THE FOUR ASSEMBLIES AND THERAVA.

DA BUDDHISM
Prof. Bhikkhu Analayo
disciples is what distinguishes a Buddhist
tradition from a tradition that is not Buddhist.

Introduction

In this paper I examine two significant

developments in the Theravada tradition
from the viewpoint of the Pali canonical
teaching that the four assemblies- bhikkhus,
bhikkhunis, male lay disciples, and female
lay disciples- are the necessary foundation
for the Buddha's teaching to thrive. ThesP
two developments are the revival of lay
meditation and the revival of vhikkhuni
ordination.
The Four Assemblies
According to the Mahaparinibbiina-sutta
of the Digha-nikiiya, the Buddha proclaimed
that he would not pass away until he had
established members of each of the four
assemblies in being "wise, well-trained, and
self-confident", vyattii vinztii visiiradii (DN 11
104). 1 This passage makes it unmistakably
clear that an essential foundation for the
Buddha's mission of teaching the Dharma
was that bhikkhus as well as bhikkhunzs, and
male as well as female lay disciples, are wise
and well-trained, and that they are also self
confident.
The four assemblies come up again in
the Piisadika-sutta of the same Digha-nikiiya,
which sets the Buddha's possession of four
assemblies of such wise and self-confident
disciples in contrast to other teaching
traditions under the leadership of someone
who is not a fully awakened Buddha (DN
Ill 125). In other words, having these four
assemblies of wise and self-confident

According to the Lakkha1Ja-sutta, also

founq in the Digha-nikaya, the wheel-marks
on the soles of the Buddha's feet foretold
hjs destiny of being srr01.;mded by these
four assemblies. (DN III 148). This makes
possession of four assemblies an integral, in
fact indispensable, aspect of the Buddha's
ministry. A discourse in the AJJguttara
nikaya highlights the rather unfortunate
condition of being reborn in a "border
country", which is a country where the four
assemblies of Buddhist disciples cannot be
found (AN IV 226).
The Mahiivacchagotta-sutta of the Majjhima
reports that, on hearing that each of
these four assemblies of Buddhist disciples
had reached various levels of awakening, the
lt
wanderer Vacchagotta decided to join the
ranks of the Buddhist monastic order (MN
I 491). This stands in contrast to numerous
other occasions when he approached
the Buddha or his disciples with various .
questions, without the resulting discussion
inspiring him sufficiently to want to go
forth as a Buddhist monk2. The message
that emerges on comparing these passages
to the Mahiivacchagotta-sutta is that even
detailed replies to his questions could not
achieve what was eventually accomplished
through the inspiring example set by the
accomplishments attained by each of the
four assemblies.
-nikiiya

Prof. Analayo, Professor, Department of Buddhist Studies, University of Humburg, Humburg, Germany.

The Maha Bodhi

11 13

Pali discourses consider the four assemblies

to be of fundamental importance for the
thriving of the Buddha's dispensation, the
siisana. Their coming into being is seen as an
integral aspect of the Buddha's mission and
forms a distinctive mark of the Buddhist
tradition. This in turn implies that any living
Buddhist tradition that orients itself on the
values enshrined in the Pali canon needs
to ensure that these four assemblies are in
existence, and that each of these assemblies
has the opportunity to develop wisdom, to
train themselves well, and in this way to
become self-confident.

same

The

In sum, there can be little doubt that the

Etadagga-vagga

of

the

Anguttara-nikiiya also presents the female

lay disciples Uttarii and Sii.miivatf as foremost
in meditation or in the practice of loving

26).

kindness, metta (AN I

An example

for a male lay disciple accomplished in

meditation is Pessa in the Kandaraka-suttaI
who in front of the Buddha describes
his practice of the four establishments of
mindfulness, satipafthiina (MN I 340). Other
lay practitioners proficient in satipatfhiina
are Siriva<;i<;iha and Manad!nna, mentioned

in the Sarttyutta-nikiiya (SN V .177f). The

householder Citta even confutes the leader
of the Jains by proclaiming his expertise in
attaining the four absorptions, jhana (SN

Central for the development of wisdom

and a way of training oneself in such a

IV

298).

This discourse shows him to have

indeed become wise and self-confident, to

way as to become self-confident would

the extent of successfully confronting the

of course be the practice of meditation.

leader of the Jains in a debate situation.

The canonical sources in fact repeatedly

refer to accomplished meditators not only
among bhikkhus, but also among bhikkhunls
as well
vagga

of

as Jay disciples. The Etadagga

the

Anguttara-nikiiya

presents

various named bhikkhunis as foremost in

meditation, as well as in the attainments
that result from meditation, such as the
quick gaining of direct knowledge, the
divine eye, recollection of past lives, and
supernormal powers (AN I

25).

Needless

to say, the fact that, for example, bhikkhuni

Uppalavm:zJii is foremost in supernormal
powers implies that other bhikkhunis also
had such abilities, albeit not to the high
degree to which these had been mastered
by UppalavaJIJii. There can be little doubt
that the ancient bhikkhunfs were reckoned to
have been highly accomplished meditators.

Lay Meditation
In

later

Theraviida

tradition,

the

involvement of lay disciples in mindfulness

practice or the cultivation of absorption
appears to have gradually diminished in
favour of a stronger emphasis on ritual
activities and the practice of supporting
the monastic community through offerings
and services. The revival of large scale lay
meditation practice during the twentieth
in particular the cultivation of

century,

insight, vipassanii, appears to have been in

considerable part inspired by the activities
of

the

Ledi

Sayiidaw

in

Myanmar.3 In

particular the approach to the cultivation of

vipassanii taught by the Mahiisi Sayiidaw has
spread far and wide, becoming a formative
influence in the revival of lay meditation in
the Theraviida tradition.

The Maha Bodhi 1114

The vipassana teachings by the Mahiisi

Sayadaw did not meet

with

in spite of initial resistance by traditional

undivided

bhikkhus, has been successful and resulted

approval from the outset. Some traditional

in a range of beneficial effects. Although

bhikkhus in Sri Lanka were concerned that

not all

the method he taught did not conform

mindfulness conform to the set of values

of

the

modem

applications of

to the canonical scriptures. For them this

that inform traditional Buddhist practice,

raised doubts about the potential of this

there can be no doubt about the overall

style of meditation to lead to genuine forms

positive repercussions of thi development.

.
Equipped with the possibility to cultivate

of realization.4 In spite of such criticism,

however, the insight meditation as taught

meditative insight,. lay disciples

by the Mahasi Sayadaw continued to spread

Theravada tradition are nowadays able to

of the

throughout Asia, including Sri Lanka itsc!f,

cultivate wisdom and self-confidence in a

and eventually also reached the West. In the

manner that would not have been possible

United States the Insight Meditation Society

in the past, when they had little or even no

in Massachusetts, originally founded in

access to meditation instructions.

1975 by Sharon Salzberg, Joseph Goldstein,

and Jack Komfield, has bten continually
offering courses and instructions in the
cultivation of liberating insight and has
become a central force in the spread of

vipassanii meditation in the West.

Among

the

practitioners

many

who

thousands

have

attended

of
a

retreat at the Insight Meditation Society

in

Massachusetts

was

Jon

Kabat-Zinn.

Experiencing for himself the benefits of

mindfulness practice led him to the intuition

to promote its use in a hospital setting.

Starting at the Stress Reduction Clinic at
the University of Massachusetts Medical
School, this intuition became the starting
point for

the well-known Mindfulness

Based Stress Reduction.5 By now, interest

in and practice of mindfulness has spread

from its clinical use to a range of other
areas in secular society and is slowly about
to become an integral part of daily life for
many US citizens.6

In this way the revival of lay meditation,

The Loss of bhikkhunf Ordination

In addition to the loss of regular lay
meditation practice, in the course of history
the Theravada tradition also lost its bhikkhunf
ordination

lineage.

Introduced

during

the reign of king Asoka to Sri Lanka by

Sanghamitta and a group of bhikkhunfs from
India, at some point in the early eleventh
century the bhikkhuni

order

appears to

have come to an end. This seems to have

happened during a time of warfare and
inner turmoil that had forced many of the
bhikkhus to leave the country. According to
our present state of knowledge, at that time
the order of bhikkhunfs in India had already
become extinct and no living bhikkhunz
tradition appears to have been in existence
in other Theravada countries7
Before its eventual demise, in the early
fifth

century

the

bhikkhunz

ordination

lineage had been transmitted from Sri Lanka

to China

(T L 939c).

In the eighth century,

however, the Chinese emperor apparently

imposed the use of the Dharmaguptaka

The Maha Bodhi IllS

Vinaya on all monastics in his realm (T L

793c)

The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya is the

legal code of one of the different Buddhist

traditions that developed after the Buddha's
demise,

similar

in

this

respect

to

Pali Vinaya. The respective Vinaya texts, in

of

considerable

similarities,

show

several differences. For one, the overall

number of rules for bhikkhun"is differs.8

In

addition, the ritual procedure as well as the

markers required to establish the boundary
for the location to be used for ordination
also differ.9 From a strictly legal point, even
though

the

ordination

lineage

contrast bhikkhus should according to the

regulations not possess or handle money.

the

Theravada tradition and its legal code, the

spite

travel on public transport, but are expected

to pay for such services themselves. 11 In

received

by the Chinese in the fifth century was

Theravada, since about the eighth cenh1ry

Comparable nun traditions in Myanmar

are the thila shins and in Sri Lanka the dasasil
miitas.n In spite of some local differences,
these share. with the mae chis the basic
problem of being situated in an ambivlent
position between laity and monastics. There
can be little doubt that lack of recognition
of their monastic status continues to be a
problem. This in turn makes it rather difficult
for them to live up to the expectation voiced
in the Mahtiparinibbiina-sutta as cited earlier.
The Revival of bhikkhuni Ordination
Attempts

it has become a different lineage, basing its

legal procedures on a different legal code.

an order of

bhikkhunis,

the

wish of women in Theravada countries

to live a celibate life under the guidance
of the teachings of the Buddha has found
its expression in the form of taking eight
or ten precepts. The tradition with the
longest history in this respect appears to
be the mae chis in Thailand: who shave off
their hair and wear white, a colour that in
traditional Theravada countries is worn
by laity on religious observance days and
never worn by bhikkhus.10

to

revive

the

bhikkhunz

ordination lineage have a long history,

with two relatively recent attempts taking

The Eight or Ten Precept Nuns

Lacking

Vinaya

12

The dress in a

way signals the ambiguous position of mae

chis in between laity and monastics, evident
also in other respects. The ordination of

place in

1988

at Los Angeles and

1996

at

Sarnath. These attempts involved receiving

ordination

from

Chinese

bhiku1Ji5

or

Korean bhikus and therefore in the Vinaya

lineage of the Dharmaguptaka tradition.
An emblematic expression of the problem
of gaining general recognition in the case of
both these ordinations is the circumstance
that the candidates were asked to put on
Dharmaguptaka-style
usually

grey-coloured

robes,

which

are

and

involve

the

wearing of a sort of trousers. Whereas

it

is

natural

for

Chinese

and

Korean

bhikus and bhiku7J.is to expect candidates

for higher ordination to wear such robes,
in the eyes of traditional Theravadins this

mae chis is considered a secular event and

is easily perceived as an act of conversion

they continue to use their lay name after

to the Mahayana. In fact participants of the

ordination. Unlike bhikkhus, mae chis do

1988

not receive free medical treatment or free

been maligned for "putting on trousers",

The Maha Bodhi

and 1996 ordinations have at times

11

16

something that in the eravada tradition is

ordination

seen as incompatible with monastic status.

through acceptance of eight "principles to

on

Mahapajapati

Gotami

Another problem is the administration

be respected", garudhamma (Vin II 255). The

of the bodhisattoa precepts that usually

sixth of these eight principles stipulates that

forms the last step in a higher ordination

the ordination of a female candidate is to be

given by Dharmaguptaka monastics. Even

given by both orders, that is, by bhikkhus

though the bodhisatta path is recognized in

Theravada Buddhism as a viable option,

1988 and 1996 have

those ordained in

been considered as having now become

adherents of the Mahayana,

instead of

being recognized as Theravada bhikkhunis.

These

negative

repercussions

would

have informed preparations for another

ordination held in
the

1998 in Bodhgaya with

collaboration

of

Chinese

bhiktjUJ:!IS,

at which the candidates were allowed

to dress in traditional Theravada robes
and the ordination ceremony was done
in cooperation with Theravada bhikkhus.
The Theravada candidates also made a
point of not participating in the taking
of

bodhisattoa

precepts,

but

only

took

part in the procedures that were strictly

concerned with ordination. 14

In addition,

the Sri Lankan participants in the Bodhgaya

ordination subsequently received another
ordination administered only by Theravada
bhikkhus. This is of considerable importance

for the claim to legal validity of the

1998

ordinations.

1998 could satisfy legal requirements

according to Theravada standards requires

brief excursion into the evolution of

bhikkhuni

ordination

reported

in

the

Cullavagga of the Pali Vinaya. This evolution

begins

with

also wished to be ordained. At this pomt

in the history provided in the Pall Vinaya,
only Mahapajapati Gotami had become a
bhikkhunl. This made it impossible for her

to form an order of bhikkhunis that could

collaborate with an order of bhikkhus, as
sfipulated in the sixth garudhamma.

In

reply to her query on how to proceed in

this situation, the Buddha is on record for
authorizing the giving of ordination to
female candidates by bhikkhus on their own,
that is, without the collaboration of an order
of bhikkhunis (Vin II 257).
The Vinaya continues with two more
regulations that were promulgated after an
order of bhikkhunis had come into existence.
The first regulation originates in relation to
a set of questions of a somewhat personal
and intimate nature that a candidate is
to be asked in order to ascertain if she is
eligible for ordination. In order to avoid
embarrassment when having to reply to

Evaluating how the ordination conferred

Next Mahapajapati Gotuni asked how

to proceed in relation to her followers, who

such questions in the presence of bhikkhus,

Theravada Legal Requirements

in

and bhikkhunis.

the

Buddha

conferring

according to this regulation the female

candidate should be asked such questions
by bhikkhunis only (Vin II 271). After having
gone through the questioning and other
aspects of the ordination ceremony by an
order of bhikkhunis, the candidate should
then approach an order of bhikkhus to

The Maha Bodhi 1117

This

complete the ordination.

Another regulation concerns a situation

when the candidate cannot approach an

order of bhikkhus to complete the ordination

because of some impending danger that

makes it risky to travel. In such a situation, a

messenger can act on behalf of the candidate

and in this way the ordination in front of

the order of bhikkhus can be completed (Vin

II 277).

conclusion

overlooks

the

fact

that the authorization for bhikkhus to give

ordination on their own was given in a

different situation, compared to the later

regulations.
context,

precisely

the
in

According

to

its

narrative

enable

bhikkhunf

authorization

order

to

was

given

ordination in a situation where an order of

bhikkhuni.s is not in existence. In contrast,

the subsequent rules are meant to deal with

a situation where an order

bhikkhunis

When evaluating these four different

is in existence. In such asetting, the order

that, according to a basic legal principle,

part, including the posing of the various

that is valid and which needs to be taken

candidate, and afterwards the order of

rules on the same issue to be in existence

possible for the candidate to approach the

to which rule to follow. A simple illustrat;on

behalf of the candidate. These two rules

road. Even if at a time in the past a faster

bhikkhunis is in existence and is able to take

on this road now one needs to take into

authorization for bhikkhus to ordain on their

regulations it needs to be kept in mind

the last rule on a particular issue is the one

into account. It is not possible for different

simultaneously, as one would be at a loss as

is the setting of a speed limit for a particular
speed limit was in existence, when driving

account the current speed limit. If one is

stopped by the police for speeding, it is not

possible to get away by arguing that one

had decided to follow the previous speed

limit. This has been rendered invalid by the

current one, which is the one to be observed.

of bhikkhunis should first perform their

questions regarding the suitability of the

bhikkhus will perform their part. If it is not

order of bhikkhus, a messenger can act on

refer to a situation in which an order of

its part in an ordination procedure. The

own, in contrast, refers to a situation where
an order of bhikkhunis is not in existence.

These two basically different situations

could be compared to speed limits set up

for different roads. It does not matter

if the

speed limit for another road has been set

been

up more recently than the speed limit for

in the Pali Vinaya, leading to the conclusion

However recent it may be, it still refers to

giving

one intends to drive, only the speed limit

This

basic

legal

principle

has

applied to the history of bhikkhuni ordination

that, since the Buddha's authorization of
ordination

to

female candidates

the road on which one intends to drive.

a different road. For the road on which

has been followed by

set up for this road is relevant. In the same

On this interpretation, once an order of

shows that it does allow for a revival of

by

bhikkhus only

subsequent regulations, it is no longer valid.

bhikkhunis has become extinct, the bhikkhus

on their own are unable to revive it.15

way, close inspection of the Pali Vinaya

bhikkhuni ordination by bhikkhus alone, as

the permission given by the Buddha has not

The Maha Bodhi 1118

been rendered invalid by other regulations

no bhikkhuni order capable of conferring

that

ordination

regulate

fundamentally

different

situation.16

The Bodhgaya ordination held in

1998

has met with considerably more success

than its predecessors. In addition to the
careful design of the ordination procedure
in order to make it appear as Theravada
as possible, its legal appeal rests on the
combination of two ordination procedures.
One is the ordination conferred by the
Chinese bhiku1J.IS. For those who see it
as valid to reconnect in this way to what
after all is an ordination lineage that sterns
from Sri Lanka, the first ordination can be
acceptable.

The

subsequent

ordination given by Theravada bhikkhus

on their own then assumes the character
of a procedure known in the Theravada
tradition as dafhikamma, "making strong".
This is a formal act through which rnonastics
ordained

elsewhere

can

be

granted

recognition by the monastic community of

which they wish to be part.17
If ordination given by Dharrnaguptaka
bhikurzzs is considered invalid, however,
then

the

in

existence.

For

exactly

having given the authorization that bhikkhus

Successful Revival

co nsidered

is

this situation the Buddha is on record for

situation

becomes

similar

to

that described in the Pali Vinaya, namely

The significance of the revival of lay
meditation in the twentieth century has
its counterpart in the revival of bhikkhunz
ordination that is becoming a prominent
feature of the early twenty-first century. Both
result in improving the full participation of

all four assemblies in modem Theravada

Buddhism. Both also share the circumstance

can confer ordination on their own. From

this perspective, then, the first ordination
conferred by the Chinese bhiku1J.iS will be
of no legal consequence, ut the second
ordination given by Theravada bhikkhus
ensures that the candidates nevertheless did
receive a legally valid ordination according

to Theravada standards.
The

solution

reached

through

the

combination of two ordinations adopted in

1998,

as well as the fact that the candidates

at the Bodhgaya ordination were allowed to

wear Theravada robes, etc., seem to be chief
factors for the present success of the revival
of the bhikkhunf order. This has by now been
well established in Sri Lanka and, in spite
of continued resistance by some bhikkhus,
has met with much appreciation from the
laity.18 The lineage created by the Bodhgaya
ordinations

has

also

been

successfully

transmitted to Thailand, where the number

of bhikkhunzs is steadily increasing. Whereas
Myanrnar spearheaded the revival of lay
meditation in the twentieth century, in the
revival of bhikkhunz ordination Sri Lanka
has taken the lead, followed by Thailand.

Conclusion
that they initially met with considerable
opposition from some bhikkhus, who were
under the impression that these revivals
do not conform to the canonical scriptures.
Such

opposition

has

been

particularly

strong in the case of the revival of bhikkhunZ:

ordination, where legal concerns naturally

The Maha Bodhi

1 1 19

have a much greater impact than in the case

the Pali canon form the foundation for the

of meditation practice. Nevertheless, in both

Buddha's

cases such opposition keeps diminishing,

enable each of these four assemblies, be

allowing each process its natural unfolding.

they bhikkhus or bhikkhun'fs, male or female

In

this

way,

these

two

remarkable

developments promise to result in the full

resurrection in the Theravada tradition
of the four assemblies that according to

teaching.

This

will

hopefully

lay disciples, to become "wise, well-trained,

and self-confident'' and thereby

to live

up to the expectation held according to

the Mahiiparinibbana-sutf:a by the Buddha
himself.

Notes and References

1.

References to Pali sources here and elsewhere

are to the PTS edition, references to Chinese
sources are to the Taisho edition. I am
indebted to Adam Clarke and Mike Running
for commenting on a draft version of this
paper.

2.

Cf. MN I 481, MN I 483, SN IV 391, SN IV 395,

SN IV 398, SN IV 400, AN I 160, as well as the
Vacchagotta-saTfzyutta, SN ill 257ff.

3.

For a detailed study

Press, 2014.

7.

See Skilling, Peter. "A Note on the History of

the Bhikkhuni-scu:tgha (II): The Order of Nuns
after the Parinirvfu)a". The World Fellowship
of Buddhists Review, 1993, 30. pp.4 & 3l.l:pp.
29-49.

8.

.For a comparative survey of the different codes of

A survey of the main arguments has been

provided by Bond, G.D. The Buddhist Revival

5.

The beginnings of the programme are

described by Kabat-Zinn, ]on. "An Outpatient
Program in Behavioral Medicine for
Chronic Pain Patients Based on the Practice
of Mindfulness Meditation: Theoretical
Considerations and Preliminary Results",
General Hospital Psychiatry, 1982. 4: pp.33-47.
For a monograph study see Kabat-Zinn, Jon.
Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of
your Body an.d Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and

Illness, Delta Trade Paperbacks, 1991.

rules for bhikkhunfs see Kabilsingh, Chatsumam. A

Comparative Study ofBhikkhuni PtiJ:!inwkkha. Delhi:

Chaukhambha Orientalia, 1984.

in Sri Lanka, Religious Tradition, Reinterpretation

and Response, Columbia: University of South

Carolina Press, 1988 pp. 162-171; the actual
exchange has been d ocumented in I<heminda
and Nfu;luttara Satipaffhana Vzpassanii Meditation:
Criticism and Replies, Malaysia: Sela
'ng or:
Buddhist Vipassana Meditation Society, 1990.
(originally published 1979).

A detailed study of the spread of mindfulness

in the USA has rectlntly been published by
Wilson, Jeff. Mindful America, The Mutual
Transformation of Buddhist Meditation and
American Cul ture. Oxford: Oxford University

see Braun,. Erik, T11e Birth of

Insight, Meditation, Modem Buddhism & The Bum
Mtmk Ledi Sayadaw, Chicago: University ofChicago

Press, 2013.

4.

6.

9.

See Chung, Jin-il. and Kieffer-Piilz, Petra. "The

karmavacanas for the Determination of s'ima
and ticivarex;ta avippaviisa", in Dharmaduta,
Melanges offerts au venerable Thich Huyen- Vi a
/'occasion de son soixante-dixieme anniversaire,

bhikkhu, T. Dhammaratana and bhikkhu,

Pasadika (ed.). Paris: Edition You-Feng, 1977,
pp.155.

10. The same holds for the nun traditions in

Cambodia and Laos.
11.

See, e.g., Falk, Monica Lindberg. Making Fields

ofMerit, Buddhist Female Ascetics and Gendered

Thailand, Copenhagen: NIAS Press,

2007 and for further publications Analayo.
"The Revival of the Bhikkhuni Order and
the Decline of the Sasana", Journal of Buddhist
Ethics, 2013. 20. pp. 110-193.

Orders in

The Maha Bodhi 11 20

12. Vin IU 237.

13.

On the thila, shin e.g., Kawanami, Hiroko.

see,
Renunciation
and
Empowerment
of
Buddhist Nuns in Myanmar-Burma, Building
a Community of Female Faithful, Leiden:
Brill, 2013. On the dasasil mata see Salgado,
Nirmala S. Buddhist Nuns and Gendered
Practice, In Search of the Female Renunciant,

Phra. The Buddhist Discipline in Relation to

Bhikkhunis, Questions and Answers, Moore, R.

(tra), 2013. http:// www.buddhistteachings.

org/the-buddhist-discipline-in-relation-to
bhikkhunis, p. 58ff.

16.

Buddhist Ethics, 2013. 20: pp. 310-333; Analayo,

New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. For

further publications see Analayo 2013 (as in

For an account of the 1998 ordination see

Li,

Yuchen.

"Ordination,

Legitimacy and

Sisterhood. The International Full Ordination

Ceremony

in

Bodhgaya",

in

Innovative
Brddlrist Women: Swimming Against the Stream,

Tsomo,

Karma

Lekshe.

(ed.),

This

position

is

taken,

for

17.

of

this

position can be found in Payutto,

Analayo,

bhikkhu.. "The

Ordination

Cullavagga ..on

On

this

option

"Presuppositions

see

for

Ki.effe.r-Piilz,

Valid

Petra.

Ordination

in
Dignity & Discipline, The
Evolving Role of Women in Buddhism, Mohr,

example, by

2001), p. 449. A more detailed exposition

Bhikkhuru

Tradltio'n",

T. and Tsedroen

bhikkhu, Thanissaro. The Buddhist Monastic

Forest Monastery, 2013. (originally published

the

with Respect to the Restoration of the

Bhiknunl Ordination in the MUiasarvastivada

Richmond,

Code li, The Khandaka Rules Translated &

Explained by Jhanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey
DeGra/f), Revised Edition. California: Metta

"On

bhikkhuni Ordination" (forthcoming).

Surrey, UK: Curzon, 2000, pp.168-198

15.

bhikkhu.

Controversy", Sri Limka 'International Journal

of Buddhist Studies, 2014. 3: pp. 1-20; and

the previous note).

14.

See in more detail Analayo, bhikkhu. "The

Legality of Bhikkhuru Ordination", journal of

J. (ed.), Boston: Wisdom,

2010. pp. 217-225, see especially note 16.

18.

See the report by Mrozik, Susanne. "'We

Love Our Nuns': Affective Dimensions of

the Sri Lankan Bhikkhuru Revival", Journal of

Buddhist Ethics, 2014. 21: pp. 57-95.

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The Maha Bodhi 11 21

ISSN:

THE MAHA BODHI

2559

B.E. VOL.122, MAY 2015

(25591h Buddha Jayanti Issue)

Editor-in-Chief:
Sri Hemendu Bikash Chowdhury

Editorial Advisory Board :

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Ven. P. Seewalee Thero
Prof. Dr. Dipak Kumar Barua
Prof. Dr. Bimalendra Kumar
Dr. Saswati Mutsuddy

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Prof. Dr. Subhas Chandra Saha

Maha Bodhi Society of India

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