced to
0.95 - 0.96% of the speed of light. The effect of grading
capacitors can be ignored. The representation of a closed circuit
breaker is more complicated because the electrical length is
increased and the speed of progression is decreased due to the
effects of the higher dielectric constant of the grading
capacitors [24]. If the intermediate voltages are needed, the
breaker is divided into as many sections as there are
interrupters, all connected by the grading capacitors.
A simpler model consists of two equal lengths of bus connected
by a capacitor with a value equivalent to the series combination
of all the grading capacitors. Parameters of the two bus sections
are calculated from the physical dimensions of the breaker. A
different representation has been proposed for circuit breakers
which contain pre-insertion resistors [24].
d) Gas to air bushings
A bushing gradually changes the surge impedance from that of
the GIS to that of the line. A detailed model of the bushing
must consider the coupling between the conductor and
shielding electrodes, and include the representation of the
grounding system connected to the bushing. A simplified model
consists of several transmission lines in series with a lumped
resistor representing losses. The surge impedance of each line
section increases as the location goes up the bushing. If the
bushing is distant from the point of interest, the resistor can be
neglected and a single line section can be used [24]. More
advanced models for capacitively graded bushings were
proposed in [9], [16] and [28].
e) Power transformers
A common practice is to model a power transformer as a
capacitor representing the capacitance of the winding to
ground. When voltage transfer has to be calculated,
interwinding capacitances and secondary capacitance to ground
must also be represented. At very high frequencies a winding
of a transformer behaves like a capacitive network consisting
of series capacitances between turns and coils, and shunt
capacitances between turns and coils to the grounded core and
transformer tank. The equivalent capacitance, Ce, is given by

Ce
Cg Cs

(3)

where Cs and Cg are the equivalent series and ground

capacitances of the winding. The equivalent series capacitance,
Cs, is more difficult to compute. The details of computation
have been discussed in [37]. The terminal capacitance to
6-12

ground must be added to (3) to obtain the total capacitance of

the winding. Most of this terminal capacitance comes from the
capacitance of the terminal bushing to ground.
If voltage transfer is not of concern, an accurate representation
can be obtained by developing a circuit that matches the
frequency response of the transformer at its terminals. At very
high frequencies, the saturation of the magnetic core can be
neglected, as well as leakage impedances.
f) Current transformers
Insulating gaps are usually installed in the vicinity of current
transformers. During high voltage switching operations, these
gaps flash over, establishing a continuous path. Travelling
waves propagate with little distortion. Current transformers can
often be neglected.
The parameters needed to represent these models can be
determined either from manufacturer's data or by calculation
based on the physical sizes of the equipment. If neither of these
is possible, the capacitance values can be estimated from those
shown in Table 2, while surge impedances can be estimated
around 50-80 ohms.

3.2 COMPUTATION OF TEV

At the frequencies of the VFT caused by dielectric breakdown
within the GIS (breakdown across disconnect switch contacts,
line-to-ground faults), currents are constrained to flow along
the surface of the conductors and do not penetrate through
them. The inside and the outside of the enclosure are distinct,
so that transients generated within the GIS do not appear onto
the outside surface of the enclosure until discontinuities in the
sheath are encountered. These discontinuities occur at gasto-air terminations (the most frequent case), GIS-cable
transitions, or external core current transformers.
The modeling of the GIS for computation of TEV must include
the effects of the enclosure, the representation of ground straps
and the earthing grid.
A GIS-air termination can be modeled as a junction of three
transmission lines each with its own surge impedance, see
Figure 5. This equivalent network can be analyzed using
lossless transmission line models to determine reflected and
transmitted waves. The basic mechanism of TEV is defined by
the refraction of waves from the internal coaxial bus duct to the
enclosure sheath-to-ground system. The travelling wave
incident onto the GIS-air termination is reflected at this
termination being the magnitude of the transmitted wave onto

the outside of the enclosure sheath given by the coefficient

2Z3

(Z1Z2Z3)

TEV propagates back from the gas-to-air termination into the

substation on the transmission line defined by the enclosure and
the ground plane. The first discontinuity in the propagation is
generally a ground strap. For TEV rise times, most ground
straps are too long and too inductive for effective grounding.
However, ground leads may have a significant effect on the
magnitude and waveshape of TEV. This effect can be explained
by considering two mechanisms [6] :
* the ground lead may be seen as a vertical transmission line
whose surge impedance varies with height; when the
transient reaches the ground strap, a reflected wave is
originated which reduces the magnitude of the transmitted
wave, being the reduction expressed by the coefficient

2Zg

 Z3

2 h
r

(6)

(4)

where Z1, Z2 and Z3 are the surge impedance of the coaxial bus
duct, the overhead line and the sheath-to-ground system,
respectively [5]. The negative sign means that there is an
inversion of the waveform with respect to the internal transient.

2Zg

Zs
60 ln

(5)

where Zg is the surge impedance of the ground strap and

Z3 the surge impedance of the enclosure-to-ground
transmission line; as Zg is usually much larger than Z3, the
attenuation produced by the ground strap will be usually
small
* the portion of the wave which propagates down the ground
strap meets the low impedance of the ground grid, then a
reflected wave will be produced at this point which
propagates back to the enclosure where it will tend to
reduce the original wave.
The representation of a ground lead as a constant surge
impedance is not strictly correct. In reality, the ground strap
has a continuously varying surge impedance, so that a
continuous reflection occurs as a wave propagates down the
lead. An analysis of the performance of different models for the
ground lead was presented in [6]; simulation results did show
that a constant inductor model may be adequate for straps with
travel time less than the surge rise time, while a nonuniform
impedance model may be necessary for much larger straps.
Reference [6] proposes to divide a ground strap into sections,
each one represented by a surge impedance calculated from the
following expression
6-13

where r is the strap radius and h the average height of the

section.
The representation of the earthing grid at TEV frequencies is
a very complex task. Furthermore, this grid may not be
designed to carry very high frequency currents, as no standards
for very high frequency earthing systems are currently
available. A simplified modeling may be used by representing
the earthing grid as a low value constant resistance.
Advanced models for GIS components in computation of TEV
might consider a frequency-dependent impedance for ground
straps, a frequency-dependent model for the enclosureto-ground line (which could take into account earth losses) and
the propagation of phase- to-phase modes on the three
enclosures [6].
Distributed parameter models shown in Tables 2 take into
account the internal mode (conductor-enclosure) only,
assuming the external enclosure to be perfectly earthed. If TEV
have to be considered, it is necessary to add one more mode
(enclosure-ground) since at these high frequencies, the earth
connections assume significant impedance values. A more
detailed model is then required, see Section 5.3.

4. VALIDATION
The accuracy of a simulation depends on the quality of the
model of each individual GIS component. In order to achieve
reasonable results even for time periods of some micro-seconds
or for very complex GIS structures, highly accurate models for
each internal component and also for external components,
connected to the GIS, are necessary. Figure 6 shows an
example of how a 420 kV disconnector with an arrangement of
spacers, shielding electrodes and varying diameters can be
simulated by the equivalent circuit derived from its geometry.
Figure 6.c shows the measured step response and the
simulation result using the equivalent circuit shown in Figure
6.b. An excellent correlation between measurements and
calculations can be observed.

Figure 7. Comparison of simulation and measurement of

disconnect switch induced overvoltages in a 420 kV GIS.

a) Arrangement of GIS equipment

b) Equivalent circuit

c) Field measurement and simulation result

Figure 6. Validation of a 420 kV disconnector operation.
An accurate modeling of each individual GIS component
makes it possible to reproduce VFT waveforms with a relatively
high precision, especially in short GIS structures or test
equipment. Figure 7 demonstrates the accuracy of such
techniques by comparing a computer simulation with a direct
measurement of a transient waveform in an actual GIS. The
simulation performed neglects the presence of propagation
losses which result in somewhat less damping of the high
frequency part of the waveform. The effects of spacers, flanges,
elbows, corona shields, and other connection hardware, were
included in the model.
6-14

a) Diagram of the substation

b) Comparison of simulation results and measurements

at measuring point M2
Figure 8. Measurement and simulation of overvoltages in a

420 kV GIS at closing of disconnect switch Q12.

5.1 CLOSING OPERATION IN A 420 kV GIS [35]

Amplitude and frequency of VFT can be reproduced with good

accuracy for several periods and many details in the waveform
can be explained. Figure 8 shows a part of a 420 kV GIS on
which measurements have been made at point M2. By closing
disconnect switch Q12, one part of the switchyard has been
connected. The measurements have been reproduced by a
detailed simulation. Certain differences in the range of higher
frequencies did occur because the simulation was performed
with a low damping equivalent circuit and measuring
instruments did not capture very high frequencies. However,
the main waveform has been reproduced with sufficient
accuracy.

5. CASE STUDIES
As it has been explained above, VFT in GIS are caused by
dielectric breakdowns. The collapsing electric field during a
breakdown produces travelling waves which propagate in both
directions from the disturbance location. This propagation can
be analyzed and simulated using transmission line theory, and
assuming that propagation losses are negligible. Travelling
waves appear externally at enclosure transitions, e.g. gas-to-air
terminations. At these transitions, reflected waves travelling
back onto the station and transmitted waves coupled onto the
outside of the enclosure sheaths are generated.
The magnitude of the travelling waves will depend on their
source (disconnect switch operation, fault) and the GIS
configuration. Depending on the transient of concern, a
different modeling is to be considered. Guidelines for
simulation of internal and external transients were discussed
in Section 3.
Due to the very high frequencies generated by a dielectric
breakdown within the GIS, a digital simulation is restricted to
calculations during the VFT waveform period, usually 1 or 2
s. If the simulation is performed with an EMTP-like program,
which uses a constant time step size, then the value of this step
size will depend on the shorter transit time in the GIS. This
step size must be equal or smaller than one-half the shorter
transit time.
Three case studies are included in this section. The first one
presents the simulation of VFT in a 420 kV substation
generated by a closing operation. The next two cases are related
to low voltage tests in a 765 kV GIS. Low voltage tests are a
very useful tool for development and validation of GIS models.
The first of these two cases presents the simulation of internal
transients, while the second one is aimed at calculating TEV.
6-15

Detailed calculations have been made for a 420 kV GIS with 2

line feeder bays, a transformer and a bus coupler, see Figure 9.
The double busbar system also included bus sectionalizers.
Single-phase enclosure is applied to the bays and three-phase
enclosure for the busbars. According to their internal design,
all GIS components have been represented thoroughly by line
sections with the corresponding surge impedance and transit
time, and by lumped capacitances for spacers and additional
capacitances caused by internal shielding devices, see Figures
11 to 14. The three-phase encapsulated busbars are represented
by surge impedances in positive and zero sequence system.
Detailed data are given in Appendix A, Tables A1 to A4.
Capacitive grading of the bushings has been simulated
assuming two representative screens for each. The behavior of
the transformer winding under high-frequency transients has
been simulated by an equivalent circuit, see Figure 13,
proposed by the manufacturer, according to the high-frequency
measurements performed in the factory.
The behavior of the spark in the disconnecting switch during
closing was represented by a fixed resistance of 0.5 ohms in
series with an exponentially decreasing resistance, R = R0 exp(t/T), with R0 = 1012 ohms and T = 1 ns, resulting in a time
duration of voltage breakdown of about 10 ns. Calculations
were performed for a closing operation of the by-pass
disconnecting switch in the line feeder bay 1, see Figure 10,
connecting the busbar 1 to the voltage source. Time-step size
was 0.15 ns. Simulation results are shown in Figure 15 for the
measuring points M1 to M5 :
* point M1 - node 35 in Figure 13 -, voltage stress at the
connection inside the transformer between bushing and
transformer winding
* point M2 - node 34 in Figure 13 -, high-frequency
oscillations at the GIS-side of the transformer bushing are
caused mainly by the capacitive grading system of the
bushing
* point M3 - node 10 in Figure 11 -, the voltage oscillation
near the end of the switched busbar SS2 starts from nonzero conditions, since part of the feeding voltage on
busbar SS1 is capacitively coupled to busbar SS2 via the
capacitance of the open circuit breaker in the coupling bay
* point M4 and M5 correspond to nodes 3 in Figure 11 and
node 18 in Figure 13, respectively.
The investigation clearly shows that very detailed information
of the internal design not only of the GIS but also of the
external equipment, like bushings and transformer windings,
is necessary to achieve reliable results.

Figure 9. Basic arrangement of the 420 kV GIS.

Figure 10. Configuration of the 420 kV GIS used for the simulation.
6-16

Figure 11. Arrangement of busbars, including bus

sectionalizer.

Figure 13. Line feeder.

Figure 12. Transformer feeder.

Figure 14. Bus coupler.

6-17

5.2 LOW VOLTAGE TEST OF A 765 kV GIS [24]

Figures 16 and 17 show the one-line and the connectivity
diagram of a 765 kV test bay. Models used to represent
components of this case are presented in Table 2. The
procedure followed to develop these models is detailed in [24].
A summary of this procedure follows :
1) Low voltage tests on individual components were
performed using waves with fronts of 4 and 20 ns.
2) Models based on physical dimensions were developed,
assuming a propagation velocity equal to that of light.
3) Digital models were adjusted so simulation results were
matched to measurements. The main adjustment was to
decrease propagation velocity to 0.96 that of light.
Two transients have been reproduced
-

in the first one, a ramp voltage is applied at t = 0

in the second case, the ramp voltage source is also used

but the transient starts after closing a switch at the instant
the ramp reaches its maximum value.

Waveforms obtained for each case at two nodes are shown in

Figures 18 and 19. It can be observed that waveforms for both
cases are essentially the same, except for the first nanoseconds
in the vicinity of the input node UC1. These simulation results
were validated by comparison with low voltage measurements.
For normal studies, the input wave will be one of three forms
* a ramp voltage with a magnitude determined by the
voltage across the switch
* two ramp currents on opposite sides of the switch such
that the voltage across the switch is equal to zero at the
crest of the inputs
* charge both sides of the switch to the desired value and
close the switch.

Figure 15. Simulation results.

6-18

Figure 16. One-line diagram of a 765 kV GIS.

Figure 17. Connectivity diagram of the 765 kV GIS.

6-19

5.3 CALCULATION OF TEV IN A 765 kV GIS [24]

Modeling of GIS components to simulate TEVs must include
the effects of
* an enclosure, which cannot be assumed to be continuously
grounded
* the surge impedances and lengths of the grounding
structures
* the resistance of the earth ground.
Each GIS component can be represented as a two-phase ideal
transmission line defined by two modal parameters, Z0 and Z1,
whose values can be approached as follows [24]

a) Voltage at location UC1

Z = 60 ln(D/d)

Z1 = Z/2

Z0 = 20000 - Z1

where D is the inside diameter of the enclosure and d is the

outside diameter of the center conductor.
At the bushing, the two modes split with one going up to the
bushing and the other connected to the grounding surge
impedance, see Figure 20.

b) Voltage at location UK
Figure 18. Simulation results with 4 ns ramp.

Figure 20. Connection of GIS to an air bushing.

Figures 21 through 24 show simulation results at different
locations produced by a 4 ns ramp as input voltage.

6. CONCLUSIONS
a) Voltage at location UC1

A description of the origin and main characteristics of VFT in

GIS, as well as their effects on substation and adjacent
equipment, has been summarized in this document. Modeling
guidelines for digital simulation of GIS networks in VFT
studies have been discussed. Their application was illustrated
with three case studies. Although guidelines proposed in this
document neglect propagation losses for many GIS components
and very simple models are proposed for most components,
validation tests have shown that an excellent correlation
between simulation results and field measurements can be
achieved. More accurate models may be needed in some cases
for which propagation losses at very high frequencies should
not be neglected.

b) Voltage at location UK
Figure 19. Simulation results from closing a switch.

6-20

7. REFERENCES
[1]

Figure 21. Voltage between the center conductor and the

enclosure at location UC1.

Figure 22. Voltage between the enclosure and ground at the

base of the bushing.

Figure 23. Voltage between the center conductor and ground

at location UK.

Figure 24. Voltage between the center conductor and the

enclosure at location UK.
6-21

A. Ecklin, D. Schlicht and A. Plessl, "Overvoltages in

GIS caused by the operation of isolators", Surges in
high-voltage networks, K. Ragaller (Ed.), pp. 115-129,
Plenum Press, 1980.
[2] S. Narimatsu et al., "Interrupting performance of
capacitive current by disconnecting switch for gas
insulated switchgear", IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus
and Systems, vol. 100, no. 6, pp. 2726-2732, June
1981.
[3] S. Matsumara and T. Nitta, "Surge propagation in gas
insulated substation", IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus
and Systems, vol. 100, no. 6, pp. 3047-3054, June
1981.
[4] S.A. Boggs et al., "Disconnect switch induced transients
and trapped charge in gas-insulated substations", IEEE
Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. 101, no.
6, pp. 3593-3602, October 1982.
[5] N. Fujimoto, E.P. Dick, S.A. Boggs and G.L. Ford,
"Transient ground potential rise in gas-insulated
substations - Experimental studies", IEEE Trans. on
Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. 101, no. 6, pp.
3603-3609, October 1982.
[6] E.P. Dick, N. Fujimoto, G.L. Ford and S. Harvey,
"Transient ground potential rise in gas-insulated
substations - Problem identification and mitigation",
IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol.
101, no. 6, pp. 3610-3619, October 1982.
[7] L. Blahous and T. Gysel, "Mathematical investigation
of the transient overvoltages during disconnector
switching in GIS", IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus
and Systems, vol. 102, no. 9, pp. 3088-3097, September
1983.
[8] G. Bernard, J. Massat, G. Ebersohl and G. Voisin,
"Study of electromagnetic transients due to disconnector
switching in metal enclosed substations", Revue
Gnrale de l'Electricit, no. 11, pp. 667-694, November
1983.
[9] R.J. Harrington and M.M. El-Faham, "Proposed
methods to reduce transient sheath voltage rise in gas
insulated substations", IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus
and Systems, vol. 104, no. 5, pp. 1199-1206, May
1985.
[10] J. Lalot, A. Sabot, J. Kieffer and S.W. Rowe,
"Preventing earth faulting during switching of
disconnectors in GIS including voltage transformers",
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 203211, January 1986.
[11] S. Ogawa et al., "Estimation of restriking transient
overvoltage on disconnecting switch for GIS", IEEE

Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 95-102,

April 1986.
[12] T. Yoshida et al., "Distribution of induced grounding
current in large-capacity GIS using multipoint grounding
system", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 1, no. 4,
pp. 120-127, October 1986.
[13] J. Ozawa et al., "Suppression of fast transient
overvoltage during gas disconnector switching in GIS",
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 1, no. 4, pp.
194-201, October 1986.
[14] N. Fujimoto, H.A. Stuckless and S.A. Boggs,
"Calculation of disconnector induced overvoltages in
gas-insulated substations", Gaseous Dielectrics IV,
Pergamon Press, 1986.
[15] R. Boersma, "Transient ground potential rises in gasinsulated substations with respect to earthing systems",
Electra, no. 110, pp. 47-54, January 1987.
[16] R. Witzmann, "Fast transients in gas insulated
substations. Modelling of different GIS components",
5th Int. Symposium on HV Engineering, Paper no.
12.06, Braunschweig, 23-28 August, 1987.
[17] CIGRE Working Group 33/13-09, "Very fast transient
phenomena associated with gas insulated substations",
CIGRE Paper No. 33-13, 1988.
[18] CIGRE WG 33/13-09, Monograph on GIS Very Fast
Transients, 1988.
[19] N. Fujimoto and S.A. Boggs, "Characteristics of GIS
disconnector-induced short risetime transients incident on
externally connected power system components", IEEE
Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 961-970,
July 1988.
[20] J. Meppelink, K. Diederich, K. Feser and D.W. Pfaff,
"Very fast transients in GIS", IEEE Trans. on Power
Delivery, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 223-233, January 1989.
[21] CIGRE Working Group 33.02, Guidelines for
representation of networks elements when calculating
transients, 1990.
[22] S. Yanabu et al., "Estimation of fast transient
overvoltage in gas-insulated substation", IEEE Trans. on
Power Delivery, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 1875-1882, October
1990.
[23] A.M. Miri and M. Schelker, "ATP simulation of
transient ground potential rise in gas-insulated
substations", EMTP News, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 14-21,
September 1991.
[24] D.L. Nickel, "Very fast transients in Gas-insulated
substations", EPRI Report, 1991.
[25] S. Okabe, M. Kan and T. Kouno, "Analysis of surges
measured at 550 kV substations", IEEE Trans. on Power
Delivery, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 1462-1468, October 1991.
[26] H. Toda et al., "Development of 800 kV gas-insulated
switchgear", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 7,
6-22

no. 1, pp. 316-323, January 1992.

[27] Z. Haznadar, C. Carsimamovic and R. Mahmutcehajic,
"More accurate modeling of gas insulated substation
components in digital simulations of very fast
electromagnetic transients", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery,
vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 434-441, January 1992.
[28] A. Ardito et al., "Accurate modeling of capacitively
graded bushings for calculation of fast transient
overvoltages in GIS", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery,
vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 1316-1327, July 1992.
[29] A.M. Miri and M.A. Nothaft, "Simulation of the effects
of ZnO-varistors in reducing the transient ground
potential rise between a GIS enclosure and the cable
outlet flange", Proc. of the First European Conference
on Power Systems Transients, pp. 53-60, Lisbon, June
17-18, 1993.
[30] H.W. Dommel, "Simulating travelling waves inside and
outside GIS enclosures with the EMTP", presented at
the Canadian Electrical Association, Toronto, March
1994.
[31] A.M. Miri and C. Binder, "Investigation of transient
phenomena in inner- and outer systems of GIS due to
disconnector operation", Proc. of the Int. Conference on
Power Systems Transients, pp. 71-76, Lisbon, September
3-7, 1995.
[32] Y. Yamagata et al., "Suppression of VFT in 1100 kV
GIS by adopting resistor-fitted disconnector", IEEE
Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 872-880,
April 1996.
[33] M. Ianoz, L. Dellera, C.A. Nucci and L. Quinchon,
"Modeling of fast transient effects in power networks
and substations", CIGRE Paper 36-204, 1996.
[34] K. Mizuno et al., "Investigation of PD pulse propagation
characteristics in GIS", IEEE Transmission and
Distribution Conference Proceedings, pp. 204-212, Los
Angeles, September 15-20, 1996.
[35] IEEE TF on Very Fast Transients (D. Povh, Chairman),
"Modelling and analysis guidelines for very fast
transients", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 11,
no. 4, October 1996.
[36] IEC 71-2, Insulation Co-ordination - Part 2 :
Application Guide, 1996.
[37] P. Chowdhuri, Electromagnetic Transients in Power
Systems, RSP-John Wiley, 1996.
[38] CIGRE Joint WG 33/23.12, "Insulation co-ordination of
GIS : Return of experience, on site tests and diagnostic
techniques", LECTRA, no. 176, pp. 66-97, February
1998.

TABLE A2 - TRANSFORMER FEEDER DATA

APPENDIX A - DATA OF THE 420 kV GIS

TABLE A1 - LINE FEEDER DATA
Branch
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
7
9
10
11
12
13
13
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
8
17
26
27
28
27
30
31
32
2
5
6
8
11
13
17
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
29
30
31

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16 1)
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33 2)
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E

Length
(m)
1.20
0.75
0.15
0.30
0.45
0.45
0.15
0.75
-----0.30
1.10
1.15
1.20
0.75
-----0.30
0.65
0.40
1.10
0.30
0.70
1.10
1.15
0.70
2.30
0.80
0.90
0.60
0.60
4.00
0.15
1.50
4.90
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1) by-pass disconnect switch

Z
( 6)
95
42
42
42
95
95
42
42
--42
95
95
95
42
--42
95
42
42
95
95
66
66
95
95
95
72
95
25
95
95
95
95
-----------------------------------

Branch
C
(pF)
----------------4
----------4
------------------------------------10
14
10
10
24
10
10
10
32
32
32
10
10
10
10
16
16

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
7
9
10
11
12
13
13
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
8
17
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
31
34
2
5
6
8
11
13
17
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
33
34

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35 1)
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E

Length
(m)
1.20
0.75
-----0.30
0.45
0.45
0.15
0.75
0.15
0.30
1.10
1.15
1.20
0.75
-----0.30
0.65
0.40
1.10
0.30
0.70
1.10
1.15
0.70
2.30
0.80
0.90
0.80
0.90
1.50
0.80
0.60
0.60
11.0
2.30
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Z
( 6)
95
42
--42
95
95
42
42
42
42
95
95
95
42
--42
95
42
42
95
95
66
66
95
95
95
72
95
95
95
95
95
25
25
126
---------------------------------------

2) special bushing representation

1) special bushing representation

6-23

C
(pF)
----4
----------------------4
----------------------------------------10
14
10
10
24
10
10
10
32
32
32
10
10
16
10
10
10
10
14

TABLE A3 - BUSBAR DATA

Branch
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
8
9
10
11

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E

Length
(m)
1.80
3.70
5.60
0.90
0.85
0.15
0.20
1.80
7.40
1.80
-----------------------------------------

Z0
( 6)
157
157
157
157
104
104
104
157
157
157
---------------------------------

Z1
(6)
113
113
113
113
60
60
60
113
113
113
---------------------------------

APPENDIX B - DATA OF THE 765 kV GIS

C
(pF)
--------------------12
3
3
3
3
3
3
12

Branch

UC1
J3
J4
T22
J4
D9
D88
D44
D22
J3
T21
T20
T19
T19
T17
T17
J7
T24
J7
T26
T17
T14
T13
T11
T11
J2
T9
T10
T28
J6
T28
T28
J5
T30
J2
J1
T4
J1
T5

TABLE A4 - BUS COUPLER DATA

Branch
C
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
8
2
6
7
8
11
14
15
16
17
18
22

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
14
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E

Length

(m)
1.20
0.45
0.15
0.90
0.60
0.90
1.00
0.30
-----0.80
0.85
-----0.30
0.70
1.70
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.15
0.75
0.15
1.20
-------------------------------------------------------------

( 6)
95
42
42
42
95
72
95
66
--66
66
--66
95
95
95
95
42
42
42
42
95
-------------------------

(pF)
----------------4
----4
--------------------900
10
10
10
32
40
32
10
24
10
14
10

6-24

J3
J4
T22
T23
D9
D88
D66
D22
D1
T21
T20
T19
T18
T17
T16
J7
T24
T25
T26
T27
T14
T13
T11
T12
J2
T9
T10
T28
J6
UK
T29
J5
T30
T32
J1
T4
T3
T5
T6

Z
( 6)

Travel time
(ns)

75
75
75
51
78
68
59
33
330
75
51
160
65
75
65
75
75
51
75
51
160
51
75
65
75
75
51
160
75
75
65
75
75
51
75
75
51
75
51

6.40
48.0
2.20
1.90
2.20
1.80
4.20
5.80
9.10
2.20
1.90
0.67
1.70
6.80
1.70
8.50
2.20
1.90
2.20
1.90
0.67
1.90
9.90
1.70
7.50
2.20
1.90
0.67
7.10
6.40
1.70
8.80
2.20
1.90
6.70
2.20
1.90
2.20
1.90