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International Journal on Emerging Technologies 3(2): 115-120 (2012)

ISSN No. (Print) : 0975-8364
ISSN No. (Online) : 2249-3255

Underwater Welding-Recent Trends and Future Scope

Ketan Verma and Harish K. Garg
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Chandigarh Group of Colleges (Gharuan Campus) Mohali,( PB)
(Received 15 August, 2012 Accepted 18 September, 2012)
Abstract: Welding in offshore and marine application is an area of research and understanding where, many
problems are still unsolved. In the present paper, a brief classification of underwater welding is made, the principals
involved and the advantages and disadvantages of the various types of underwater welding are described. Further
discussion is made over the present conventional and some advanced techniques used. Finally, the scope of further
research has been recommended.
Keywords: Underwater welding, hyperbaric welding, SMAW, TIG and THOR-1.
I. INTRODUCTION
Welding processes have become increasingly important
in almost all manufacturing industries and for structural
application (Khanna, 2004). Although, a large number of
techniques are available for welding in atmosphere,
many of them cannot be applied in offshore and marine
application where presence of water is of majorconcern.
In this regard, it is relevant to note that, a great majority
of offshore repairing and surfacing work iscarried out at
a relatively shallow depth, in the region intermittently
covered by the water known as the splashzone. This is
predominantly because of the fact that the probability of
failure is maximum at a shallow depth ofwater because
of maximum collision probability between the ship and
platform. Though, numerically most shiprepair and
welding jobs are carried out at a shallow depth, most
technologically challenging task lies in therepairing at a
deeper water level, especially, in pipelines and
occurrence/creation of sudden defects leading to
acatastrophic accidental failure. The fact that electric arc
could operate underwater was known for over a 100
years.The first ever underwater welding was carried out
by British Admiralty Dockyard for sealing leaking ship
rivets below the water line. Underwater welding is an
important tool for underwater fabrication works. In
1946, special waterproof electrodes were developed in
Holland by Van der Willingen. In recent years the
number of offshore structures including oil drilling rigs,
pipelines, platforms are being installed significantly.
Some of these structures will experience failures of its
elements during normal usage and during unpredicted
occurrences like storms, collisions. Any repair method
will require the use of underwater welding.

II. CLASSIFICATION
Underwater welding can be classified as
1) Wet Welding
2) Dry Welding
In wet welding the welding is performed underwater, directly
exposed to the wet environment.
In dry welding, a dry chamber is created near the area to be
welded and the welder does the job by staying inside the
chamber.
III. WET WELDING
Wet Welding indicates that welding is performed underwater,
directly exposed to the wet environment. A special electrode
is used and welding is carried out manually just as one does
in open air welding. The increased freedom of movement
makes wet welding the most effective, efficient and
economical method. Welding power supply is located on the
surface with connection to the diver/welder via cables and
hoses.
A. Principle of operation of Wet Welding
The process of underwater wet welding takes in the following
manner:
The work to be welded is connected to one side of an electric
circuit, and a metal electrode to the other side. These two
parts of the circuit are brought together, and then separated
slightly. The electric current jumps the gap and causes a
sustained spark (arc), which melts the bare metal, forming a
weld pool. At the same time, the tip of electrode melts, and
metal droplets are projected into the weld pool. During this
operation, the flux covering the electrode melts to provide a
shielding gas, which is used to stabilize the arc column and
shield the transfer metal.

Verma and Garg

The arc burns in a cavity formed inside the flux covering,
which is designed to burn slower than the metal barrel of the
electrode.
B. Advantages of Wet Welding
Wet underwater MMA welding has now been widely used
for many years in the repair of offshore platforms. The
benefits of wet welding are: 1) The versatility and low cost of wet welding makes this
method highly desirable.
2) Other benefits include the speed. With which the operation
is carried out.
3) It is less costly compared to dry welding.
4) The welder can reach portions of offshore structures that
could not be welded using other methods.
5) No enclosures are needed and no time is lost building.
Readily available standard welding machine and equipment
are used. The equipment needed for mobilization of a wet
welded job is minimal.
C. Disadvantages of Wet Welding
Although wet welding is widely used for underwater
fabrication works, it suffers from the following drawbacks:
1) There is rapid quenching of the weld metal by the
surrounding water. Although quenching increases the tensile
strength of the weld, it decreases the ductility and impact
strength of the weldment and increases porosity and
hardness.
2) Hydrogen Embrittlement Large amount of hydrogen is
present in the weld region, resulting from the dissociation of
the water vapour in the arc region. The H2 dissolves in the
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and the weld metal, which causes
Embrittlement, cracks and microscopic fissures. Cracks can
grow and may result in catastrophic failure of the structure.
3) Another disadvantage is poor visibility. The welder some
times is not able to weld properly.
IV. DRY WELDING
Dry welding in underwater may be achieved by several ways
[Oates, 1996]:
1.Dry habitat welding:
Welding at ambient water pressure in a large chamber from
which water has been displaced, in an atmospheresuch that
the welder/diver does not work in diving gear. This technique
may be addressed as dry habitat welding.
2. Dry chamber welding:
Welding at ambient water pressure in a simple open-bottom
dry chamber that accommodates the head andshoulders of the
welder/diver in full diving gear.
3. Dry spot welding:
Welding at ambient water pressure in a small transparent, gas
filled enclosure with the welder/diver in the waterand no
more than the welder/divers arm in the enclosure.

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4. Dry welding at one atmosphere:

Welding at a pressure vessel in which the pressure is
maintained at approximately one atmosphere regardless of
outside ambient water pressure.
5. Cofferdam welding:
Welding inside of a closed bottom, open top enclosure at one
atmosphere.
6. Hyperbaric Welding :
Hyperbaric welding is carried out in chamber sealed around
the structure to be welded. The chamber is filled with a gas
(commonly helium containing 0.5 bar of oxygen) at the
prevailing pressure. The habitat is sealed onto the pipeline
and filled with a breathable mixture of helium and oxygen, at
or slightly above the ambient pressure at which the welding
is to take place. This method produces high-quality weld
joints that meet X-ray and code requirements. The gas
tungsten arc welding process is employed for this process.
The area under the floor of the Habitat is open to water. Thus
the welding is done in the dry but at the hydrostatic pressure
of the sea water surrounding the Habitat.
A. Principle of operation of Dry Welding
Underwater welding in a dry environment is made
possible by encompassing the area to be welded with
aphysical barrier (weld chamber) that excludes water. The
weld chamber is designed and custom built toaccommodate
braces and other structural members whose centerlines may
intersect at or near the area that is tobe welded. The chamber
is usually built of steel, but plywood, rubberized canvas, or
any other suitable materialcan be used. Size and
configuration of the chamber are determined by dimensions
and geometry of the area thatmust be encompassed and the
number of welders that will be working in the chamber at the
same time. Water isdisplaced from within the chamber by air
or a suitable gas mixture, depending upon water depth and
pressure atthe work site. Buoyancy of the chamber is offset
by ballast, by mechanical connections and chamber to
thestructure, or by a combination of both.
B. Advantages of Dry Welding
1) Welder/Diver Safety Welding is performed in a
chamber, immune to ocean currents and marine animals. The
warm, dry habitat is well illuminated and has its own
environmental control system (ECS).
2) Good Quality Welds This method has ability to produce
welds of quality comparable to open air welds because water
is no longer present to quench the weld and H2 level is much
lower than wet welds.
3) Surface Monitoring Joint preparation, pipe alignment,
NDT inspection, etc. are monitored visually.
4) Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) NDT is also facilitated
by the dry habitat environment.

Verma and Garg

C. Disadvantages of Dry Welding

1) The habitat welding requires large quantities of complex
equipment and much support equipment on the surface. The
chamber is extremely complex.
2) Cost of habitat welding is extremely high and increases
with depth. Work depth has an effect on habitat welding. At
greater depths, the arc constricts and corresponding higher
voltages are required. The process is costly a $ 80000
charge for a single weld job. One cannot use the same
chamber for another job, if it is a different one.

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VIII. CONVENTIONAL UNDERWATER WELDING

TECHNIQUES
A. Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is among the most
widely used welding processes. During the process,the flux
covering the electrode melts during welding. This forms the
gas and slag to shield the arc and moltenweld pool. The slag
must be chipped off the weld bead after welding.
.

V. RISKS INVOLVED
There is a risk to the welder/diver of electric shock.
Precautions include achieving adequate electrical insulation
of the welding equipment, shutting off the electricity supply
immediately the arc is extinguished, and limiting the opencircuit voltage of MMA (SMA) welding sets. Secondly,
hydrogen and oxygen are produced by the arc in wet welding.
Precautions must be taken to avoid the build-up of
pockets of gas, which are potentially explosive. The other
main area of risk is to the life or health of the welder/diver
from nitrogen introduced into the blood steam during
exposure to air at increased pressure. Precautions include the
provision of an emergency air or gas supply, stand-by divers,
and decompression chambers to avoid nitrogen narcosis
following rapid surfacing after saturation diving.
For the structures being welded by wet underwater
welding, inspection following welding may be more difficult
than for welds deposited in air. Assuring the integrity of such
underwater welds may be more difficult, and there is a risk
that defects may remain undetected.
VI. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD UNDER
WATER WELDING
(a) Requirement of inexpensive welding equipment, low
welding cost easy to operate, flexibility of operation in all
positions.
(b) Minimum electrical hazards, a minimum of 20 cm/min
welding speed at least.
(c) Permit good visibility.
(d) Produce good quality and reliable welds.
(e) Operator should be capable in supporting himself.
(f) Easily automated.
VII. APPLICATION OF UNDERWATER WELDING
The important applications of underwater welding are:
(a) Offshore construction for tapping sea resources,
(b) Temporary repair work caused by ships collisions or
unexpected accidents.
(c) Salvaging vessels sunk in the sea
(d) Repair and maintenance of ships
(e) Construction of large ships beyond the capacity of
existing docks.

Fig. 1. Schematic of shielded metal arc welding process

The flux also provides a method of adding
scavengers, deoxidizers, and alloyingelements to the weld
metal.For underwater wet welding with shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW) technique, direct current is used
andusually polarity is straight. Electrodes are usually water
proofed.
Furthermore,
it
is
flux
coatedwhich
causesgeneration of bubble during welding and displaces
water from the welding arc and weld pool area.Hence, the
flux composition and depth of flux coating should be
optimized to ensure adequate protection.Electrodes for
shielded metal arc welding are classified by AWS as E6013
and E7014 (Khanna, 2004).Versatility, simple experiment
set-up, economy in operation and finished product quality are
notable advantagesof the technique. However, during
welding, all electrical leads, lighting gear, electrode holder,
gloves, etc., mustbe fully insulated and in good condition.
Ferrite electrodes with a coating based on iron oxide should
be used asthey resist hydrogen cracking. Flux cored arc
welding is another technique which could not yet competed
witSMAW because of reported excessive porosities and
problems with underwater wire feeding system (Oates,1996).
B. Flux Cored Arc Welding
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is a commonly
used high deposition rate welding process that adds the
benefits of flux to the welding simplicity of MIG welding
(Khanna, 2004). As in MIG welding wire iscontinuously fed
from a spool. Fig. 2 shows the schematic of flux cored arc
welding process. Flux cored weldingis therefore referred to
as a semiautomatic welding process. Self shielding flux cored
arc welding wires areavailable or gas

Verma and Garg

shielded welding wires may be used. Less pre-cleaning may
be necessary than MIG welding.
However, the condition of the base metal can affect
weld quality. Excessive contamination must be
eliminated.Flux cored welding produces a flux that must be
removed. Flux cored welding has good weld appearance
(smooth, uniform welds having good contour). Flexibility in
operation, higher deposition rate, low operator skilland good
quality of the weld deposits are the notable advantages of
flux cored arc welding. However, presenceof porosities and
burnback are the problems associated with the process.
Recent development of nickel basedflux cored filler materials
have provided improved wet weldability and halogen free
flux formulation specificallydesigned for wet welding
application (Oates, 1996). Similarly, improved underwater
wet welding capabilitiesand halogen-free flux formulations
have been developed with stainless steel flux-cored wires.
C. Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
TIG-welding (Tungsten Inert Gas) or GTAWwelding (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) uses a permanent
nonmeltingelectrode made of tungsten (Khanna, 2004). Filler
metal is added separately, which makes the processvery
flexible. It is also possible to weld without filler material.
TIG welding has got the advantage that it gives astable arc
and less porous weld. Fig. 3 shows the schematic of tungsten
inert gas welding technique.The most used power source for
TIG-welding generates alternating current (AC). Direct
current can be used. ACTIG-welding usually uses argon as a
shielding gas. The process is a multi purpose process, which
offers the usergreat flexibility. By changing the diameter of
the tungsten electrode, welding may be performed with a
widerange of heat input at different thicknesses. AC TIGwelding is possible with thicknesses down to about 0,5
mm.For larger thicknesses, > 5 mm, AC TIG-welding is less
economical compared to MIG-welding due to lowerwelding
speed. DC TIG-welding with electrode negative is used for
welding thicknesses above 4 mm. Thenegative electrode
gives a poor oxide cleaning compared to AC-TIG and MIG,
and special cleaning of jointsurfaces is necessary. The
process usually uses helium shielding gas. This gives a better
penetration in thickersections.
In deep see construction, free burning arc is used for fusion
welding. The arc is then operated in a localized dryregion
created around the weldment at elevated pressures. Similar
ambient conditions can be found in highpressure discharge
lamps and in some plasma heaters and torches. The tungsten
inert gas welding process atatmospheric pressures has been
investigated extensively from the experimental and
theoretical side (Lancester,1987; Haddad & Farmer, 1985).
The properties of the free-burning arc column are studied for
ambient

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Fig. 2. Schematic of a Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Technique.
pressures of 0.1 MPa (i.e., atmospheric) to 10 MPa for
applications in underwater welding (Schmidt, 1996).
IX. ADVANCED UNDERWATER
WELDINGTECHNIQUE
A. Friction welding (FRW)
Friction welding is a solid state welding process which
produces coalescence of materials by the heat obtainedfrom
mechanically-induced sliding motion between rubbing
surfaces (Khanna, 2004; Blakemore, 2000). Thework parts
are held together under pressure. This process usually
involves rotating of one part against another togenerate
frictional heat at the junction. When a suitable high
temperature has been reached, rotational motionceases and
additional pressure is applied and coalescence occurs. Fig. 4
shows the schematic of friction weldingprocess. The start of
the new millennium will see the introduction of friction
welding for underwater repair ofcracks to marine structures
and pipelines.
There are two variations of the friction welding
process. In the original process one part is held stationary
andthe other part is rotated by a motor which maintains an
essentially constant rotational speed. The two parts
arebrought in contact under pressure for a specified period of
time with a specific pressure. Rotating power isdisengaged
from the rotating piece and the pressure is increased. When
the rotating piece stops the weld iscompleted. This process
can be accurately controlled when speed, pressure, and time
are closely regulated.The other variation is called inertia
welding. Here a flywheel is revolved by a motor until a
preset speed isreached. It, in turn, rotates one of the pieces to
be welded. The motor is disengaged from the flywheel and
theother part to be welded is brought in contact under
pressure
with the rotating piece. During the
predeterminedtime during which the rotational speed of the
part is reduced the flywheel is brought to an immediate stop
andadditional pressure is provided to complete the weld.
Both methods utilize frictional heat and produce welds
ofsimilar quality. Slightly better control is claimed with the
original process.

Verma and Garg

Friction welding requires relatively expensive apparatus

similar to a machine tool. There are three importantfactors
involved in making a friction weld:
1. The rotational speed which is related to the material to be
welded and the diameter of the weld at theinterface.
2. The pressure between the two parts to be welded. Pressure
changes during the weld sequence. At thestart it is very low,
but it is increased to create the frictional heat. When the
rotation is stopped pressureis rapidly increased so that
forging takes place immediately before or after rotation is
stopped.
3. The welding time. Time is related to the shape and the type
of metal and the surface area. It is normallya matter of a few
seconds. The actual operation of the machine is automatic
and is controlled by asequence controller which can be set
accordingto the weld schedule established for the parts to be
joined.

119

2) No filler metal is required and flux is not used.

3) The process is capable of welding most of the common
metals.
4) It can also be used to join many combinations of dissimilar
metals.
5) It also produces a fine-grained forged weld without any
weld dilution, or weld inclusions.
6) Since there is never a liquid weld pool, hydrogen
enrichment and hydrogenembrittlement are eliminated.
Similarly nitrogen enrichment cannot occur.
7)No shielding gasses or fluxes are required and it is possible
to join dissimilar and exotic materials impossible to weld by
any other means including aluminium to ceramic.
B. Laser Welding
Laser as a source of coherent and monochromatic radiation,
has a wide scope of application in materials processing
(Steen, 1991; DuttaMajumdar& Manna, 2003). Laser assisted
welding, because of the sheervolume/proportion of work and
advancement over the years, constitutes the most important
operations amongthe laser joining processes (Dawas, 1992;
Duley, 1999).

Fig. 3. Schematic of friction welding.

Normally friction welding one of the parts to be welded is
round in cross section; however, this is not anabsolute
necessity. Visual inspection of weld quality can be based on
the flash, which occurs around the outsideperimeter of the
weld. Normally this flash will extend beyond the outside
diameter of the parts and will curlaround back toward the
part but will have the joint extending beyond the outside
diameter of the part. If the flashsticks out relatively straight
from the joint it is an indication that the time was too short,
the pressure was toolow, or the speed was too high. These
joints may crack. If the flash curls too far back on the outside
diameter itis an indication that the time was too long and the
pressure was too high. Between these extremes is the
correctflash shape. The flash is normally removed after
welding.
(i) Advantages of Friction Welding
1)It has the ability to produce high quality welds in a short
cycle time.

Fig. 4. Schematic of laser welding with a filler rod.

Argon shroud removes heat and prevents undueoxidation and
displaces water. The relative position of the laser focus
determines the quality and configuration of the weld.
[Kruusing, 2004].
The focused laser beam is made to irradiate thework piece or
joint at the given level and speed. A shroud gas protects the
weld pool from undue oxidation andprovides with the
required oxygen flow. Laser heating fuses the work piece or
plate edges and joins once thebeam is withdrawn. In case of
welding with filler, melting is primarily confined to the
feeding wire tip while apart of the substrate being irradiated
melts to insure a smooth joint. In either case, the work piece
rather than thebeam travels at a rate conducive for welding
and maintaining a minimum heat affected zone (HAZ).

Verma and Garg

There are two fundamental modes of laser welding depending

on the beam power/configuration and its focuswith respect to
the work piece: (a) conduction welding and (b) keyhole or
penetration welding (Figs. 5a, b) (Dutta and Majumdar,
2003).

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8. Developments of diverless Hyperbaric welding system is

an even greater challenge calling for annexes developments
like pipe preparation and aligning, automatic electrode and
wire reel changing functions, using a robot arm installed.
This is in testing stage in deep waters.
9. Explosive and friction welding are also to be tested in deep
waters.
REFERENCES

Fig. 5. Schematic of (a) conduction welding and (b) keyhole

or penetration welding.
X. UNDER WATER WELDING FUTURE SCOPE OF
RESEARCH
Considerable research effort has been made to
improve process performance and control strategies for
thevarious underwater welding processes over the last half
century. However, there are still many problems toovercome.
The major efforts on research and development should be
focused on the following topics:
1. Automation of the underwater joining and inspection of the
welded structures.
2. Mechanized underwater welding for actual usage of a very
large floating structures.
3. Investigation of the potential of using a robot manipulator
for underwater ultrasonic testing of welds injoints of complex
geometry.
4. Application of advanced welding technique, like friction,
laser welding and understand the behavior ofmaterials after
the welding and process optimization.
5. Invention of new welding techniques and explore the
possibility of its application in underwater welding.
6. Generation of research data book on weld ability of
materials during underwater welding.
7. Wet MMA is still being used for underwater repairs, but the
quality of wet welds is poor and are prone to hydrogen
cracking. Dry Hyperbaric welds are better in quality than wet
welds. Present trend is towards automation. THOR 1 (TIG
Hyperbaric Orbital Robot) is developed where diver performs
pipefitting, installs the trac and orbital head on the pipe and
the rest process is automated.

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