Dual-circuit braking system

A typical dual-circuit braking system in which each circuit acts on both front wheels and onerear wheel. Pressing the brake pedal forces fluid out of the master cylinder along the brake pipes
to the slave cylinders at the wheels; the master cylinder has a reservoir which keeps it full.

Modern cars have brakes on all four wheels, operated by a

hydraulic system. The brakes may be disc type or drum type.
The front brakes play a greater part in stopping the car than
the rear ones, because braking throws the car weight forward
on to the front wheels.
Many cars therefore have disc brakes, which are generally
more efficient, at the front and drum brakes at the rear.
All-disc braking systems are used on some expensive or highperformance cars, and all-drum systems on some older or
smaller cars.

Brake hydraulics
A hydraulic brake circuit has fluid-filled master and slave
cylinders connected by pipes.
When you push the brake pedal it depresses a piston in the
master cylinder, forcing fluid along the pipe.

The fluid travels to slave cylinders at each wheel and fills

them, forcing pistons out to apply the brakes.
Fluid pressure distributes itself evenly around the system.
The combined surface 'pushing' area of all the slave pistons is
much greater than that of the piston in the master cylinder.
Consequently, the master piston has to travel several inches to
move the slave pistons the fraction of an inch it takes to apply
the brakes.

Servo-assisted braking

A direct-acting servo is fitted between the brake pedal and the master cylinder. The pedal can
work the master cylinder directly if the servo fails or if the engine is not running.

This arrangement allows great force to be exerted by the

brakes, in the same way that a long-handled lever can easily
lift a heavy object a short distance.
Most modern cars are fitted with twin hydraulic circuits, with
two master cylinders in tandem, in case one should fail.
Sometimes one circuit works the front brakes and one the rear
brakes; or each circuit works both front brakes and one of the

rear brakes; or one circuit works all four brakes and the other
the front ones only.
Under heavy braking, so much weight may come off the rear
wheels that they lock, possibly causing a dangerous skid.
For this reason, the rear brakes are deliberately made less
powerful than the front.
Most cars now also have a load-sensitive pressure-limiting
valve. It closes when heavy braking raises hydraulic pressure
to a level that might cause the rear brakes to lock, and
prevents any further movement of fluid to them.
Advanced cars may even have complex anti-lock systems that
sense in various ways how the car is decelerating and whether
any wheels are locking.
Such systems apply and release the brakes in rapid succession
to stop them locking.

Ans: Hydraulic Brake:

Construction:
It consists of following main parts: (i) Master cylinder (ii) Wheel cylinder (iii) Brake
fluid (or brake oil) pipelines.
It consists of a master cylinder which is connected to four cylinders through a
pipeline. The wheel cylinder consists of brakes and shoe arrangement.

Principle: It works on the principle of Pascal's law, which states that "The
confined liquid transmits pressure intensity equally in all directions."

Working: When the driver depresses pedal, the effort is transmitted through rod
to piston of master cylinder. The piston moves in the cylinder and compress
return spring forcing out the fluid from the cylinder into brake line through a bypass. Piston of a brake cylinders are acted upon by the fluid and press against
shoes, bringing their linings tightly against the working surfaces of the drums as
soon as the pedal is released, the return spring pushes piston back. At the same
time, the compression springs of the brake shoe move pistons to their initial
position and the fluid begins to the flow in the reverse direction.

Advantages:
- It uses 'incompressible' fluid which results in a greater, more efficient & consistent work or
power output. This is due to the fact that hydraulic fluid molecules are able to resist
compression under heavy load hence minimal energy loss is experienced and work applied is
directly transferred to the actuating surfaces.
- As opposed to pneumatic system which uses air, a leakage in a hydraulic system is easier to
spot during ground maintenance operations.
- Hydraulic fluid operates very well in a very hot working environment, it is able to sustain its
airworthiness viscosity, density & fluid temperature even if it subjected under extreme heat. This
is specially important on aircraft structures that is abundant of hot working conditions during
flight operations.
Disadvantages:
- Hydraulic fluid is highly corrosive to most of the aircraft materials.
- Due to the heavy loads experienced in a typical hydraulic system, structural integrity is a must
which also means higher structural weight for the aircraft in addition to the weight of its hydraulic
lines, pumps, reservoirs, filters, & etc.
- Hydraulic system is susceptible to contaminations & foreign object damage (FOD).
- Mishandling and constant exposure to hydraulic fluid and its gas fumes without proper
equipment and precautions is a health risk.
- If disposed improperly, a hydraulic fluid is an environmental risk.

NEW

Hydraulics
The principle behind any hydraulic system is simple: forces that are applied at
one point are transmitted to another point by means of an incompressible fluid. In
brakes we call this brake fluid of which there are a few different varieties, but
more on that later.
As is common in hydraulics the initial force which is applied to operate the
system is multiplied in the process. The amount of multiplication can be found by
comparing the sizes of the pistons at either end. In braking systems for example,
the piston driving the fluid is smaller than the pistons operating the brake pads
therefore the force is multiplied helping you to brake easily and more efficiently.
Another convenient characteristic of hydraulics is that the pipes containing the
fluid can be any size, length or shape allowing the lines to be fed almost
anywhere. They can also be split to enable one master cylinder to operate two or
more slave cylinders if needed.

Components
Now that we understand hydraulics let's take a look at the different parts which
make up the hydraulic brake. The entire braking system can be broken down into
the following main parts:

Master cylinder (Lever)

Lines

Fluid

Slave cylinder (Caliper)

Pads

Rotor

Next we will explain these components in more detail.

Master Cylinder/Lever
The master cylinder, mounted to the handlebar, houses the brake lever and
together they produce the input force needed to push hydraulic brake fluid to the
slave cylinder (or caliper) and cause the brake pads to clamp the rotor.
The lever stroke can be divided into 3 categories:
1. Dead-stroke - This is the initial part of the lever stroke when the primary seal
pushes fluid toward the reservoir before it goes on to push fluid on to the caliper
via the brake lines.
2. Pad Gap Stroke - This is the part between the caliper beginning to push the
pistons out of their housings and the pads contacting the disc (as the dead space
between the pads and rotor is taken up).
3. Contact & Modulation - The pads are now clamping the rotor and by stroking
the lever further, additional brake power will be generated. Modulation is rider
controlled and not necessarily a characteristic of the braking system, however
some brakes may allow the rider to better modulate or control the braking forces
than others.

Open or Closed?
Master cylinder systems can be categorised into two groups - open and closed.
An open system includes a reservoir and bladder which allow for fluid to be
added or removed from the braking system automatically during use. Reservoirs

are the overflow for fluid which has expanded due to heat produced by braking.
The bladder has the ability to expand and contract therefore as the fluid expands
the bladder will compensate without any adverse effects on the 'feel' of the brake.
Reservoirs also provide the additional fluid needed as the pads begin to wear
resulting in the need for the pistons to protrude further to compensate for the
reduced pad material.
A closed system also utilises a reservoir of brake fluid, however the lack of an
internal bladder to compensate for the expansion in brake fluid and also to
compensate for pad wear means that any adjustments to the levels of brake fluid
within the working system need to be made manually.

Brake Lines
Hydraulic brake lines or hoses play the important role of connecting the two main
working parts of the brake, i.e. the master cylinder and slave cylinder. We've
already mentioned that hydraulic systems can be very versatile in that their lines
or hoses can be routed almost anywhere so let's take a closer look.

Hose Construction
Hydraulic hoses are multi-layered in their construction and usually consist of 3
layers:
1. Inner Tube - this layer of tubing is designed to hold the fluid. Teflon is usually
the material of choice here as it does not react or corrode with brake fluid.
2. Aramid (Kevlar) Layer - provides the strength and structure of the hose. This
woven layer is flexible and handles the high pressures of the hydraulic system
efficiently in that it should not expand. Kevlar is also very light, which is a
desirable attribute for any cycle component, and also it can be cut easily and re-

assembled using standard hose fittings.

3. Outer Casing - Serves as a protection layer for both the Kevlar layer and the
bike frame to reduce abrasions.

The layers that make up an average hydraulic brake line

Steel Braided Brake Lines

Steel braided hoses can provide some advantages over standard hydraulic
hoses. Steel braided hoses are also usually a 3-layer construction, the inner
most layer contains the brake fluid and there is an outer most layer which
provides protection against abrasions. The key difference is in the middle layer
which is made up of a stainless steel braid.
This stainless steel layer is designed to be more resistant against expansion than
that of standard lines. This can be an advantage because when the brake lever is
applied we want all of the force we put in to be transferred to the caliper to cause
braking. Any expansion in the hydraulic line due to the pressures within will mean
that some of that pressure will not be transferred to the caliper. This will be
wasted effort and will require additional lever input by the rider to compensate.

Steel braided lines may also be more appealing aesthetically. Many riders
believe that they look better than the standard, boring black hoses that are
supplied with the vast majority of brakes on the market.

2011 Formula R1 brake with braided brake lines

Brake Fluid
Hydraulic braking systems typically use one of two types of brake fluid - DOT
fluid or mineral oil. An important thing to note before we get into the properties of
each is that the two fluids should never be mixed. They are made up of very
different chemicals and the seals within the braking system are suited to either
fluid and not both; therefor mixing or replacing one fluid with the other is likely to
corrode the internals of your brake.
On the other hand, mixing fluid from the same family is allowed but not generally
advised. For example you may mix DOT 4 fluid with DOT 5.1 without harming
your braking system.

DOT Brake Fluid

DOT brake fluid is approved and controlled by the Department of Transportation.
It has to meet certain performance criteria to be used within braking systems and
is classified by its performance properties - mainly its boiling points.
DOT 3, 4 and 5.1 brake fluid are glycol-ether based and are made up of various

solvents and chemicals. Glycol-ether brake fluids are hygroscopic, which means
they absorb water from the environment even at normal atmospheric pressure
levels. The typical absorption rate is quoted to be around 3% per year. This water
content within the brake fluid will affect the performance by reducing its boiling
point. Which is why it is recommended to change brake fluid every 1-2 years at
most.
The table below shows DOT brake fluid in its various derivatives with its
corresponding boiling temperatures. Wet boiling point refers to fluid with water
content after 1 years' service.
DOT FLU I D

D R Y B OI LI NG P OI NT

W E T BOI LI NG P OI NT

DOT 3

205 C (401 F)

140 C (284 F)

DOT 4

230 C (446 F)

155 C (311 F)

DOT 5

260 C (500 F)

180 C (356 F)

DOT 5 . 1

270 C (518 F)

190 C (374 F)

DOT brake fluid is commonly used in Avid, Formula, Hayes and Hope brakes.

DOT 5 Brake Fluid

DOT 5 brake fluid (not to be mistaken for DOT 5.1) is very different from other
DOT fluids as it is silicone based and not glycol-ether based. This silicone based
brake fluid is hydrophobic (non water absorbing) and must never be mixed with
any other DOT brake fluid.
DOT 5 can maintain an acceptable boiling point throughout its service life
although the way in which it repels water can cause any water content to pool
and freeze/boil in the system over time - the main reason that hygroscopic fluids
are more commonly used.

Mineral Oil

Mineral oil is less controlled as a brake fluid, unlike DOT fluid which is required to
meet a specific criteria, therefore less is known regarding its performance and
boiling points from brand to brand.
Manufacturers such as Shimano and Magura design their brakes around their
own brand of mineral oil and should never be introduced to DOT brake fluid as
this will likely have an adverse effect on the brake's seals.
An advantage of mineral oil is that, unlike most DOT fluids, it does not absorb
water. This means that the brake will not need to be serviced as often, but any
water content within the braking system could pool and freeze/boil adversely
affecting the performance of the brake.
Mineral oil is also non-corrosive meaning handling of the fluid and spillages are
less of a concern.

Slave Cylinder/Calliper
The brake callipers reside at each wheel and respond to the lever input
generated by the user. This lever input is converted to clamping force as the
pistons move the brake pads to contact the rotor. Callipers can be fixed by a rigid
mount to the frame or floating. Fixed callipers are combined with a fixed rotor
which offers the only way of achieving zero free running drag, one drawback of
this design is that it is much less tolerant of rotor imperfections. Floating callipers
slide axially and self-centre with each braking application.

Construction
Calliper construction can fall into two categories - mono-block and two piece. The
difference here is the 'bridge' design, the bridge is the part of the calliper above
the pistons which connects the two halves together and provides the strength to

endure the clamping forces generated by the pistons.

1. Mono-block - A mono-block calliper is actually a one piece design formed
from one piece of material. This can offer a unique design and usually a lighter
calliper as there is no need for steel bolts joining both halves as in a two piece
design. Also the lack of a transfer port seal means there is one less opportunity
for fluid leaks at the half way seam. Servicing a mono-block calliper can be tricky
however and manufacturing and assembly are usually more difficult.
2. Two piece - These two piece callipers are constructed as two separate halves
and are then held together with steel bolts which can provide additional strength
over a mono-block design. Servicing, manufacturing and assembly are simplified.
Steel bolts and additional seals are a means of additional weight and can be
problematic during servicing.

Exploded view of an Avid two-piece calliper design

Pistons
The pistons are the cylindrical components housed within the calliper body. Upon
lever input they protrude to push the brake pads which contact the rotor. The
number of pistons within a calliper or brake can differ. Many hydraulic mountain
bike brakes have 2 piston callipers, some may have 4 pistons. Whereas some

automobile brake callipers have 6 or even 8 pistons. It is an important note that

brake power is not determined by piston quantity. A more reliable indicator would
be total piston contact area, e.g. 4 smaller pistons can be just as powerful as 2
larger pistons.
Pistons can be either opposed or single sided. Opposed pistons both protrude
with lever input to push the brake pads equal amounts to meet the rotor at both
sides. Whereas single sided calliper pistons stroke on one side and float the rotor
to the opposite pad.

Brake Pads
Choosing the right brake pads can mean the difference between a great and a
poor performing brake. With the sheer diversity of brake pad materials out there it
is quite easy to get it wrong when the time comes to replace the pads.
Let's jump right in and take a look at the different pad materials available and
their properties.

Organic
Organic brake pads contain no metal content. They are made up of a variation of
materials which used to include asbestos until its use was banned. These days
you will commonly find materials such as rubber, Kevlar and even glass. These
various materials are then bonded with a high-heat-withstanding resin. An
advantage of organic pads is that they're made up of materials that don't pollute
as they wear. They are also softer than other brake pads and as a result quieter.
Also they inflict much less wear upon the brakes' rotor. However organic pads
wear down faster and they perform especially poorly in wet gritty conditions (UK
readers take note :).

Organic pads then are probably more suited to less aggressive riding in mostly

dry conditions.

Semi-metallic
The metallic content of semi-metallic pads can vary from anything between 30%
and 65%. The introduction of metal content into the friction material changes
things slightly. It can improve the lifespan of the pad quite significantly as metal
wears slower than organic materials. Also heat dissipation is improved as it is
transferred between the pad material and the backing plate. Some
disadvantages can include increased noise during use and the harder compound
means increased wear on the rotor.

Sintered

Sintered brake pads are made up of hardened metallic ingredients which are
bound together with pressure and high temperature. The advantages of this
compound are better heat dissipation, a longer lasting pad, better resistance to
fading and superior performance in wet conditions. The trade-offs are more
noise, longer bed-in time and a poor initial bite until the friction material has

chance to warm.

Ceramic
Ceramic brake pads are now seen more and more as an alternative/upgrade
mountain bike brake pad. Traditionally ceramic brake pads would only be seen
on high performance racing cars with brakes which need to perform under
intense heat. Heat like that is not usually a problem for the average mountain
bike brake and therefor for most people ceramic pads would be overkill, however
they might have other desirable properties. The advantages of a ceramic material
then is one which can cope with extreme heat and keep performing strongly; this
is in part down to its great dissipating abilities. They also last longer than other
pads and noise is less of an issue. They're also easier on brake rotors and

produce a lot less dust that other brake pad compounds.

Rotors
Rotor size has a direct effect on braking power. The larger the brake rotor the
more power will be produced for any given input. This can be a concern with
larger rotors as they tend to have more of a 'grabby' feel making the brake more
difficult to modulate.
Mountain bike rotors tend to range in size from 160mm to 203mm, with smaller
rotors geared toward XC type riding and larger rotors designed for downhill
riding.

Rotor Design
Important specifications of rotor design include hardness, thickness and rub
area.
The material used to manufacture rotors must be hard and durable due to the
aggressive forces inflicted upon them from the pad friction material. This has a
direct impact on rotor wear.
Rotors must also have no thickness variations. Differences in thickness around

the circumference of the rotor can have undesired effects on the braking system
including pulsing as thicker and thinner sections pass between the pads. Rotors
also need to run true. Any lateral wobble in the rotor during use can cause the
brake to contact the pads intermittently during riding.

Left to right: Formula Lightweight, Avid G3 Clean Sweep, Ashima AiRotor

A rotor's rub area can take the form of many different designs. The three rotors
above show this in detail. Rub area design can affect the weight and strength of
the rotor. It also has a direct effect on pad lifetime.

Six Bolt or CenterLock?

The two types of rotor on the market today are ISO standard 6-bolt rotors and
CenterLock rotors. Both have their pros and cons.
6 Bolt - Readily available and interchangeable between many brake models, this
is the most common rotor fixing system in use today and was adopted by all
manufacturers in the late 1990's. With no shortage of hub options, crosscompatibility with other products is rarely a problem. However installation of six
fixing bolts can be cumbersome and there is always the risk of stripping a thread
on fixing bolts and hub mounting points.
CenterLock - The Shimano CenterLock system eliminates the risk of stripping
threads as there are no bolts to worry about, just one centre locking ring.

Installation and removal is also simplified, although you will need a CenterLock
tool. Lack of mass-market adoption means that hub choices are limited and
brake choice may also be limited due to odd sized rotors. CenterLock rotors are
also generally slightly heavier and can come at a price premium.

Left to right: ISO standard 6-bolt, Shimano CenterLock

2-Piece Rotors
2-Piece rotors are supplied as standard with some higher priced brake sets and
can also be bought separately as a brake upgrade.
In contrast to standard stainless steel rotors, 2-piece rotors combine a stainless
steel rub area with an aluminium carrier (or spider). The advantage of the alloy
carrier are a cooler running disc as aluminium has superior heat dissipation
qualities to that of stainless steel. This will also help to keep your pads, calliper

and fluid cooler. Aluminium is also lighter than stainless steel so a reduction in

weight can be expected.

Formula 2-Piece Stainless Steel / Aluminium Rotor

Why Brakes Fail

Hydraulic brakes can fail or temporarily stop working for numerous reasons such
as a simple (but potentially catastrophic) fluid leak or eventual brake fade after
prolonged use. Knowing the causes of brake failure can be valuable knowledge
in curing the problem and preventing future episodes.
As we know there are a couple of important principles behind hydraulic brakes.
Hydraulics rely on pressure within the system and brakes rely on friction.
Absence of either will result in failure of the system. For example, a loss of brake
fluid will decrease the pressure within the system as the lever has nothing to
transfer the input forces to. On the other hand if brake fluid contacts the brake
pads or rotor, a loss of friction will occur due to the lubricating nature of brake
fluid.
The above examples should be obvious to most but what about the less obvious
causes of brake failure? Earlier we mentioned brake fade, a term which I bet
many of you have heard, however did you know that there are multiple types of
brake fade? Below is an overview of the three different types.

Pad Fade
All friction material (the stuff your pads are made of) has a coefficient of friction
curve over temperature. Friction materials have an optimal working temperature
where the coefficient of friction is at its highest. Further hard use of the brake will
send the friction material over the optimal working temperature causing the
coefficient of friction curve to decline.
This high temperature can cause certain elements within the friction material to
melt or smear causing a lubrication effect, this is the classic glazed pad. Usually
the binding resin starts to fail first, then even the metallic particles of the friction
material can melt. At very high temperatures the friction material can start to
vaporize causing the pad to slide on a layer of vaporized material which acts as a
lubricant.
The characteristics of pad fade are a firm, non-spongy lever feel in a brake that
won't stop, even if you are squeezing as hard as you can. Usually the onset is
slow giving you time to compensate but some friction materials have a sudden
drop off of friction under high temperatures resulting in sudden fade.

Green Fade
Green fade is perhaps the most dangerous type of fade which manifests itself on
brand new brake pads. Brake pads are made of different types of heat resistant
materials bound together with a resin binder. On a new brake pad these resins
will cure when used hard on their first few heat cycles and the new pad can
hydroplane on this layer of excreted gas.
Green fade is considered the most dangerous as it can catch users unaware
given its quick onset. Many people would consider new brake pads to be perfect
and may be used hard from the word 'go'.

Correct bedding-in of the brake pads can prevent green fade. This process
removes the top layer of the friction material and keys the new pad and rotor
together under controlled conditions.

Fluid Fade
Fluid fade is caused by heat induced boiling of the brake fluid in the callipers and
brake lines. When used under extreme conditions heat from the pads can
transfer to the calliper and brake fluid causing it to boil, producing bubbles in the
braking system. Since bubbles are compressible this results in a spongy lever
feel and prevents the lever input from being sent to the calliper.
The major cause of fluid fade is absorbed water from the air under normal
atmospheric conditions which reduces the boiling temperature of the brake fluid.
DOT brake fluid has an affinity for absorbing water from the air around it,
especially in hot humid conditions. This is the main reason why we replace brake
fluid on an annual basis.
Fortunately fluid fade has a gradual onset giving the user time to compensate for
potential loss of braking.