Biology

BIOLOGY
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CHRONICLE
LIVING WORLD DISCIPLINE IAS ACADEMY
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A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
Cytology : Study of cell structure is called cytology.
Embryology : It is the study of fertilization and

development of a zygote into an embryo, larva or a
miniature adult.
Anthropology : Study of origin development and culture

of present and past races of humans.
Aphidology : Study of aphids.
Apiculture : Rearing of bees.
Exobiology : Study of possibility of life in the outer

space.
Araneology : Study of spiders.
Microbiobiology : It is the study of structure, life cycle

and activities of micro-organisms invisible to maked
eye.
Arboriculture : Cultivation of trees and shrubs.
Arthrology : Study of joints.
Bacteriology (Ehrenberg) : Study of bacteria.
Bioclimatology : Study of climatic effects on biological

processes and organisms.
Pathology : Study of diseases, effects, casual agents,

transmission and other activities of pathogens is called
pathology.
Eugenics : Study of factors connected with impairment

or improvement of a race.
Biometerology : Study of effects of atmospheric changes

on living begins.
Euthenics : Study of environmental conditions that

contribute to the improvement of intellect and other
traits of human beings.
Biometrics : (Biometry = Biostatistics). Statistical study

of biological problems.
Bionics : Ecology.
Euphenics : Treatment of defective heredity through

genetic engineering.
Biotechnology : Technology connected with employing

living beings or their products in industrial processes.
Cryobiology : It is the study of effects of low

temperature on organisms, including their preservation.
Brylogy : Study of bryophytes.
Acarology : Study of ticks and mites.
Cardiology : Study of heart.
Actinology : (i) Study of radiation effects (ii) Study of

radially symmetrical animals.
Carcinology : (i) Study of crustacea (ii) Study of cancers

or tumours.
Aerobiology : Study of air borne organisms as well as

structure (e,g spores) and their distribution.
Chemotaxonomy : Taxonomy based on chemicals

present in organism.
Agriology : Comparative study of primitive tribal

customs
Chirology : Communication system for deaf and mute

by sign language.
Agrobiology : Quantitative science of plant life and plant

nutrition.
Chondrology : Study of cartilages.
Chorology : Biogeography.
Agrology : Soil science dealing with production of crops.
Cnidology : Study of coelentrates.
Agronomy : Science of soil management of domesticated

animals.
Conchology : Study of shells.
Coprology (Scatology) : Study of excrements.
Agrostology : Study of grasses.
Craniology : Study of skulls.
Andrology : Study of male reproductive organs.
Angiology : Study of blood vascular system, including

arteries and veins.
Ctetology : Branch of biology connected with acquired

characters.
Animal Husbandry : Raising and management of

domesticated animals.
Cytotaxonomy : Classification of organisms based on

cellular structure and further, especially on the member
of Chromesones.
Anthology (Bessey) : Study of flowers and flowering

plants.
Dactyology : Communication system as for deaf using

signs made of fingers.
Chronicle IAS Academy
BIOLOGY [5]
LEGENDS OF DISCIPLINE
Father of Concept of Evolution
Father of Medicine
Father of Biology, Embryology and Zoology.
Father of Botany and Ecology
Father of Anatomy
Father of Comparative Anatomy
Father of Microscopic Anatomy
Father of Plant Anatomy
Father/Founder of Histology
Father of Microscopy (Protozoology,
Microbiology, Bacteriology)
Father of Cytology
Father of Modern Cytology
Father of Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Founder of Embryology
Father of Modern Embryology
Father of Immunology
Father of Epidemiology
Father of Biochemistry
Father of Plant Physiology
Father of Experimental Physiology
Father of Mycology
Father of Bryology
Father of Plant Pathology
Father of Antiseptic Surgery
Father of Bacteriology
Father of Microbiology
Father of Palynology
Father of Endocrinology
Father of Stress Physiology
Father of Conditioned Reflexes
Father of ECG
Father of Gerontology
Father of Modern Paleontology
Father of Ethology
Father of Antibiotics
Father of Blood Circulation
Father of Blood Groups
Father of Chemotherapy
Father of Genetics
Father of Modern Genetics
Father of Polygenic Inheritence
Father of Eugenics
Father of Biochemical/Human Genetics
Father of experimental Genetics
Father of Genetic Engineering
Father of DNA Printing
Ampedocles(495-425 B.C.)
Hippocrates(460-375 B.C)
Aristatle (384-287 B.C)
Theophrastus (370-287 B.C)
Andreas Veaslius(1514-1564)
George Cuvier(1771-1712)
Morcello Malpighi (1628-1694)
N.Grew (1641-1712)
Francois Bichat (1771-1802)
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
Swansan
Caroleus (Carl von) Linnacus(1707-1778)
C.F.Wolff (1738-1794)
Von Baer (1792-1876)
Edward Jenner (1749-1823)
John Snow
Liebig
Stephen Hales (1677-1761)
Galen
Micheli
Hedwig
De Bary
Joseph Lister
Koch
Pasteur
Erdtman
Thomas Addison
Hans Selye
Pavlov
Einthoven
Korenchevsk
Cuvier
Konard Lorentz
Alexander Fleming (1881-1995)
William Havey (1578-1657)
Landsteiner
Paul Ehlrich
Gregor Johann Mendel
Bateson
Kolreuter
Francis Galton
Archibald Garrod
T.H. Morgan
Paul Berg
Alee Jeffreys
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Dendrochronology : Counting and analyzing annualgrowth rings of trees.
Dendrology : Study of trees.
Dentistry : Care of teeth including cure, removal, filling

and replacement.
[6]
BIOLOGY
Dermatology : Study of skin and other body coverings.
Desmology : Anatomy/study of ligaments.
Dysteleology : Study of appearene of vestigical organs

due to evolution (Haeckels doctrine of purposelessness).
Ecobiology : (i) Study of adaptations in relation to habitat.

(ii) Study of problems connected with existence of life in
space and other planets.
Economic Botany/Economic Zoology : Branch

dealing with commercially exploited/exploitable plants/
animals.
Immunology : Study of immunity or resistance to

disease.
Kalology : Study of human beauty.
Karyology : Study of cell nucleus and chromosomes.
Karyotaxonomy : Taxonomy based on peculiarities of

nucleus chromosome number and type.
Laryngology : Study of larynx.
Edaphology/Paedology/Pedology : Soil science.
Lepidopterology : Study of moths and butterflies.
Endocrinology : Study of endocrine glands, hormones

and their effects.
Lichenology : Study of lichens.
Entomology : Study of insects.
Limnology : (i) Study of fresh water ecology (ii) Study

of snails.
Enzymology : Study of enzymes and their functions.
Malacology : Study of mollusks.
Epidemiology : Study of distribution, causes and control

measures of infectious discases.
Mammology : Study of mammals.
Ethnobotany : Relationships between primitive humans

and plants.
Mastology : Study of breasts including teats.
Ethnology : Science dealing with different races of

mankind.
Melanology : Study of development and loss of body

pigments.
Monerology : Study of monera.
Ethology : Study of animal behaviour.
Etiology (=Aetiology) : Study of life cycle of pathogen,

especially on the host.
Molecular genetics : Molecular basis of genetics/science

of inheritance and variations.
Mycology : Study of fungi.
Fishery : Catching, breeding, rearing and marketing of

fish and other aquatic animals.
Myology (Sarcology) : Study of muscles.
Myremecology : Study of ants.
Floriculture : Cultivation of plants for their flowers.
Nematology : Study of round worms (nematodes).
Gastroenterology : Study of stomach, intestine and their

diseases.
Neonatology : Scientific study of new born.
Genecology(Genaeology) : Study of development of

individual/race/pedigree.
Neontology : Science of present day or recent living beings.
Nephrology : Study of kidneys.
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Ecophysiology : Physiological adaptations in response

to environment.
Geology : Science of earth.
Neurology : Study of nervous system.
Gerontology : Study of ageing and senescence.
Nidology : Study of nests of birds.
Gnotobiotics : Germ free culture/ life.
Gynaecology : Study of female reproductive organs.
Occupational Therapy : Treating mental and physical

defects with occupation.
Haematology : Study of blood.
Olultureeric : Cultivation of vegetables.
Helminthology : Study of parasitic worms.
Onchology: Study of cancers.
Hepatology : Study of liver.
Oology : Study of eggs, particularly those of birds.
Herpetology : Study of reptiles and amphibians/

creeping animals.
Ophiology : Study of ophidia or snakes.
Opthalmology : Study of eyes.
Histochemistry : Chemistry of living tissues.
Organocology : Study of organogenesis and embryology.
Horticulture : Development and management of

orchards and gardens.
Ornithology : Study of birds
Osteology : Study of bones
Hypnology : Science dealing with sleep including the

one from hypnosis.
Oto-laryngology : Study of ear and larynx.
Hypnotherapy : Treatment through hypnotism.
Otorhinolaryngology : Study of ENT or ear, nose and

throat head and neck disorders.
Ichthyology : Study of fishes.
BIOLOGY [7]
Paediatrics : Branch of Medicine dealing with children.
Rhinology : Study of nose and olfactory organs.
Parasitology : Study of parasites
Saurology : Study of lizards.
Parazoology : Study of sponges.
Sericullture : Rearing silkworms of extraction of silk.
Pedology/Paedology : Edaphology Soil Science.
Pharmacy : Compounding and dispensing of drugs.
Serology : Study of serum; interaction of antigens and

antibodies in the blood.
Pharmacology : Study of synthesis and effects of medicine

an organisms.
Serpentology (= Ophiology) : Study of snakes.
Silviculture. (= Sylviculture) : Cultivation of forest trees.
Sitology : Science of food, diet and nutrition
Sonography : Ultrasound imaging.
Sonology : Study of hearing
Spelaeology : Study of caves and cave life..
Syndesmology : Branch of anatomy dealing with

ligaments and articulations.
Taxidermatology : Processing of skins and stuffing.
Tectology : Study of structural organization of animals.
Physiotheraphy : Treatment of body defects through

massage and exercise.
Teratology : Study
embryogenesis.
Termitology : Study of termites.
Phytogeny : Evolution and development of plants.
Therapeutics : Treatment of disease.
Phytology : Botany, study of plants.
Torpedology : Study of skates and rays.
Pomology : Science dealing with fruits and fruit yielding

plants.
Toxicology : Study of harmful effects of drugs and other

substances.
Poultry Science : Management and rearing of chicken,

geese and ducks.
Traumatology : Study of wounds.
Protistology : Study of protists.
Tricology : Study of hairs.
Protozoology : Study of protozoans and related

organisms.
Trophology : Science of nutrition.
Psychiatry : Treatment of mental diseases.
Urology : Science dealing with disorders of urinary

tract(urinogenital tract in males).
Psychology : Study of human mind and behaviour.
Venereology : Study and treatment of venereal

diseases.
Pteridology : Study of ferns and other pteridophytes.
Virology : Study of viruses.
Radiobiology : Branch of biology dealing with effects

of radiation on living beings.
Xylotomy : Study of anatomy of wood / xylem.
Radiology : Science dealing with X-rays and other

imaging techniques for medical diognosis.
Zoogeny : Origin and development of animals.
Zymology : Study of fermentation processes.
Radiotheraphy : Treatment of diseases with X-rays and

radio active substances.
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Phenology : Recording and study of periodic biotic

events like flowering leaf fall, breeding and migration.
Phrenology : Study of mental faculties of brain including

feelings.
Photobiology : Effect of light on various biological

processes.
Phycology (=Algalogy) : Study of algae.
Phylogency : Evolutionary history.
Physiography : Science of physical geography or surface

of earth.
[8]
BIOLOGY
of
abnormalities
during
CHRONICLE
CELL & GENETICS
IAS ACADEMY
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apparatus, are taken over by the prokaryotic plasma

membrane.
INTRODUCTION
The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living

organisms, and is sometimes called the building block of
life. Some organisms, such as bacteria are unicellular,
consisting of a single cell. Other organisms such as humans
are multicellular. Humans have an estimated 100 trillion or
1014 cells. The largest known cell is an Ostrich egg.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to build

a microscope and draw protozoa, such as Vorticella from
rain water, and bacteria from his own mouth.
In 1665 Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, then in

living plant tissue using an early microscope.
First of all in 1839 Schleiden and Schwann, states that

all organisms are composed of one or more cells. All
cells come from preexisting cells. Vital functions of an
organism occur within cells, and all cells contain the
hereditary information necessary for regulating cell
functions and for transmitting information to the next
generation of cells.
In 1931 Ernst Ruska built first transmission electron

microscope (TEM) at the University of Berlin and by
1935, he built an EM with twice the resolution of a light
microscope, revealing previously-unresolvable
organelles.
In 1953 Watson and Crick made their first announcement

on the double-helix structure for DNA.
Each cell is at least somewhat self-contained and selfmaintaining: It can take in nutrients, convert these nutrients
into energy, carry out specialized functions, and reproduce
as necessary. Each cell stores its own set of instructions for
carrying out each of these activities.
ANATOMY OF CELLS
The plasma membrane separates the interior of the cell

from its environment and serves as a filter and
communications beacon.
Most prokaryotes have a cell wall which acts as an
additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents
the cell from exploding (cytolysis) from osmotic pressure
against a hypotonic environment. A cell wall is also
present in some eukaryotes like fungi, but has a different
chemical composition.
A prokaryotic chromosome is usually a circular molecule

without a real nucleus and the DNA is condensed in a
nucleoid.
2.
Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells are about 10 times

the size of a typical prokaryote and can be as much as
1000 times greater in volume. The major difference
between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that eukaryotic
cells contain membrane-bound compartments in which
specific metabolic activities take place. Most important
among these is the presence of a cell nucleus, a
membrane-delineated compartment that houses the
eukaryotic cells DNA. It is this nucleus that gives the
eukaryote its name, which means true nucleus.
The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in

function, with minor differences in the setup. Cell walls
may or may not be present.
The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear

molecules, called chromosomes, which are associated
with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA are stored
in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a
membrane. Some eukaryotic organelles also contain
some DNA.
Eukaryotes can move using cilia or flagella. Their

flagella are more complex than those of
prokaryotes.
There are two types of cells, eukaryotic and prokaryotic.

Prokaryotic cells are usually singletons, while eukaryotic
cells are usually found in multicellular organisms.
1.
Prokaryotic Cells: Prokaryotes are distinguished

from eukaryotes on the basis of nuclear organization,
specifically their lack of a nuclear membrane.
Prokaryotes also lack most of the intracellular
organelles and structures that are characteristic of
eukaryotic cells (an important exception is the
ribosomes, which are present in both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells). Most of the functions of organelles,
such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the Golgi
BIOLOGY [9]
Prokaroytic and Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Typical organisms
Typical size
bacteria, archaea
~ 1-10 m
Type of nucleus
nucleoid region; no real nucleus
protists, fungi, plants, animals

~ 10-100 m (sperm cells, apart from the
tail, are smaller)
real nucleus with double membrane
DNA
circular (usually)
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linear molecules (chromosomes) with

histone proteins
RNA-synthesis inside the nucleus protein
synthesis in cytoplasm
60S+40S
highly structured by endomembranes and
a cytoskeleton
flagella and cilia made of tubulin
one to several dozen (though some lack
mitochondria)
in algae and plants
single cells, colonies, higher multicellular
organisms with specialized cells
Mitosis (fission or budding) Meiosis
RNA-/protein-synthesis
coupled in cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Cytoplasmatic structure
50S+30S
very few structures
Cell movement
Mitochondria
flagella made of flagellin

none
Chloroplasts
Organization
none
usually single cells
Cell division
Binary fission (simple division)
membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells

to detect external signalling molecules such as hormones.
SUBCELLULAR COMPONENTS
CELL
Plasma
membrane
Cell Membrane (A cells defining boundary): The

cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a plasma
membrane. The plasma membrane in plants and
prokaryotes is usually covered by a cell wall. This
membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its
surrounding environment and is made mostly from a
double layer of lipids and hydrophilic phosphorus
molecules. Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid
bilayer. This membrane has a variety of protein
molecules that act as channels and pumps that move
different molecules into and out of the cell. The
membrane is said to be semi-permeable. Cell surface
BIOLOGY
Genetic Material: Within a cell two different kinds of

genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). Most organisms use DNA for
their long-term information storage, but some viruses
(e.g., retroviruses) have RNA as their genetic material.
The biological information contained in an organism is
encoded in its DNA or RNA sequence. RNA is also
used for information transport (e.g., mRNA) and
enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA) in organisms
that use DNA for the genetic code itself.
Nucleus
(Living)
Nuclear membrane
Nucleoplasm
Non living bodies
Chromosome
Vacuole
Nucleolus
Oil droplets
Granules
All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a

membrane, which envelopes the cell, separates its interior
from its environment, regulates what moves in and out
(selectively permeable), and maintains the electric potential
of the cell. Inside the membrane, a salty cytoplasm takes up
most of the cell volume. All cells possess DNA, the
hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the
information necessary to build various proteins such as
enzymes, the cells primary machinery. There are also other
kinds of biomolecules in cells. The primary components of
the cell and their functions are as follows:
[10]
Cytoskeleton (A cells scaffold): The cytoskeleton acts

to organize and maintain the cells shape; anchors
organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake
of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the
separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves
parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility.
Eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments,
intermediate filaments and microtubules. There is a great
number of proteins associated with them, each
controlling a cells structure by directing, bundling, and
aligning filaments.
Cytoplasm
Organelle (Living)
Mitochondria
Golgi complex
Centrosome
Plastid
Endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosome
Lysosome
Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple

circular DNA molecule (the bacterial chromosome) in the
nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material
is divided into different, linear molecules called
chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with
additional genetic material in some organelles like
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
A human cell has genetic material in the nucleus (the
nuclear genome) and in the mitochondria (the mitochondrial
genome). In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 46
linear DNA molecules called chromosomes. The
mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule separate
from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial genome
is very small, it codes for some important proteins.
Animal and Plant Cells
Typical Animal Cell

Nucleus
Nucleolus (within nucleus)
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Smooth ER
Ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
Golgi apparatus
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Vesicles
Lysosomes
Centrosome
Centrioles
Cilium
Flagellum
Plasma membrane
Typical Plant Cell

Nucleus
Nucleolus (within nucleus)
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
Golgi apparatus (dictyosounls)
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Vesicles
Chloroplast and other plastids
Central vacuole(large)
Tonoplast (central vacuole membrane)
Peroxisome
Vacuoles
Glyoxysome
Plasma membrane
Cell wall
Plasmodesmata
Flagellum (only in gametes)
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Organelles
Additional
structures
Organelles: As the human body contains many different

organs, such as the heart, lung, and kidney with different
functions cells also have a set of little organs, called
organelles, that are specialized for carrying out one or
more vital functions. Membrane-bound organelles are
found only in eukaryotes.
Cell Nucleus (a cells information center): The cell

nucleus, found in a eukaryotic cell, is the house of
chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA
replication and RNA synthesis occur. The nucleus is
spheroid in shape and separated from the cytoplasm by
a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. During
processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a special
RNA, called mRNA. This mRNA is then transported
out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific
protein molecule. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes
place in the cytoplasm.
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts (the power generators):

Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur
in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm
of all eukaryotic cells. As mitochondria contain their
own genome that is separate and distinct from the
nuclear genome of a cell, they play a critical role in
generating energy in the eukaryotic cell. Chloroplasts,
broadly called plastids, are often involved in storage.
Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus

(macromolecule managers): The endoplasmic reticulum
(ER) is the transport network for molecules targeted for
certain modifications and specific destinations, as
compared to molecules that will float freely in the
cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which
has ribosomes on its surface, and the smooth ER, which
lacks them. The ER contains many Ribosomes, the
protein production machine. The ribosome is a large
complex composed of many molecules, only exist
floating freely in the cytosol, whereas in eukaryotes they
can be either free or bound to membranes.
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes: The eukaryotic cell could

not house such destructive enzymes if they were not
contained in a membrane-bound system.
Centrosome (the cytoskeleton organiser): The

centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell, a key
component of the cytoskeleton. It directs the transport
through the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Centrosomes
are composed of two centrioles, which separate during
cell division and help in the formation of the mitotic
spindle. A single centrosome is present in the animal
cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.
Vacuoles: They store food and waste. Some vacuoles

store extra water. They are often described as liquid
filled space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some
cells, most notably Amoeba have contractile vacuoles,
which are able to pump water out of the cell if there is
too much water.
BIOLOGY [11]
synthesis, protein storage and transformation of

carbohydrates, synthesis of cholesterol, bile salts and
phospholipids, and detoxification, modification and
excretion of exogenous and endogenous substances. The
hepatocyte also initiates the formation and secretion of
bile. The hepatocyte is a cell in the body that
manufactures albumin, fibrinogen, and the prothrombin
group of clotting factors. It is the main site for the
synthesis of lipoproteins, ceruloplasmin, transferrin,
complement and glycoproteins. The liver forms fatty
acids from carbohydrates and synthesizes triglycerides
from fatty acids and glycerol. Hepatocytes also
synthesize
apoproteins
with
which
they then assemble and export lipoproteins (VLDL,
HDL). Hepatocytes have the ability to metabolize,
detoxify, and inactivate exogenous compounds such as
drugs and insecticides, and endogenous compounds
such as steroids.
HUMAN CELL TYPES

Blastomere: In humans, blastomere formation begins
immediately following fertilization and continues
through the first week of embryonic development. About
30 hours after fertilization, the egg divides into two cells.
These mitotic divisions continue and result in a grouping
of cells called blastomeres. During this process, the total
size of the embryo (also called a zygote) does not
increase, so each division results in smaller and smaller
cells. When the zygote contains 12 to 32 blastomeres it
is referred to as a morula.
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[12]
Egg: An ovum (plural ova) is a haploid female

reproductive cell or gamete. The word is derived from
Latin, meaning egg or egg cell. Both animals and
embryophytes have ova. The term ovule is used for the
young ovum of an animal. In some plants, such as algae,
it is also called oosphere. In higher animals, ova are
produced by female gonads (sexual glands) called
ovaries and all of them are present at birth in mammals,
and mature via oogenesis.
Embryonic Stem Cells: ES cells are stem cells derived

from the inner cell mass of an early stage embryo known
as a blastocyst. Human embryos reach the blastocyst
stage 4-5 days after fertilisation, at which time they
consist of about 30 cells. Embryonic stem cells are
pluripotent, meaning they can develop into each of the
more than 220 cell types of the adult body when given
the sufficient and necessary stimulation for a specific
cell type. Because of their plasticity and potentially
unlimited capacity for self-renewal, ES cell therapies
have been proposed for regenerative medicine and tissue
replacement after injury or disease.
Erythrocytes: Red blood cells known as RBCs or

erythrocytes are the most common type of blood cells
and the vertebrate bodys principal means of delivering
oxygen from the lungs or gills to body tissues via the
blood. Erythrocytes consist mainly of Haemoglobin, a
complex molecule containing heme groups whose iron
atoms temporarily link to oxygen molecules in the lungs
or gills and release them throughout the body. Oxygen
can easily diffuse through the red blood cells cell
membrane. Hemoglobin also carries some of the waste
product carbon dioxide back from the tissues. A related
compound, myoglobin, acts to store oxygen in muscle
cells. The colour of erythrocytes is due to the heme group
of Haemoglobin.
Fibroblast: A fibroblast is a type of cell that synthesizes

and maintains the extracellular matrix of many animal
tissues. Fibroblasts provide a structural framework for
many tissues, and play a critical role in wound healing.
They are the most common cells of connective tissue in
animals. Fibroblasts secrete the precursors of all the
components of the extracellular matrix, primarily the
ground substance and a variety of fibres.
Hepatocytes: It makes up 70-80% of the cytoplasmic
mass of the liver. These cells are involved in protein
BIOLOGY
Myoblast: A myoblast is a type of stem cell that exists

in muscles. Skeletal muscle cells are called muscle fibres
and are made when myoblasts fuse together; muscle
fibres therefore have multiple nuclei.
Myoblasts that do not form muscle fibres differentiate

into satellite cells. These satellite cells remain adjacent to a
muscle fiber, separated only by its cell membrane and by
the endomycium (the connective tissue of collagen
surrounding the muscle fibre).
Neurons: They are electrically excitable cells in the

nervous system that function to process and transmit
information. In vertebrate animals, neurons are the core
components of the brain, spinal cord and peripheral
nerves. Neurons are typically composed of a soma, or
cell body, a dendritic tree and an axon. Neurons
communicate via chemical and electrical synapses, in a
process known as synaptic transmission. Human brain
has about 100 billion (1011) neurons.
Oocyte: An oocyte or ovocyte is a female gametocyte or

germ cell involved in reproduction. The formation of an
oocyte, called oogenesis, is a form of gametogenesis whose
male counterpart is spermatocytogenesis. Oogenesis results
in the formation of both primary oocytes before birth, and
of secondary oocytes after it as part of ovulation. The
oocyte divides in meiosis II into one ootid and the second
polar body. The ootid then differentiates into an ovum.
The secondary oocyte is the largest cell in the body, and
in humans is just visible to the naked eye. Oocytes are
rich in cytoplasm which contains yolk granules to nourish
thecell early in development. The only normal type of
secondary oocyte has sex chromosomes 23,X (where sperm
can be 23,X or 23,Y).
Osteoblast: An osteoblast is a mononucleate cell that is

responsible for bone formation. Osteoblasts produce
osteoid, which is composed mainly of Type I collagen.
Osteoblasts are also responsible for mineralization of
the osteoid matrix. Bone is a dynamic tissue that is
constantly being reshaped by osteoblasts, which build
bone, and osteoclasts, which resorb bone. Osteoblasts
that become trapped in the bone matrix become
osteocytes. They cease to generate osteoid and

mineralized matrix, and instead act in a paracrine
manner on active osteoblasts. They are believed to act
in a mechanosensory manner.
Osteoclast: An osteoclast is a type of bone cell that
removes bone tissue by removing the bones mineralized
matrix. This process is known as bone resorption.
Osteoclasts and osteoblasts are instrumental in
controlling the amount of bone tissue. Osteoblasts form
bone; osteoclasts resorb bone. Osteoclasts are formed by
the fusion of cells of the monocyte-macrophage cell line.
Osteoclasts are characterized by high expression of
tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) and cathepsin
K.
Amitosis: It is the means of asexual reproduction in

unicellular organisms like bacteria and protozoans. It
also occurs in embryonic membranes of vertebrates. In
Amitosis, the splitting of nucleus is followed by
cytoplasmic contriction. In Amitosis, two daughter cells
are formed without the occurrence of any nuclear event.
It is also known as direct nuclear division.
2.
Mitosis: It takes place as a result of mitotic division

One cell divides into 2 daughter cells which are
quantitatively and qualitatively identical to the mother
cell. No change in the Chromosome number. In between
two successive mitotic divisions there is a rest period
called the interphase. Mitosis has 4 phases- Prophase,
Metaphase, Anaphase & Telophase.
Prophase : Disappearance of nuclear membrane and

nucleolus along with the doubling of chromosomes.
Metaphase : Formation of spindle, chromosomes join

themselves to the equatorial plane of the spindle.
Anaphase : Centromeres divide longitudinally. Sister

chromatids move towards opposite poles.
Telophase : Grouping of chromatids at each pole along

with the formation of new nuclear membrane and
nucleolus.
3.
Meiosis: Also called Reproductive cell division because

it is associated with all sexual reproduction. As a result
of division. in the daughter cells chromosomes number
become half to that of the mother cell. Each division
results into 4 daughter cells in contrast to 2 daughter
cells in each mitotic divisions.
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1.
CELL DIVISION
The growth and the development of every organism

depend exclusively on the multiplication and enlargement
of its cells. The development of a multicellular organism
from the unicellular zygote is achieved by the cell division,
growth and differentiation.
The division of the nucleated cells is achieved by two
integral activities such as division of the nucleus (called
Karyokinesis) and the division of the cytoplasm (that is called
cytokinesis). Usually the Karyokinesis is followed by the
cytokinesis, but sometimes it does not follow and results in
multinucleated cells.
In animals and plants following three types of cell
division have been observed:
1. Amitosis,
2. Mitosis
3. Meiosis
Division includes 2 phases i.e. Reduction division and

Equational division (Meiosis) consist of same 4 phases, i.e.,
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase & Telophase. But Prohase
I (Division I) has 5 substages. Leptotene, Zygotene,
Pachytene, Diplotene & Diakinesis. The characteristics of
each of the substage are:
BIOLOGY [13]
Leptotene : Close association of homologous

chromosomes.
Zygotene: Pairing of homologous chromosomes, the

phenomena is called Synapsis. As a result, Bivalent
Chromosomes are formed.
Pachytene : Chiasma formation and crossing over.
Diplotene : Terminations of chiasma starts.
Diakinesis : Disappearance of nuclear membrane and

nucleolus.
Mendels Laws of Inheritance

The Austrian monk Gregor Mendel is considered as the
pioneer of modern genetics and appropriately called father of
genetics. His experiments with Pisum sativum were spread
over 9 years between 1856 and 1864. The approach of Mendel
was simple, logical, scientific, mathematical and analytical.
Mendel decided to experiment with Pisum sativum because it
is an annual and its different varieties possess contrasting
character and hybridization is easy in it. Its flower is complete
and the structure of flower ensures self fertilization. Anthers
can be easily removed before dehiscing and flowers can be
artificially cross fertilised with desired pollen.
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In Metaphase I spindle formation and rearrangement of

chromosomes. In Anaphase I separation of homologous
chromosomes. In Telophase grouping of chromosomes and
formation of nuclear membrane and nucleolus. This division
is followed by Division II.
CELL CULTURE
It is the process by which either prokaryotic or

eukaryotic cells are grown under controlled conditions. In
practice the term cell culture has come to refer to the
culturing of cells derived from multicellular eukaryotes,
especially animal cells. The historical development and
methods of cell culture are closely interrelated to those of
tissue culture and organ culture.
Applications: It is fundamental to the manufacture

of viral vaccines and many products of biotechnology.
Biologicals produced by recombinant DNA (rDNA)
technology in animal cell cultures include enzymes,
hormones, immunobiologicals (monoclonal antibodies,
interleukins, lymphokines), and anticancer agents.
Vaccines for polio, measles, mumps, rubella, and
chickenpox are currently made in cell cultures.
HEREDITY
The members of a species give birth to their own kind.

The offsprings show some basic similarities and some
dissimilarities with their parents and with each other. The
sexually reproducing organisms produce sex cells or
gametes. Two gametes usually distinguishable as male and
female fuse to form a zygote which gradually develops into
a young one. The gametes constitute the link between one
generation and the next and pass on the paternal and
maternal characteristics to the offspring. This relationship
that continues to exist between successive generations is
referred to as heredity. Although the offsprings inherits the
characteristics of the parents and resembles them very
closely, the resemblance is not complete in all respects. The
differences are referred to as variations, which are necessary
for organic evolution. The significance of variations shows
up only if they continue to be inherited by the progeny for
several generations. Thus both heredity and variations are
fundamental factors in the process of organic evolution. The
study of the mode of transmission of characters from one
generation to the next, is known as Genetics.
[14]
BIOLOGY
Actually Mendel himself did not postulate any genetical

principles or laws. He simply gave conclusive theoretical
and statistical explanation for his hybridization experiments
in his research paper. However, it was Correns who
postulated three laws on the basis of the result of Mendels
work:
1. Law of Dominance: When two plants with contrasting
characters are crossed together only one of these
characters is expressed in the first generation eg. when
a true breeding tall plant is crossed with a true breeding
dwarf one, all the plants of F1 generation have the same height
as the tall parent. Reciprocal cross gives the same result.
2. Law of Segregation: It is also known as law of purity

of gametes. The law states that the hybrids or
heterozygous of F1 generation have two contrasting
characters or allelomorphs of dominant and recessive
nature. They do not mix with each other and are
segregated at the time of gametogenesis, so that each
gamete receives only one character either dominant or
recessive.
3. Law of Independent Assortment: When the parents differ

from each other in two or more than two pairs of
contrasting characters or factors then the inheritance of
one pair of factors is independent of the other factors.
If we crossed a round and yellow seeded plant with a

wrinkled and green seeded one, in F1 hybrids all progenies
have yellow round seeds when the F1 hybrids are allowed to
cross among themselves they produced 4 types of seeds in
the ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1. Where R (round) is dominant over
r (wrinkled) alleles and Y (hellow) is dominant over y
(green) alleles in dihybrid cross.
Gene: An inherited factor that determines a biological
character of an organism is called a genes this is a
functional unit of hereditary materials.
Allelomorphs or Alleles, Homozygous and

Heterozygous: Alleles the abbreviated form of the terms
allelomorphs indicates alternative same gene for
example, R and r are two allelomorphs of the same
gene for flower colour. In pure red or pure white flower
same allele is duplicated (RRandrr) while in hybrid red
flower both the alleles will be present (Rr). An individual
having only one allele or two identical alleles is known
as homozygous (RR or rr). Similarly an individual having
two different alleles will be called heterozygous or
Hybrid (Dd).
Sex Lnkage In Human Beings: In human beings, there

are 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) present in each somatic cell.
In female individual there are 22 pairs of autosomes and
one pair of X-chromosomes (22 pairs + XX) and in male
individuals there are 22 pairs of autosomes and one X and
one Y chromosome (22 pairs + XY). Since female will
produce only one type of gametes, gametes from male
individual will determine the sex of the progeny. In man
about fifty X-linked diseases have been reported. The most
important and common X linked disease of man are:
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particular genotype depends on whether the individual is

male or female are known as sex linked traits; another class
of traits called sex-limited traits are distinguished by the
fact that one form of this trait be expressed in one sex only
and not in the other.
Monohybrid, Dihybrid and Trihybrid Cross: When a

single character each controlled by a single pair of genes
or alleles are considered while crossing it is known as
monohybrid cross and the F1 ratio of 3:1 is known as the
monohybrid ratio. Similary crosses can be considered
when two or three pairs of genes or alleles are involved.
Such crosses will be called dihybrid and trihybrid crosses
and the respective ratio (9:3:3:1 and 27:9:9:9:3:3:1
respectively) as dihybrid and trihybrid ratios.
Genotype and Phenotype: The genotype of an

individual represents sum total of heredity whereas
phenotype represents features which are produced by
interaction between genotype and environment. A
genotype can thus exhibit different phenotypes under
different conditions. Therefore, similar genotypes may
not have the same phenotype. Conversely similar,
phenotypes do not necessarily mean same genotype. In
order to study the interaction of environment and
heredity for the study of effect of different environments
on a genotype would be to have individuals which have
same genotype. This can be done by using clones, pure
lines or inbred lines.
Sex-linked Inheritance
1. Colour blindness
2. Haemophilia
3. Anhidrotic ectoderma (non-functional sweat glands)

4. Night blindness
5. Myopia (short sightedness)
6. Juvenile glaucoma (hardening of eye ball).

Turners Syndrome: In man there are 46 chromosomes

of which 22 pairs are autosomes one pair is sex
Chromosome (XY in male, XX in female). Turners
syndrome is characterised by monosomy of XO type i.e.
one X chromosome of sex chromosome (XX) is missing,
the Turners syndrome individuals are phenotypically a
female and can be characterised by short stature, webbed
neck, underdeveloped breasts and small uterus.
Klinefelters Syndrome: Klinefelters syndromes are

characterised by trisomy (XXY) with total number of
chromosomes 47. These are male individuals who are
phenotypically fairly normal but have a very low sperm
count and are therefore sterile. They have female like
breast development, small testes and sparse body hairs.
Colour Blindness: It is sex-linked inheritance found

more often among men than women. It is regulated by
a recessive gene. Individuals suffering from this tail to
differentiate between colours, mainly between red and
green colours.
Downs Syndrome (Mongolism): It develops due to the

trisomy of the 21st chromosome i.e. representation of the
chromosome thrice instead of twice. It occurs once in
every 500 to 600 child births. The individuals is mentally
retarded and there is no cure for the abnormality.
Haemophilia: This is a rare hereditary blood disorder

marked by a tendency towards excessive bleeding. It is
a sexlinked abnormality and is entirely restricted to
males.
Albinism: This affects skin preventing development of

skin pigments. It happens due to an autosomal recessive
gene Individuals suffering from this abnormality are
found to lack pigmentation of skin, iris, retina, choroid
and hairs. It has been proved that albinism results from
In dioecious individuals there can be two kinds of

characters namely:
1. Characters which do not show any difference in
reciprocal crosses.
2. Characters which show a difference in reciprocal crosses.
The former type of characters are located on autosomes

and the latter are either located on specialised chromosomes
known as sex-chromosomes or if located on autosomes are
influenced by or depend on sex of the individual, who carries
it. Traits which are carried on sex chromosomes are known
as sex-linked traits. Other characters whose expression in a
BIOLOGY [15]
failure on the part of the amino acid. Tysosine, to become

metabolised to melanin - a black pigment.
replicate faithfully with the parent DNA. This technique is

called gene cloning.
GENE THERAPY
The breakage of DNA molecule at desired places to

isolate a specific DNA segment and then insert it in another
DNA molecule at a desired position to obtain recombinant
DNA. The technique often called genetic engineering is
useful as genes can be isolated, cloned and characterised so
that the technique has led to significant progress in all areas
of molecular biology. Using the recombinant DNA
technology we can isolate and clone single copy of gene or
a DNA segement into indefinite number of copies, all
identical. This has become possible because bacteriophages
and plasmids reproduce in their usual style even after
insertion of foreign DNA so that the inserted DNA will also
If a child is diagnosed to carry a defective gene leading

to disability one may like to get this gene replaced by a
normal functional gene. This is gene therapy in theory. Gene
therapy can be used at two different levels.
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RECOMBINANT DNA AND GENE CLONING
[16]
BIOLOGY
1. Patient Therapy: In which cells with healthy gene may be

introduced in the affected tissue so that the healthy gene
overcomes the defect without affecting the inheritance
of the patient.
2. Embryo Therapy: In which genetic constitution of embryo
at the post zygotic level is altered so that the inheritance
will be altered.
CHRONICLE
WORLD OF PLANTS
IAS ACADEMY
1. Caudex (Columnar): Unbranched trunk, e.g., Coconut

Palm, Date Palm.
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According to longevity plants are annual,

biennial and perennial. According to stature, height, growth
& duration of stems, plants are herbs, shrubs, trees, creepers,
twiners, climbers and lianas.
Annual plants complete their life cycle within one year,

e.g., Buttercup, Pea.
Biennial plants complete their life cycle in two years

growing vegetatively and storing food in the first year;
flowering and fruiting in the second year, eg., Henbane,
Radish (in temperate areas).
Perennial plants survive for several years, e.g., Canna,

Zizyphus, Mango, Agave, Bambusa, Eucalyptus, etc.
Some perennial plants ars also monocarpic, e.g., Agave,
Bambusa tulda, Melocanna bambusoides. They die after
bearing fruits.
2. Excurrent:
Monopodial
with
one
main
stem or trunk from base to apex. Lateral branches giving
a cone like appearance, e.g., Eucalyptus.
3. Deliquescent: The main stem or trunk is distinguishable

only for some distance after it is replaced by a number
of large branches which form a dome-shaped crown,
e.g., Mango, Dalbergia.
Trailers plants which spread on the ground without

rooting at intervals, e.g., Tribullas terrestris, Euphorbia
Prostrata.
Creepers plants spread on the ground, rooting at

intervals, e.g., Strawberry.
Twiners are weak-stemmed plants where the stem coils

or twines around an upright support, e.g., Ipomoea
cairica (Railway Creeper), Quisquails (Rangoon Creeper).
Polycarpic are those perennial plants which bear fruits

every year after attaining maturity, e.g., Mango,
Artabotrys, Peepal.
Climbers plants climb up an upright support by special

clinging or clasping structures like tendrils, roots and
hooks.
Herbs are small plants with soft and pliable stems. Herbs
can be annual (e.g., Buttercup), biennial (e.g., Henbane)
and perennial (e.g., Canna).
Lianas (Lianes) are woody twiners and climbers are

called lianas. They are found in tropical evergreen
forests, e.g., Phenera (=Bauhinia) vahlii, Hiptage.
Epiphytes are plants which live on other plants for space

only. They are, therefore, also called Space parasites.
Angiospermic epiphytes commonly live on trees, e.g.,
vanda, Dendrobium. They often posses hanging roots with
hygroscopic outer spongy tissue called velamen.
Monocarpic plants flower and fruit only once in life.

All annuals and biennials are monocarpic. Some
perennial plants are also monocarpic, e.g., Agave,
Bambusa tulda, Melocanna bambussodies. They die after
bearing fruits.
Shrubs are perennial plants with medium height woody

stems but without any distinction of trunk. Shrubs often
have several branches of equal height and are called
bushes, e.g., Capparis, Rose.
Trees are tall perennial plants with a thick woody main
stem or trunk. Trees are of three types:
The smallest angiosperm is Wolffia (a rootless aquatic).

It has a diameter of 0.1 mm. The tallest plant is an
angiosperm named Eucalyptus regnans. It reaches a height
of 114 m or 375 ft. Sequoia sempervirens (a gymnosperm)
is the second tallest tree with a height of 111m. Gymnosperm
usually possess more taller trees as compared to angiosperms.
PERMANENT TISSUES
Commercial Fibres: According to their origin

commercial Fibres are divided into three types.
1.
Surface Fibres : Fibres obtained from surface of

seeds, e.g., Cotton, CALOTROPIS, coconut (coir).
2.
Best Fibres : Nonxylem fibres present in the stems

in pericycle or phloem, e.g., Cannabis (Hemp),
Linum (Flax, Mostly pericycle/perivascular),
Corchuts (Jute), Crotalaria (Sun Hemp), Hibiscus
(Patua).
BIOLOGY [17]
3.
Leaf Fibres : Fibres extracted from leaves, e.g., Agava

(Sisal Hemp), Musa (Manila Hemp).
Xylem: Xylem or wood is a complex permanent tissue,

which conducts sap or water. It also provides mechanical
strengths.
Phloem: Phloem or bast is complex permanent vascular

tissue, which conducts organic food in the plant
body.
Amount of Transpiration: 98 99% of absorbed water

is lost through transpiration. Only 0.2% is employed in
photosynthesis. Rest is used for growth.
Psychrometer: Instrument for measuring atmospheric

humidity as well as amount of water transpired.
Percentage of various modes of Transpiration :

(i) Stomatal Transpiration: 50 97% of total.
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epidermal cells.
1.
2.
Phloem Parenchyma : it takes part in storage as

well as slow lateral conduction of food.
(ii) Cuticular/Epidermal Transpiration: Ordinarily

3 10% but in herbaceous mesephytic plants it may
be upto 50%.
Phloem Fibres : Some commercial fibres are bast or

phloem fibres, e.g., Hemp, Flax, Jute.
Lactiferous or Laticiferous Tissue : It is connected with

secretion of latex or an emulsion of oils, alkaloids, resins,
proteins and sugars. Latex may be watery (e.g., Banana),
milky (e.g., Banyan, Calotropis, Euphorbia, Heva)or
coloured (e.g., Opium popy, Cannabis).
(i) Chicle/Chickle/Chewing Gum, Achras sapota.
(iii) Lenticular Transpiration: 0.1%.

(iv) Bark Transpiration: 0.5%.
Relative Humidity and Stomata: Stomata remain open

at R.H. above 70% and close below R.H. of 50%.
Transpiration on Hills: High due to lower atmospheric

pressure but low due to lesser hours of light and lower
temperature. Transpiration is, therefore, near normal but
the plants show xeromorphy due to lesser water
availability.
Turgor Changes in Guard Cells: Schwendener (1881)

was the first to point out that stomatal opening and
closing is due to turgor changes in guard cells.
CO2 and Stomata: Low CO2 concentration induces

stomata to open. High CO2 concentration causes stomatal
closure.
Photoactive Stomata: Stomata open in response to light.

The action spectrum consists of red and blue light (blue
light is more effective in stomatal opening). Since, most
of the transpiration is stomatal, the action spectrum of
transpiration is red and blue light.
Wilting: It is loss of turgidity and drooping of leaves

and other soft aerial parts of the plant due to rate of
water absorption being less than the rate of water loss
in transpiration. Rapid absorption of water during day
time for meeting requirement of transpiration produces
water deficit around the rootlets.
Factors Influencing Transpiration:
(ii) Gutta Percha. Palaquim gutta.

(iii) Opium papaver somniferum.
(iv) Papain, Carica papaya.
(v) Rubber. Hevea brasiliensis
Xylem in Hydrophytes : Absent or poorly developed,

may be replaced by a cavity.
Cork Oak : Cork is peeled after every four years when

the plant (Quercus suber) becomes 20 years old.
Lightest Wood : Ochroma pyramidale (= 0. lagopus).
Heaviest Wood : Guaiacum officinale. Heaviest wood

of India belongs to Acacia sundra.
Most Durable Wood : Tectona grandis (Teak).
Strongest Soft Wood : Cedrus deodar (Depdar, a

gymnosperm).
Wooden Sports Articles : (i). Cricket Bat Salix (Willow).

(ii). Vilion Picea (Spruce). (iii). Billiard Ballphytelephas
(lvory Palm). (iv). Hockey Blade Morus (Mulberry).
(v). Hockey Handle Salix.
TRANSPIRATION
Loss of water in the vapour state from the aerial parts

of plants is known as transpiration. 98-99% of water
absorbed by a plant is lost through transpiration. Most of
the transpiration occurs through leaves and is called foliar
transpiration. Stomata are minute pore complexes, which
occur on the soft aerial parts of the plants, especially the
leaves. They hardly occupy 1-2% of leaf surface but due to
perimeter diffusion the exchange capacity of stomata is very
high almost equal to the whole surface area of the leaf.
Each stomata is surrounded by two small specialized and
differentially thickened guard cells. Guard cells contain
chloroplasts while the same are generally absent from other
[18]
BIOLOGY
(i) Light: increases transpiration through opening of

stomata and increased protoplasmic permeability.
Solar radiations also increase temperature which
simulates more loss of water.
(ii) Temperature: Increase in temperature increases
transpiration.
(iii) Humidity: Increase in humidity decreases

transpiration and vice versa.
(iv) Wind (Air movement): Air movement increases rate

of transpiration by bringing dry air and removing
moist air around the transpiring material. high
velocity wind, however, closes stomata.
(v) Atmospheric Pressure: Low atmospheric pressure

increases transpiration.
(vi) Availability of Water: Transpiration is directly
influenced by availability of water. Reduced
availability of soil water causes Wilting or loss of
turgidity causing their drooping and rolling.
Cuscutta (Dodder) is a total stem parasites with pale

yellow stems and very small nongreen scale leaves. The
parasites sends haustorias into the host and make
connections with its xylem and phloem.
Arceuthobium is a total stem parasite which is the

smallest among angiospermic parasites. Only the flowers
are visible externally.
Orobanche (Broom Rape) is a total root parasite. Ocemui

grows on mustard, Cabbage, Brinjal, Potato and Tomato.
Other total parasites are Striga (on Sorghum and
Sugarcane), Cistanche (on Calotropis), Balanophora (on
a number of forest trees) and Raffesia.
Raffesia is a total root parasite which grows on a number

of forest trees. The vegetative parts are thread like and
embedded in the host. Only the flowers come out. Flower
of Raffesia are the largest in plant kingdom with a
diameter of about 1m and weight of 11 kg.
Santalum or Sandal wood tree (santalum album) is a

partial root parasite. The plant is a small tree, which
yields fragrant heartwood.
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(vii) Leaf or Transpiring Area: Reduction in leaf area

reduces transpiration as in succulents, cacti and
euphorbia.
(viii) Root/ Shoot Ratio: Higher root/shoot ratio has

higher transpiration.
(ix) Stomata: Sunken stomata reduce transpiration..

Stomatal opening and number have direct effect on
transpiration.
(x) Hair: They reduce transpiration.
(xi) Cuticle: Transpiration is lower with the increase in

thickness of cuticle.
Guttation: Loss of water in the liquid state from uninjured

parts of plants is known as guttation. It usually occurs
from tips and margins of leaves during night or early
morning when there is high atmospheric humidity as
during wet seasons. Guttation occurs in some plants
only (345 genera) e.g., Cucurbits, Potato, Tomato, Garden
Nasturtium, Colocasia and other aroids, many grasses.
Photometer: It is an instrument for measuring the rate

of transpiration by shoots through measuring the rate
of their water absorption.
Pyrometer: An instrument that gives a rough idea about

the degree of stomatal opening.
PLANT NUTRITION
Autotropic Plants: These plants are green and are able

to manufacture their own organic food from inorganic raw
materials with the help of chlorophyll and sunlight, majority
of plants are autotropic.
Heterotrophic Plants: They are those plants which

completely or partially obtain their food requirement from
outside (other organisms or remains of organisms).
Heterotrophic plants are of three types saprophytes,
parasites and carnivorous.
1. Saprophytes: They are heterotrophic plants which
obtain their nourishment from dead decaying organic
matter. Angiospermic saprophytes are called human
plants. They are nongreen and bear only scale leaves.
True humans plant is orchid Others employ fungi for
obtaining nourishment from organic matter and hence
mycotrophic, e.g., Neottia (Bird Nest Orchid). Monotropa
(Indian Pipe) obtains nourishment from roots of forest
plants through fungal hyphae.
2. Parasites: Parasites are organisms, which obtain their

nourishment partially or wholly from other living
organisms called hosts.
3. Carnivorous or Insectivorous Plants: Carnivorous or

insectivorous plants are predator plants which are
otherwise autotrophic. They often grow in nitrogen
deficient soils. The deficiency is overcome by trapping
and digesting small animals. Some famous herbaceous
plants are Drosera (Sundew), Dionaca (Fly Trap),
Utricularia (Bladderwort), Nepenthes (Pitcher Plant), etc.
SYMBIOSIS RELATION
Symbiosis is a mutually beneficial relationship between

two organisms. It is therefore, also called mutualism.
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation: Nitrogen fixing bacteria

occur in root nodules of legumes. The bacteria get shelter
and food from the plant. In return, they provide the plant
with a major portion of nitrogen fixed by them.
Mycorrhiza: It is a mutually beneficial association
between a fungus and the root of higher plants. The fungus
absorbs water, salts (from organic matter) and protects the
plant from soil borne pathogens. In return, it gets shelter
and nourishment from the plant.
Myrmecophily: It is the symbiotic relationship between
ants and some higher plants. The ants obtain food and shelter
from the plant. They protect the plant from other animal.
Angiosperms evolved about 130 million years back

(cretecious period of Mesozoic era). They constitute
about 50% of total plants, i.e., 250,000 species.
Angiosperms are chrecterised by presence of flower,
fruit, vessles and sieve tubes.
Smallest Angiosperm is Wolffia (0.1 mm).
Largest Angiosperm/Tallest Plant is Eucalyptus regnans

with a height of 114 m (375 ft) Sequoia sempervirens
(Red Wood Tree) is 111 m tall. It is a gymnosperm.
Zostera is a marine Angiosperm.
BIOLOGY [19]
MINERAL OR INORGANIC NUTRITION

Land plants absorb their mineral requirements from the
soil in the region of their roots. Mineral absorption can be
passive or active. Minerals usually occur in two forms,
cations and anions.
Passive Mineral Absorption: No energy is required. It
can occur through (a) Diffusion. (b). Mass Flow. (c).
Donnan Equilibrium. (d)Ionic Exchange.
Nonmineral Elements: C, H and O Nitrogen is both

mineral and nonmineral.
Mineral Elements: Elements obtained from soil, e.g., P,

K, S, Mg, Ca, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B, Ci and N Sulphar
can be absorbed from air as SO2.
Active Ion Uptake: Salt/mineral uptake occurs through

active absorption involving metabolic activity and
expenditure of energy (salt respiration).
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Active Mineral Absorption: Metabolic energy is utilized

for this. Rate of respiration increases to meet the
requirement of energy. The excess respiration is called
salt respiration.
Essential Elements: Only 16 elements are essential. The
important characteristics of an essential element are
Chlorophyll: Mg is component. Chlorophyll synthesis

requires Fe (also Cu, Zn, and Mn).
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
1. Nitrogen
Functions : Constituent of amino acids, proteins

hormones, enzymes, coenzymes, chlorophyll ATP.
(ii) It is required for completion of vegetative or

reproductive growth of the plant.
Deficiency : Chlorosis appearing first in order leaves

growth stunted, premature leaf fall.
(iii) The element cannot be replaced by another element.

Deficiency of the element produces disorders which can
be corrected only by the supply of that element. Essential
elements are differentiated into two categories, macroelements and micro elements. their ionic forms are
respectively called macronutrients and micronutrients.
Mineral salts dissolved in soil solution are constantly
passing downwards along with percolating
(gravitational) water. The phenomenon is called leaching.
2. Phosphorus
Macronutrients (Major Elements) : They are those

essential elements which are required in quantity of less
than 1 milligram/gram of dry matter. Micronutrients
are six in number Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, B, CI.
Functions : Synthesis of proteins, cell membrane,

opening and closing of stomata, turgidity of cells,
activator of some enzymes.
Deficiency Symptoms: (i). Chlorosis. Appearance of

yellow colour due to nonsynthesis or destruction of
chlorophyll. (ii). Necrosis. Death of cells e.g., deficiency
of P, K, Mg, Ca, Mn, and Cl.
Deficiency : Marginal chlorosis and necrosis appearing

first in older leaves, premature death, cereals may show
lodging.
(i) The element is involved in the nutrition of plants.
Framework Elements: They are elements involved in

building up of walls and products of plants, viz., C,H,O.
Protoplasmic Elements: They are elements which

become components of protoplasmic constituents like
nucleic acids, proteins, chlorophyll, etc., viz., C, H, O,
N, P and S.
Balancing Elements: The elements overcome the toxic

effects of other elements, e.g., Ca, Mg and K against
Mn, Ni, Zn, Mn, B, Cu, Pb.
Functional Elements: nonessential elements taking part

in metabolic activity. e.g., Silicon, Cobalt, Sodium.
Sodium and Iodine: Essential for animals but not for

plants.
Potassium: Most free elements of cell which is required

for functioning of some 40 enzymes.
White Bud: In acute Zn-deficiency the leaves of Maize

become white and the buds lose green colour hence
white bud.
[20]
BIOLOGY
Functions: Constituent of nucleotides, nucleic acids,

certain protein phospholipids, NAD+, NADP+
Deficiency : Poor growth, leaves dull green, chlorosis

(mottled) followed by necrosis first in older leaves,
premature leaf fall.
3. Potassium
4. Calcium
Functions : As calcium petite in middle lamella,

development of root and stem apices, cell membrane
permeability, activator of some enzymes.
Deficiency : Degeneration of meristems especially root

tips, leaves with chlorisis and curling appearing first in
young leaves, stunted growth, premature flower
abscission.
5. Magnesium
Functions : Constituent of chlorophyll, activator of

enzymes of phosphate metabolism, fat synthesis,
carbohydrate metabolism, maintenance of ribosomes.
Deficiency : Interveinal chlorosis appearing first in order

leaves, veins green, anthocyanin pigmentation and
curling towards margins.
6. Sulphur
Functions : Constituent of certain amino acids, proteins,

vitamins, coenzyme A and ferredoxin
Deficiency : Chlorosis, leaf curling, less juice content in

citrus, reduced nodulation in legumes defoliation in Tea.
Solution is acrated, changed or replenished and pH

corrections made from time to time. A modification of
hydroponics is aeroponics. Here the roots do not dip in
culture solution but are regularly sprayed with the same.
7. Iron
Deficiency : Intervenial chlorosis with green

veins appearing first in young leaves, reduced
growth.
CRITICAL ELEMENTS
Critical Elements: Macronutrients which become commonly deficient in the soils are called critical elements.
they are number NP and K. most fertilizers contain
critical elements. they are called complete fertilizers.
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Functions : Constituent of ferredoxin and

cytochromes,activator of catalyst and required for
chlorophyll synthesis.
8. Manganese
Functions : Photolysis of water, activates carboxylases
Deficiency : Intervenial chlorosis with grey sports or

streaks, flowers sterile.
NITROGEN FERTILITY
9. Molybdenum
Functions : Activator of certain enzymes involved in

nitrogen metabolism including nitrogen fixation.
Deficiency : Mottled chlorosis with marginal infolding

and necrosis, whiptail in crucifers, upper leaf half
withering in monocots.
10. Boron
Functions : Calcium metabolism, pollen germination,

cell differentiation, carbohydrate transport, root
nodulation.
Deficiency : rowing of cauliflower, heart rot or brown

heat, internal cork, top sickness, stunted growth,
resetting of levels, decreased nodulation in legumes.
11. Copper
Functions : Plastocyanin, cytochrome, oxidase, activator

of certain enzymes.
Deficiency : Dicback, exanthema, leaf tip necrosis

(reclamation disease). Blackening of potato tuber.
12. Zinc
Functions : Carbonic anhydrase. Auxin synthesis,

activator of certain carboxylases.
Deficiency : Little leaf disease, leaf rosette, internodes

short, intervenal chlorosis appearing first marginally
on older leaves followed by necrosis.
13. Chloride
Functions : Photolysis of water, solute concentration and ionic

balance (alongwith Na and K).
Deficiency : Bronze coloured leaves, wilting, swollen

root tips. Flower abscission. Little Leaf Disease. Smallersized leaves, e.g, Zinc Deficiency. Internal Cork of apple
in boron deficiency.
ROOTS
Root is generally non-green underground, positively

geotropic, positively hydrotropic and often negatively
phototropic organ of the plant body. It is without nodes,
internodes, leaves, flowers and fruits. Buds are absent except
when roots take part in vegetative propagation, e.g.,
Ipomoea, Dalbergia, Populus, Dahlia. Root possesses a root
cap (at its tip) and fine thread like root hairs ( in subapical
region). Primary functions of roots are:
1. Fixation of the plant to the soil.
2. Absorption of the water and mineral salts from the

soil.
3. Conduction of absorbed water and minerals to the
stem.
4. Soil binding.
Tap Root System
Tap root is the primary root which develops directly

through elongation of the radicle of embryo and persists
throughout the life of the plant. Tap root grows vertically
downwards. It bears horizontal or obliquely oriented
secondary roots (branches of first order). Secondary roots
bear tertiary roots acropetally. Tertiary roots are oriented in
different directions. Final root branches are called rootlets.
They bear root caps and root hair.
HYDROPONICS
Hydroponics (soilless or Bengal Culture): It is

cultivation of plants on nutrient solution kept in tanks
and having wire netting or other support for plants.
Nitrogen Fertility: Nitrogen is present in large

abundance as gas in the atmosphere. However plants
absorb their nitrogen salts by the phenomenon of
nitrogen fixation. It is carried out by some bacteria and
blue green algae (= cyanobacteria). They may be free
living or symbolic. An example of symbiotic nitrogen
fixation is Rhizobium leguminosarum (= R. radicicola)
that gets associated inside the nodules of legume roots.
Crops rotation with legumes maintains the nitrogen
fertility of the soil.
Modification of Tap Root System:
Fleshy Tap Roots: Tap roots become swollen due to

storage of food. Secondary roots are thin and thread like.
1. Conical: Fleshy root is like a cone, being thicker towards
BIOLOGY [21]
the base (soil surface) and gradually tapering towards

apex, e.g., Carrot.
2. Fusiform: The root is swollen like a spindle, being
thickest in the middle and narrowing towards both apex
and base. In Indian Radish only the base is formed of
swollen hypocotyl.
e. Moniliform Roots: The fleshy roots give a beaded

appearance, e.g.,Momomrdica,some grasses.
f.
Annulated Roots: The roots bear series of ring like

swelling , e.g., Ipecac (Cephaelis).
Prop roots: They are pillar like roots which give support
to heavy stem branches, e.g.,Ficus bengalensis (Banyan
Tree). Here the young prop roots hang in the air. They
appear red on absorption of water. Rhizophora, a
mangrove plant, also develops prop roots possess
lenticels for aeration.
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3. Napiform: Like a top or sphere that thins out abruptly at

the apex. In Turnip, the swollen part is hypocotyl. In beet the
swollen part is formed jointly by hypocotyl and tap root.
4. Tuberous: Tap root is thickened except at the base

without producing a definite shape, e.g., Mirabills,
Trichosanthes.
Nodulated Roots: In legumes (e.g., pisum sativum, Cicer

arietinum) the roots bear numerous irregular swelling
called called nodules and tubercles. The nodules contain
nitrogen fixing bacteria of genus Rhizobium. Both
bacteria and legume are benefited by this association
called symbiosis. Due to it legumes are rich in proteins
and are used in crop rotation.
Pneumatophores: Pneumatophores or respiratory roots

are short, vertical and negatively geotropical roots which
occur in mangrove plants. The roots come out of swamp
like in Avicennia, Sonneratia, Heritiera.
Buttress Roots: They are laterally compressed

horizontal roots which travel along the ground for some
distance and provide extra mechanical support, e.g.,
Ficus elastica (Rubber Tree), Ficus religiosa (Peepal),
Bombax (Simabl).
Reproductive Roots: Some taproots or their branches

develop adventitious buds and help in vegetative
reproduction, e.g., Delbergia, Populus.
Stilt Roots (Brace roots) : They grow obliquely

downwards into the soil and develop fibrous roots. Stilt
roots give additional support to the long unbranched
stem, like supporting wires of a tall T.V. antenna pipe,
e.g., Maize, Sugarcane.
Haustoria or Parasitic Roots (Sucking Roots ): The

adventitious roots penetrate the host to suck nutrition,
e.g.,Cuscuta.
Clinging or Climbing Roots: The adventitious roots help

the plant in climbing by penetrating the cracks of the
support, e.g., Betel (Piper betle), Black pepper (Piper
nignum), Money plant (Potatos), Ivy (Hedra).
Epiphytic Hygroscopic Roots:

epiphytes. They hang
in the air and posses
Velamen or spongy
tissue for absorbing
moisture directly from
atmosphere.
The
epiphytic roots are
devoid of root hairs
and caps, e.g., Vanda,
Dendrobium.
Epiphyllous Roots:
The roots develop from
leaves, especially the
injured parts, e.g.,
Bryophyllum, Begonia.
Floating Roots: The roots store air and, therefore, appear

swollen and spongy. Floating roots the aquatic plants to
remain on the surface of water, e.g., Jussive.
Modification of roots :
Adventitious Root System
It is a complex formed by roots that develop from parts

of the plant other than primary root or its branches.
Adventitious root is similarly defined as a root that develops
from part of the plant other than the prolongation of radicle.
Fibrous Roots: They are thin thread-like adventitious

roots which often develop in groups. Even the main
roots are narrow. Fibrous roots provide firm anchorage
to the plant, e.g., Grass.
Fleshy Adventitious Roots: Adventitious roots are

swollen due to storage of food. They are of several types.
The
a. Root Tubers: Swollen roots occur singly, e.g., Ipomoea

batatas (Sweet Potato).
Type
Examples
b. Fasciculated Roots: Swollen adventitious roots occur

in groups or fascicles, e.g., Asparagus (at intervals),
Dahlia (at stem base).
Fusiform
Radish
Napiform
Turnip & Beet
Conical
Carrot
Tuberous
Mirabilis
Fasciculated
Dahlia & Asparagus
Nodulose
Turmeric
c.
Palmate Roots: Fleshy root is branched to give the

appearance of a human hand, e.g., Orchis.
d. Nodulose Roots: The adventitious roots are swollen

near their tips, e.g., Curcuma amada (Mango Ginger),
Maranta (Arrow Root).
[22]
BIOLOGY
roots occur in
(All these are with the purpose of

storage of food)
Prop root
Banyan, Rubber plant
Climbing
Betel, Pothos
Buttress root
Terminatia
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(All these are for support of the

trees)
Sucking root
Cuscuta, Casytha
Respiratory root
Jussiaea
Epiphytic root
Orchids
Assimilatory roots
Tinospora
STEM
The stem is the ascending aerial portion of a plant and

develops from the plumule. It is differentiated into nodes
and internodes and bears leaves, branches and flowers.
Leaves and branches develop from the nodes. In contrast to
the root, they possess, buds which may be situated in the
axil of the leaf or terminally. A bud is a young undeveloped
condensed shoot consisting of a short stem and a number of
tender leaves arching over its growing apex. The habit to
the plant is displayed by its stem. Herbs are small plants
with soft stems. Medium sized plants with hard and woody
stems, that branch profusely to attain bushy appearance are
called Shrubs. Trees are plants having stout and long trunks
with professed branching according to their life span. The
plants may be annuals, biennials, and perennials. Plants
which complete their life cycle in one season only are termed
annuals, eg. rice, sunflower, etc. Biennials complete their
life cycle in two seasons eg. radish, cabbage. Plants that
usually survive for a number of years and produce flowers
and fruits during specific period each year are termed
perennials eg. mango, bamboos.
Buds: Bud is a condensed, undeveloped, compact shoot

having a growing point covered with crowded overlapping
immature leaves. Cabbage represents the largest bud; it is
a vegetative bud.
Forms of Stem
Depending upon their placement, stems are of two typesaerial and underground.
A. Aerial or Epiterranean Stems
asparagus
Upright Weak Stems: They are those weak stems which

grow upright with the help of support. Upright weak
stems are of two kinds, twiners and climbers.
1. Twiners: They are weak stemmed plants where the stem

coils or twines around an upright support. Clinging
organs are absent, e.g., Ipomoea, Convolvulus,
Quisqualis.
2. Climbers: The weak stemmed plants rise up an upright

support with the help of special clinging or coiling
structures. Depending upon the clasping structures,
climbers are of the following kinds.
Reduced Stem: The stem is very small. Reduced stem is

like a green disc in vegetative phase Radish, Carrot and
Turnip. It bears radical leaves. In bulb (e.g., Onion,
Garlic) the reduced stem is a non-green disc.
(a) Tendrill Climbers: Tendrils are narrow thread-like green

sensitive structures which can coil around the support
and help the plant to cling and climb. Tendrils can be
modification of stem, leaf or leaf parts. Stem TendrilsGrape Vine; Leaf Tendrils- Nepenthes or Pitcher Plant.
Erect Stem: The stem is vertical and strong enough to

stand erect.
(b) Root Climbers: Betel, Pepper.
Weak Stem: The stem is soft and weak. It requires a

support for spreading. Weak stem can be upright or
prostrate.
(c) Scramblers: Climbing rose.

Prostrate Weak Stems : The weak stems grow over the

ground and take its support for spreading. They are of
four types
BIOLOGY [23]
1. Trailers: The shoots spread over the ground without

rooting at intervals, e.g., Euphorbia Prostrata.
2. Runners: Runners are special, narrow, green, horizental
branchs which develop at the base of crown and root at
intervals where new crowns are also formed, e.g., Lawn
Grass.
(ii) Cymose: In this case the terminal bud of a branc ceases

to grow but lateral branches, verying in number soon
develop and grow vigorously from below. The mode of
branching is basipetal, eg. Datura, Croton, etc.
Pseudostem/False Stem: A trunk formed by leaf bases

as in Banana. A space passes through it to become aerial.
Largest Bud: Cabbage.
Liana: Woody climber or twiner.
Creeper: Plant spreading on the ground and rooting at

intervals. Viz., runner, stolen.
Allyl Sulphide: Characteristic smell of Onion and Garlic.
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3. Stolons: They are special above ground (e.g., Strawberry)

or underground (e.g., Colocasia) horizontal branches,
which develop at the base of a crown, can arch over
small obstacles, root at intervals and form new crowns.
(i) Racemose: Indefinite or monopodial type of branching.

The main stem continues to grow indefinitely by its
terminal bud. The mode of branching is termed acropetal
eg. Casuarina, Ashok tree.
4. Offsets: They are one internode long runners formed in

rosette plants at ground or water level, e.g., Water
Lettuca, Water Hyacinth.
B. Underground Stems :
Underground or subterranean stems are nongreen like

roots but differ from the latter in (i) absence of root caps
and root hairs (ii) presence of terminal bud, nodes and
internodes, occurrence of leaves (scale or foliage) on the
nodes and exogenous branching. Underground stems are of
the following five types.
Sucker: It is non-green narrow stem, which develops at

the underground base of a crown, grows horizontally
for some distance and then comes out obliquely to form
a new crown, e.g., Chrysanthemum, Mentha (Mint).
Banana possesses sucker-like structures for formation
of new leafy trunks.
Rhizome: It is an indefinitely growing perennial main

stem, which occurs underground and gives rise to annual
aerial branches or leaves under favourable conditions
e.g. Ginger, Turmeric, Canna (Exception Banana).
Typical life is a green expanded exogenous lateral

outgrowth, which arises from the node of a stem or its
branch. The leaf is a flattened lateral outgrowth of the stem
and bears a bud in its axil. A typical angiosperm leaf consists
of three parts: (1) Leaf base, (2) Petiole (3) Lamina. The
largest leaves are those of floating leaved Aquatic Victoria
(1m in diameter).
Leaf Duration
Caducous: Falling off soon after their formation, e.g.,

Opuntia.
Corm: It is annual, vertically growing thick, swollen,

spherical or subspherical underground stem, which bear
circular nodes, sheathing leaf bases and scales. Buds
present on corms give rise to new aerial shoots and new
corms, e.g., Elephant Foot.
Deciduous (Annual): Falling off under unfavorable conditions

or at the end of growing season, e.g., Poplar, Mulberry.
Persistent (Evergreen): Leaves remain on the plant for

more than one year, fall off individually at different
times so that the plant gives an evergreen look, e.g.,
Mango, Eucalyptus.
Bulb: It is an underground, condensed shoot having a

reduced discoid stem, fleshy scales, buds and adventitious
roots e.g., Onion, Garlic, Lily.
Simple and Compound Leaf
Stem Tubers: They are swollen tips of underground

branches, which do not bear roots. Each tuber has a
number of eyes (nodes with leaf scar or ride and bubs)
e.g., Potato.
Thorns, Spines and Prickles: They are sharp, pointed,

straight or curved hard structure performing similar
functions. Thorms are modified stem structure while spines
are modified leaves of leaf parts. Both of them connected
with the internal structure of axis and possess vascular tissue.
Prickles are epidermal outgrowths or emergences, which
do not have vascular supply.
Branching of the Stem
In most of the cases new branches arise from the sides

of the main stem that is called lateral branching which is of
two types:
[24]
LEAF
BIOLOGY
A leaf is said to be simple, when its lamina is entire or

incised but the incisions do not touch the mid rib. When
the incision of the lamina goes down to the mid-rib the leaf
becomes compounds and it has a number of leaf segments,
these leaf segments are known as leaflets. A leaflet is like
a simple leaf but it lacks a bud in its axil. A compound leaf
is said to be pinnate when the leaflets are lateral to the
mid-rib, it may be unipinnate. eg. Rose; Bipinnate, eg. Gold
mohur (Delonix) and Tripinnate, eg. Moringa. In palmetely
compound leaves the petiole bears a number of leaflets
which resemble a palm. Depending upon the number of
leaflets, it may be Unifoliate, eg. Lemon; Bifoliate, Trifoliate,
eg. Wood apple; Quadrifoliate eg. Marsilea and Multifoliate
eg. Bombax, Cleome.
In many plants the leaf base is swollen and is termed
pulvinus. The arrangement of veins in the lamina is termed
as vegation. It is of two types:
pitchers possess a number of digestive glands which

secrete a fluid.
Phyllode: When the petiole becomes leaflike, it is termed
as phyllode, eg. Australian Acacia.
Plant with single Leaf: Monophyllea.
Plant with Two Leaves only : Welwitschia (a

gymnosperm).
Bradest Leaf: Victoria amazonica (= V.regia. amazon

Lily), an aquatic plant with floating leaves diamenter
15-18 m.
Longest Leaf: Rophia vinifera (Bamboo Palm, Wine

Raffia Palm) 10-15 m.
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FLOWER
1. Reticulate: When the veins are forming a network, it is

characteristic feature of the dicots.
2. Parallel: When the veins are parallel and do not form a

network. It is characteristic of monocots.
Phyllotaxy: It may be defined as the arrangement of leaves

on the stem. It is of three main types:
1. Alternate, eg. China rose
2. Opposite, eg. Guava, Calotropis

3. Whorled, eg. Nerium
Modification of leaves
Some of the important modifications of leaves are:
Tendril: Leaf or leaf parts are modified into thread like

sensitive structures called tendrils. Leaf tendrils are
unbranched and maked. Modified for the purpose of
climbing, eg. Pea.
The flower is a
highly specialised
condensed structure.
The axis of the
flower is known as
thalamus. A typical
flower shows four
sets of members
arranged
in
successive whorls.
They are calyx, corolla, androceium, and gynaecium. Calyx
and Corolla consitute accessory worls and Androecium and
Gynaecium constitute the essential whorls of the flower.
When calyx and corolla are undistinguishale, they are known
as perianth (common among monocots). In absence of
accessory whorls, it is known as achlamydeous. When all
the four parts of a flower are present, it is termed as
complete. In the absence of any one of these, it is termed as
incomplete. When both male and female components
(androecium and gynoecium respectively) are present in
the same flower, it is termed as bisexual or hermaphrodite.
Unisexual flowers may be staminate (when gynaecium is
absent) or pistillate (when androecium is absent). A flower
without any functional stamen or pistil, it is known as neuter
or sterile. If male and female flowers develop on the same
plant, it is called monoecious, otherwise, it is dioecious.
A flower is said to be an actinomorphic when its symmetry

remains undisturbed, even after cutting the flower into two
halves through the axis, whereas zygomorphic flowers are
those where their symmetry get disturbed, after cutting the
flower into more than two halves through their main axis. All
the flowers, broadly, can be divided into 3 types, depending
upon the relative positions of the floral parts on thalamus, i.e.
Whole Leaf Tendrils: The whole leaf is modified into

tendril for climbing in Wild Pea.
Leaflet Tendrils: Upper leaflets of sweat Pea and Edible

Pea are transformed into tendrils.
Spine: Modified for the purpose of defence, eg. Opuntia.
Scale leaves: eg. Onion.
1. Hypogyny: When the other floral part i.e. sepals, petals,

stemens are inserted on thalamus below the ovary in
the flower, eg. China rose.
Pitcher: In some of the insectivorous plants, eg.

Nepenthes, the lamina assumes the form of a pitcher
with a lid to trap the insects, the inner walls of the
2. Epigyny: When the other floral parts are inserted above

the ovary in the flower, the ovary in this case is said to
be inferior, eg. Guava, Cucumber etc.
BIOLOGY [25]
3. Perigyny: When the other floral parts are inserted at the

same level at the ovary, eg. Rose, Pea etc.
National flower of India Lotus
Anthology Collection of flowers (and flowering

plants).
Polygamous (i) A plant bearing intersexual male and

female flowers. E.g., Mango, Litchi,. (ii) A male
consorting with more than one female.
Succulent Fruits: It includes following types:

(a) Drupe - eg. Mango, Plum, Coconut, Chestnut,
Almond, Betel nut etc.
(b) Berry - eg. Tomato, Chilli, Grapes, Banana, Papaya,
Brinjal etc.
(c) Pepo - eg. Cucumber, Watermelon etc.
(d) Pome - eg. Apple, Pear etc.
(e) Hespiridium eg Citrus, Orange etc.
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Largest Flower Refflesia(1m).parasitic.
Longest StigmaMaize
FRUIT
(f) Balausta - eg. Pomegranate
Dry Fruits: It includes following types:
(a) Achenial - It has been further divided into:

(i) Achene - eg. Rose, Climatis etc.
(ii) Caryopsis - eg. Wheat, Paddy, Maize etc.
Fruit is ripened ovary, which consists of pericarp

(Fruit wall from ovary and attached parts) and seeds
formed after fertilization of ovules. Fruits are of three basic
types:
(i) Eucarps (Eucarpic Fruits): They are true formed

from superior ovary, having functional seeds but no
additional floral parts fused with them, e,g, Grape,
Mango.
(ii) Pseudocarps (Accesory of False Fruits): They are fruits

generally formed from inferior ovary, having functional
seeds and additional floral parts fused with pericarp,
e.g., Apple.
(iii) Parthenocarps (Parthenocarpic Fruits): Seedless fruits.

The fruits are formed without fertilization so
that functional seeds are absent are absent, e.g.,
Bannana.
(iii) Cypsela - eg. Marigold, Sunflower etc.

(iv) Nut - eg. Cashew nut, Litchi etc.
(b) Capsular Fruits:
(i) Legume or Pods - eg. Pea, Bean etc.
(ii) Follicle - eg. Magnolia (Champa), Caltoropis.

(iii) Siliquala - eg. Mustard, Radish etc.
(iv) Capsule - eg. Poppy, Datura, Ladys finger,

Gossypium etc.
(c) Schizocarpic Fruits:
(i) Lomentum - eg. Groundnut, Tamarind, Acacia etc.

(ii) Cremocarp - eg. Coriander
(iii) Carcerulus - eg. Osmimum
II. Aggregate Fruits: They are of following types:

(i) Etaerio of achenes - eg. Lotus
Fruits Categories
(ii) Etaerio of follicle - eg. Magnolia
Fruit is a characteristic feature of the flowering plants.

It may develop either after fertilization or without
fertilization. The fruit which is produced without fertilization
is called parthenocarpic fruit, eg. Banana, Citrus, Grape etc.
Fruits are of two types:
PARTS OF A FRUIT
EXOCARP (SKIN)
MESOCARP
(FLESH)
(a) True Fruits: which develop from the ovary.
ENDOCARP
(HARD PIT WALL)
(b) False Fruits: which develop from any other floral parts
except ovary.
The pericarp (fruit wall) is usually differentiated into

three layers - an outer epicarp, a middle mesocarp and an
inner endocarp.
Fruits are usually classified into three group - simple,
aggregate and multiple.
I.
Simple Fruits: When only one fruit is produced from

ovary of flower, it is called simple fruit. Simple fruits
are of two types:
1. Dehiscent fruits, eg. Mustard, Pea, Ladys finger,

Gossypium, Datura, Poppy.
2. Indehiscent fruits, eg. Mango, Coconut, Betelnut,

Chestnut.
Simple fruits have been further divided into two classes:
[26]
BIOLOGY
COTYLEDONS
OF SEED
(iii) Etaerio of barries - eg. Mulberry
(iv) Etaerio of drupes - eg. Strawberry
III. Composite Fruits: They are of the following types:
(i) Sorosis - eg. Jack fruit, Pineapple, Mulberry etc.

(ii) Syconus - eg. Fig, Banyan etc.
Reproduction
Flowers constitute the reproductive organs: A flower is

a specialized shoot essentially meant for sexual reproduction
and has evolved as a result of progressive speculation of
reproductive structures.
Inflorescence
It is a reproductive shoot bearing a number of flowers in
terminal or axillary position. It is of three types racemose,
cymose and special type. In racemose, the main axis is
unlimited in growth, whereas in cymose, the growth of main
axis is limited. It is of following types:
Importance: Self pollination maintains purity of race

and superiority of variety once developed it, however,
ultimately leads to degeneration.
2. Cross Pollination: It is the transfer of pollen grains from
the anthers of one flower to the sigma of a genetically
dissimilar flower. Cross pollination is also called
Xenogamy. Both xenogamy and geitonogamy are
included under allogamy though this term is more
commonly used for cross pollination. Cross plination is
of following types. Cross pollination is useful in
increasing yield and adaptability. It eliminates defective
traits and is helpful in production of new varieties. Cross
pollination may bring in hybrid vigour. It is, however,
wasteful and may dilute very good characters of the race.
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1. Receme: The main axis of inflorescence bears stalked

flowers, eg. Mustard, Radish etc.
same or genetically similar plant. Geitonology resembles

cross pollination in the requairment of pollen transfer or
pollinating agency.
2. Spike: This is like raceme but the flowers are sessile, eg.
Adhatoda.
3. Catkins: The main axis of inflorescence which is a

long and pendulous bears unisexual flowers, eg.
Mulberry.
4. Spadix: The main axis inflorescence is fleshy enclosed
by one or several large and brightly coloured bracts
called the spathes, eg. Banana.
5. Corymb: The main axis is short and bears stalked flowers

in such a manner that they are placed almost at the
same level, eg. Lantana, Cherry.
Anemophily (Wind Pollination): In anemophily, air

currents pick up pollen from dehiscing anthers. The
receptive stigmas pick up the pollen from air currents.
Hay fever is allergic reaction to the presence of pollen
in the air. Plants commonly causing hay fever are
Amaranthus, Chenopoditnm, Castor and Sorghum.
ExamplesDate Palm, Coconut Palm, Poplar, Mulberry,
Willow, Grass, Maize, Chenopodium, Amaranthus,
Cannabis.
Hydrophily: It is pollination brought about through the

agency of water. (e.g., Lemna, Vallisneria) and
hypohydrophily (e.g., Zostera, Ceratophyllum),
Vallisneria (Tape Grass or Eel Grass).
Entomophily: It is pollination brought about through

the agency of insects. Entomophily is the most common
and specialized type of pollination. The important traits
of entomophilous flowers are
6. Unbel: It has very shortened and suppressed axis,

flowers have stalks of equal length, it is umbrella like in
appearance eg. Coriander, Carrot.
7. Head of Capitulum: The main axis is flattened, more
or less convex structure order, eg. Sunflowers.
Special types of inflorescence :
Hypanthodium: The main axis forms a cup shaped receptacle

with a small opening at the top. Flowers are arranged within
the cup, eg. Ficus.
Cyathium: Here, one central flower (represented by a

single pistil) is surrounded by a large number of male
flowers (each represented by single stamens) the whole
structure is enclosed in cup like structure, eg. Euphorbia,
Pedialanthus.
Verticillaster: Flowers are sessile and appear in a false

whorl or vertically around the stem, eg. Ocimum
(Tulasi).
POLLINATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anthers

to stigmas. It is of two types self pollination and cross
pollination.
1. Self Pollination: Self pollination is the transfer of pollen

grains from anthers to the sigma mature simultaneously.
The phenomenon is called homogamy. Self poltination
is of two types autogamy and geitonogamy.
Autogany: It is self pollination which occurs between

anther and sigma of the same flower. Mirabilts or Four
O Clock the Potato, Sunflower, Peanut (= Groundnut),
Wheat, Tobaco, tomato, Linseed, Jute, etc.
Geitonogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains from

anthers of one flower to another flower of either the
(i) Flowers are coloured.
(ii) Flowers commonly possess an aroma or scent.
(ii) Visiting insects are fed by either nectar (e.g., Jasmine,

Buttercup, Larkspur, Adhatoda, or edible pollen (e.g.,
Magnolia, Papaver).
(iv) Pollen grains have a sticky surface due to pollenkitt.
(v) Stigmas are sticky.
(vi) Flowers are strong enough to bear the weight of visiting

insect. They may also provide insects with shelter.
Ornithophily: It is allogamy performed by birds. Two

types of long-beaked small birds take part in pollination
sun birds and humming birds (hover over the flower).
Other birds performing pollination are Crow.
Bulbul, Parrot, Meynah, etc. ornithophilous flowers are
large and strong with abundant nectar or edible
part, e.g., Erythrina, Bombax, Agave, Bignonia,
Grevillea.
BIOLOGY [27]
Chiropterophily: It is allogamous pollination performed

by bats, e.g., Anthocephatus (Kadam), Bauhnia
megalandra, Kigelia pinnata (Sausage Tree), Adansonia
(Boabab Tree).
Malacophily is cross pollination brought abount by the
agency of snails, e.g., Arisaema and some other aroids.
(v) Leaves: Injured leaf of Begonia develops new plants in

contact with soil while uninjured fallen Bryophyllum
leaf does so from buds present in its marginal notches.
(vi) Bulbils: They are fleshy buds which on falling down
produce new plants. E.g., Oxalis, Agave, Dioscorea, Lily
etc.
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VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
(iv) Aerial Shoots: Segments of Opuntia and other cacti

produce new plants after falling on ground.
Vegetative Propagation is the formation of new plants

from detached vegetative parts or propagules of the parent.
Vegetative Propagation in Lower Plants
(i) Binary Fission: A mature nuclei divides into two

daughters e.g., bacteria, diatoms, Euglena.
(ii) Budding: A small outgrowth of the cell that grows and
separates, e,g., Yeast.
(iii) Fragmentation: Mechanical disturbance, emptying of

intercalary cells, decay older parts, change in
environment, etc. cause breakage of the plant body into
two or more parts, each of which behaves as independent
plant, e.g., Marchantia, Spirogyra, Nostoc.
(iv) Gemmae: Gemmae are small undifferentiated
multicellular green propagules which separate and form
new plants, e.g., Marchantia, Funaria.
(v) Tubers: Underground perennating structures, e.g.,
Selaginella chrysocaulos, marsilea, mosses.
Vegetative Propagation in Higher Plants : Natural

modes of vegetative propagation in higher plants are :
(i) Roots: Tap root branches can develop adventitious buds

and form new plants in Guava, Poplar (Populs) and
Dalbergia. Fleshy advemtitious roots also take part in
vegetative propagation in sweet Potato, Dahlia and
Asparagus.
(ii) Underground Stems: (a). Stem tubers develop new plants
in the region of eyes, e.g., Potato, Artichoke, (b). Buds
present inside bulbs sprout to form new plants in Onion,
Garlic and Narcissus. (c). Corms bear bunds for growth of
daughter plants, e.g., Crocus, Colocasia, Amorphophallus,
Fressia. (d). Rhizomes take part in vegetative propagation
due to presence of buds, e.g., Ginger, Turmeric, Banana
(also suckers), ferms. (e). Breaking of suckers forms
independent plants in mint and Chrysanthermum.
(iii) Subaerial Stems (Creeping stems): Runners, stolons

and offsets are meant for forming new crowns at their
tips as well as nodes in case of the former two. Breaking
of these horizontal stems converts the different crowns
into independent plants, e.g., Eichhomia, Pistia (offsets),
Grass (runners), Strawberry (stolons).
[28]
BIOLOGY
Horticultural or Artificial Methods of Vegetative

Propagation
1. Use of special Vegetative Organs: Many plants are

multiplied vegetatively by using their specialized
vegetative structure like tubers (e.g., Sweet Potato,
Dahlia), corm (e.g., Crocus, Colocasia, Galdiolus), bulb
(e.g., Garlic, Onion), part of rhizome (e.g., Banana,
Ginger) and stem tuber (e.g., Potato), bulbil (e.g.,
Pineapple).
2. Cuttings: Sansevieria is propagated by leaf cuttings. Root
cuttings are used in case of Blackberry. Stem cuttings
(20-30 cm segments of one year old stem) are
employed in case of Rosa, Clerodendron, Duranta,
Citrus, Bougainvillea, Tea, Coffee and Cocoa. Rooting
of stem cutting is hastened by dipping in NAA or
IBA.
3. Layering: The middle part of a soft basal branch is

defoliated, slightly injured (tongueing, notching, ringing)
and pegged in the soil to develop adventitious roots.
Later on the branch or layer is separated and planted,
e.g., Cherry, Jasmine, Grape Vine. In serpentines layering
the branch is pegged at several places so as to form
many plants. In mound layering the shoot is pruned
and lower part covered by soil when a number of new
shoots develop, e.g., Gooseberry, Current. In air layering
(gootee) a ring of bark is removed from an aerial shoot.
It is covered by grafting clay, hay, cow dung, clay, water)
with small quantity of root promoting hormone and
wrapped in polythene. After 1-3 months, roots appear
and the shoot is removed to be used for planting, e.g.,
Litchi, Pomegranate.
4. Grafting: Cambium bearing shoot (= scion = graft) of
one plant is joined to cambium bearing stump (root
system = stock) of a related plant through different
unions like tongue grafting (= whip or slice grafting),
wedge grafting, crown grafting, side grafting, In crown
grafting several scions are joined to a single stock.
Grafting is used for quick multiplication and proper
growth of better varieties with weak roots, e.g., Mango,
Apple, Pear, Rubber, Orange, etc. In bud grafting the
scion is a bud with a small piece of bark, e.g., Rose,
Apple and Peach.
MICROOORGANISMS
CHRONICLE
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Some rod-shaped bacteria, called vibrio, are slightly curved

or comma-shaped, while others, called spirilla, form twisted
spirals. Many bacterial species exist simply as single cells,
while others tend to associate in diploids / pairs (for example
Neisseria), or chains (such as Streptococcus), while members
of the genus Staphylococcus, form a bunch of grapes
clusters. Bacteria can also be elongated to form filaments,
for example the Actinomycetes.
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BACTERIA
Bacteria, microscopic & unicellular organisms, are often

coccus- (spherical) or rod-shaped and 0.5-5 m in the longest
dimension, although the wide diversity of bacteria can
display a huge variety of morphologies. The study of bacteria
is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology.
Bacteria are ubiquitous in the environment, living in

every possible habitat on the planet including soil,
underwater, deep in the earths crust, and even
such environments as sulfuric acid and nuclear
waste. There are typically ten billion bacterial
cells in a gram of soil, and one hundred
thousand bacterial cells in a millilitre of sea
water. Bacteria play an important role in the
cycling of nutrients in the environment. They
play many important steps in the nutrient cycle
as catalysts, such as the fixation of nitrogen from
the atmosphere.
There are more bacterial cells on each of

our bodies than there are cells of our own and
bacteria are a natural component of the human
body, particularly on the skin and in the mouth and intestinal
tract. Bacteria are important to human health, as they are
the causative agent of many infectious diseases, including
cholera and tuberculosis. Historically, bacteria have been
responsible for such diseases as bubonic plague and leprosy,
but after the discovery of antibiotics many bacterial diseases
are able to be controlled. Bacteria are also important to
numerous industrial processes, such as wastewater treatment
and more recently the industrial production of antibiotics
and other chemicals.
The first bacteria were observed by Anton van
Leeuwenhoek in 1674 using a single-lens microscope of his
own design. The name bacterium was introduced much later,
by Ehrenberg in 1828, derived from the Greek word meaning
small stick.
Cell Morphology and Arrangement
Bacterial cells are typically 0.5-5 m in length, however some

species, for example Thiomargarita namibiensis and
Epulopiscium fishelsoni, may be up to 500 m (0.5 mm) long
and are visible to the unaided eye. Among the smallest bacteria
are members of the genus Mycoplasma which measure just
0.2 m; approximately the same size as the largest viruses.
Most bacteria are either spherical, called coccus or rodshaped, called bacillus (pl. baccili, from Latin baculus, stick).
The bacterial cell is bound by a lipid membrane, or

plasma membrane, which encompasses the contents of the
cell, or cytoplasm, and acts as a barrier that
holds nutrients, proteins and other essential
molecules within the cell. Bacteria do not
have membrane-bound organelles in the
cytoplasm and thus contain few intracellular
structures. They lack mitochondria,
chloroplasts and the other organelles present
in
eukaryotic
cells,
such
as
the golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum.
Bacteria do not have a membrane-bound

nucleus and their genetic material is typically
a single chromosome located in the
cytoplasm as an irregularly-shaped body
called the nucleoid. The nucleoid consists
mainly of the chromosome but has also associated proteins
and RNA. Like all living organisms bacteria contain
ribosomes for the production of proteins.
External to the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall.

Bacterial cell walls are composed of peptidoglycan, different
from the cell walls of plants and fungi which have cell walls
of cellulose and chitin, respectively. The cell wall is essential
to the survival of bacteria; the antibiotic penicillin is able to
effectively kill bacteria by inhibiting a step in the synthesis
of peptidoglycan and stopping the production of the cell
wall.
Flagella are rigid protein structures, about 20 nm in
diameter and up to 20 m in length, that are used for
motility.
Some bacteria also produce nutrient storage granules,

such as glycogen, polyphosphate, sulphur or polyhydroxyalkanoates. These storage compounds enable bacteria to
store compounds for later use. Certain bacterial species,
such as the photosynthetic Cyanobacteria, produce internal
gas vesicles which they use to regulate their buoyancy to
regulate the optimal light intensity or nutrient levels.
Bacteria serve as a link between plants and animals.

They are now regarded as the simplest plants because of
the following reasons:
BIOLOGY [29]
They have a rigid cell wall made up of mucopolysacchrides.
Some of the bacteria like chlorobium are autotrophic,

like green plants.
Some forms of bacteria are capable of sythesizing

vitamins just like green plants.
Bacteria take in their nutrition in the form of

solution only.
Growth and Reproduction

All bacteria reproduce through asexual reproduction
(one parent) binary fission, which results in cell division.
Two identical clone daughter cells are produced. Some
bacteria, while still reproducing asexually, form more
complex reproductive structures that facilitate the dispersal
of the newly-formed daughter cells.
Bacteria, as asexual organisms, inherit an identical copy
of their parents genes (i.e. are clonal). All bacteria, however,
have the ability to evolve through selection on changes to
their genetic material (DNA) which arise either through
mutation or genetic recombination. Mutation occurs as a result
of errors made during the replication of DNA.
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Bacteria differ from the eukaryotic cells of other plants

in the following respects:
The mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum are lacking

in the cytoplasm.
The nuclear body does not divide by mitosis.
The photosynthetic lamellae when present are not

organised into chloroplast.
No protoplasmic streaming movements seen.
Contains no vacuoles.
Respiration in Bacteria
Most bacteria make use of the free oxygen of the

atmosphere or oxygen dissolved in the liquid
environement, they are called aerobes or aerobic bactria.
Free oxygen is necessary for their respiration. There are
many bacteria which are able to live and multiply in the
absence of free oxygen. They obtain oxygen from oxygen
containing compounds such as sugar. They are called the
anaerobes or anaerobic bacteria, but the amount of energy
available from anaerobic respiration is much less than that
from aerobic respiration, Syphilis and Tetanus bacteria are
e.g. of obligate anaerobes. There are some bacteria which
can live and grow whether oxygen is present or not. They
are called facultative anaerobes.
Capsule
Granules
Cell
membrane
Cytoplasm
Nuclear
material
Pili
Mesosome
Ribosomes
Cell wall
Flagellum
[30]
BIOLOGY
The most frequent genetic changes in bacterial genomes

come from random mutation. Some bacteria can also
undergo genetic recombination. This can occur when bacteria
take-up exogenous environmental DNA from closely related
genera in a process called transformation. In the process of
transduction, a virus can alter the DNA of a bacterium by
becoming lysogenic and introducing foreign DNA into the
host chromosome, which can then be transcribed and
replicated.
Because of their ability to quickly grow, and the relative
ease with which they can be manipulated, bacteria have
historically been the workhorses for the fields of molecular
biology, genetics and biochemistry. By making mutations in
bacterial DNA and examining the resulting phenotypes,
scientists have been able to determine the function of many
different genes and enzymes.
Benefits and Dangers
Bacteria are both harmful and useful to the environment

and animals, including humans. Some bacteria act as
pathogens and cause tetanus, typhoid fever, pneumonia,
syphilis, cholera, food-borne illness, leprosy, and
tuberculosis(TB). Sepsis, a systemic infectious syndrome
characterized by shock and massive vasodilation, or
localized infection, can be caused by bacteria such as
Streptococcus, Staphylococcus bacteria. Some bacterial
infections can spread throughout the hosts body and become
systemic. In plants, bacteria cause leaf spot, fireblight, and
wilts. The mode of infection includes contact, air, food, water,
and insect-borne microorganisms. The hosts infected with
the pathogens may be treated with antibiotics, which can be
classified as bacteriocidal and bacteriostatic, which at
concentrations that can be reached in bodily fluids either
kill bacteria or hamper their growth, respectively. Antiseptic
measures may be taken to prevent infection by bacteria, for
example, by swabbing skin with alcohol prior to piercing
the skin with the needle of a syringe. Sterilization of surgical
and dental instruments is done to make them sterile or
pathogen-free to prevent contamination and infection by
bacteria. Sanitizers and disinfectants are used to kill bacteria
or other pathogens to prevent contamination and risk of
infection.
Bacterial Diseases in Plants & Animals

Bacterial Diseases in Plants
1. Paddy blight
2. Citrus canker
3. Brown rot of Potato
4. Ring rot of Potato
Rice
Xanthomonas oryzae
Citrus group of fruits Xanthomonas citris
Potato
Pseudomonas
-solanacearum.
Potato
Corynebacterium
sepidonicum.
Wheat
Corynebacterium
tritici
Plum, Cherry, Apple, Arobacterium
tumefaciens.
Peach, Pear, etc.
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In soil, microorganisms which reside in the

rhizosphere (a zone that includes the root surface and
the soil that adheres to the root after gentle shaking)
help in the transformation of molecular dinitrogen gas
as their source of nitrogen, converting it to nitrogenous
compounds in a process known as nitrogen fixation.
This serves to provide an easily absorbable form of
nitrogen for many plants, which cannot fix nitrogen
themselves. Many other bacteria are found as symbionts in humans and other organisms. For example,
the presence of the gut flora in the large intestine can
help prevent the growth of potentially harmful microbes.
The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic

compounds is remarkable. Highly specialized groups of
microorganisms play important roles in the
mineralization of specific classes of organic compounds.
For example, the decomposition of cellulose, which is
one of the most abundant constituents of plant tissues,
is mainly brought about by aerobic bacteria that belong
to the genus Cytophaga. This ability has also been utilized
by humans in industry, waste processing, and
bioremediation. Bacteria capable of digesting the
hydrocarbons in petroleum are often used to clean up
oil spills.
Bacteria, often in combination with yeasts and

molds, are used in the preparation of fermented foods
such as cheese, pickles, soya sauce, sauerkraut, vinegar, wine, and yogurt. Using biotechnology techniques, bacteria can be bioengineered for the production of therapeutic drugs, such as insulin, or for the
bioremediation of toxic wastes.
5. Tundu Disease
6. Crown gall
Bacterial Diseases in animals

7. Tuberculosis
Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
8. Johnes disease
Mycobacterium
or Paratuberculosis paratuberculosis
9. Epizootic
Histoplasma
lymphengities
farciminonsum
10. Anthrax
Bacillus anthracis
11. Black Quarter or
Clostridium
Symptomatic anthrax chauvoei (Gram+ve)
12. Black deasese or
Cl. novyi type B or
Infectious necrotic
Cl. Oedematiens
hepatitis
13. Tetanus or Lockjaw Cl. tetani
14. Botulism
Cl. tetani
15. Lambsiekte
Cl. botulinum Type D
16. Forage poisoning
Cl. botulinum Type C
17. Brucellosis or Bangs Brucella abortus
disease, contagious
abortion
18. Leptospirosis or Weils
disease, stuttgard
disease
19. Bacillary white
Salmonella pullorum
diarrohea or Pullorum disease
20. Chronic Respiratory Mycoplasma
Disease (CRD)
gallisepticum
21. Salmonellosis or
Salmonella pullonum
Paratyphoid
S. gallinarum
Friendly bacteria is a term used to refer to those

bacteria that offer some benefit to human hosts, such
as Lactobacillus species, which convert milk protein to
lactic acid in the gut. The presence of such bacterial
colonies also inhibits the growth of potentially pathogenic bacteria (usually through competitive exclusion). Other
bacteria that are helpful inside the body are many strains of
E. coli, which are harmless in healthy individuals and provide Vitamin K.
Bacteria That Cause Food-borne Illness
Food-borne illness often shows itself as flu-like symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, or fever, so many
people may not recognize the illness is caused by bacteria or
other pathogens on food. They can grow in just about any
food, but are fond of protein foods, such as meat, poultry,
seafood, eggs, and dairy products in particular, as well as
high-protein vegetables such as beans and grains.
Bacteria multiply rapidly between 40 and 140 F. To

keep food out of this danger zone, keep cold food cold
and hot food hot. Store food in the refrigerator (40 F or
below) or freezer (0 F or below); cook food to 160 F;
maintain hot cooked food at 140 F; reheat cooked food to
165 F.
All animals
Not in sheep but

cattle and horse
Horse
Goat, sheep, cattle

Cattle & sheep
Sheep & cattle
All animals
AB + E
Cattle
Horse
Cattle, sheep,
pigs, horses
Leptospira spp. Cattle,

pig, sheep, dog & man
Chicks
Fowl
Poultry
Botulism: It is a rare but serious paralytic illness caused by

a nerve toxin, botulin, that is produced by the bacterium
Clostridium botulinum. Botulinic toxin is one of the most
powerful known to man, with a lethal dose of a
microgram. It acts blocking nerve function and leading to
respiratory and musculoskeletal paralysis.
Some other bacteria cause more serious illness than others,

but only a few are responsible for the majority of cases.
Below is the information regarding nine prominent bacteria.
Campylobacter jejuni: Found in intestinal tracts of

animals and birds, raw milk, untreated water, and
sewage sludge. Transmission through contaminated
water, raw milk, and raw or under-cooked meat, poultry,
or shellfish.
Clostridium botulinum: It is widely distributed in

nature: in soil and water, on plants, and in intestinal
tracts of animals and fish. Bacteria produce a toxin that
causes illness. Improperly canned foods, garlic in oil,
and vacuum-packaged and tightly wrapped food can
BIOLOGY [31]
Bacterial Diseases in Humans

Disease
Septic Sore throat
Causative Pathogen
Streptococcus Sp.
Diphtheria
Irregular rod (Corynebacterium diptheriae)

Diplococcus
pneumoniae
Irregular rod (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
Short rod
(Yersinia pestis)
Clostridium tetani
Salmonella typhi
Vibrio Cholerae
Bordetella pertussis
Diploccus
Treponema paltidium
Mycobacterium leprae
Clostridium botulinum
Pneumonia
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Tuberculosis
Mode of Transmission
Incubation
Bacteria infect throat and nasal membranes by droplets
3-5 days
and direct contact.
Bacteria infect respiratory tract by carrier, direct contact,
1-7 days
droplets and food.
Bacteria transmitted to respiratory tract, including the lungs variable
by droplet infection.
Bacteria transmitted to lungs, bones and other organs by
variable
direct contact, droplet infection, food and milk.
Rat flea spreads disease from rat to man
2-10 days
Plague or Bubonic
plague
Tetanus or lock-jaw
Typhoid
Cholera
Whooping cough
Gonorrhoea (Clap)
Syphilis
Leprosy
Botulism
Bacteria in soil, enter through wound

Flies, food, faeces, water and carriers
Flies, food, stools, water and carriers
Droplets projected during coughing and sneezing
Sexual intercourse
Direct contact, chiefly sexual intercourse
Long and close conact with infected persons.
Organism produces poison in food
invite it..
Clostridium perfringens: Found in soil, dust, sewage,

and intestinal tracts of animals and humans. It is called
the cafeteria germ because many outbreaks result from
food left for long periods in steam tables or at room
temperature. Bacteria is destroyed by cooking, but some
toxin-producing spores may survive.
Escherichia coli O157: Found in intestinal tracts of some

mammals, raw milk, unchlorinated water; one of several
strains of E. coli that can cause human illness. It is
transmitted through contaminated water, raw milk, raw
or rare ground beef, unpasteurized apple juice or cider,
uncooked fruits and vegetables; person-to-person.
Salmonella: Found in intestinal tract and feces of
animals; Salmonella enteritidis in raw eggs. It transmits
through raw or undercooked eggs, poultry, and meat;
raw milk and dairy products; seafood.
Streptococcus A: Found in noses, throats, pus, sputum,

blood, and stools of humans. Transmission- people-tofood from poor hygiene, ill food handlers, or improper
food handling; outbreaks from raw milk, ice cream, eggs,
lobster, salads, custard, and pudding allowed to stand
at room temperature for several hours between
preparation and eating.
Listeria monocytogenes: Found in intestinal tracts of humans

and animals, milk, soil, leaf vegetables, and processed foods;
can grow slowly at refrigerator temperatures. Transmissionsoft cheese, raw milk, improperly processed ice cream, raw
leafy vegetables, meat, and poultry. Illness caused by bacteria
that do not produce toxin.
Shigella : Found in human intestinal tract; rarely found in

other animals. Transmission- person-to-person by fecaloral route; fecal contamination of food and water. Most
outbreaks result from food, especially salads, prepared
and handled by workers using poor personal hygiene.
Staphylococcus aureus : Found in on humans (skin,
[32]
BIOLOGY
2-40
10-14
1-2
7-14
2-8
10-90
days
days
days
days
days
days
18-66 hrs.
infected cuts, pimples, noses, and throats). Transmission

- people-to-food through improper handling. Multiply
rapidly at room temperature to produce a toxin that
causes illness.
Biotechnology and Bacteria
Biochemistry is defined as the application of organisms

such as bacteria, fungi and algae to the manufacturing and
services industries. These include:
Fermentation processes, such as brewing, baking, cheese

and butter manufacturing, chemical manufacturing such
as ethanol, acetone, organic acid, enzymes, perfumes, etc.
Pharmaceuticals, such as antibiotics, vaccines and

steroids.
Energy, in the form of biogas.
Food products, such as beverages, dairy products, amino

acids and proteins.
Agriculture, such as animal feed, composting processes,

pesticides, nitrogen fixation, plant cell and tissue culture.
Microbial mining, which is the bacteria and other

microorganisms are cultured in container and then used
to bring these processes e.g., copper extraction.
Genetic engineering and bacteria: Genetic engineering

is the manipulation of genes. It is also called recombinant
DNA technology. In genetic engineering, pieces of DNA
(genes) are introduced into a host by means of a carrier
(vector) system. The foreign DNA becomes a permanent
feature of the host, being replicated and passed on to
daughter cells along with the rest of its DNA. Bacterial cells
are transformed and used in production of commercially
important products. The examples are production of human
insulin (used against diabetes), human growth hormone
(somatotrophin used to treat pituitary dwarfism), and
infections which can be used to help fight viral diseases.
Fibre retting: Bacterial populations, especially that

of Clostridium butyclicum, are used to separate fibres
of jute, hemp, flax, etc, the plants are immersed in water
and when they swell, inoculated with bacteria which
hydrolyze pectic substance of the cell walls and separate
the fibres.These separated fibres are used to make ropes
and sacks.
Name
Lactobacillus
Rhizobium and Clostridium
Streptomyces griseus
Streptomyces venezullae
Streptomyces remosus
Use
Curding of milk
Nitrogen fixation in soil
Streptomycin
Chloromycetin
Terramycin
Antibiotics Manufacturing Bacteria

Name of antibiotic
Chloromycetin
Aureomycin
Terramycin
Streptomycin
Subtilin
Bacteria used
Streptomyces Venezuelae
S. aurefaciens
S. ramosus
S. griseus
Bacillus subtilis
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Digestion: Some bacteria living in the gut of cattles,

horses and other herbivores secrete enzyme cellulose
that helps in digestion cellulose contents of cell wall.
Cellulose in the major source of energy in these animals.
Some Useful Bacteria
Vitamins synthesis: Escherichia coli living in

human colon synthesize vitamin B and release it for
human use. Similarly, Clostridium butyclicum is used for
commercial preparation of riboflavin, a vitamin B.
Waste disposal: Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria are used

to decompose sewage wastes. They break down organic
matter to harmless, soluble sludge in settling tanks. The
methane gas produced is used as energy source. Similarly
toxic chemicals synthesized by living organisms and those
present in the pesticides are disposed with the help of
bacteria. Pseudomonas putida has been created by using
genetic engineering techniques and can break down, xylene,
and camphor.
Agents of disease: Organisms which cause disease are
called pathogens. Some bacteria are pathogens Some bacteria
are pathogenic and cause diseases both in animals and
plants. However, pathogenic bacteria more commonly affect
animals than plants.
Food spoilage: Saprotrophic bacteria attack and

decompose organic matter. This characteristic has posed
problem to mankind as food such as stored grains, meant,
fish, vegetable and fruits are attacked by saprotrophic
bacteria and spoiled. Similarly milk and products are easily
contaminated by bacteria and spoiled.
Vaccine Manufacturing Bacteria:
Bacteria are used in a very large scale to
produce antibiotic drugs. A bacterial vaccine
is a preparation of dead or weakened
bacteria. Vaccine of diptheria, pnenumonia,
cough, cholera, tetanus, etc. is prepared
using bacteria.
VIRUSES
The viruses were first discovered by

Iwanowski (1892) as extremely small micro
organisms. The viruses are the simplest
forms of life which instead of having cellular
organization (viz. plasma membrane,
cytoplasm and nucleus) similar to bacteria,
blue-green algae, plants and animal, contain
definite
genetically
determined
macromolecular organization, genetic material and

characteristic mode of inheritance.
The viruses are submicroscopic, acellular, forms of life

and are much smaller than bacteria. They range in size from
20 to 80 m. Iwanowski showed that mosaic disease in the
leaves of tobacco is caused by the ultramicroscopic agents
that can pass even through the pores of fine filter paper
which did not allow even bacterial cells to pass through.
The viruses possess a regular geometrical and

macromolecular organization. Basically all viruses consist
of a core of only one type of nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) which
remains wrapped in a coat of protein called capsid. The
capsid is composed of numerous protein molecules called
capsomeres. The capsomeres determine the shape of the
virus particle or viron, thus the viruses may contain three
types of symmetry such as cubic (eg Bacteriophase x 174,
Turnip yellow mosaic virus, etc.) Helical (eg Potato spindle
tuber virus) have no capsid around the nucleic acid core or
viral chromosomes. There are some highly specialized
viruses such as influenza virus and mumps containing a
membranous envelop around the capsid.
Viruses contain only one kind of nucleic acid as the

hereditary material. The DNA viruses have single DNA
molecule which may be either linear (having
free and) or circular (having no free end) in
shape, mostly, the linear DNA molecule is
double stranded (eg P22 bacteriophage). The
circular DNA molecule may be either single
stranded (eg x 174 bateriophage) or double
stranded as in most animal viruses. The RNA
viruses are the only biological systems known
in which RNA is the genetic material mostly,
the RNA is present in its usual single stranded
form (eg Plant viruses, Influenza etc.) but some
viruses such as Retrovirus have a core of
double stranded RNA similar in properties to
DNA.
The viruses lack in necessary energy
yielding and synthetic enzyme systems.
Therefore, they cannot lead a free living mode
BIOLOGY [33]
of life for the performance of fundamental life activities such

as reproduction, genetically determined structures and
functions, they have to lead a parasitic mode of existence. All
viruses are, therefore, invariably intercellular parasites of
specific hosts which may be bacteria plants, or animals. The
viruses may be classified into following 3 groups according
to the type of host:
A mild viral disease may grant its host immunity. For

example, cow-pox makes a persons lightly ill but provide
resistance against small-pox.
Viruses pass from one host to another by direct or

indirect contact.
A given vaccine is usually effective against one type of

virus but forever. Viral vaccines may have either mild
live virus which causes mild infection but body produces
antibodies or killed virus which induce the human body
to produce antibodies. For vaccination purposes virus
are killed by formaldehydes. Viral vaccines are used
against many diseases like yellow fever, rabies,
influenza, polio, small-pox, measles, mumps, rubella etc.
Viral vaccines are not useful for plants because they do
not produce antibodies. But the breed-plants, resistant
to virus can solve this problem.
Antibiotics and Sulfa-drugs are generally used against
virus.
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(i) Bacterial viruses or Bavteriophages: Viruses that

parasitize bacterial cells are called bacteriophages.
At the time of infection of T4 bacteriophage, a phage

becomes anchored to the bacterial cell wall by its tail fibres.
An enzyme at the core of the tail of the phage digests the
part of the bacterial cell wall so as to produce a hole and
finally, the phage DNA is infected into the bacterial cell.
(ii) Plant Viruses: The plant viruses parasitize the plant
cells and disturb their metabolism and cause severe
disease in them. All plant viruses consist of
ribonucleoproteins in their organization. Some of the
important plant viruses are tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
potato virus, and turnip yellow viruses (TYV).
(iii) Animal Viruses: They infect the animal cells and cause
different diseases in animals and human beings. Generally,
they have a spherical shape and genetic material in the
form of DNA and sometimes RNA. The capsid of animal
viruses is surrounded by an envelope. Some of them
are Small pox virus, Influenza virus, mumps, pea virus
etc. Poliomyelitis is an extensively studied animal virus
which has got RNA as its genetic material.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BACTERIA

AND VIRUSES
1. Viruses have only one type of nucleic acid either DNA

or RNA, whereas bacteria have got both.
2. Viruses are devoid of ribosomes and the enzyme systems

needed to generate ATP molecules, whereas bacteria
have got ribosomes as well as enzymes needed in ATP
synthesis.
3. Viruses lack various cytoplasmic organelles, whereas
bacteria have cytoplasmic organelles.
4. Viruses do not have cell wall but bacteria have well

defined cell wall.
5. Viruses cannot multiply or synthesize their proteins and
enzymes independent of the host cell, but, bacteria can.
A virus may not harm one type of host but may injure
or kill another. For example healthy potato virus do not
affect potato plant but harm the tomato plant.
Viruses may cause the wild growth and reproduction of

cells rather than their direct destruction. For instance
malignant tumour or cancer warts.
[34]
BIOLOGY
ALGAE
Algae are used by man in a great many ways. Because

many species are aquatic and microscopic, they are cultured
in clear tanks or ponds and either harvested or used to treat
effluents pumped through the ponds.
Food Stuff : Algaculture on a large scale is an important

type of aquaculture today. Certain species are edible like
red dulse, which is dried and marketed in Ireland. It is
eaten raw, fresh or dried, or cooked like spinach. Porphyra,
commonly known as purple laver, is also collected and used
as laver bread and jelly in UK. Chondrus crispus, common
name: Irish moss, is also used as carrageen for the stiffening
of milk and dairy products, such as ice-cream. Ulva lactuca,
common name: sea lettuce, is used locally in Scotland where
it is added to soups or used in salads.
Fertilizer: For centuries seaweed has been used as

manure. There are also commercial uses of algae as agar.
Maerl is harvested as fertiliser of organic gardening.
Chemical analysis of maerl showed that it contained 32.1%
CaCO3 and 3.1% MgCO3 (dry weight).
Energy Source: Algae can be used to make biodiesel,

and by some estimates can produce vastly superior amounts
of oil, compared to terrestrial crops grown for the same
purpose. Because algae grown to produce biodiesel does
not need to meet the requirements of a food crop, it is much
cheaper to produce. Also it does not need fresh water or
fertilizer. Algae like Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (a greenalgae) can be grown to produce hydrogen. Algae can be
grown to produce biomass, which can be burned to produce
heat and electricity.
Pollution Control: Algae are used in wastewater
treatment facilities, reducing the need for more dangerous
chemicals. Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff
from farms and if this algae is then harvested, it itself can
be used as fertilizer. Algae bioreactors are used by some
Viral Diseases in Humans

Disease
Small Pox
Chicken Pox
Common Cold
Influenza/Flu
Mumps
Measles virus
(Paramyxo virus)
Mumps virus
Viral
encephalitis
Poliomyelitis
Rabies
Dengue fever
Herpes simplex
Herpes Zoster
Acquired Immuno
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Encephalitis virus
(arbovirus)
Poliovirus
Rabies virus
Dengue virus
Herpes virus simplex
Herpes virus zoster
Human T-cell Leukemia virus (HTLV-III);
also called LAV
Mode of Transmission
Direct contact (droplets), indirected by infected articles
Direct contact (droplets), indirected by infected objects
Contact
Contact (droplets), virus transmitted through discharge from
respiratory
tracts of persons infected with disease
Direct contact, virus transmitted through air by droplets
during talking Coughing and sneezing.
Direct contact, virus in saliva & secretion of nose invades
salivary glands
Some domestic animals reservoir of virus, transmitted by
mosquito bite to man
Contact, housflies, fleas, food and and water
Bite of a mad (rabid) dog
Mosquito (Aedes) bite
Contact, Saliva, stools, contaminated articles.
Contact droplets
Via blood and sperm among homosexuals, heterosexuals,
intravenous drug users, haemophiliacs, promiscuous
individuals and prostitutes
Incubation
12 days
12-16 days
2-5 days
1-2 days
10-14 days
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Measles
Causative Pathogen
Variola virus
Varicella virus
Rhinovirus
Orthomixo-virus
12-21 days
4-21 days
7-14 days
2-16 days
4-8 days
7-14 days
2 months
to 10 yrs.
Viral Diseases in Plants
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Tabacco mosaic
Leaf curl
Carrot red leaf
Cauliflower mosaic
Bunchy top
Potato mosaic
Potato leaf roll
Viral Diseases in animals

1. African Horse Sickness
2. Bluetongue
3. Border disease
4. Hog cholera or swine fever
5. Cowpox
6. Bovine viral diarrhoea
7. Foot & mouth disease
8. Goat Pox
9. Louping ill
10. Pseudorabies or Aujeszkys
disease
11. Rabies
12. Rinderpest
13. Canine distemper
or Carres disease
14. Infectious canine Hepatitis
or Rubarths disease
15. Equine encephalomyelitis
or Blind staggers
16. Ranikhet disease
or New castle disease
or Doyles disease
17. Avian Monocytosis / Pullet
disease or Blue comb
18. Gumboro Disease
Tobacco, tomato
Tobacco, tomato, Papaya
Carrot
Cauliflower
Banana
Potato
Potato
Tobacco mosaic virus

Tobacco virus-16
Carrot red leaf virus
Cauliflower mosaic virus
Banana virus-1
Potato virus x.
Solanum virus 14
Horse, dog
Sheep, cattle, goat
Sheep
Pig
Cattle
Cattle
Cattle, Sheep, goat, pig
Cattle
Sheep
Pig
Orbivirus
Reoviridae
Pestivirus
Pestivirus
Orthopox virus
Pesti virus
Aptho virus
Capripox virus
Flavi virus
Alphaher-pesvirinae
Cattle, horse, sheep,

goat, pig man
Cattle, sheep, goat
Cat, Dog
Lyssa virus
Morbilli virus
Pantropic virus
Dog
Adeno virus
Horse, mules, mas
Japanese B encephalitis
virus
Fowl
Fowl
Fowl
BIOLOGY [35]
Some Useful Algae

Product
Iodine
Agar and Caragheen
Alginic Acid
Soil Fertilizer
Edible forms
Secreted by
Laminaria (brown algae)
Red algae
Brown algae
Blue green algae
Vulva, porphyra, Chlorella
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powerplants to reduce CO2 emissions. The CO2 can be

pumped into a pond, or some kind of tank, on which the
algae feed. Alternatively, the bioreactor can be installed
directly on top of a smokestack.
Nutritional Value of Algae: Algae is commercially
cultivated as a nutritional supplement. One of the most
popular microalgal species is Spirulina, which is a
Cyanobacteria (known as blue-green algae). Other algal
species cultivated for their nutritional value include;
Chlorella (a green algae), and Dunaliella (Dunaliella salina),
which is high in beta-carotene and is used in vitamin C
supplements. Algae is sometimes also used as a food, as in
the Chinese vegetable known as fatchoy (which is actually
a cyanobacterium). The oil from some algae have high levels
of unsaturated fatty acids. Arachidonic acid (a
polyunsaturated fatty acid), is very high in Parietochloris
incisa, (a green alga) where it reaches up to 47% of the
triglyceride pool.
Brown Algae : (brown pigment flucoxanthin): They are

marine plants and are the source of food for fish and
others- It is the major source of Alginic acid. By removing
from sea can be used as cattle feed. Some species yield
Iodine, some make excellent fertilizers. Kelps - B. Algae
include the largest member of the group. Macyosist
Pyrifera- giant kelp, longest plant of world (30 mt. or
more). Gulfweed or sargassum - B. Algae in Sargossa sea
(West Indies to Azores).
Dyes & Pigments: The natural pigments

produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical
dyes and coloring agents. Many of the paper products used
today are not recyclable because of the chemical inks that
they use but inks made from algae are much easier to break
down. There is also much interest in the food industry into
replacing the coloring agents that are currently used with
coloring derived from algal pigments.
Blue-Green Algae (Moneran): They contain a blue

pigment phycocyanin in addition to chlorophyll and
other pigments. Only asexual reproduction occurs among
them. They contaminate drinking water, causing very
disagreeable odour and taste. They bring about the
raddish colour of the Red Sea, used as soil fertilizer.
Some species thrive in the digestive tract of human
without causing ill effects. Some members - Gloeocapsa
and Nostoc have formed a partnership with fungi,
making up the separate group of organism known as
lichens.
Euglena : Found in stagnant ponds, swimming pools,

aquariums, water become greenish, unpleasant flavour.
Green Algae : Self-food maker, add O 2 to water

available for fish and other organism, also serve food
for these creatures. They often cause water pollution in
lakes, tanks etc. may cause unpleasant flavours and
odours, their respiration may lower the O2 content of
the water. So the fish in this area may die of suffocation
(CuSO4 can eradicate unwanted green algae). Spirogyra B.G. Algae
[36]
BIOLOGY
Diatoms (yellowish green to yellowish brown): They

have cell-wall, contain silica and are harmless to man.
They often make up the bulk of the plankton as sea
animal food. It serves as filter and clarify many liquids.
They are excellent insulating material for boilers, blast
furnacesy refrigerators and are used as a milk abrasive
in polishes and scouring powders
Red Algae : (red, brown and violet): They are

multicellular and generally used as food for sea animals
and fish, as food for human (in Europe and Far East).
Irish moss is also used for curing leather and for shoe
polish and creams and shampoos. Ceylon moss yields
an gelatinous material known as agar-agar, observe a
great deal of water, used by researchers as growth
material for bacteria, also serves to thicken soups and
broths, as a sizing material for textiles, as a mild laxative,
to provide body for puddings, pastries, ice-creams, etc.
Some algae secrete lime so they have helped to build
coral reefs (dating back to Ordovician times).
Ecological Role
Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every

environment on Earth and play very important roles in most
ecosystems. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major
decomposers in most terrestrial and some aquatic
ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in
biogeochemical cycles and in many food webs.
Many fungi are important as partners in symbiotic

relationships with other organisms, as mutualists, parasites,
or commensalists, as well as in symbiotic relationships that
do not fall neatly into any of these categories. One of the
most critically important of these relationships are various
types of mycorrhiza, which is a kind of mutualistic
relationship between fungi and plants, in which the plants
roots are closely associated with fungal hyphae and other
structures. The plant donates to the fungus sugars and other
carbohydrates that it manufactures from photosynthesis,
while the fungus donates water and mineral nutrients that
the hyphal network is able to find much more efficiently
than the plant roots alone can, particularly phosphorus.
The fungi also protect against diseases and pathogens
and provide other benefits to the plant. Recently, plants
have been found to use mycorrhizas to deliver carbohydrates
and other nutrients to other plants in the same community
and in some cases can make plant species that would
normally exclude each other able to coexist in the same plant

community.
It is also a common practice to permit the growth of

specific species of mold in certain types of cheeses that give
them their unique flavour. This mold is non-toxic and is
safe for human consumption. This accounts for the blue
colour in cheese such as Roquefort or Stilton.
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Lichens are formed by a symbiotic relationship between

algae or cyanobacteria and fungi, in which individual
photobiont cells are embedded in a complex of fungal
tissues. As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides sugars
and other carbohydrates while the fungus provides minerals
and water. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are
so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single
organism.
commercial sale. Milk mushrooms, morels, chanterelles,

truffles, black trumpets, and porcini mushrooms (also known
as king boletes) all command a high price in the market.
They are often used in gourmet dishes.
Certain insects also engage in mutualistic relationships

with various types of fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate
various fungi in the Agaricales as their primary food source,
while ambrosia beetles cultivate various kinds of fungi in
the bark of trees that they infest.
Some fungi are parasites of plants, animals (including

humans), and even other fungi. Pathogenic fungi are
responsible for numerous diseases, such as athletes foot
and ringworm in humans and Dutch elm disease in plants.
Some fungi are predators of nematodes, which they capture
using an array of devices such as constricting rings or
adhesive nets.
FUNGI
Fungi have a long history of use by humans. Many types

of mushrooms and other fungi are eaten, including button
mushrooms, shiitake mushrooms, and oyster mushrooms.
Of course, many species of mushrooms are poisonous and
are responsible for numerous cases of sickness and death
every year. A type of single-celled fungus called yeast is
used in baking bread and fermenting alcoholic beverages,
while mycelial fungus is used to make Shoyu (soya sauce)
and tempeh. Fungi are also used to produce industrial
chemicals like lactic acid, antibiotics and even to make
stonewashed jeans. Some types of fungi are ingested for
their psychedelic properties, both recreationally and
religiously.
Edible and Poisonous Fungi
Some of the most well-known types of fungi are the

edible and poisonous mushrooms. Many species are
commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the
wild. Button mushrooms are the most commonly eaten
species, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes.
Portobello mushrooms are the same species, but are allowed
to grow to a much larger size. Other commercially-grown
mushrooms that have gained in popularity in the West and
are often available fresh in grocery stores include straw
mushrooms (Volvariella volvacea), oyster mushrooms
(Pleurotus ostreatus), shiitakes (Lentinula edodes), and
enokitake (Flammulina spp.).
There are many more mushroom species that are
harvested from the wild for personal consumption or
Hundreds of mushroom species are toxic to humans,

causing anything from upset stomachs to hallucinations to
death. Some of the most deadly belong to the genus Amanita.
Stomach cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea usually occur
within 6-24 hours after ingestion of these mushrooms,
followed by a brief period of remission, usually 1-2 days.
Patients often fail to present themselves for treatment at
this time, assuming that they have recovered. However,
within 2-4 weeks liver and kidney failure leads to death if
untreated. There is no antidote for the toxins in these
mushrooms, but kidney dialysis and administration of
corticosteroids may help. Fly agaric mushrooms are also
responsible for a large number of poisonings, but these cases
rarely result in death.
Fungi in Biological Control of Pests
Many fungi compete with other organisms, or directly

infect them. Some of these fungi are considered beneficial
because they can restrict, and sometimes eliminate, the
populations of noxious organisms like pests, insects, mites,
weeds, nematodes and other fungi, such as those that kill
plants. There is much interest on the manipulation of these
beneficial fungi for the biological control of pests. Some of
these fungi can be used as biopesticides, like the ones that
kill insects (entomopathogenic fungi). Specific examples of
fungi that have been developed as bioinsecticides are
Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Hirsutella,
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus, and Verticillium lecanii.
In Brief:
Mycorrhizal (fungus root) : some fungus invade the

roots of the plant but instead of harming the seed plants
it helps them by assisting in transporting water and
minerals from the soils to the roots of the plant. The seed
plant in turn supplies food to fungi. Fungi of this kind
are called Mycorrhizal. A good example of symbiosis.
Downy mildews : they produce a downy growth on

the surface of infected plant parts usually on leaves.
One of the best known downy mildews is the late blight
of potatoes. They also cause other plant diseases, they
attack tobacco, cabbage, cucumbers, etc.
Black bread mould group : usually called mucors. Most

of them occurs as fluffy growth on bread, fruits,
vegetables and preserved food. They are white at first
BIOLOGY [37]
Mushrooms and Toadstools : The first is edible while

the second one is poisonous.
Yeast : occurs wherever simple sugars are available like

on fruits, in the sap from trees, in soil (particularly in
orchards and vine yards).
Brewers Yeast : has been bred for high alcoholic

fermentation; used in making beer, liquors, commercial
alcohol.
Imperfect fungi : from the class Deuteromycotina,

parasitic. They are often very destructive to crop and
ornamental plants and causes disease in human beings,
responsible for ringworm.
Lichens : a combination of fungus and an algae;

symbiosis; through photosynthesis the algae
manufactures all the organic food that they both require.
The fungus brings in water and minerals and offers
protection to the algae. Certain kinds of lichens yields
litmus a dye used as chemical indicators.
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but soon becomes dark as their spores mature in large

number. It develops on bread.
Bakers Yeast : is placed in bread dough, it causes the

dough to rise or expand by producing CO2.
Candida Albicans : responsible for thrush, a disease of

mouth and throat.
Blue and Green Moulds Group : Aspergillus, (primary

source of citric acid, used in flavouring candies & fruits)
Penicillium (used for antibiotics).
Powdery Mildews : as powdery white substance on

leaves. They are plant parasites, causes disease of crop
plants and ornamentals, including grape, apple, rose, etc.
Rusts and Smuts : parasitic, attack higher plants. Most

common species is wheat barberry rust.
[38]
BIOLOGY
Yeasts : one
classified in
asexually by
baking bread
Mushrooms : complex is the fleshy, spore bearing

fruiting body of a fungus. Are neither angosperms nor
gymnosperms and do not undergo photosynthesis.
Edible mushrooms are consumed by humans for their
nutritioned and medicinal value and are cultivated.
celled are eukaryotic micro-organisms

the Kingdom Fungi. Most reproduce
mitosis and also by budding. Used in
and alcoholic beverages.
DIET & NUTRITION
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
(viii) Insectivores: Eating insects, e.g., common bats.
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The sum total of all the processes starting from taking

the food upto its utilisation is called nutrition. Depending
upon the mode of nutrition, the organisms can be classified
as autotrophs and heterotrophs. Autotrophs manufacture
their own organic food from inorganic raw materials. They
are of two types, photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs.
Heterotrophs are unable to manufacture their own food.
They obtain organic food from outside. All animals, including man and non-green plants show hetertrophic mode of
nutrition. Heterotrophic organisms or heterotrophs obtain
all their energy requirements mainly from organic substances
like carbohydrates and fats. They derive their foodstuffs
directly or indirectly from the plants.
Hetertrophic nutrition is of two types: (i) Saprozoic or

saprophytic, (ii) Holozoic. In saprophytic nutrition, as in
non-green plants, the organisms secrete starch digesting enzymes to digest the food and then absorb the nutrients. In
saprozoic organisms like the malarial parasite in man and
monocystis in earthworm the already digested food is
aobsorbed by the process of diffusion. But nutrition in most
of free living animals is holozoic. In this type of nutrition,
food may be a small organism, a plant or an animal.
Depending upon food, nutritionally animals are:
(i)
Herbivores: Feeding on plant food e.g., Goat, Cow,

Rabbit.
(ii)
Carnivores: feeding on other animals e.g., Lion, Tiger.
(iii) Omnivores: Feeding on all types of food e.g., humans.
(iv) Detrivores: Feeding on detritus or organic remains e.g.,

Earthworm.
(v)
Scavengers: Feeding on carrions (carrion eaters), e.g.,

Vulture.
(vi) Frugivorous: Feeding on fruits, e.g., Parrot.
(vii) Sanguivores: Taking meal of blood, e.g., Leech, female Mosquito.
(ix) Cannibals. Eating other members of own species, e.g.,

many snakes.
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
The nutritional requirements of man are more complex

than those of the other organisms. Man obtains his energy
primarily as a result of the oxidation of nutrients seen as
glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids, derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates, protein and fats. But these digested
food stuffs do not constitute the complete diet of an individual. A balanced diet should have a proportionate amount
of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, salts, water vitamin content and non-digestible roughage which is comprised of green vegetables. The cellulose found in the roughage is not digested in man and other carnivorous animals
because enzyme cellulase is missing. The food-stuffs used
by mankind includes different nutrients like carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water which can
broadly be divided into following groups:
(i) Energy yielding food: Carbohydrate and fats,
(ii) Body building food: Protein and minerals,
(iii)Protective food: Vitamin and minerals.
Balanced Diet is the diet that contains all the components in optimum proportions and quantity required for
maintaining the body in perfect state of health, activity and
development. Various components of balanced diet are carbohydrates (60%), fats (25%), proteins (15%), vitamins
(traces), minerals (traces) and roughage.
CARBOHYDRATES
It is starchy and sugar element of diet, the fuel of human body. One gram of carbohydrate provides 4.1 Cal. energy. It is manufactured by green plants through the process of photosynthesis. Herbivorous animals take it indirectly form plants while the carnivorous animals take
it indirectly. Liver convert the excess carbohydrate into
glycogen and store in itself and muscles. Glycogen is
known as animal starch because it is not produced in
plants. Excess carbohydrate is ultimately converted into
fat. There are three forms of carbohydrates:
A. Monosacharides (C6H12O6): It is the simplest form
and animals can derive energy only in this form. The
examples are glucose (dextrose or grape sugar), galactose (soluble milk sugar), fructose (fruit sugar).
B. Disacharides (C12 H22 O11): It is formed by hydrolysis of two monosacharide molecules e.g. sucrose (cane
sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose (malt sugar). On
BIOLOGY [39]
SIMPLE & COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES

These are often confused with refined and unrefined carbohydrates, but the terms simple and complex refer to how
complicated the chemical structure of a carbohydrate is rather than to whether its wholegrain or not. Complex
carbohydrates are the most common and are of three kinds:
Glycogen is our bodys major fuel source and is sometimes referred to as blood sugar. Its formed from glucose,
which is found in almost all foods, and is converted into energy.
Starch is only found in plants and, contrary to popular belief, is not fattening (it is the rich sauces, fats and oils often
added to pasta, potatoes, rice, noodles and bread that are the culprits).
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Fibre (non-starch polysaccharide) is abundant in unrefined carbohydrates, fruit and vegetables, and is important
because it helps your body to process waste efficiently and helps you to feel fuller for longer. If you decide to increase
the amount of fibre you eat, try to drink more water too. Your body doesnt digest fibre, so you need the extra water
to help it flow through your digestive system with ease. Nutritionists recommend that your dietary intake must include
18g of fibre every day.
an average, we have the equivalent of four teaspoons of

sugar circulating in our bloodstream.
C. Polysacharides [Cn(H2O)n]: It is a complex form of chains

of monosacharides. However it is difficult to digest the
ploysacharides easily. Human can digest all forms of
carbohydrates except cellulose. The major polysacharides
are starch, glycogen, cellulose, etc.
Living cells receive carbohydrates from blood mostly as

glucose. Glucose is also called blood sugar. Normal content
of glucose in blood is 80 100 mg /100 ml. Glucose is
absorbed from alimentary canal. Excess is stored in liver
muscles as glycogen. The process of formation of glycogen
from glucose is called glycogenesis. When level of blood
glucose falls, glycogen of liver is hydrolysed to produce it.
The phenomenon is called glycogenolysis. Excess carbohydrate of food is changed to fat through the process of lipogenesis. Pentose sugars are components of nucleotides, coenzymes and nucleic acids. Daily requirement of an adult is
500 gm.
Refined carbohydrates refers to foods where machinery has been used to remove the high fibre bits (the bran
and the germ) from the grain. White rice, white bread, sugary cereals, and pasta and noodles made from white flour
are all examples of refined carbohydrates. Unrefined carbohydrates still contain the whole grain, including the bran
and the germ, so theyre higher in fibre and will keep you
feeling fuller for longer - great if youre trying to lose weight
and hate feeling hungry. Examples include wholegrain rice,
wholemeal bread, porridge oats and wholewheat pasta.
FATS
It is a concentrated source of energy and supplies per

unit weight more than double the energy furnished by either protein or carbohydrates. They act as stock food of the
body because they consume less space and do not absorb
water. One gram of fat provides 9.3 Cal. of energy. Fats are
stored as future food. It also protects some vital organs
from shock and injury. Subcutaneous fat acts as insulating
material and preserve the body.
Fats are a group of chemical compounds that contain

fatty acids. Energy is stored in the body mostly in the form
of fat. Fat is needed in the diet to supply essential fatty
acids, substances essential for growth but not produced by
the body itself. There are three main types of fatty acids:
[40]
BIOLOGY
RECOMMENDED DAILY FAT INTAKE
Total calories
per day
1,600
2,000
2,200
2,500
2,800
Saturated fat
in grams
18 or less
20 or less
24 or less
25 or less
31 or less
Total fat
in grams
53
65
73
80
93
saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated. All fatty

acids are molecules composed mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms. A saturated fatty acid has the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms attached to every carbon
atom. It is therefore said to be saturated with hydrogen
atoms.
Some fatty acids are missing one pair of hydrogen
atom in the middle of the molecule. This gap is called
unsaturation and the fatty acid is said to be
monounsaturated because it has one gap. Fatty acids that
are missing more than one pair of hydrogen atoms are called
polyunsaturated. Saturated fatty acids are mostly found
in foods of animal origin. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids are mostly found in foods of plant
origin and some seafoods. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are
of two kinds, omega-3 or omega-6. Polyunsaturated and
monounsaturated fats do not promote the formation of artery-clogging fatty deposits the way saturated fats do.
PROTEINS
It is the primary food-stuff of the animals, the chief

substance of the cells of the body. They form important
constituents of muscles and other tissues and vital fluids
like blood, enzymes and anti-bodies. Proteins are made of
amino-acids which are the only source of nitrogen in the
body. Nitrogen is essential for replacement of body cells
and for growth. Nitrogen cannot be stored in the body so it
must be included in everyday intake of food. Proteins are
the raw materials for manufacturing of harmones, enzymes,
antibodies etc. because proteins are the largest molecules in
the nature. Amino-acid was first discovered by William
Rosh of USA. One gram of protein provides 4.1 Cal. of
energy and is most commonly found in cheese, lean meat,
soyabean, peanuts etc.
Animal proteins are called first class proteins because
they supply all the amino acids required for building various
proteinaceous substances. Plant proteins often lack one or more
CHOLESTEROL
Cholesterol is sort of a cousin of fat. Both fat and cholesterol belong to a larger family of chemical compounds
called lipids. All the cholesterol the body needs is made by the liver. It is used to build cell membranes and brain and
nerve tissues. Cholesterol also helps the body produce steroid hormones needed for body regulation, including processing food, and bile acids needed for digestion.
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People dont need to consume dietary cholesterol because the body can make enough cholesterol for its needs.
Only foods of animal origin contain cholesterol.
Cholesterol is transported in the bloodstream in large molecules of fat and protein called lipoproteins. Cholesterol
carried in low-density lipoproteins is called LDL-cholesterol; most cholesterol is of this type. Cholesterol carried in highdensity lipoproteins is called HDL-cholesterol.
A high level of LDL-cholesterol in the blood increases the risk of fatty deposits forming in the arteries, which in turn
increases the risk of a heart attack. Thus, LDL-cholesterol has been dubbed bad cholesterol.
An elevated level of HDL-cholesterol seems to have a protective effect against heart disease. For this reason, HDLcholesterol is often called good cholesterol.
Triglycerides and VLDL: Triglyceride is another form in which fat is transported through the blood to the body tissues.
Most of the bodys stored fat is in the form of triglycerides. Another lipoproteinvery low-density lipoprotein, or VLDL
has the job of carrying triglycerides in the blood.
amino acids which human beings cannot build from

others. The amino acids which cannot be formed by
humans from other amino acids are called essential
amino acids. They are eight in numbermethionine,
threonine, tryptophan, valine, leucine, isoleucine,
lysine, and phenylalanine.
Protein plays an essential role in building and
repairing your body. Although all animal and plant
cells contain some protein, the amount and the
quality of the protein varies a lot. High biological
value foods contain enough indispensable amino
acids for an adult diet and are considered to be good
quality protein. Meat, fish and eggs come in this
category. Low biological value foods dont contain
enough indispensable amino acids. Plant foods, such
as pulses, nuts and seeds, are in this group.
Minerals and their Functions
Mineral /
Element
Food Sources
Function
in the body
Deficiency
Diseases
Sodium
Chloride
Potassium
Table salt,
vegetables
Green veg.
and fruits
Osmoregulation
of body fluid
As for sodium
and transmission
of nerve impulses
Cramp after
prolonged
deficiency Rarely
deficient Fatigue
musde weakness
Calcium
Milk, Cheese
Healthy growth of
bones and teeth,
for blood clotting
Rickets
Phosphorus
Almost
For healthy teeth

all types of foods
Rarely deficient
and bones
Iron
meat, eggs
liver
Haemoglobin
of blood
Anaemia
Iodine
marine food
proper
functioning
of thyroid gland
Goitre
Some plant foods are low in one kind of amino

acid whereas other plant foods are higher in that
Fluorine
drinking water, develop
Dacaying
amino acid. Foods such as eggs, nuts, seeds, beans,
added to
resistance in
tooth
pulses, vegetable protein foods and soya products
drinking water
tooth enamel
all contain protein. There are also small amounts in
where deficient
grains and dairy products. Health professionals recommend that protein makes up ten to 15 per cent of your A large number of minerals which accounts 4 per cent of the
diet. They suggest men eat 55.5g protein a day and women body weight performs a variety of functions. Calcium and
eat 45g. In real terms, eating a moderate amount of protein phosphate form about three-fourths of the mineral elements.
- in one or two meals every day - should give you all the Five other minerals- potassium, sulphur, sodium, chlorine
protein you need. The need to eat protein every day is worth and magnesium account for most of the rest. Minerals mainemphasising, because your body cant store it. Eggs contain tain the body metabolism and preserve the physical shape of
all eight essential amino acids, making them a perfect source the body cell. They maintain the proper osmotic pressure in
the cells.
of protein.
When excess proteins are taken they are converted

into glycogen and finally into fat. Conversion of proteins
into carbohydrates is known as Gluconeogenesis. The deficiency of protein into human body may cause Kwashiorkar
which means red haired. The chief characteristics of
this deficiency disease are loss of body weight, inflamation
of joints, red hair in the children, large belly in children etc.
Sodium. It is main cation of extracellular fluid, component of bile salt which is involved in osmotic balance,
acid-basic balance, absorption of glucose, electro-chemical impulse conduction in nerves and muscles.
Chlorine. Main anion of extracellular fluid, involved in

HCL synthesis and acid-base balance.
MINERALS
Potassium. The cation is present in intracellular as well

as vextracellular fluid. It takes part in muscle and nerve
activity, glycogen and protein synthesis.
Vitamins and minerals are called micronutrients while

protein, carbohydrates and fats are called macronutrients.
BIOLOGY [41]
Magnesium. It is an enzyme activator, component of

bones and teeth besides being required for muscle relaxation. Deficiency produces convulsions.
Sulphur. It is a constitutent of many proteins, enzymes

and coenzymes.
Cobalt. A component of B12. Deficiency causes pernicious

anaemia.
Fluorine. Maintains enamel and checks dental decay. In

excess, it is harmful to teeth and bones.
Calcium. It is the major component of bones and teeth.

Calcium is also required for blood clotting, muscle
contraction. ATP-ase, nerve impulse transmission, heart
functioning, etc. Vitamin D is essential for calcium
absorp-tion. Deficiency produces rickets and muscle
spasms.
Osteoporosis: Calcium is a mineral that strengthens your

bones and teeth, and ensures everything runs smoothly
with your muscles and nerves. Its especially
important for growth. Calcium can continue to add to
the strength of your bones until you reach the age of 30
to 35, when peak bone mass is reached. After this point,
as a natural part of the ageing process, your bones lose
their density and grow weaker. If you havent had
enough calcium in your diet prior to this, theres an
increased risk that your bones wont be strong enough
to cope with any weakening, which can result in the
brittle bone disease, osteoporosis.
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Phosphorus. Alongwith calcium, it occurs in bones and

teeth. Phosphorus is a component of nucleic acids,
phospholipids, ATP and some coenzymes.
Phosphorylation activates sugars and fatty acids.
Phosphate is pH buffer. Deficiency reduces growth
metabolism and causes rickets in children.
Iron. It is re-used in the body. Iron is a component of

haemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochromes and ferredoxin.
Deficiency leads to anaemia.
Iodine. It is essential for production of hormone thyroxine of thyroid glands. Deficiency causes goitre.
Adequate requirements of some important minerals in

the diet per day are as follows:
Chloride 3500 mg
Magnesium 400 mg
Sodium 3000 mg
Iron 18 mg
Calcium 1200 mg
Zinc 15 mg
Phosphorus 1200 mg Iodine 0.15 mg
Anaemia: This results from insuffcient iron in the diet,

consequently, there is deficiency of haemoglobin in the
Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC).
Hypokalemia: Sometimes, severe loss of potassium occurs in the body due to excessive secretions of hormones
of the adrenal cortex or in the course of severe vomiting
and acute diarrhoea. This causes rise in heart beat rate,
kidney damage, weakness and paralysis of muscles.
Hyponatremia: An increased loss of sodium from the

body after intense vomiting and diarrhoea, leads to
dehydration, low blood pressure and even loss of body weight.
Goitre: It is caused by deficiency of iodine. Consquently,

the thyroid fails to secrete enough thyroxine. The absense
or very low level of thyroxine steps up the production
of Thyroid Stimulating Hormones (TSH) by the anterior
pituitary. The increasing level of TSH brings about the
enlargement of thyroid known as goitre. People living
in areas with low iodine content in water are therefore
advised to use iodized common salts containing 0.01%
potassium iodate.
[42]
BIOLOGY
WATER
An average man contains about 45 litres of water which

is 70 per cent of the body weight. The cell contains 30 litres
and 3 litres are in the blood plasma, where the suspended
cells take a total volume of blood upto 5 litres. The remaining 12 litres fill the space between groups of cells. This is
tissue fluids which baths all the cells of the body.
Water is absolutely necessary for the digestion and absorption of the foods taken in. It is a universal solvent and
neutraliser in the body. It is the substance in which the
bodily reactions take place. It is the carrier or transporting
medium of all nutrients and body substances. It also regulates the body temperature. Acidosis, alkalosis, dehydration, oedema, fever, shock, uraemia and constipation are
some of the clinical signs of inadequate salt and water in
the body.
VITAMINS
Although these have no energy value, they are important accessory substances which contribute to the maintenance of health. Funk for the first time used the term Vitamin. Plants can make vitamins from simple substances,
but animals mostly obtain them readymade directly or indirectly from plants. Vitamins are complex organic substances and are essential for growth, metabolism and full
utilisation of food. Most of them are not synthesized by the
animals. However Vitamin-B is synthesized by bacteria
present in the intestine. Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat soluble
while vitamin B and C are water soluble.
Pulses are rich source of minerals but they are rich in
vitamin-B. Dried pulses do not contain Vitamin-C but if
they are germinated, significant amount of Vitamin-C is
regulated. Egg is the rich source of all nutrients except vitamin-C. Milk is also a source of all vital nutrients except
Vitamin-C and iron. Animal foods are rich is fat soluble
while plants foods are rich in water soluble vitamins. Excess of vitamins-B and C is not dangerous because they are
washed away. But excess of Vitamin A and D is harmful
and is known as Hypervitaminosis. It is characterised by
tirdness, brittle nail, elongated lever, dry and scaly skin,
loss of hair and loss of calcium from the bones.
Vitamin-A (Ratinol): Known as anti-infective vitamin,

strengthen the integrity of skin, mucous membranes, epithelial cells. Essential for the formation of visual Rods and
Cones of the ratina of the eyes. It also helps in the growth

and formation of teeth and bone; so is more essential for
children and nursing mothers. Carotene is the pro-vitamin
of Vitamin -A and the conversion takes place in the liver.
Sources : Animal oils such as liver oils of certain fish,
egg yolks, green and yellow vegetables.
Deficiency Symptoms : Night blindness, Xerophthalmia,

abnormal changes in various epithelial membranes, retarded growth.
Sources : Citrus fruits like lemons, oranges, goose-berry,

cabbage, leafy vegetables etc. Milk is deficient in it.
Deficiency Symptoms: Scurvy (spongy gum), retarded

growth.
Vitamin-D (Calcipherol): Essential for absorption of calcium and phosphates in the body so it regulates the bone
and teeth formation. It is more needed by the children and
nursing mothers. It can also be produced in the human body.
Ergosterd is the pro-vitamin of calcipherol. Ergosterd is the
colouring matter found in sub-cutinous fat and converted
into vitamin-D by kidney in presence of ultra-violet rays.
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sential daily intake is of 30-50 mg.
Vitamin-B1 (Thiamine): It is the first vitamin to be discovered by Eijkman. Essential for healthy nerves and mucous membranes. Essential daily intake is around 1.5 mg. It
is easily lost into heat.
Source : Cereal grains, especially the outer seed coats,

meats, yeast, green vegetable, lever etc.
Sources : Animal oils, butter, milk, fish-liver, solar ultra-violet rays, etc.
Deficiency Symptoms: Degenerate calcium metabolism,

rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. Slow
growth.
Deficiency symptoms : Beri-beri (nerve paralysis, weakness, staggering gait, nerve-pain), Polyneurities, loss of
apetite and weight, etc.
Vitamin-B2 (Riboflovin): It is essential for normal

growth and healthy cornea. The essential daily intake is
around 2 mg.
Sources: Associated with B1 and other members of Bcomplex found in milk products, egg, lever, yeast and
green vegetables.
Deficiency Symptoms : Cataract, defective skin patches

around mouth and tongue (Ariboflavinosis), slow metabolism and retarded growth.
Vitamin-B6 (Pyridoxin): Essential for protein metabolism and blood formation. Deficiency is rare because it is
found in most of the food
Sources : Meats, eggs, nuts and cereals
Deficiency Symptoms : Mild anaemia atrophied lymph

tissue, insufficient leucosytes and antibodies, low resistance to infection.
Vitamin-B12 (Cytamine/Cobalamin): Essential for the development of red blood cells-RBC
Source : Liver
Deficiency Symptoms : Pernicious anaemia ( acute form

of anaemia) also known as Megaloblastic anaemia.
Vitamin-P-P (Niacin): Essential for healthy digestive

tracks. Essential daily intake is of 17 mg.
Sources : Part of B-complex
Deficiency Symptom : Pellagra, dirrahoea
Vitamin-C (Ascorbic Acid): Most abundent vitamin

found in nature. Animal foods are generally deficient in
vitamin-C. Plants are rich in it but is easily lost due to heat
and storage. Fresh potato contains vitamin-C. It provides
the collagen which binds the cell together and helps in keeping the skin elastic and supple. Deficiency leads to leakage
of blood within the body. Essential for quick healing of
wounds and for proper absorption of ions in the body. Es-
Vitamin-E (Tocopherol): Anti-sterility vitamin
Sources: Unpolished grain, animal & vegetable oil, wheat
Deficiency Symptoms: Sterility in Rats (not in man), muscular paralysis.
Vitamin-K: Vitamin K occurs in two formsK1 and K2,

the former occuring in many plants and the latter in fish
meal. The vitamin has a role in photosynthesis. It helps in
coagulation of blood in higher animals by the release of
Piothrombin into the blood. K stands for Kgulation or coagulation Essential for manufacturing of protein Prothrombin. It can be absorbed in body only in presence of bile and
can be synthesised by intestinal bacterias
Sources: Leafy vegetable
Deficiency Symptoms: Improper coagulation of blood,

slow growth.
Lathyrism: This disease is caused by a water soluble

neurotoxin, which is consumed with Kesari dal (Lathyrus
sativus) common symptoms are lesions on the lower spinal
segments followed by paralysis of legs.
NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS
1. Marasmus: It is a disorder caused by deficiency of food

or protein energy malnutrition (PEM), Marasmus occurs in infants (1-2 years), when they do not get sufficient mothers milk and weaning diet.
2. Kwashiorkor : It is a protein energy malnutrition that
occurs in children of 1 4 years due to constant reduced protein availability. A kwashiorkor child has mat
stick legs, protruded belly, blotchy skin, anaemia,
oedema of certain parts and repeated diarrhoea.
3. Obesity : Obesity is a luxury nutritional disorder caused

by greater intake of food than the requirement of body.
It is quite common in persons having higher intake of
sweets, carbohyd rate rich food, fried articles, fat rich
food and absence of roughage in food.
BIOLOGY [43]
4. Hyper-cholesterolemia : It is characteriseed by high

blood cholesterol due to higher intake of cholesterol rich
eggs, red meat, butter and ghee or reduced biotin intake. Cholestorol gets deposited on the walls of blood
vessels making their lumen narrow and walls stiffer.
This increases blood pressure or hypertension. It leads
to other cardio-vascular disorders.
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5. Rickets : The disorder is due to deficient ossification of

bone ends leading to their bending and swelling of joints
(knee, wrist, elbow). It occurs in children of 6 months to
2 years when their diet is deficient in vitamin D, calcium or phosphorus.
plants. Some other plants such as fungi and bacteria which

do not possess photosynthetic pigments and which are not
capable of manufacturing their own organic food have to
depend for their organic food requirements on outside
sources and are called heterotrophic plants. Among heterotrophic plants those which totally depend on living plants
and animals for their organic food requirements are known
as parasites and those plants which depend on dead and
rotting organic remains of plants and animals are called
saprophytes.
6. Osteomalacia : The disorder occurs in adults when their

food is deficient in vitamin D1, calcium or phosphorus.
Bones of vertebral column become weak. Pelvic and
other bones bend and become soft.
7. Xerophthalmia : It is vitamin A deficiency disorder

which is caused by stoppage of lacrimal activity. Cornea and eye lids become dry and ulcerated. It leads to
swelling of dry eye lids and opacity of cornea.
Xerophythalmia, if untreated leads to blindness.
8. Night Blindness (Nyctalopia) : Dietary deficiency of

vitamin A results in deficiency of rhodopsin or visual
purple. The latter impairs the ability to see in dim light
or night.
9. Beri-Beri : Beriberi is a debility produced by deficiency

of thiamine as during excessive intake of polished rice.
It results in loss of appetite, slow reflexes, body rigidity
and neuritis. There is inflammation of peripheral nerves,
weakening of muscles, paralysis and progressive oedema.
10. Pellagra : The disorder is due to deficient vitamin nicotinamide (= niacin = nicotinic acid). It is characterised
by extra-pigmentation, thickening cracks and eruptions
in exposed regions of skin (dermatitis), glossistis (swollen
tongue), swollen lips, peripheral neuritis, and dementia.
Partially autotrophic and partially heterotrophic are insectivorous plants which posses the green pigments and
can manufacture carbohydrates but are not capable of
synthesising nitrogenous compounds and proteins. Insectivorous plants have to depend on insects which they catch
and digest by specific devices developed in them.
Symbiosis: The common examples are Lichens and Mycorrhizae. In case of parasites only parasites are benefitted
and the host are always at loss, but in symbiosis both the
plants are benefitted. In case of lichenss algae manufacture
the food whereas fungal members help in the water absorption. Association of nitrogen fixing bacteria with leguminous plants (nodules) is symbiosis. Such plants are known
as symbionts and the mode of nutrition is called mutualistic
modes of nutrition.
Major Plants Macro Nutrients are as follows:
Nitrogen (N): N 2 deficiency in the plants leads to

decrease in angle between stem and leaf. In cereals and
many other grasses, tomato and potato, the leaves assume a more erect position than usual is due to Nitrogen deficiency. Chlorophyll synthesis is retarded and
leaves turn yellow, this yellowing is rather more pronounced in older leaves. Nitrogen deficiency in wheat
leads to formation of longer roots.
Phosphorus (P): Its deficiency is reflected by abnormal

colour of leaf, generally these symptoms appear in older
leaves. In cereals, phosphorus deficiency is similar to
those of nitrogen i.e. lessened leaf angle, reduced
fillering, prolonged dormancy, premature leaf fall, and
decreased number and size of flower. Often, phosphorus deficiency leads to accumulation of carbohydrates
and reduction of nitrogen fractions.
Calcium (Ca): Calcium is the chief constituent of plants

as calcium pectate of middle lamella of cell wall. The
deficiency of calcium appears in the young leaves and
near the growing points of stem and root. In its deficiency, margins of leaves, often appear irregular in form
or often show brown scorching or spotting effects. It
also leads to impaired development of lateral roots and
nuclear division. Sometimes root hairs of calcium deficient plants become bulbous. Fresh supply of calcium
helps in greater production of nuts in groundnut.
Iron (Fe): It acts as a catalyst and electron carrier in

respiration. In extreme deficiency conditions scorching of leaf margins and tips may occur. In mild deficiency it produces a mottled pattern or leaf may show
complete bleaching. In deficiency chlorosis of the
11. Scurvy (Sailors Diseases) : Vitamine C (ascorbic acid)

deficiency leads to scurvy characterised by bleeding
gums, falling of teeth, fragile blood vessels, fragile bones
and slow healing of injuries.
12. Cheilosis : Inflammation and cracking of mouth corners due to riboflavin (B2) deficiency.
13. Anaemia : It is a disorder in which haemoglobin content of the blood is low due to either few red blood
corpulscles or their haemoglobin content. It is of three
types (a) Microcytic (most common) due to iron deficiency leading to fewer and smaller erythrocytes with
reduced haemoglobin. (b) Megablastic due to fewer abnormal red blood cells caused by deficiency of folic acid
or B12 (c) Pernicious due to production of haemoglobin
free immature RBCs caused by B12 deficiency as a result
of deficient intrinsic factor. Sickle cell anaemia is genetically controlled.
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
Plants green in colour and capable of synthesising their

own organic food requirements are known as autotrophic
[44]
BIOLOGY
leaves occurs and young leaves are severely affected.

Principal veins may remain green.
Manganese (Mn): It is metallic cofactor for some respiratory enzymes such as malic dehydrogenase. It also
serves as an activator for enzyme connected with reduction of nitrate. Mn influences absorption of other
elements such as K and Ca. Its deficiency leads to chloroplast disintegration. In its deficiency the root system
is often poorly developed and badly affected.
Boron (B): It favours the absorption of calcium. It is

essential for translocation of sugars and is involved in
reproduction and germination of pollens. Its deficiency
is responsible for several diseases such as Heart rot of
sugar beet and marigold, Hard fruits of citrus and top
sickness of tobacco.
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tion from growing plants and added residue. Zinc deficiency symptoms in citrus fronts are widespread where
it causes the condition known as mottle leaf.
Zinc (Zn): It is also found in soils in very small quantities and largely it results from concentration and addi-
BIOLOGY [45]
CHRONICLE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
IAS ACADEMY
wouldnt be able to experience salty, bitter, sweet or sour

sensations. While our tastebuds are busy at work, our teeth
grind the food into easily digestible pieces and our saliva
moistens
everything,
so
it
doesnt scrape our digestive (gastrointestinal) tract on the
way down.
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The canal or body parts in which digestion takes place

is called Alimentary canal. It starts from the mouth and
passing through oesophagus, stomach and small intestine
finally ends into large intestine. Absorption of digested food
mainly takes place in small intestine. Undigested and
unabsorbed material then pass down into the colon and
rectum which absorb the excess water and with the help of
putrefying bacteria form faeces. Finally the faeces passes
out through the anus.
HUMAN DIGISTIVE SYSTEM
Mouth
It is a transverse slit bounded by two movable lips.
Vestibule is the space between gums and lips. Its lining has
mucous glands. Buccal Cavity (Oral Cavity) is a large space
bounded by palate above, throat with tongue below and
jaws with teeth on the sides. Salivary glands open into it.
Palate
Palate or roof of the buccal cavity is differentiable into

anterior hard palate and posterior soft palate. Hard palate
has transverse rugae supported by bones for holding food
under mastication. Soft palate has smooth surface. It takes
part in swallowing. There is a hanging flap called uvula. It
is meant for closing internal nares.
Tongue
Tongue is a muscular, protrusible

flattened structure which extends into a
part of pharynx. There are different
areas for different tastes sweet (tip),
salt
(tip
and sides), sour (sides) and bitter (base).
Tongue is involved in speech,
swallowing, taste, ingestion and moving
food below teeth. The basal region also
contains two tonsils or lingual tonsils.
Tonsils contain lymphoid tissue.
Tonsillitis is inflammation of tonsils.
Taste
We have roughly 10,000 tastebuds

on our tongue, which come alive the
moment we put food in our mouth. As
nerve endings, they are responsible for
sussing out the chemicals in the food
we have eaten and transmitting
messages to our brain. Without them we
[46]
BIOLOGY
Pharynx
It lies between soft palate and sixth cervical vertebra.
Pharynx is distinguishable into three parts nasopharynx,
oropharynx and laryngopharnx. It contains two internal
nares, openings of two eustachian tubes, openeing of larynx
or glottis, opening of oesophagus or gullet. Glottis can be
closed by raising of larynx to bring in contact with epiglottis.
Internal nares can be closed by uvula. This is done during
swallowing.
Oesophagus
The Oesophagus is an organ in vertebrates which

consists of a muscular tube through which food passes from
the mouth to the stomach. The esophagus is continuous
with the laryngeal part of the pharynx at the level of the C6
vertebra.
Function: Food is passed through the esophagus by

using the process of peristalsis. Specifically, in mammals, it
connects the pharynx, which is the body cavity that is common
to the digestive system and respiratory system behind the
mouth (buccal cavity), with the stomach, where the second
stage of digestion is initiated (the first stage
of digestion is in the mouth, with teeth and
tongue masticating food and mixing it with
saliva).
The Oesophagus is lined with mucous
membrane, and is more deeply lined with
muscle that acts with peristaltic action to move
swallowed food down to the stomach.
Gastroesophageal junction: The junction

between the Oesophagus and the stomach (the
gastroesophageal junction or GE junction) is
not actually considered a valve, although it is
sometimes called the cardiac valve, cardia or
cardias, but is actually more of a stricture.
Oesophageal diseases: Many people
experience acid reflux, where stomach acid
gets pushed up into the esophagus, causing a
burning sensation, commonly termed
heartburn. Some people also experience a
sensation known as globus esophagus, where
it feels as if a ball is lodged in the lower part
of the esophagus.
HUMAN DIGESTIVE ENZYMES & THEIR ACTION

Digestive juice
Saliva
Gastric Juice
Liver
Pancreas
Bile juice
Pancreatic juice
Enzyme present
Ptylin
(a) Pepsin+HCl
(b) Rennin
(c) Gastric Lipase
No enzyme
(a) Trypsin
(b) Amylase
(c) Pancreatic
(a) Peptidases
Enzyme act on
Starch
Proteins
Milk
Fat
Changed into
Dextrin Maltose
Simpler Polypeptides
Curdled into Cashein
Fatty acids and Glycerol
Simpler Polypeptides
Starch
Emulsified fat
Poly, Tri &
Dipeptides
Sucrose
Fat emulsions
Maltose
Lactose
Tri, Di & Mono peptides

Maltose
Fatty acids & Glycerol
Amino acids
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Mouth
Stomach
Small
Intestine
Succus
entericus
(b) Invertase
(c) Lipase
(d) Maltase
(e) Lactase
Stomach
It lies between a muscular tube called the oesophagus

and the small intestine. It is a J-shaped elastic sac which is
the widest part of your digestive system which takes part in
storing food, breaking food down and mixing it with juices
secreted by your stomach lining. Once we have swallowed
the food, its carried down the oesophagus to our stomach.
Here, our stomach walls churn the food up to make sure
its mixed with our acidic digestive juices. By the time our
tummy has finished, the food is a creamy mixture called
chyme. Once its liquefied it can be squirted through a small
hole into our small intestine.
Food store: Your stomach is a short-term food-storage
facility. This allows you to consume a large meal quickly
and then digest it over an extended period of time. When
full, your stomach can hold around one litre of chewed up
food. Swallowed food is propelled down your oesophagus
into your stomach. Food is enclosed in your stomach by
two circular muscles, known as sphincters.
Chemical breakdown: As soon as food enters your
stomach, your stomach lining releases enzymes that start
breaking down proteins in the food. Your stomach lining
also secretes hydrochloric acid, which creates the ideal
conditions for the protein-digesting enzymes to work. The
potent hydrochloric acid kills bacteria, protecting your body
from harmful microbes which can enter your body in food.
Your stomach protects itself from being digested by its
own enzymes, or burnt by the corrosive hydrochloric acid,
by secreting sticky, neutralising mucus that clings to the
stomach walls. If this layer becomes damaged in any way
it can result in painful and unpleasant stomach ulcers.
Physical breakdown: Waves of muscular contraction

along your stomach wall, known as peristalsis, break down
food into smaller pieces, mix it with fluids secreted from
your stomach lining and move it through your stomach.
This creates a mixture that resembles thick cream.
When food has been broken down sufficiently, small
amounts are squirted out of your stomach into your small
intestine for further processing. This normally occurs within
Glucose & fructose

Fatty acids and glycerol
Glucose
Glucose + Galactose
four hours of eating a meal, but can take six or more hours if
your meal has a high fat content.
Ruminant Stomach: In ruminant animals, the stomach

is differentiated into chambers-
(i) rumen (paunch) for churning, breaking of food by

cornified surface of villi, fermentation of cellulose by
symbiotic microoganisms (anaerobic bacteria and
ciliates)
(ii) reticulum (honey comb)
(iii) omasum (Spsalterium) for mechanical churning and

breaking of food, absorption of fluid and
(iv) abomasum (rennet) for mixing gastric juice.
Ruminates chew the cud. This is done by

breaking small part of food present in rumen and sending
it to buccal cavity fo chewing. Omaisum is absent in Camel.
Here rumen and reticulum have diverticula or water pockets
for temporary storage of food.
Small Intestine
This is where most of the nutrient-digesting action

happens. To help our small intestine cope with the acidity
of the chyme, our pancreas releases alkaline and lots of
enzymes, which break down the foods carbohydrates, fat
and protein. Meanwhile, our gall bladder donates some bile
to ensure any fat is melted down thoroughly. Once the food
is reduced to tiny particles, its absorbed through the walls
of the small intestine and the nutrients are carried into our
bloodstream.
It is the longest and narrow tubular part of alimentary

canal that lies coiled in the abdomen. Small intestine has
circular folds and villi. Villi contain lacteals. Small intestine
is differentiated into three parts duodenum, jejunum and
and ileum.
1. Duodenum. It is 20 25 cm long wider tube that forms

a C-shaped arch with stomach. Duodenum has an
ampulla where common bile duct and pancreatic duct
open jointly.
BIOLOGY [47]
ABC OF APPENDIX
Attached to the first part of your large intestine it is a narrow, muscular, worm-like pouch, usually around nine centimetres
long.
Function: The appendix has no known function in humans. Evidence suggests that our evolutionary ancestors used
their appendixes to digest tough food like tree bark, but we dont use ours in digestion now. Some scientists believe that
the appendix will disappear from the human body. The appendix is rich in infection-fighting lymphoid cells, suggesting
that it might play a role in the immune system. Whether the appendix has a function or not, it can be removed without
any ill effects.
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Appendicitis: Indigestible food delivered from the small intestine to the large intestine flows into the appendix and is
forced out by contraction of the muscular walls of the appendix. A blockage in the opening where the appendix attaches
to the large intestine can lead to inflammation of the appendix, known as appendicitis. This can cause acute pain, fever,
nausea, vomiting and loss of appetite, but can be cured easily by removing the appendix.
2. Jejunum. It is middle the part of small intestine,

0.801.5 m. Jejunum is rich in digestive glands.
3. Ileum. It is 1.8 2.5 m terminal narrow part of small

intestine which is characterised by club-shaped villi and
Peyers patches. Major digestion and absorption occurs
in small intestine. It also produces a number of
hormones.
Chemical digestion: After food is churned up in your

stomach, a sphincter muscle at the end of your stomach
opens to squirt small amounts of food into the top of your
small intestine. This first section of the small intestine is
called the duodenum. Your pancreas releases digestive juices
through a duct into your duodenum. This fluid is rich in
enzymes that break down fats, proteins and carbohydrates.
It also contains sodium bicarbonate which neutralises acid
produced in your stomach. Your gall bladder squeezes out
bile down a duct into your duodenum. Bile helps break
down fats in your food.
Peristalsis: Digesting food is pushed through the small
intestine by peristalsis. Peristalsis is a muscular movement
in which alternating waves of muscle contraction and
relaxation cause food to be squeezed along the digestive
tract.
Absorbing nutrients: Most of the nutrients in the food

you eat pass through the lining of your small intestine into
your blood. The lining of the small intestine is covered by
tiny microvilli. These are microscopic, finger-like protrusions
which give the lining of the small intestine a massive surface
area for absorption of nutrients to occur across. The microvilli
give the inside of the intestine the look and feel of
velvet. Each microvillus contains a minute blood capillary.
When nutrients are absorbed into a microvillus, they enter
its blood capillary. This is how nutrients from your food
enter your blood.
Large Intestine
It is a 1.5 metre-long tube, surrounding our small intestine,

which convert food waste products into faeces. Our large
intestine is the final part of digestive tract. Undigested food
enters our large intestine from small intestine. It then reabsorbs
water that is used in digestion and eliminates undigested food
and fibre. This causes food waste products to harden and
form faeces, which are then excreted. Any nutrients that cant
be digested end up here, including fibre, which has certain
components that cant be absorbed by the human body. Our
[48]
BIOLOGY
large intestine begins at the colon, where some of the remaining

nutrients can be mopped up. After this point, anything thats
left over is waste matter and is stored in the rectum, waiting
for the journeys end.
It is known so because of its larger diameter (4-6 cm) as

compared to small intestine (3.5 4.5 cm). Large intestine
is about 1.5 m long. It is differentiated into four parts
caecum, colon, recrum and anal canal.
1. Caecum.: In humans, caecum is pocuh-like small (about
6 cm) junction between ileum and colon. It bears a blind
tube, having lymphoid tissue, called vermiform
appendix (7-9 cm long, 1 cm diameter). Infection of the
latter is called appendicitis. Caecum is prominent in
herbivorous animals.
2. Colon: It is the largest part of large intestine.
3. Rectum:: It is 12 15 cm long tube which is wider than

colon and bears longitudinal folds. Englargement of
rectal veins causes piles or haemorrhoids.
4. Anal Canal: It connects rectum with anus. Anal canal is

about 3 cm long.
An average stool is 75 per cent water. The remainder is

made up of fibre, dead cells and bacteria.
The acids in our stomach are so strong, they kill

bacteria and are similar to those used in industrial metal
cleaner.
Anus is the terminal inferiror opening of alimentary

canal which is guarded by an internal involvuntary
sphincter and an external voluntary sphincter.
Digestive Glands
They include salivary glands, gastric glands, liver,

pancreas and intestinal glands.
1. Salivary Glands
There are three pairs of salivary glands. About 1.01.5

liters of saliva is produced daily. It contains water some
salts, mu cin, lysozyme and ptyalin. pH is 6.7. Ptyalin or
salivary amylase functions at or near neutral pH in humans
and pigs. It is absent in herbivores. Ptyalin converts starch
and glycogen of cooked or baked food into limit dextrins,
maltose and isomaltose, making the food sweet (on
thorough chewing). Lysozyme is antibacterial. Mucin

and water lubricate the food for proper chewing and
swallowing. Mumps is a viral infection of parotid
glands.
2. Gastric Glands
1. Digestion: When you eat, your pancreas releases

digestive juices through a duct into your duodenum the first part of your small intestine. This fluid is rich in
enzymes that break down fats, proteins and
carbohydrates. It also contains sodium bicarbonate which
neutralises acid in your stomach.
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They are branched and unbranched tubular glands.

Cardiac glands mostly secrete mucus. Pyloric glands also
secrete mucus. Some of them produce hormone gastrin.
Peptic Cells (chief or zymogen cells) yield pepsinogen (a
zymogen) and gastric lipase. In Calf, another proenzyme
called prorennin is also produced. Oxyntic Cells (parietal
cells) yield HCL. and HCl makes the gastric juice acidic
(pH 2.0 3.7). Argentaffin Cells produce somatostatin,
histamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine.
digestive enzymes and hormones that control blood sugar

levels.
Secretion of gastric glands is called gastric juice. Mucus

protects stomach wall against HCL action and protein
digesting enzyme. HCL changes pepsionogen and prorennin
into active enzymes pepsin and rennin. Pepsin functions
in acidic medium and changes proteins into peptones.
Milk protein casein is converted into calcium paracaesinate
for curdling it. In calf this is done by rennin (also
believed to be produced by infants). Gastric lipase is active
in infants. It changes milk fat tributyrin into fatty acids
and glycerol.
Liver
Under our diaphragm, more to the right side of our

body, liver is a wedge-shaped, spongy organ which works
to get rid of toxins, to regulate our blood sugar levels and
to produce bile. Our liver is the largest internal organ. A
big blood vessel, called the portal vein, carries nutrient-rich
blood from your small intestine directly to your liver.
1. Hepatic cells make up about 60 percent of our liver

tissue. These specialised liver cells carry out more
chemical processes than any other group of cells in our
body. They change most of the nutrients we consume
into forms our body cells can use. They convert sugars
and store and release them as needed, thereby regulating
your blood sugar level; break down fats and produce
cholesterol; remove ammonia from your body and
produce blood proteins, including blood clotting factors.
Other functions of your hepatic cells are to detoxify
drugs and alcohol; produce bile, which breaks down
fats in the food you eat.
2. A second important group of liver cells are the Kupffer

cells. They remove damaged red blood cells, destroy
microbes and cell debris.
3. Because our liver fulfils so many vital functions, we
would die within 24 hours if it stopped working. A
common sign of a damaged liver is jaundice, a
yellowness of our eyes and skin. This happens when
bilirubin, a yellow breakdown product of your red blood
cells, builds up in your blood.
Pancreas
Behind the stomach and level with the top of the small
intestine, Pancreas is a pistol-shaped organ which secretes
2. Blood sugar levels: Your pancreas produces insulin and

glucagon, two hormones that regulate sugar levels in
your blood. Insulin and glucagon are secreted from your
pancreas directly into your blood.
3. When the concentration of glucose (a sugar) rises in

your blood, insulin is released. Insulin lowers blood
glucose levels by stimulating cells throughout your body
to use and store glucose.
4. Glucagon has the opposite effect of insulin. It triggers
the release of stored sugars, increasing the concentration
of glucose in your blood. Glucagon acts as a control
mechan-ism whenever your body produces too much
insulin.
5. It is possible to live without your pancreas provided
you take insulin to regulate blood sugar concentration
and pancreatic enzyme supplements to aid digestion.
Gall Bladder
On the underside of our liver it is a pear-shaped, green,

muscular sac which store and concentrate bile produced in
our liver.
1. Bile is a greenish-yellow, slightly acidic fluid that is made
in our liver. We produce about one litre of it a day.
2. Bile is stored in our gall bladder and once it gets there,
it is concentrated by the removal of water.
3. After a meal, our gallbladder contracts, squeezing bile

into our small intestine. Bile breaks down fat in the food
we eat.
4. Gallstones: Most gall bladder disorders are due to the
presence of gallstones. Gallstones are formed when
cholesterol, one of the components of bile, crystallises to
form a stone-like material.
Intestinal Glands
They secrete mucus and a little of enzymes. The digestive

juice of intestinal glands is called intestinal juice or succus
entericus. It is slightly alkaline (pH 7.5), contains mucin,
inorganic salts and many enzymes aminopeptidases
(breaking larger peptides into smaller peptides by separating
amino acids), depeptidases (dipeptides into amino acids),
nucleotidases (nucleotides into nucleosides and phosphate),
nucleosidases (nucleosides into nitrogen bases and pentose
surgars), intestinal lipase (fat into fatty acids, glycerol,
monoglycerides), isomaltase (limit dextrins and isomaltose
into glucose), maltase (maltose to glucose), lactase (lactose
to glucose and galactose) and sucrase ( = invertase, sucorse
to glucose and fructose).
BIOLOGY [49]
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED FOOD
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Digestion changes proteins into Amino acids;

carbohydrates into Monosaccharide glucose, fructose and
galactose; and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. These end
products of digestion are finally absorbed in the wall of the
small intestine. Intestine has a vast surface for absorption
owing to the presence of numerous finger-like folds of the
intestinal wall called villi.
step, in the digestion of starch is its conversion to maltose

with the help of amylase, a large amount (40%) is digested
in the mouth by salivary amylase. When the chyme enters
the stomach, part of the undigested starch is hydrolysed by
the HCI present in the gastric juice. The total digestion is
accomplished in the intestine, where it is exposed both to
pancreatic and intestinal amylase.
The other carbohydrates, that is the disaccharide sucrose,
lactose, and maltose are digested in the intestine by the
enzymes invertase, b-glucosidase, and -galactosidase
respectively. The digested carbohydrates are absorbed
through the intenstinal villi. There are two mechanisms of
absorption in the intestine i.e. diffusion and active
absorption. Fructose is transported by simple diffusion in
response to a concentration gradient by the absorptive cells
of the villi. Glucose and galactose are actively transported.
Of the three monosaccharides, glucose is immeditely
transported throughout the body fluids. Fructose and
galactose, however are converted into glucose in the liver
and then transported to different parts of the body, thus the
end product of carbohydrate digestion is glucose. The
concentration of glucose in blood is about 90 mg/100 ml.
(optimum level). Some of the excess glucose is taken up by
tissues for oxidation, but most of it is taken up by muscle
and liver for storage as glycogen, this process is facilitated
by the hormone insulin. When blood glucose level falls, the
glycogen is reconverted to glucose under the influence of a
hormone glucagon and transferred to blood, this is called
glycogenolysis. Hence liver is an efficient buffer organ for
blood glucose level as when glucose level rises, it is stored
and when the glucose level falls it is again compensated.
Amino acids and monosaccharide sugars are easily

absorbed and passed directly into the blood capillaries of
the villi, and thence to the hepatic portal circulation which
carries them into the liver. Fatty acids and glycerols do not
reach the blood stream, but pass into the lymph capillaries
of the villi called Lacteales. In lacteales, fats are resynthesised into small fat molucules called Chylomicrons.
Lacteales finally pours it into the blood circulation.
Digestion and absorption of proteins
During digestion the proteins, first get hydrolysed, the

end products of protein digestion, are amino acids. Digestion
of proteins is initiated in the stomach by the action of the
enzyme pepsin.
The amino acids enter the blood from where these go to

the liver. In certain cases, some of the unchanged proteins
may act as antigens for producing antibodies. A common
stock or metabolic pool of free amino acids is maintained in
blood, liver, and tissues from the amino acids absorbed in
the gastrointestinal tract and those obtained for the
breakdown of body protein.
The body proteins are continuously renewed e.g. half of

the protein of liver and muscle is renewed every 10th and
160th days, respectively. The synthesis of protein from amino
acids is under the control of anabolic hormones such as
testosterone and GH. Break down of proteins to amino acids
is controlled by catabolic hormones such as ACTH. The
protein metabolism in the body therefore, is in a state of
constant flux.
More than 50 per cent of energy content of the common
diet comes from carbohydrates. For a normal person about
70 g of proteins and about 400 to 500 g of carbohydrates are
recommended. Glycogen is an insoluble carbohydrate found
in the liver and muscles of animals. In the event of deficiency
of energy, glycogen is rapidly converted into glucose which
is carried to the different parts of body by the blood.
Cellulose is present in all plants since it is the main
constituent of cell wall. Very few animals can digest it.
Herbivores have special part in their gut where
microorganisms act on cellulose and break it down. But in
most animals it remains unchanged and contributes the
roughage in the diet.
Digestion & Absorption of Carbohydrates
In carbohydrate digestion the complex carbohydrate

molecules are broken down into monosaccharides by the
addition of water. This process is known as hydrolysis. Of
these, glucose is directly absorbed in the blood. The first
[50]
BIOLOGY
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Maltose Glucose + Glucose
Lactose Glucose + Galactose
When the blood glucose level falls very low and is not
adequately compensated by the liver glycogen, glucose is
synthesized from proteins and to some extent from fats.
This is known as gluconeogenesis, and is a very important
phenomenon as it provides glucose to the blood even during
starvation, because the amount of glycogen present in liver
is not sufficient to maintain the blood glucose for more than
24 hours. When glucose is not available cells are able to utilise fats
for energy. The ganglion cells of the brain are unable to
utilize fats, and without glucose they die quickly.
Like carbohydrates, fats contain only carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen but in different proportion. They are compounds
of glycerol with fatty acids. The layers of fatty tissues lying
just below the skin have insulating function. During
starvation, after fat reserves have been depleted, the body
can use protein for energy.
Digestion and Absorption of Fats
The digestion of fat, is also a hydrolytic process in which

the lipids are broken into fatty acids, glycerol and glycerides.
Fats are digested by the enzyme lipase secreted in the
stomach, pancreas, and intestine. Small part of the fat is
digested in the stomach with the help of gastric lipase. But
most of the fat digestion takes place in the small intestine.
When the fat enters the small intestine they are acted upon
by the bile salts simultaneously released from liver. As the
structural, chemical, or infectious pathologies. They are

aberrations of normal bowel function but not diseases.
Diverticular disease is a condition that is very common

in older people in industrialized countries. It usually
affects the large intestine but has been known to affect
the small intestine as well. Diverticular disease occurs
when pouches form on the intestinal wall. Once the
pouches become inflamed it is known as Diverticulitis,
or Diverticular disease.
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bile salts have a detergent action, they emulsify the fat into
small globulins known as micelles which offer a greater
surface area for lipases to act, and are further degraded by
intestinal and pancreatic lipases into the product of fat
digestion - fatty acid, glycerol and mono and diglycerides.
In the fat digestion only 50% fat is completely digested to
fatty acid and glycerol, the remaining 50% glycerides.
DIGESTIVE DISEASES
Gastroenteritis is inflammation of the intestines and is

the most common disease of the intestines. It can arise
as the result of food poisoning.
Largest Gland: Liver which is about 1.5 kg, roughly 1/

40 of total body weight.
Centre for Appetite/Hunger: Hypothalamus. Stimulation

is provided by decreased availability of glucose in blood.
Coprophagy: Feeding on faeces e.g., Rabbit.
Maximum Number of Teeth: Opossum 50, Horse

and Pig-44.
Monophyodont Teeth in Humans: Molars.
Coeliac disease is a common form of malabsorption,

affecting up to 1% of people of northern European
descent. Allergy to gluten proteins, found in wheat,
barley and rye, causes villous atrophy in the small
intestine. Life-long dietary avoidance of these foodstuffs
in a gluten-free diet is the only treatment.
Starch: About 30% hydrolysed in mouth.
Stomach: Absent in Labeo, Lamprey and Hagfish.
Gall Bladder: Absent in Rat and Horse.
Vomiting: Due to blockage or reverse peristalsis.
Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis are examples of

inflammatory bowel disease. While Crohns can affect
the entire gastrointestinal tract, ulcerative colitis is
limited to the large intestine. Crohns disease is widely
regarded as an autoimmune disease.
PUFA: Poly-unsaturated fatty acids. Found in abundance

is corn oil and sunflower oil.
FFA: Free fatty acids. Circulate in blood in combination

with albumins.
Vitamin P/Hesperidin/Citrin: Essential for permeability

and wall strength of blood capillarises hence
permeability factor.
Erythrocyte Maturing Factor (EMF): Vitamin B12 or

cyanocobalamine/cobalamine.
Ileus is a blockage of the intestines.
Ileitis is an inflammation of the ileum.
Colitis is an inflammation of the large intestine.
Appendicitis is inflammation of the vermiform appendix

located at the cecum. This is a potentially fatal disease
if left untreated; most cases of appendicitis require
surgical intervention.
TRIVIA
Irritable bowel syndrome is the most common

functional disorder of the intestines, and specifically the
bowel. Functional constipation and chronic functional
abdominal pain are other disorders of the intestines that
have physiological causes, but do not have identifiable
BIOLOGY [51]
SKELETAL & MUSCULAR

SYSTEM
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
is also the major ground of the RBC and WBC formation and
works as the storehouse of calcium and phosphorus. Besides
it provides anchorage to muscles and levarage for the easy
movement of the body.
Providing shape & supporting framework.
Bones
Protection to delicate and vital organs.
Presence of joints for functioning as levers.
Formation of blood cells (ends of long bones, inside

scapula and sternum).
Hearing through ear ossicles & sound production in

larynx.
Mineral storage, fat storage.
At the time of birth the total number of bones are 350

while in adults it is 206. Each bone meets with the other
except Hyoid bone (U-shaped) of the neck. It is helpful in
crime identification. Constituent of Bones: 20% water, 3040% organic parts and 40-50% inorganic parts. Organic parts
is made: up of a protein called Ossein. Inorganic parts
consist of calcium carbonate, megnesium phosphate, calcium
fluoride, etc.
Attachment of muscles, making body an integrated unit.
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Skeletal system is a system of hard internal or external

living or nonliving parts that forms the supporting
framework of the body giving it shapes physical strength,
protection to softer parts and place for attachments of
muscles. The various functions of skeleton include:
Exoskeleton : It is the hard protective and supportive

framework present on the outside of the body and being
made of either dead tissues or chemical secretions.
Exoskeleton is found in both invertebrates (e.g. shells of
snails, bivalves, corals, sclerites of insects) and vertebrates
(e.g., hair, claws, nails, hoofs, horns, feathers, scales).
Endoskeleton : It is hard supportive framework of the

body which occurs inside the body. It is present in corals,
echinoderms and vertebrates. Endoskeleton of vertebrates
is made of cartilages and bones, both of which are living
connective tissues hardened by deposition of organic and
inorganic substances. Bones are as hard as graphite with a
tensile strength equal to that of cast iron. Bones can be long
(e.g., femur, tibia, fibula), short (metacarpals, metatarsals,
phalanges), flat (e.g., cranial, scapula) and irregular (e.g.,
vertebrae, carpals, tarsals). Human skeleton is made of
270 bones which are fused variously to become 206. Out
of these 6 occur as ear ossicles. The remaining 200
bones are distributed into axial and appendicular
skeleton.
Axial Skeleton : The skeleton occurs in the mid-axial
part of longitudinal axis of the body and is made of skull,
vertebral column, sternum and ribs.
Appendicular skeleton : The skeleton lies laterally and

is attached to axial skeleton at an angle. It has pectoral
girdle, pelvic girdle, arm bones and leg bones. Pectoral girdle
and arm (force limbs) bones constitute upper extremity while
pelvic girdle and leg (hind limbs) bones form lower
extremity. Limbs end in fine digits.
In children bones, are supple (more elastic) due to more

fibrous tissues and less mineral salts. But in old aged persons
the bones are brittle due to high level of mineral salts and
less fibrous tissues. Long bones like femur (longest) humerus,
tibia, ulna are cylindrical with shafts and act as levers.
Short bones like skull bone (cranium), knee-cap are thinner.
Vertebrae, 26 in number, are irregular bones Ossicles of the
inner ear is the smallest bone. It is 3 in number- Malleus,
Incus and Stapes. Stapes is smallest of all the three.
Cartilage
It is tough connecting tissues, found in bone joints. It is

more elastic and provides easy movement. They act as
buffers in the effect of a blow or shock and to deepen the
bony sockets of various joints by surrounding the edges in
the form of ring. They also line the surfaces of gliding bones,
thereby making motion easier. Cartilages are made of
Chondrocyte (cellular part), Chondrin (Non cellular part;
protein) and yellow/white fibres. Cartilages are covered by
a membrane synovial Membrane. For easy movement of the
joints synovial membranes are lubricated by Synovial Fluid.
Lack of synovial fluid causes pain in joints which occurs
mostly in old age persons. Sark is a cartilaginous animal
and the whole skeleton systems is made of cartilages.
Ligaments
These are tough bands of fibrous connecting tissues,

usually found in bone joints. They are non-elastic in nature.
They hold some important organs in the body, like
uterus.
Tendon
HUMAN SKELETAL
This system comprises a network of bones, cartilages,

ligaments and tendons. It provides the proper and definite
shape to the body and protects vital organs from harm. It
[52]
BIOLOGY
They are tough bands of fibrous connecting tissue which

connects a bone with muscles. They act as a structural
framework to which the muscle fibres and bones are
attached. They are also non-elastic in nature.
Joints
Joints are the point where two or more bones meet. The
bones at a joint are held by strong cords called ligaments,
which provide necessary freedom to the bones and protect
the joints from external injury and prevent dislocation. The
joints in our body fall into these categories:
COMMON HUMAN BONES

1.
Shoulder: Our shoulder is made up of a collarbone

(clavicle) and a shoulder blade (scapula). These bones
project out from our body forming a scaffold for our
arm
to
hang from. Our collarbone is a thin bone that bridges
the top of our sternum, in the front of our ribcage, to
our shoulder socket at the end of our shoulder blade. It
is the only bone in our shoulder that connects directly
to our ribcage.
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(a) Immovable Joints: They permit no movement of

the bones and are usually found in the skull and the pelvic
girdle, where movements of bones are not desirable.
Gliding Joint: Articular ends of two bones are either

flat or slightly curved to allow sliding or gliding
movement, e.g., bones of palm and sole, between
prezygapophyses and postzygapophyses of vertebrae.
(b) Slightly Movable Joints: They allow a limited

degree of movement: The movement of a vertebrae in respect
of another vertebrae is such an example.
(c) Movable Joints: Here greatest freedom of
movement is allowed. They are also called synovial joints.
Movements of hip and shoulder joints, joints of ankle and
wrist, etc. come in this category. Bone ends bear synovial
membranes and enclose a cushion of synovial fluid. Joints
are of Six types.
Ball and Socket Joint: Articular end of one is like a ball

and that of the other like a cup-shaped socket, e.g., hip
joint, shoulder joint. The joint allows movement in many
planes.
Saddle Joint: Articular end of one bone is fixed while

that of the other can rotate over it. e.g., carpo-metacarpal
joint of human thumb.
Ellipsoid or Angular Joint: One articular end is oval

and convex while the other end is elliptical and concave,
e.g., wrist or radio-carpal joint of humans.
Pivot Joint: Articular end of one bone iis fixed while

that of the other can rotate over it, e.g., between atlas
and axis is humans.
Hinge Joint: Articular end of one bone is deeper convex

and that of other is deeper concave, allowing movement
in one plane e.g., elbow joint, knee joint.
2.
Arm: Our arm is made up of three long bones: humerus

in our upper arm and ulna & radius in our lower arm.
Our upper and lower arms are connected at the elbow
by a hinge joint between humerus and ulna. Our radius
and ulna are linked at elbow in a way that allows us to
rotate hand and forearm by more than 180 degrees. Our
ulna bone forms the point of elbow.
3.
Fingers & Toes: More than half of the bones in your

body are found in hands and feet. There are 27 in each
hand and 26 in each foot, and the way that they are
arranged is remarkably similar. Each finger contains
three bones, except for thumbs, which only have two.
The same is true for toes. Our big toes contain two bones,
and other toes each contain three. The bones in fingers
and toes are called phalanges.
4.
Metacarpals & Metatarsals: The palms of our hands

are made up of five bones called metacarpals. We can
see them when we clench our fists, because our knuckles
are the ends of our metacarpals. The soles of our feet
consist of five bones arranged in the same way as our
metacarpals, but they are called metatarsals.
Human Body Parts & their Bones
Brain Box Cranium

Cheek bone Zygomatic bone
Upper Jaw Maxilla
Lower Jaw Mandible
Collar bone Clavide
Shoulder
Scapulla
Hip
Ilium, Ischium,
Pubis
Knee
Patella
Chest
Pectoral girdles
Waist
Pelvic girdles
Upper-arm
Fore-arm
Wrist
Palm
Digits
Thigh
Shank
Ankle
Sole
Digits
Humerus
Radius Ulna
Carpals
Meta carpals
Phalanges
Femur
Tibia & fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phallanges
sessamoid
BIOLOGY [53]
Wrist: Our wrists consist of eight small nugget shaped

bones, held together by ligaments. These are called
carpals. They are arranged in two irregular rows that
are held together by ligaments.
6.
Heel: The two largest bones in our feet carry most of

our weight. Calcaneus, or heel bone, and the talus, which
lies between our heel bone and the bottom of shinbone,
are two of seven tarsal bones that make up the back
part of each of our feet.
10. Rib Case: Our ribcage is assembled from three types of

bone - sternum, 12 pairs of ribs and 12 thoracic vertebrae.
All of our ribs attach to spine, but only the top seven
pairs connect to sternum. These are known as true ribs
and they are connected to our sternum by strips of
cartilage. The next three pairs of ribs are known as false
ribs. Instead of attaching directly to our sternum, they
all attach to lowest true rib. The last two pairs of ribs
are called floating ribs. These only attach to our spine.
11. Skull: Skull is made up of two sets of
bones - the bones of face and the bones of cranium,
which make up our forehead and the back of our head.
Cranium is the large bony case that surrounds our
delicate brain, protecting it from bumps and knocks. It
is made up of eight large flat bones, joined together by
fixed joints known as sutures. Our frontal bone forms
the forehead, and the tops of eye sockets. Most of the
top and sides of our head are formed by two parietal
bones. And the back of our skull is formed by occipital
bone which has an opening in it where spinal cord
connects to brain. The fourteen bones at the front of our
skull hold our eyes in place and form facial
features. Mandible, or jawbone, is the largest, strongest
bone in our face. It holds lower teeth in place and we
move it to chew food. Apart from mandible and vomer,
all facial bones are arranged in pairs. Thats why our
face is symmetrical. For example, our two zygomatic
bones form cheekbones and the outside of eye sockets
on either side of face.
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5.
7.
Leg: Leg bones are the longest and strongest bones in

our body. Each leg is made up of four bones. The three
long bones are femur, tibia and fibula. The fourth bone
is small patella, which is better known as the kneecap.
Femur, or thighbone, is the largest bone in our body.
The head of femur fits into hip socket and the bottom
end connects to knee. The two bones beneath knee that
make up the shin are tibia and fibula. Our upper and
lower leg are connected by a hinge joint. Our patella, or
kneecap, rests on the front of femur. The bones of leg
have roughened patches on their surfaces where muscles
are attached. When our muscles contract, they pull the
bone theyre attached to, making our leg move.
8.
Spine: Also known as backbone, spine is a strong,

flexible column of ring-like bones that runs from skull
to our pelvis. It holds head and body upright and allows
us to bend and twist our body. It also offers protection
to our spinal cord - a large bundle of nerves that runs
through the cavity in the centre of spine that relays
messages between brain and the rest of body. Spine is
made up of 33 irregularly shaped bones called vertebrae.
Each vertebra has a hole in the middle through which
the spinal cord runs. The spinal cord can be divided
into five different regions, from top to bottom:
Our 7 cervical vertebrae support head and neck and

allow us to nod and shake our head.
Our ribs attach to 12 thoracic vertebrae.
Five sturdy lumbar vertebrae carry most of the weight

of our upper body and provide a stable centre of gravity
when we move.
Our sacrum is made up of five fused vertebrae. It makes

up the back wall of our pelvis.
Coccyx is made up of four fused vertebrae. It is an

evolutionary remnant of the tail found in most other
vertebrates.
9.
[54]
Pelvis: Pelvis is a ring of bones that supports the weight

of our upper body. Commonly referred to as hipbones,
the two major bones in our pelvis are our coxal bones.
Each coxal bone is made up of three smaller bones that
fuse together: ilium, ischium and pubic bone. When we
put our hands on our hips, they are resting on illia.
These are most pronounced in women. Ischia are our
sitting bones. They carry all our weight when we sit
down. Our pubic bones meet at the front of our pelvis
and are linked together by a bridge of flexible cartilage.
A womans pelvis is shallower and wider than a mans,
making it wide enough for a baby to pass through during
birth.
BIOLOGY
12. Teeth: Teeth prepare food for digestion by breaking it

down and chewing it up. They do this by cutting, tearing,
crushing and grinding. Flat front teeth, called incisors,
are good for biting, scraping and cutting. Cone shaped
canines are good at piercing and tearing food. Teeth that
crush and grind the food are blunt premolars and at the
broader, larger molars.
Teeth are covered with enamel, which is the hardest
substance in the body. It covers the exposed part of
teeth above gum. The roots of teeth are fixed into a
socket in jawbone. Although teeth are hard on the
outside, they actually have a soft centre. Inside the teeth
is a cavity filled with pulp. Pulp is made up of
connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibres. It
supplies nutrients to teeth. The pulp cavity extends into
the root of teeth, forming the root canal.
Polyphyodont : In lower vertebrates, the teeth are
replaced continuously, the old worn out ones falling
out and their places being taken by new ones throughout
life. This condition is Polyphyodont.
Diphyodont: It is a condition in which there are only 2

definite sets of teeth a milk or deciduous set in the young
animals and a permanent set in the adult, e.g. in most
animals. Mammals have 4 different types of teeth, each
having their specific functions.
Dental formula: i = Incisor; c= Canines, p = Premolars
and m = Molars. Now, for example, take the case of
Man (Milk set); we have (only half side, either left or
right):
Incisors = 2 on upper jaw and 2 on lower jaw
wisdom teeth. Its not clear what their function is, but
some experts believe theyre a remnant from a time when
our ancestors had a more rugged diet and, as a result,
longer, larger jaws. Now our jaws are smaller, and often
isnt enough room for them, which is why wisdom teeth
can cause problems.
Canines = 1 on upper jaw and 1 on lower jaw

Premolars = 2 on upper jaw and 2 on lower jaw
Molar = 0 on upper jaw and 0 on lower jaw
So, we can represent it in the following way:
i 2/2, c 1/1, p 2/2, m 0/0 or 2120/2120
Tooth Decay: There are bacteria in our mouth that

multiply when we eat sweet food. As these bacteria feed
on food stuck on our teeth, they produce acid. This acid
can dissolve enamel and eat through a tooth, right down
to the nerve in its pulp cavity. A hole in a tooth like this
provides a route for bacteria in our mouth to cause nasty
infections in the root of a tooth. This can result in
excruciating toothache.
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Total = 102 (Half 2) = 20
Similarly:
Horse = 3143/3143 = 44
Man (Milk set) = 2120/2120 = 20

Man (Adult) = 2123/2123 = 32
Dog = 3142/3143 = 42
Squirrel = 1023/1023 = 24
Milk teeth are of yellowish colour while the permanent

teeth are white. First milk teeth to appear is incisor while
the first permanent teeth to appear is 1st molar.
Permanent teeth appear between 3 and 20 years of age.
First molar is largest of all teeth while the third molar

is smallest and appears at last.
Man like the primates also has 32 teeth.
Tusks of elephants are modified incisor teeth. African

elephants, both male and female have tusks while in
India only male have them.
The prolonged teeth of wild boars are modified canine

teeth.
Crown of the teeth (outside the gum line) covers the 1/

3 of total tooth and is coated with enamel which is nonliving and toughest part of the body. Enamel cannot be
replaced but in some animals like the rodents it is
replaceable and is formed continuously.
Nerves in the teeth are very sensitive but are able to

make sensation only in the form of pain. So all other
effects like cold, heat are converted into the forms of
pain only.
Wisdom Teeth: The last teeth that emerge are our
The most common dental diseases are Gingivities

(inflamation of gum) Pyorrhoea (formation of puss on
the junction of tooth and gum). Bacteria forms acid
around the teeth in the mouth which harms the calcium
compound of tooth.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
It is a system of different muscles present in the body of

an organism which is specialised to perform various
movements inside the body as well as its external parts.
Human body has 650 types of muscles. Muscles constitute
the bulk weight of human body. The branch of zoology
dealing with the study of components, structure and
functioning of muscular tissue is known as myology/
sarcology. Muscles are specialised to contract. They are of
three types striated, unstriated and cardiac. Striated
muscles are also called skeletal muscles as they are attached
to bones and take part in moving them like levers. The
unstriated muscles occur in organs and help in their
movements. They are, therefore, called visceral muscles.
Cardiac muscles occur in the walls of heart.
Voluntary muscles are stripped not independent. They
are controlled by spinal-cord. Involuntary muscles are
smooth, and you cannot Consciously control them. They
are controlled by autonomic nervous system. Cardiac
muscles are involuntary muscles but are stripped, not
smooth. Muscles convert chemical energy (glucose) into
mechanical energy. In human this conversion efficiency is
25%.
Types of Muscle
We have got around 650 muscles in your body, and

they make up roughly half of your bodyweight. These
muscles can be divided into three different groups: skeletal,
smooth and cardiac. All of these muscles can stretch and
contract, but they perform very different functions.
Skeletal Muscle: The tissue most commonly thought of

as muscle is skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscles cover our
skeleton, giving the body its shape. They are attached to
our skeleton by strong, springy tendons or are directly
connected to rough patches of bone. Skeletal muscles are
under voluntary control, which means we consciously
BIOLOGY [55]
Slow twitch muscle fibres are good for endurance

activities like long distance running or cycling. They can
work for a long time without getting tired. Fast twitch
muscles are good for rapid movements like jumping to catch
a ball or sprinting for the bus. They contract quickly, but
get tired fast, as they consume lots of energy. Most of our
muscles are made up of a mixture of both slow and fast
twitch muscle fibres. But, our soleus muscle in lower leg
and muscles in back involved in maintaining posture contain
mainly slow twitch muscle fibres. And muscles that move
our eyes are made up of fast twitch muscle fibres.
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control what they do. Just about all body movement, from
walking to nodding our head, is caused by skeletal muscle
contraction. Our skeletal muscles function almost
continuously to maintain our posture, making one tiny
adjustment after another to keep our body upright. Skeletal
muscle is also important for holding our bones in the correct
position and prevents our joints from dislocating. Some
skeletal muscles in our face are directly attached to our
skin. The slightest contraction of one of these muscles
changes our facial expression. Skeletal muscle generates heat
as a by-product of muscle activity. This heat is vital for
maintaining our normal body temperature.
Smooth Muscle: It is found in the walls of hollow organs

like our intestines and stomach. They work automatically
without being aware of them. Smooth muscles are involved
in many housekeeping functions of the body. The muscular
walls of our intestines contract to push food through our
body. Muscles in our bladder wall contract to expel urine
from our body. Smooth muscles in a womans uterus (or
womb) help to push babies out of the body during childbirth.
The pupillary sphincter muscle in our eye is a smooth muscle
that shrinks the size of your pupil.
Cardiac Muscle: Our heart is made of cardiac muscles.
This type of muscle only exists in our heart. Unlike other
types of muscle, cardiac muscle never gets tired. It works
automatically and constantly without ever pausing to rest.
Cardiac muscle contracts to squeeze blood out of our heart,
and relaxes to fill our heart with blood.
Muscles Structure
Skeletal muscles are made up of bunches of elongated,

rod-shaped cells called muscle fibres. Each of our muscle
cells is packed with thinner fibres called myofibrils. These
fibres contain protein filaments, called thick and thin
myofilaments, which slide against each other when a muscle
contracts.
In a relaxed muscle, thick and thin myofilaments overlap
each other a tiny bit. When a muscle cell is stimulated by a
nerve impulse, these myofilaments slide past each other
until they completely overlap. This makes the muscle cell
shorter and fatter. The more shortened muscle cells there
are in a muscle, the greater the contraction of the muscle as
a whole.
Chickens have fast and slow twitch muscle, too. Dark

meat, like in chicken legs, is mainly made up of slow twitch
fibres. White meat, like in chicken wings and breasts, is
largely made up of fast twitch muscle fibres. Chickens use
their legs for walking and standing, which they do most of
the time. This doesnt use much energy. They use their wings
for brief bursts of flight. This requires lots of energy and the
muscles involved tire very quickly.
Muscles that contain a lot of slow twitch fibres are red,
because they contain lots of blood vessels. Slow twitch
muscle fibres rely on a rich supply of oxygenated blood as
they use oxygen to produce energy for muscle contraction.
Fast twitch muscle fibres dont use oxygen to release energy,
so they dont need such a rich blood supply. This is why
fast twitch muscles are lighter in colour than muscles that
contain a lot of slow twitch muscle fibres. Fast twitch muscle
fibres can produce small amounts of energy very quickly
whereas slow twitch muscles can produce large amounts of
energy slowly.
Muscle Fatigue: Failure of a muscles to a respond to a

fresh stimulus after a prolonged previous activity is
called muscle fatigue. It is due to accumulation of lactic
acid, consumption of stored glycogen, ATP and CTP,
and changes in neuromuscular junction which is
sensitive to lactic acid. Recent studies have shown that
inorganic phosphate appears to be a major cause of
muscle fatigue.
Rigor Mortis: It is the state of body stiffening after death

due to nonseparation of actin and myosin filaments
caused by nonavailability of ATP/CTP. Rigor mortis
persists till decommposition starts.
TRIVIA
EXERCISE
All types of exercise involve using your muscles to

generate movement. Regular exercise can increase muscle
size, strength and endurance. Endurance exercises like
running or cycling make your muscles stronger and less
likely to get tired. This sort of exercise doesnt only benefit
your skeletal muscles. If youre doing intense exercise, other
systems in your body focus their efforts on helping your
muscles. Your heart beats more quickly so that it can pump
more blood to your muscles, to provide them with more
oxygen and nutrients. Your digestive system slows down
so that it does not use up energy that your muscles need.
[56]
BIOLOGY
Osteology: It is a branch of biological studies that is

connected with structure, nature, development and
functions of bones.
Kinesiology: Study of body movements.
Craniology: Study of skulls.
Smallest bone in human body: Stapes of middle ear.
Longest Bone in Human Body. Femur.
Longest Bone in Frog: Tibio-fibula
Sprain: Injury to joint due to overstretching or tearing

of ligament or tendon. Takes time and rest to heal.
Dislocation: Dislodging of bone end from its normal

positon at the joint e.g., slipping from socket.
Largest
(Buttock)
Smallest Muscle: Stapedius of stapes.
Arthritis : Arthritis is painful inflammation and stiffness

of joint caused by infection, allergy, hormonal
disturbance and faulty food.
Gluteus
maximums
Slipped Disc : It is the displacement of a vertebra from

its normal position due to displacment or degeneration
of a part of intervertebral disc, deposition of hard tissue
around it, mechanical injury and ossification of ligaments
holding the vertebrae. It is painful to keep body (neck,
trunk) straight.
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Muscles:
(c) Gout. Accumulation of uric acid crystals in the region

of joints result in painful movement.
(a) Rheumatoid Arthritis. A hard tissue deposits over

articular cartilage alongwith higher secretion of synovial
fluid causing pain and stiffness
(b) Osteoarthritis. There is a tearing of articular cartilage

and development of bony lumps at places causing pain,
stiffness and permanent bending.
Fractures. (i) Green Stick Fracture. Simple crack without

breaking the bone into two pieces. (ii) Simple Fracture.
Breaking into two parts which remain nearby. (iii)
Compound Fracture. Breaking into two or more parts
with a fragment end of one protruding out. (iv)
Comminuted Fracture. Breaking into more than two
pieces. (v) Avulsion Fracture. A chip of small pieces
breaks but remains attached to ligament.
BIOLOGY [57]
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
CHRONICLE
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organisation, the tissues are not in direct contact with the

atmosphere. In them, the oxygen should be first transported
to the body tissues before respiration could occur. So they
develop an extra mechanism to take in oxygen and then it
is transported to the lungs from where it reaches tissues
with the help of the haemoglobin pigment of blood.
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Respiration is the process of making energy available to

organisms and their living cells through enzyme controlled
catabolic breakdown of organic molecules, especially hexose
sugars. Respiration is the fundamental process of energy
release. It occurs in all living cells. Energy is necessary for
growth and maintenance of life. Growth is ultimately
dependent upon the products of photosynthesis as their
energy source. Energy is released from the continuous
breakdown of food stuffs during respiration. During this
process (respiration) energy rich foodstuffs are oxidised to
simpler substances like water and carbon dioxide coupled
with the release of usable energy within all living cells.
The process of respiration can be defined as the

biochemical oxidation of organic compounds to yield carbon
dioxide and water with the release of energy in the form of
a chemical compound known as Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP).
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP
Respiration occurs in all living cells of the plant but the

most actively respiring regions are the growing regions like
floral and vegetative buds, germinating seedlings and root
and stem apices.
In the tissues the actual process of respiration occurs.

This physical process of the transport of oxygen to the body
tissues in higher animals for the purpose of respiration is
known as breathing or external respiration. Breathing is an
extracellular process whereas respiration is an intracellular
process. Thus, breathing is simply a physical process of
intake of air rich in oxygen and removal of air rich in CO2.
No energy is released and also enzymes are not involved in
the process. Whereas respiration is a biochemical process in
which food stuffs (glucose) is oxidised to CO2 and water
and energy in the form of ATP is released and a large
number of enzymes are involved in the process.
Cutaneous Respiration: Skin functions as respiratory

surface, e.g., earthworm, leech, frog. For Cutaneous
respiration, the skin is thin, moist and vascular. The whole
skin is involved as in earthworm and frog. Cutaneous
respiration is the only mode of respiration during
hibernation.
Tracheal Respiration: It occurs in insects and myriapods.

The system consists of network of white shining tubes called
trachea. Relaxation of abdominal muscules allow expansion
of abdomen and entry of air from outside into tracheal
system (inspiration). Gaesous exchange occurs between
tracheal air and tissue fluid. The contraction of abdominal
muscles pushes out the air (expiration). In tracheal system,
expiration is active while in pulomonary system inspiration
is active. In insects, blood does not have any respiratory
pigments.
Branchial Respiration: It is exchange of gases with the

help of gills. Gills occur in many arthropods (e.g., Prawn),
molluscs, fishes, amphibian tadpoles and some adult
amphibians. In fishes the water enters through mouth, passes
through pharynx and then gill chambers from where it comes
out through one or more openings. Fishes die outside water
due to asphyxiation or nonavailability of air because the spaces
in between lamellae collapse outside water. In fishes, gills are
the organs of respiration as they live in water medium. Gills
are richly supplied with blood and can readily absorb oxygen
dissolved in water, the surace of gills is increased by the
presence of filaments. The oxygen absorbed by the gills is
The body of flowering plant is well differentiated into

stem, leaves and roots. Aerial part of flowering plants
especially leaves are the main sites of gaseous exchange.
For this purpose, leaves have got stomata on their
undersurface through which oxygen enters and CO2 is given
out. Plants also exchange gases through their general body
surface by the process of diffusion. There are inter-cellular
spaces (which are abundantly present in hydrophytes) in
which gases for exchange are present.
Cell Surface Respiration: It is exchange of gases directly

between cells and the environment across the cell surface.
In plants and primitive animals like Amoeba, Paramecium,
Hydra, the body organisation is very simple, their body
tissues are more or less directly in contact with the
surrounding environment. So, they take oxygen directly and
respire. But in animals which have organ level of body
[58]
BIOLOGY
taken by blood and the CO2 is given out in the aquatic animals.
Gills are the organs of respiration in water only.
It consists of a respiratory tract, a pair of lungs and

structures involved in ventillation. Respiratory tract consists
of external nares, nasal cavity, internal nares, nasopharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.
External Nares (Nostrils): They are a pair of slit-like
openings present on the lower end of nose.
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Pulmonary Respiration: It occurs with the help of lungs

and a respiratory tract. The Lungs are the organs of
respiration in man and other terrestrial organisms. The
oxygen enters the lungs through nasal cavity, naso-pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Lungs in man are
present in thoracic or pleural cavities which serve as air
tight compartments. The final ending of the bronchioles are
the alveoli from where the oxygen is taken by the blood
and carbon dioxide is given out.
MAMMALIAN RESPIRATION
TYPES OF RESPIRATION
The classification depends upon the availability of

oxygen and thus it has been divided into two categories.
(a) Aerobic Respiration: It takes place in presence of oxygen

and the stored food (respiratory substrata) gets completely oxidised into carbon dioxide and water as end
products. i.e. C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + 686 KCal.
(b) Anaerobic-respiration: It takes place in absence of

oxygen and stored food is incompletely oxidised and
instead of carbon dioxide and water certain other
compounds are also formed. This type of respiration is
of rare occurrence but common among micro organisms
like yeasts and can be represented by C6H12O6= 2C2H5OH
+ 2CO2 + 56 KCal.
Differences Between Aerobic And Anaerobic
Respiration
Aerobic Respiration.
It takes place in the
Anaerobic Respiration.
presence of oxygen.
Complete breakdown of
absence of oxygen.
Incomplete break
glucose yields carbon
down of glucose
dioxide, Water and
yields ethyl alcohol
energy.
and carbon dioxide
C6H12O6 + 6O2
C6H12O6
6CO2+6H2O + Energy
2C2H5OH+ 2CO2 +
38 ATPs are formed from
1 gm of glucose.
It takes place in the
It takes place in cytoplasm
and mitrochondria.
2 ATPs are formed
Nasal Cavity: It is situated between palate and cranium.

Nasal cavity is divisible into two nasal chambers by a nasal
septum. Each nasal chamber has three parts.
1. Vestibule: It is lower small part just above the external
nares which is lined by skin and bears hair as well as oil
glands. Hair help in filtering out dust particles from
incoming air.
2. Conditioner (Respiratory Region): It is the middle part

of nasal chamber. There are three bony projections called
nasal conchae or turbinates (superior, middle and
inferior) and some sinuses (maxillary, frontal, sphenoid
and ethrnoid). The inhaled air is moistened, warmed
and cleaned.
3. Olfactory Region: Upper part of nasal chamber and
superior nasal concha are yellowish brown. They are
covered by olfactory epithelium which perceives
sensation of smell.
Internal Nares (Choanae): The two nasal chambers open

into nasopharynx through internal nares or choanae.
Pharynx: Nasopharynx occurs at the base of skull and
has a lining of ciliated epithelium. Nasopharynx leads to
oropharynx or common pathway of respiratory and digestive
systems or opharynse passes into laryngeopnarynse which
contains epiglottis and passes into larynx.
Larynx: Larynxor voice box opens into largeo-pharynx

through a slit like glottis which can be widened by intrinsic
muscles. Glottis can be closed by a muscular cartilaginous
flap called epiglottis. Larynx has C-shaped thyroid cartilage
(on sides and in front where it can be felt as Adams Apple).
Internally larynx has ciliated mucous epithelium and a pair
of vocal cords. Vocal cords become thickened in adult males.
Voice is produced by passage of air between vocal cords
and modulations created by tongue, teeth, lips and nasal
cavity.
1 gm of glucose.
It takes place in cy
toplasm only.
In the human body during muscular exercise energy

demand is in excess than that is supplied by respiration.
There is insufficient supply of oxygen from lungs through
blood vessles and through cells membranes into cell. Muscle
cells carry on anaerobic respiration temporarily. Under
these conditions lactic acid is accumulated which is slowly
removed in the blood stream or reoxidised during the resting
period.
BIOLOGY [59]
Approx % of Gases in Human Respiration

Gas
O2
CO2
N2
water vapour
Inhaled air (%)

21
.03
79
---
Exhaled air (%)

16
4
79
1
Mechanism of Respiration
Respiration is a cellular process. It consists of numerous
sequential chemical reactions and all of them are
enzymatically controlled. The overall process of respiration
is summarised in the following equation.
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Trachea (Wind Pipe): It is 10-12 cm long tube with 2-3

cm diameter which arises from larynx and passes up to the
middle of thorax.
four molecules of oxygen. Total amount of oxygen carried

in 100 ml of blood will be approximately 20 volumes per
cent. This is called the total respiratory capacity of the blood.
Bronchi: Trachea divides into right and left primary

bronchi. Right bronchus almost directly enters the right lung.
Inflection of right lung is more common due to this. Inside
the lung, the primary bronchus divides into secondary
bronchi, secondary bronchi into segmental bronchi and the
latter into bronchioles. Bronchioles divide into terminal
bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, air sacs
and alveoli. Muscus secreting cells are absent from terminal
bronchioles and their branches.
Lung: A pair of conical spongy elastic lungs of pinkish

to salty grey colour occur inside air tight thoracic cavity.
Left lung is slightly narrower and longer than the right one.
Right lung has three lobes, left lung has two lobes. Each
lobe is divided internally into segments and segments into
lobules. A lobule receives a terminal bronchiole. Terminal
bronchiole produces a few respiratory bronchioles. A
respiratory bronchiole give rise to 2-11 alveolar ducts, each
of which ends in an alveolar sac. The latter has a number of
small pouches named alveoli or air sac. Blood capillaries
occur on the surface of alveoli for gaseous exchange.
Diaphragm: It is a membranouus musculo-tendinous
partition between thorax and abdomen. Phrenic muscles
attach diaphragm to ribs and vertebral column. Contraction
of muscles straighten the diaphragm to increase thoracic
cavity. There are two sets of Intercostal Muscles: (i) external
intercostal for normal inspiration and expiration (ii) internal
intercostal for forceful expiration.
Oxygen Transport
Most of the oxygen is transported by Haemoglobin, a

respiratory pigment present in erythrocytes. Most of the
CO2 on the other hand is transported by the plasma in the
form of soluble bicarbonates. Haemoglobin is a cojugated
protein. It consists of the protein globin united to an iron
containing porphyrin Haem. The iron in the haem is in
ferrous state (Fe++). Human blood normally contains about
14.5g Hb/100 ml and 13.5g Hb/100 ml of blood in males
and females respectively. As one atom of iron combines
with one molecule of oxygen, on molecule of haemoglobin
containing four atoms of iron will therefore, combine with
C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + 686 KCal
This equation represents the oxidation of hexose sugar

namely, glucose in the presence of oxygen from the air. The
equation just indicates the two reacting substances
sugar and oxygen and the two end products CO2 and
H2O but this does not indicate the complete reaction
sequence or the pool of intermediate substances of the
process. This breakdown of sugar into carbon dioxide
requires more oxygen than is contained in the
glucose molecule. So oxygen has to be supplied from the
atmosphre.
During the process of respiration glucose first undergoes
a series of changes. The atmospheric oxygen does not enter
into these initial reactions in which some intermediate
compounds are formed and small amount of energy is
released. This series of early reactions is known as glycolysis,
which takes place outside the mitochondria in the cytoplasm.
In these 3 steps a series of reactions takes place each
catalysed by a particular enzyme.
(a) Phosphorylation: In respiration the glucose molecule is
activated by its attachment with phosphate to form
glucose phosphate.
(b) Sugar cleavage: Later the 6 carbon molecule of glucose

phosphate is split into two 3 carbon molecules which
are still combined with phosphorus.
Pyruvic acid formation: In a series of reactions the sugar

fragments containing phosphorus lose their phosphorus,
and some of their hydrogen atoms resulting in the formation
of the 3 carbon intermediate compound called pyruvic
acid.
So far the oxidation of the sugar has occurred through

a rearrangement of the atoms within the molcule and
removal of some of its hydrogen NAD (Nicotinamine
Adenine Dinucleotide); a coenzyme molecule, serves as the
universal hydrogen carrier in respiratory reactions. In this
way NADH2 is oxidised and the energy it contans is used
in the formation of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
The fate of pyruvic acid now depends upon the
BIOLUMINESCENCE
Light is emitted by almost all major groups of organisms but in certain cases it is quite prominent. Bioluminescence
means production of light by the living organisms i.e. energy appears in the form of light. Among plants it is found in many
cases of fungi and bacteria. This mechanism consists of at least six components i.e. water, inorganic ions oxygen, ATP
and two groups of substances, Luciferins and enzyme Luciferases. The last two are principal light generating elements
and light generation is an oxygen requiring ATP dependent process. The emitted light may be of various colours seen
as red, yellow, green or blue colour appearing to the human eye the actual wavelength of the emission is determined by
the particular chemical made up of Luciferin.
[60]
BIOLOGY
VOICE BOX
At the top of your windpipe it is a hollow, tubular structure about 3-4 cm across which create sounds and prevent food
from entering your airways.
Your voice box, or larynx, is a hollow tubular structure made of cartilage. It is connected to the top of your windpipe.
Inside your voice box are two bands of tissue that form your vocal cords. When you speak or sing, muscles pull these
cords together. The air passing through the cords makes them vibrate. You can hear these vibrations as sounds.
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The shorter your vocal cords are and the faster they vibrate, the higher the sound you produce. In both girls and boys
the voice box and vocal cords grow during puberty and cause their voices to deepen. In girls, this change may be hardly
noticeable with their voices dropping by just a couple of tones. But boys voice boxes grow considerably. They also tilt
to a different angle in the neck and can start to stick out as a prominent Adams Apple. Boys voices can drop by as much
as an octave.
On the upper part of your voice box there is a flap called the epiglottis. When you swallow, your voice box rises and
your epiglottis forms a lid over its opening. This blocks the passageway to your respiratory tract and prevents food and
other foreign substances from entering your airways. This is why your epiglottis is sometimes called the guardian of the
airways.
If anything other than air enters your voice box, you automatically cough to clear your airways.
availability of oxygen. The pyruvic acid is the key

intermediate compound of both aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
form carboxyheamoglobin. It results in death. Common

in closed rooms with coal burning, kerosine lamp or
several persons/animals.
In the presence of oxygen pyruvic acid becomes further

oxidised by dehydrogenation to CO2 and water through the
reactions of oxidative cycle. The cells usually obtain their
energy requirements in bulk through aerobic respiration.
These reactions occur within small structures that are present
in the cytoplasm known as mitochondria. These structures
are generally considered as the power plants of the cell. A
series of cyclic reactions take place in the mitochondria and
is known as Krebs cycle (TCA Cycle) The greatest energy
turnover occur during the terminal stages of oxidation of
pyruvic acid to CO2 and water.
5. Pneumonia:
Collection
of
mucus
and
lymph in alveoli due to infection by Diplococcus
pneumoniae. Gaseous exchange is impaired.
RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
8. Cough: Violent expiration for expulsion of mucus and

particles.
1. Tuberculosis: Bacterial disease caused by Mycobacterium

tuberculosis. In fection of several parts but common of
lungs. Vaccination with B.C.G. (Bacillus-CalmetteGuerin).
9. Whooping Cough (Pertussis): Cough with respiratory

whoop caused by Bordetella ( = Haemophilus) pertussis.
6. Hypoxia (Anoxia): Shortage of oxygen supply to the

body due to (a) Normal shortage in air as on high
mountains (mountain sickness) (b) Anemia (c)
Histotoxicity or poisoning of electron transport system.
7. Hiccough (Hiccup): Respiratory spasm caused by

sudden contraction of diaphragm accompanied by loud
closure of glottis.
10. Asthma: Due to narrowing of bronchi and spasms in

bronchial muscles.
2. Pleurisy: Inflammation of pleura or accumulation of

pleural fluid.
3. Emphysema: Reduction in alveolar spaces due to

collapsing of alveolar walls or obstruction of bronchioles.
Due to infection or smoking. Short breath.
4. Asphyxia: Paralysis of respiratory centre due to

excessive carbon dioxide. Commonly due to irreversible
combination of carbon monoxide with haemoglobin to
TRIVIA
Tidal Volume (T.V.): Volume of air inspired or expired

in relaxed or resting position 500 ml. It consists of
150 ml of dead space volume and 350 ml of alveolar
volume.
Dead Space: Part of respiratory tract not involved in
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION
Photosysnthesis
Respiration
It is an anabolic process which results in the synthesis of glucose It is a catabolic process which results in the break down of
(Carbohydrate)
There is an increases in weight after photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide is used in photosysnthesis as raw material
It stores chemical energy in the form of organic compounds
glucose to CO2 and H2O
Weight decreases after respiration

CO2 is produced alongwith energy
It releases energy of organic compound (glucose)
(glucose)
Site of photosynthesis is chloroplast

It takes place during day in sunlight
Plants can live for many days without phosysnthesis
Site of respiration is cytoplasm and mitochondria

It takes place both during day and night
Plants cannot live without respiration
BIOLOGY [61]
gaseous exchange. (Nose to terminal bronchi, vol. 150 ml).

(e.g., Prawn, Daphnia) and molluscs (e.g., Pila, Helix,

Octopus).
Total Lung Capacity (T.I.C.). Maximum amount of air the

lungs can hold after forceful inspiration. 4.5 6.0 litres.
Residual Volume (R.V.): Air left in lungs and dead space

after forceful expiration 1.5 litres.
Altitude and Breathing: Rate of breathing

increases with altitude. Hill poeple have more RBCs.
Vital Capacity (V.C.): Maximum amount of air which

can be breathed out through forceful expiration after a
forceful inspiration 3.5 4.5 litres. Higher in athletes
(than nonatheletes), mountain dwellers (than plain
dwellers), nonsmoker (than smokers).
Abdominal vs Thoricle Breathing: In human males 75%

breathing is through movements of diaphragm
(abdominal breathing) and 25% through movement of
ribs and sternium (thoracic breathing). The latter
becomes major breathing in pregnant women.
Carrying Capacity of Blood: 20 ml of oxygen/100ml of

blood and 37 ml of CO2/100 ml of blood.
Co-affinity for Haemoglobin: It is 200 times more than

oxygen. At 05 partial pressure, CO combines with 50%
of haemoglobin. It produces a stable compound
(nondissociable) called carboxyhaemoglobin.
Respiratory Centre: Respiratory centre is located in

medulla oblongata and pons.
Humans right lung has 3 lobes while the left lungs has
only 2 lobes.
Lungs tissues are elastic, porous and spongy, so float in

water.
Diaphragm is not the part of respiratory system but

help in expansion and contraction of the lungs.
Vagus, the 10th cranial nerve, control the blood vessels

and bronchi of lungs.
Myoglobin/Myohaemoglobin: Similar to haemoglobin

taking part in oxygen transport and oxgyen storage in
muscles.
Normal Breathing follows Inspiration, Expiration and

Pause.
Inverse Breathing follows Inspiration, Pause and

Expiration.
Erythrocruorin: Haemoglobin dissolved in plasma as in

invertebrates.
Haeomocyanin: Blue-coloured copper containing

respiratory pigment in the plasma of certain arthropods
Rate of respiration is of the heart beat but in new

born it is high (40) at the age of 1 year it is 30/mt., 2 to
5 years it is 24-mt. and in adult 18/mt.
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Inspiratory Reserve Volume (I.R.V.): Volume of air in

excess of tidal volume which can be inhaled due to
forceful inspiration 2.02.5 litres.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (E.R.V.): Volume of air in

excess of tidal volume which can be exhaled due to
forceful expiration. 1.01.5 litres.
Mouth Breathing vs Nasal Breathing: Mouth breathing
is harmful as uncleaned (no filtration of dust particles),
unsterilised (no separation and killing of microbes) and
unconditioned (no moisture and temperature regulation)
air is inhaled.
Oxyheaemoglobin: Hb4O8 (each haemoglobin molecule

has four iron atoms, each of which can combine with a
molecule of oxygen present in the lungs).
Haemoglobin. Iron-protein reddish pigment inside RBCs

in vertebrates and dissolved in plasma in invertebrates
(e.g., annelids, crustaceans, some molluscs like Planorbis).
[62]
BIOLOGY
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
leaves into the stem. All these movements of substances from

the region of synthesis or plentiful availability to the region
of utilisation (sink) is called translocation.
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The complex structural organisation of multicellular

organisms require a mechanism to transport materials
throughout the body. In simple multicellular organisms
like Hydra and in unicellular organisms like Amoeba,
Paramoecium Chlamydomonas and other algae, this is
achieved by diffusion. The transport in more complex
animals is carried out through the circulatory system. In
higher plants the transport within the body is carried out
through the conducting tissues like xylem and phloem and
through the intercellular spaces.
In higher and multi cellular organism cells no longer

remain in direct contact with the exterior. So there is a
need to transport various substances like digested food
materials to provide energy to perform physical activities
of the body and for growth of the body. Hormones and
enzymes from the site of their secretion to the site of
their action, metabolic wastes (e.g. CO2, NH3 and Urea)
to the site of the excretion and useful substances (e.g. O2,
food particles) from the site of absorption to the site of
utilization. For the transportation of these substances there
is present a circulatory system in all the organisms.
In annelids (earthworm) a closed type of well developed

circulatory system is present. It consists of various blood
vessels and capillaries that ramify to all the tissues of
the body. Circulatory system in earthworm consists of
blood, blood vessles, eroetic arches which fundtion like
a human heart and blood glands.
In insect (cockroach), an open type of circulatory system

is present, as the blood (haemolymph) comes in direct
contact with the body cavity or (hemocoel). The
hemolymph is colourless as there is no respiratory
pigment, so the blood of cockroach does all the functions
except the transport of respiratory gases.
In vertebrates there is a closed type of circulatory

system. There are various blood vessles (arteries and
veins) which carry and bring blood from various parts
of the body. There is a central pumping organ called
heart.
In fishes the heart is a two chambered structure (an

auricle and a ventricle). In amphibians, it is three
chambered structure (two auricles and a ventricle) and
in birds and mammals the heart becomes a four
chambered structure (two auricles and two ventricles).
TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN PLANTS
Plants utilise simple inorganic substances like carbon

dioxide, oxygen, water and mineral salts for all their
metabolic activities. Sugars are manufactured in the leaf by
the process of photosynthesis and are translocated from the
Transportation in plants takes place through xylem and

pholem tissue. The xylem consists of thick walled tubes of
dead cells. Water is transported through the xylem from the
root to the leaves. Where it is partly utilised and the bulk
of it is evaported from the leaf surfaces. Minerals dissolved
in water are absorbed from the soil and are moved upwords
to the leaves mainly through the xylem. So xylem forms the
pipeline for conducting water. On the otherhand the
synthesised foods are conducted from the leaves to the roots
and to the shoot tips through phloem tissue which consists
of living cells. These cells are joined end to end. Their end
walls are sieve like and perforated. These are called sieve
tubes.
The loss of water in the form of water vapours from the
internal tissues and organs of the plant body through the
aerial parts such as leaves, green shoots, etc. is known as
transpiration. The stomatal transpiration is the main way of
water loss (about 80-90%) and is much more than cuticular
transpiration under ordinary conditions of light, temperature
and humidity. The loss of water in the form of liquid drops
is known as guttation or exudation.
Guttation is very common among plants such as Rose,
Grapevine, Balsam, Water lettuce, Sun Flower, Grasses and
Chrysanthemum, etc. In them small droplets of water are
seen at the tip or margins of leaves in the early morning
hours. This loss of water in the form of liquid occurs through
specialized structures known as hydathodes.
MAMMALIAN HEART
The heart of mammals, conical in shape, is completely

enclosed in a membrane called Pericardium. It is
4-chambered. (Reptiles-Heart begins to show a division into
four chambers, Amphibia 3-chambered Heart) of the 4chambers 2 Auricles & 2 Ventricles. The 2 auricles are
separated by an inter-auricular septum and the 2 ventricles
by 2 ventricular septum. The right auricle receives venous
blood (blood through vein) from all parts of the body, except
the lungs. Left auricle receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs through Pulmonary veins.
Right auricle leads into the right ventricle by an opening

guarded by Tricuspid valve; this valve allows the flow of
blood in one direction only i.e. from auricle to ventricle.
Similarly, the left auricle which receives oxygenated blood
coming from lungs, opens into left ventricle by an opening
guarded by a valve called Bicuspid valve or Mitral valve.
The valves between auricles and ventricles are membranous
in mammals whereas in frog, they are muscular.
BIOLOGY [63]
For the pumping action of Heart, the

wave of contraction originates from a
Pacemaker or Contraction centre called
the Sinuauricullar node. Though the
contraction originates in the node but its
frequency is controlled by the nerves.
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Any interference in the conducting

system of the wave of contraction from the
pacemaker, either by mechanical
obstruction or degeneration due to a
disease affects the heart beat. The defect is
called Heart block. It can be set right
temporarily for a period of a few years by
means of a transistorised device. The device
is implanted in the chest muscles. The
electrodes from the device (called
Pacemaker) are inserted into the conducting
system. Electrical stimulations from the
device feed the conducting system which
begins to function normally.
veins called venules and these leads

into larger and larger veins which carry
blood back to the heart. The aorta is
the longest and largest artery in the
body. It receives blood from the left
ventricle of the heart, and branches
from it lead to all organs and tissues
except the lungs. The pulmonary artery
carries blood from the right ventricle
to the lungs. The pulmonary vein
carries blood from the lungs to the left
auricle. All veins except the pulmonary
veins carry de-oxygenated blood.
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
It consists of heart, arteries, veins & capillaries.

Mammals, birds and crocodiles have a double circulation
made up of the pulmonary circulation between the heart
and the lungs, and the systemic between all other parts of
the body. In humans the heart pumps blood into arteries.
Arteries divide and sub-divide into narrower ducts called
capillaries. Eventually capillaries join together forming small
The heart-beat consists of 2 phases

systole and diastole. In systole the
ventricles contracts and force blood
along the aorta and pulmonary artery.
Meanwhile the auricles begin to fill
with blood. In diastole the ventricles
relax and expand as blood flows into them from the auricles.
The auricles contract at this stage. In human adult at rest,
the heart beats at the rate of about 72 times per minute.
Blood in the arteries of the average adult exerts a pressure
equal to a column of mercury about 120 mm. high in a glass
tube during systole of the ventricles, and 80 mm. high during
their diastole. This is expressed as B.P. of 120/80. It should
be noted that the blood pressure fluctuates considerably
during each heart beat. The difference between the systolic
and diastolic pressure is called pulse pressure.
HUMAN BLOOD
It is red, sticky, salty fluid. In adult man normally 5.6

Lt.. of blood is found. In humans, blood is used as transport
vehicle for any compound within the body. It has pH of 7.4.
In fact blood is a mixture of RBC, WBC and Platelets, all
floating in plasma.
RBC/Erythrocytes: In the vertebrates other than

mammals, the RBC are large oval cells with a bulging
biconvex nucleus. In mammals including human RBC are
NORMAL BLOOD PHYSIOLOGICAL VALUES
Unit
Haemoglobin (Hb) gm/100 ml
Packed cell volume
%
(PCV)
RBC
Million/mm2
WBC (TLC)
/mm2
DLC
Neutrophil
%
Lymphocytes
%
Monocytes
%
Eosinophils
%
Basophils
%
ESR*
mm fall
Coagulation time
min
Heart Rate
1 min
Blood Pressure
(syst/diast)
mm Hg
Man
16+2
475
Woman
14+2
425
5.40.8
4300
4.80.6
10800
34-75
20-40
3-15
1-3
0-1
0-9
3-6
72
34-75
20-40
3-15
1-3
0-1
3-20
3-6
120/80
120/80
Note: * Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate
[64]
BIOLOGY
round, biconcave and non-nucleated. There are 4 to 6 million

erythrocytes/cubic ml. of human blood. The life of RBC is
120 days. RBC are made in the embryo by the liver or spleen
but after birth they are formed in red bone marrow of short
bones, mostly in sternum (breast bones), ribs etc.. They are
destroyed in liver and spleen. Erythrocytes contain a protein
called Haemoglobin which gives them red colour.
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WBC/Leucocytes: WBC are nucleated cells, irregular

in shape, semitransparent and much less numerous than
RBC (RBC:WBC::1:400/500). They have independent powers
of amoeboid locomotion by preudopodia. They can engulf
bacteria and so called Phagocytic. The life span of WBC is
less than 2 weeks. But they are constantly manufactured in
red bone marrow, spleen, thymus and lymph nodes. The
main functions of WBC are to transport substance, remove
dead cells and decaying tissues, fight bacteria and act as
guardians of the circulatory system. Some WBC may be
destroyed and along with fragment of tissues it forms Pus.
There are five basic types of bucocytes:
When an injury occurs, blood begins to escape from it

but the injured tissue cells and disintegrating blood platelets
or thrombocytes on contact with wet and rough surface
release the granules of a substance called Platelet factor 3.
This combines with several blood proteins and convert them
into Prothromboplastin which immediately changes into
Thromboplastin after reacting with Ca++. Thromboplastin
reacts with inactive Prothrombin in the presence of Ca++ to
form active Thrombin. Thrombin acts on fibrinogen (Sol
State) converting it into fibrin (gel state). The fibrin becomes
a network of fine fibres which entangle corpuscles to form
a clot at the site of injury.
1. Neutrophils : Most numerous (65-70% of total WBC);

when germs attack they begin to destroy the tissue by
poisoning them and engulf the bacteria and other antigen
and destroy them.
2. Lymphocytes: After neutrophils in number (20-25%);
produced in the spleen of a frog and lymph nodes of
human; useful in healing process.
3. Basophils: Non-phagocytic; secrete anticoagulant called

Heparin.
Thus, clotting depends upon the presence of

Prothrombin, Thromboplastin and calcium ions and absence
of any of these will prevent coagulation. Three minutes is
the normal time for blood to clot. However, average
coagulation time varies from 2 to 6 minutes depending upon
the amount of blood.
Thrombin+Fibrinogen
Traumatised
Tissues
Blood
Platelets
release
adhere to damage
tissue and release
Platelet Factor-3
(Platelet Thromboplatine)
Thromboplatine
++
Ca and Proteins
++
Ca and proteins
4. Eosinophils: Non-phagocytic; constitute 0.5% of total

WBC; extra production causes asthma.
Prothrombinase
5. Monocytes : Phagocytic and are produced in spleen or

lymph nodes; defend against tuberculosis, malaria,
typhoid, etc.
inactivates heparin
and catalyzes
Prothrombin
Plasma: It is the liquid part of blood; 50-60% of total

human blood; contain 90% water and less than 10% of
various substances in solution like plasma protein, organic
substance, inorganic salts, potassium, calcium, iron, etc.. It
also contain fibrinogen, hormones, digestive foods, Gamaglobulin, etc. Gama-globulin is converted into anti-bodies.
Bi-product of protein break down like urea, uric acid etc.
are also found here. Serum (plasma- fibrinogen) provide
passive immunity and so as antibodies in the treatment of
tetanus, snake-bite etc. Gama-globulin acts as antibodies in
case of measles, polio etc.
Platelets: They are non-nucleated, colourless, smallest

of all blood components, tiny circular or oval discs like.
They are derived from giant cells of megakaryocytes of
bone marrow. Their life-span is only of few hours. Platelets
disintegrate and produce Thrombokinase/thromboplastin,
vital in blood cloting.
BLOOD CLOTTING
The blood contains an inactive enzyme known as

Prothrombin which is kept in check by another substance
in blood called Antiprophrombin or Heparin. Thus, the
blood flowing normally in blood vessels does not coagulate
due to the presence of heparin.
Fibrin
(Present in Plasma)
Thrombin and some

Peptide fragments.
Catalyzes
Fibronogen
Monomrs
Polymerize
Fibrin Polymer
BLOOD TYPES
Landsteiner and his co-workers divided the entire

human population into four major groups according to the
reaction of their blood when mixed together. The four types
of blood are named A, B, AB and O depending upon the
presence of antigen in R.B.C. Each letter refers to a kind of
antigen, or protein, on the surface of red blood cells. For
example, the surface of red blood cells in Type A blood has
antigens known as A-antigens.
Rh Factor: Rh in fact is first 2 letters of the monkey

Rhesus in which first of all it was discovered. Rh is an
antigen present in the RBC of a large majority of people.
Such people who have this antigen are called Rh positive
(Rh+) and the person who have not, are called Rh negative
(Rh). In India about 97% people are Rh positive. If an Rh
BIOLOGY [65]
BLOOD PRESSURE LEVEL (MM HG)

Category
Systolic
PNormal
< 120
< 80
120139
8089
Prehypertension
Different kinds of animals have different kinds of blood.

Dogs have 4 blood types; cats have 11; cows have about
800.
Some people think blood type tells about personality.

Legend has it that Type A is calm and trustworthy;
Type B is creative and excitable; Type AB is thoughtful
and emotional; and Type O is a confident leader.
The approximate distribution of blood groups among

Hindus in India is as follows. A-24%, B-38%, AB-8%
and O-30%. A very interesting example of blood groups
of human population are natives of Peru. They are centpercent of group O.
Diastolic
High blood pressure

Stage 1 hypertension
140159
9099
Stage 2 hypertension
>=160
>=100
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NOTE: < means less than; >= means greater than or equal to.
negative person is given a transfusion of Rh positive blood,

he will develop antibodies which may kill the person. A
more serious situation result if an Rh positive male marries
a Rh negative female, their offspring will be Rh positive
and will produce the antigen, some of this antigen will pass
from the embryo into the blood of the mother, in the mother
the antigen will produce antibodies which will then enter
the foetus and destroy its RBC, cause anaemia and death of
new born babies. This is the situation of erythroblastosis
faetalis. In some people the blood group is ABO, this type
of blood kills the foetus during early development, this
occurs when the mother is of the blood group O, and the
foetus of the group A, B or AB. There is also an
incompatibility when the mother is of group B and the foetus
of the group A. It is now known that ABO incompatibility
is responsible for deaths of unborn children, and this is
often the cause why married couples do not have children.
Blood Transfusion: In a blood transfusion, a patient

must receive a blood type that is compatible with his or her
own blood typethat is, the donated blood must be accepted
by the patients own blood. If the blood types are not
compatible, red blood cells will clump together, making clots
that can block blood vessels and cause death.
Type O blood is considered the universal donor

because it can be donated to people of any blood type. Type
AB+ blood is considered the universal recipient because
people with this type can receive any blood type.
Blood type
Who can receive this type
O+
O+, A+, B+, AB+
All blood types
A+
A+, AB+
A+, A, AB+, AB
B+
B+, AB+
B+, B, AB+, AB
AB+
AB+
AB
AB+, AB
Antigen and Antibody: An antigen is a

macromolecular compound generally a protein which when
administered to mammals stimulate the synthesis of a specifc
compound. This compound combines with the antigen
and is called an antibody. The antibodies are proteins.
When it combines with its specific antibody it causes
agglutination.
[66]
Certain blood types are more common in certain

countries. In China, over 99% of the population has Rh+
blood.
BIOLOGY
BLUE BABY
Blue baby is infant born with a congenital heart defect

that causes a bluish coloration of the skin as a result of
cyanosis (deoxygenated blood). The cyanotic condition
occurs when a large portion of the venous blood bypasses
the lungs. Normally, deoxygenated blood from the veins is
pumped from the right side of the heart to the lungs, where
it is oxygenated. In some blue babies, the pulmonary artery
is too narrow to allow sufficient blood to pass into the lungs
for oxygenation. Surgical correction of the defect is usually
required and is usually successful.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The RBC never leave the blood vessels, but the plasma
and leucocytes escape from blood capillaries into the tissues.
This colourless portion of blood without its RBC and heavy
blood proteins is called Lymph.
The lymph carries food and oxygen to cells of the body,

and it takes substances from tissues to re-enter blood by
means of Lymphatic vessels though some lymph enter the
venous capillaries by osmosis. Thin walled anastomosing
lymph capillaries form a network in every organ (except
nervous system), they start from minute knob like blind
ends. Lymph capillaries join to from Lymph vessels on
lymphatics which have thick wall and contain valves
in pairs.
In mammals, at several places along the lymph vessels

are lymph nodes which are masses of lymphatic tissue and
connective tissue containing lymphocytes and many lymph
capillaries. In man, lymph nodes occur in the head neck,
arms, pit, knee, groins and near large vessels, they also form
the tonsils and Peyers patches on the intestine.
There are no lymph hearts in mammal, the slow moving
lymph is propelled through the lymph vessels and nodes
by body muscles and by pressure in smaller vessels due to
osmosis and by absorption of tissue fluids.
The lymphatic system differ from the blood vascular

system in being an open system because it has lymph spaces
between tissue cells, moreover, lymph flows in only one
direction, i.e. from the tissues towards the heart, hence its
capillaries and lymph vessels are equivalent to veins, thus
it does not make a complete circuit, as the blood vascular
system does, because lymph goes from tissue cells to the

veins of the blood system.
of our heart would beat at different rates. Muscle cells in

our ventricles would beat more slowly than those in our
atria. Without some kind of unifying function, our heart
would be an inefficient, uncoordinated pump. So, our
heart has a tiny group of cells known as the sinoatrial
node that is responsible for coordinating heart beat rate
across our heart. It starts each heartbeat and sets the
heartbeat pace for the whole heart. Damage to the
sinoatrial node can result in a slower heart rate. When
this is a problem, an operation is often performed to
install an artificial pacemaker, which takes over the role
of the sinoatrial node.
BLOOD PRESSURE
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Blood pressure is the force of blood against the walls of

arteries. Blood pressure is recorded as two numbersthe
systolic pressure (as the heart beats) over the diastolic
pressure (as the heart relaxes between beats). The
measurement is written one above or before the other, with
the systolic number on top and the diastolic number on the
bottom. Normal blood pressure is less than 120 mm Hg
systolic and less than 80 mm Hg diastolic.
Heart rate: Without nervous system control, our heart

would beat around 100 times per minute. However,
when we are relaxed, our parasympathetic nervous
system sets a resting heart beat rate of about 70 beats
per minute, (resting heart rate is usually between 72-80
beats per minute in women and 64-72 beats per minute
in men).
When you exercise or feel anxious your heart beats more

quickly, increasing the flow of oxygenated blood to your
muscles. This is triggered by your sympathetic nervous
system. Your heart rate also increases in response to
hormones like adrenalin.
On an average, your maximum heart rate is 220 beats

per minute minus your age. So a 40 year old would
have a maximum heart rate of 180 beats per minute.
Although your heart is continually filled with blood,

this blood doesnt provide your heart with oxygen. The
blood supply that provides oxygen and nutrients to your
heart is provided by blood vessels that wrap around the
outside of your heart.
HUMAN HEART
Between our lungs heart is grapefruit-sized and coneshaped which pump oxygen-rich blood throughout our body
and oxygen-poor blood to our lungs. Your heart is divided
into four hollow chambers. The upper two chambers are
called atria. They are joined to two lower chambers called
ventricles. These are the pumps of your heart.
One-way valves between the chambers keep blood

flowing through your heart in the right direction. As blood
flows through a valve from one chamber into another the
valve closes, preventing blood flowing backwards. As the
valves snap shut, they make a thumping, heart beat noise.
Blood carries oxygen and many other substances around

our body. Oxygen from our blood reacts with sugar in
your cells to make energy. The waste product of this
process, carbon dioxide, is carried away from your cells
in your blood.
Our heart is a single organ, but it acts as a double pump.

The first pump carries oxygen-poor blood to our lungs,
where it unloads carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen.
It then delivers oxygen-rich blood back to our heart.
The second pump delivers oxygen-rich blood to every
part of our body. Blood needing more oxygen is sent
back to the heart to begin the cycle again. In one day
our heart transports all your blood around your body
about 1000 times.
Our right ventricle pumps blood to our lungs and our

left ventricle pumps blood all around our body.
The muscular walls of the left ventricle are thicker than

those of the right ventricle, making it a much more
powerful pump. For this reason, it is easiest to feel your
heart beating on the left side of your chest.
Cardiac muscle: Our heart is an incredibly powerful

organ. It works constantly without ever pausing to rest.
It is made of cardiac muscles, which only exists in the
heart. Unlike other types of muscles, cardiac muscles
never gets tired.
Pacemaker: Unlike skeletal muscle cells that need to be

stimulated by nerve impulses to contract, cardiac muscle
cells can contract all by themselves. However, if left to
their own devices, cardiac muscle cells in different areas
HEALTHY HEART I.Q.
High blood pressure, smoking, and high blood

cholesterol are the three most important risk factors for
heart disease. Obesity increases the likelihood of
developing high blood cholesterol and high blood
pressure, which increase your risk of heart disease.
A blood pressure of 140/90 mm Hg or greater is

generally classified as high blood pressure. If the diastolic
pressure, the second or lower number, is between 85
89, a person is at an increased risk for heart disease or
stroke and should have his/her blood pressure checked
at least once a year by a health professional.
A total blood cholesterol of under 200 mg/dL is desirable

and usually puts you at a lower risk for heart disease.
A blood cholesterol level of 240 mg/dL or above is high
and increases your risk of heart disease. If your
cholesterol level is high, your doctor will want to check
your levels of LDL-cholesterol (bad cholesterol) and
HDL-cholesterol (good cholesterol).
Eating foods low in saturated fat is the most effective

dietary way to lower blood cholesterol levels, along with
eating less total fat and cholesterol. Choose low-saturated
BIOLOGY [67]
fat foods, such as grains, fruits, and vegetables; low-fat

or skim milk and milk products; lean cuts of meat, fish,
and chicken.
Filtering blood: Your spleen acts as a filter for your

blood, cleansing it of bacteria, viruses and other debris.
When blood flows through your spleen, white blood
cells attack and remove any foreign invaders. This keeps
your blood clean and helps protect you against infection.
Destroying old red-blood cells: Red blood cells have a

lifespan of around 120 days, after which your spleen
breaks them down. The red blood cell remains are
transported elsewhere in your body where they are
excreted or recycled to manufacture new red blood cells.
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For the first time, the doctor recommends a target for

salt intake: no more than 1 teaspoon of salt a day. Too
much salt can cause high blood pressure.
Fat should make upto 35% or less of your daily calorie
intake. Try to avoid eating trans fats. These types of fat
are often listed as partially hydrogenated oils in the
list of ingredients.
SPLEEN
It is a part of lymphatic (infection fighting system which

lies on left hand side of your body, between your stomach
and diaphragm. It cleans your blood, destroy old red blood
cells and fight infection.
[68]
BIOLOGY
Making blood cells: Before birth, foetuses produce red

and white blood cells in their spleens. Shortly before
birth the spleen loses its ability to make red blood cells
and bone marrow takes over this job. The spleen
continues producing infection-fighting white blood cells
throughout our lives.
CHRONICLE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
IAS ACADEMY
cortex alone. Neurons are the largest cell in the body, up to

90 cm. Neurons conduct electrochemical impulses.
Dendrites are fibres that generate nerve impulses in
response to stimulation from a sense receptor or from other
neuron. Axon are fibres that transmits an impulse away
from the cell body. Carrying it to another neuron or to an
effector muscle/gland. Neurons may be of 3 types-
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Nervous system is a system of neurons/nerve cells, nerves

and nervous organs that coordinate and control the activities
of different parts of an animal body by receiving and sending
nerve impulses. Nervous system performs a number of
functions :
(i)
Making the animal aware of environment.
(ii)
Receiving information about the changes in the

environment.
(iii) Memory of past experiences and impressions.
(iv) Interpretation of external changes with the help of

memory.
(v)
Producing sensations like pain, pleasure, smell, taste,

vision, hearing etc. with the help of special sense
organs.
(vi) Linking different body parts and coordinating their

functions.
(vii) Controlling activities of muscles and glands.
(viii) Knowing changes or disturbances in the interior of

body.
(ix) Helping maintain homeostasis in internal environment.
(x)
Taking immediate remedial action for harmful

sensations without consulting will of the animals.
Diffused Nervous System: It is the most primitive form

of nervous system and is developed only in lower
invertebrates like Jelly fish and Hydra. Here there is no
brain and the nerve cells are distributed throughout the
organism in a netlike pattern.
Centralised Nervous System: Here some part of the

system has the dominant role and have a more complex
central nervous system, like among annelids (earthworm,
leeches), arthopods (insects, crustaceans). They have definite
brain and ventral nerve cord. In vertebrates brain and dorsal
nerve cord (spinal cord) are found.
In Mammals the nervous system is more complex and
have basic three parts (a) Central Nervous System (brain
and spinal cord) (b) Peripheral Nervous System (nerves
between central nervous system and different parts of the
body) (c) Autonomic Nervous System (controlling voluntary
activities like heart beat, peristalsis of intestine, etc.)
(i) Sensory Nerves: They are nerves which contain only

afferent or sensory nerve fibres that bring impulses from
diferent body parts, including the sense organs to the
central nervous system. Amongst cranial nerves, only
three are sensory olfactory, optic and auditory.
(ii) Motor Nerves: They are nerves which contain only

efferent or motor neurons that carry impulses from
central nervous system to effector organs for particular
function like muscle contraction or glandular secretion.
Five cranial nerves (oculomotor, trochlear, abducens,
spinal accessory and hypoglossal) and nerves of
autonomic system are motor in nature.
(iii)Mixed Nerves: The nerves contain both afferent
(sensory) and efferent (motor) nerve fibres. All spinal
nerves and four cranial nerves (trigeminal, facial,
glossopharyngeal and vagus) are mixed.
Nerve impulse: It is wave of bioelectric or

electrochemical disturbance that passes along a nerve/
neuron during conduction of an excitation.
Stimulus: Stimulus is the change in internal or external

environment which brings about excitation in a nerve/
muscle/organ/organism. It can be mechanical, physical
(heat, cold, humidity, visual), chemical or electrical.
Neurotransmitters: They are chemicals secreted by axon

terminals for transmitting impulse to the next neuron.
The most common neurotransmitter is acetylcholine. Other
neurotransmitters include gama aminobutyric acid,
dopamine, glycine, glutamic acid and adrenaline. Synapse
is the junction between two neurons.
NEURONS
They are structural and functional units of nervous

system. Over 30 billion neurons occur in human body, 98%
in brain out of which 9 to 10 billion are found in cerebral
BIOLOGY [69]
NERVES IN COMMAND
Cranial Nerves
Distribution
Functions
Olfactory
Optic
Oculomotor
Trochlear
Trigeminal
Mucus membrane of nose

Retina
4 out of six eye muscles
Eye muscles
Mucus membrane of
head and Skin
Eye muscles
Various parts of the face
like neck, salivary gland,
taste buds etc.
Internal ear
Smell
Vision
Movement of eye
Movement of eye
Collection of stimuli
from these regions
Movement of eye
Movement of neck,
perceiving taste,
salivation.
Hearing
and
balancing
Swallowing taste
and salivation
Visceral reflexes
Abducen
Facial
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In mammals all body activities are either directly or

indirectly under the control of the Nervous System. Direct
control is exercised by supplying nerves to the various
organs and tissues, while indirect control is exercised
through the endocrine glands and the circulatory system.
The nervous system receives a variety of stimuli from the
various parts of the body. Depending on the nature of the
stimuli, it sends out appropriate order to the concerned
organs. Both exterior (eg. pressure, pain, heat, etc, which
are caused due to changes in the external conditions) and
proprioceptive sensations (sensations which convey the
physical state of the body, eg. functioning of the internal
organs) are brought to the brain and spinal cord through
sensory nerves. Orders which are carried out in response to
these sensations are conveyed to the appropriate organs
through motor nerves.
HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
The human brain shows a great advance over that of

any other animal in the size of the cerebral hemisphere as
well as the midbrain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, etc. It
weighs between 1250 to 1350 gms. Brain is safely protected
in the cranium and is covered by three layers of membranes.
Central Nervous System
It consists of brain and spinal cord, covered by thin

membrane meninges which protect them from infection. If
it is infected by anyway causes meningitis. Central nervous
system is made of neurons which will die if oxygen and
glucose supply is restricted for 3 to 4 minutes. Neurons
cannot be replaced or regenerated. Neurons has two parts:
(a) Grey matter, responsible for the highest intellectual
capacity and (b) White matter, which connects two or more
grey matters. Central nervous system function on the basis
of Reflex Actions. Brain has 3 regions
(a) Fore brain (Olfactory lobes, Cerebral hemisphere and

Diencephalon),
(b) Mid brain (Optic lobes and Crura cerebri), and
(c) Hind brain (Cerebellum and Medulla Oblongata).
Olfactory Lobes: They are a pair of solid club shaped

structures present on the inferior surface of cerebrum having
Auditory
Glossopharyngeal Tongue, Pharynx

Vagus
Accessory
Hypoglossal
Wind pipe, thoracic and

visceral organs
Visceral organs
Tongue
Visceral reflexes
Movement of the
tongue.
an olfactory bulb and an olfactory tract for relaying sense of

smell to temporal lobes.
Cerebrum: It constitutes 80% of brain that overlies all
other parts. Cerebrum is formed of two closely appresed
cerebral hemispheres connected at the inferior region by a
thick curved band known as corpus callosum. Three deep
and wide fissures demarcate four lobes anterior frontal,
middle parietal, posterior occipital and lateral temporal.
Frontal Lobes - (voluntary movements) higher centre

for involuntary movements and autonomous nervous
system, coordination of sensation and movements,
speech intelligence.
Parietal Lobes - General sensations (like pain, touch,

pressure, temperature), taste (gustatory area) speech.
Temporal Lobes - Smell, hearing, speech, memory.
Occipital Lobes - Mainly sight.
Silent areas are those areas of cerebrum which regulate

intellect, memory, fore-sight, imagination, moods, emotions,
etc. Cerebral cortex exhibits rhythmic electric charges which
can be recorded by electroencephalogram. The recording
graph is called electroencephalograph (EEG). It depicts
working and defect of different parts of brain.
Diencephalon: Hypothalamus is the floor of
diencephalon. It consists of masses of grey matter scattered
in white matter. Hypothalamus possesses higher nerve
centres for controlling emotional reactions, sweating, fatigue
sleep, thirst, hunger and body temperature. It also secretes
neurohormones. Hypothalamus secretes twelve
neurohoromnes ten of them control the secretory pituitary
gland while 2 of them (oxytocin and ADH) directly function
as hormones of posterior lobe of pituitary
(neurohypophysis).
Midbrain: The nerve cells are involved in controlling
[70]
BIOLOGY
for functioning as relay centre amongst different parts and

sides of brain.
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Medulla Oblongata: It is cylindrical conical hindermost

part of brain. Medulla oblongata is believed to cause change
of nervous tracts from left to right and vice versa. Medulla
oblongata has (i) Respiratory centre (ii) Cardiac centre (iii)
Reflex centres for swallowing, vomitting, peristalsis,
secretion and activity of alimentary canal, salivation,
coughing, sneezing etc. (iv) vasomotor centre (diameter of
blood vessels).
Brain Stem : It is a part of the brain that is continuous
with spinal cord as medulla oblongata, pons varolli and
midbrain.
muscles tone and modifying some motor activities. There are

two thick fibrous tracts called crura cerebri/cerebral
peduncles on the inferior surface for connecting fore brain
with hind brain and relaying impulses (both sensory and
motor). The sides contain four swellings or corpora
quadrigemina, two larger superior corpora or colliculi (sight
reflexes) and two smaller inferior corpora or colliculi
(auditory reflexes).
Cerebellum: It lies behind the cerebrum and above
medulla oblongato. Cerebellum is second largest part which
is very well developed in humans. Cerebellum is connected
with both cerebrum and medulla oblongata and controls (i)
Equilibrium of body (ii) Moderation of voluntary movements
(iii) Maintenance of muscle tone.
Pons Varolli (Pons): It is a broad cross-wise band of
fibres found on the inferior broad side of medulla oblongata
that connects cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla and spinal cord
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) : It is a clear, colourless,

slightly alkaline (7.33 pH) fluid of 1.005 specific gravity that
occurs in the ventricles of brain, central canal of spinal cord
and subarachnoid space. It is filtered out of blood in the
region of choroid plexus and passes back into it. CSF supplies
food and oxygen to different parts of CNS. It picks up CO2,
urea and other waste products from CNS. Protection of CNS
from shock. Maintenance of a constant internal pressure.
Keeps CNS moist.
Spinal Cord : It is 42 45 cm long (weight 30 35 gm)
cord-like nearly cylindrical lower part of CNS which lies
inside the neural canal of vertebral column. It begins in the
atlas and tapers to a point, conus medullaris, in the first
or second lumbar vertebra. The short size of the spinal
cord is due to elongation of vertebral column. Spinal cord is:
(a) centre for many reflexes (spinal reflexes)
(b) Providing nervous connection to a large number of body

parts.
(c) Conduction of sensory and motor impulses to and from
brain.
Spinal Nerves : They constitute peripheral nervous

system (PNS) developing from spinal cord. There are 31
pairs of spinal nerves 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5
sacral and 1 coccygeal. The nerves come out of vertebral
column through intervertebral foramina, the first pair of
cervicals coming out between skull and atlas.
Cranial Nerves : They constitute peripheral nervous

system (PNS) that develops from brain. There are 212 pairs
of cranial nerves.
Autonomic Nervous System
It lies outside the central nervous system and works

independently of the central nervous system. It controls the
survival mechanism of the body and all involuntary actions
like heart beat, digestion, etc. Autonomous nervous system
innervate various organs and glands of the body to stimulate,
accelerate, slow down or inhibit their functions without
directly consulting the will.
BIOLOGY [71]
It is considered as the oldest part of the nervous system

and is found in all animals except star fish. The major subcomponents of this system are:
(a) Thalmus: It directs or provide the link between cerebral
cortex and spinal cord.
1. Cerebrum
Seat of mental abilities, controls thinking, memory, reasoning, perception controls, emotionals, speech.
Interprets sensations and response to cold, heat, pain
and pressure.
2. Diencephalon
Relay centre for sensory impulse, such as pain, temperature, light, etc.
Reflex centre for muscular activities
Centre for certain emotions such as anger.
Contains centre for water balance, blood pressure, body
temperature, sleep and hunger.
The hypothalamus controls hypophysis, or the pituitary gland, which function as master gland.
3. Mid brain
It relays motors impulses from the cerebral cortex to the
pons and spinal cord and relays sensory impulses from
the spinal cord to the thalamus.
4. Cerebellum
Maintains posture, equilibrium and muscle tone.
Coordinates voluntary movements initiated by cerebrum.
5. Pons
Transmits impulses from one side of cerebellum to the
other and together with medulla it controls breathing.
6 Medulla
Contains centre for Cardiac, respiratory and vasomotor activities.
Coordinates reflexes such as for swelling, coughing,
sneezing and vomiting.
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(b) Hypothalmus: Found in large brain; thermostat of the

body as it regulates the body temperature, thirst, hunger,
breathing and emotions.
FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS PART OF BRAIN
(c) Medulla Oblongata : It is the lowest part of the brain,

merging with spinal cord. It is concerned with
unconscious processes, including the regulation of bloodpressure, body temperature, heart-beat rate, breathing,
etc. It performs these tasks through connection with
autonomic nervous system.
ANS is involuntary so that brain is not taxed.
Coordination of various body organs.
The system through its two divisions is adopted to

accelerate, moderate, slow down or inhibit an activity.
It can help meet emergencies and emotional stress. ANS

is made of two opposing divisions, sympathetic and
parasympathetic.
Peripheral Nervous System
All the nerves and nerve cells outside our central

nervous system make up peripheral nervous system. Its task
is to relay information from our brain and spinal cord to the
rest of body and from our body to brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system consists of 12 pairs of cranial
nerves, which emerge from our brain and mainly serve our
head and neck. It also contains 31 pairs of spinal nerves,
which branch off from our spinal cord and supply the rest
of the body.
Voluntary and involuntary actions: With the help of

our peripheral nerves, we are able to carry out voluntary
and involuntary actions. If we pick up a mug, clap our
hands or lift weights in the gym, we are performing
voluntary actions. In contrast, our heart beats and our
intestines digest without conscious control. Involuntary
actions such as these are regulated by our autonomic nervous
system. The autonomic part of our peripheral nervous
system ensures that all our internal organs and glands
function smoothly.
Our autonomic nervous system has two parts: the
sympathetic and the parasympathetic. Both supply
essentially the same organs but cause opposite effects. This
is because their activating chemicals, or neurotransmitters,
are different.
Fight or flight: Often referred to as our fight-or-flight
system, Our sympathetic nervous system prepares our body
for emergencies. It shunts our blood to our muscles and
increases our blood pressure, heart rate and breathing rate,
enabling to cope with stressful situations.
[72]
BIOLOGY
Rest and digest: Our parasympathetic nervous system

maintains and restores our energy. It directs blood to our
digestive tract and makes sure we actively digest food. It
also maintains our blood pressure, heart rate and breathing
rate at a low level. Thats why it is sometimes called our
rest and digest system.
REFLEX ACTION
It is a nerve medicated spontaneous, automatic and

involuntary response to a stimulus acting on a specific
receptor without consulting the will of the animal. Reflex
action was discovered by Marshal Hall (1833). Depending
upon the part of CNS connected with reflex action, it can be
spinal reflex or cerebral reflex.
Unconditioned Reflex: Reflexes present in an individual
right from birth are called unconditioned/inborn/inherited
reflex. The unconditioned reflexes are specific, predictable,
purposeful and have survival value. They will be the same
in all individuals. The stimulus for an unconditioned
response is called unconditioned stimulus. Some examples
of unconditioned reflexes are
(i)
Withdrawal of hand or foot on being pricked.
(ii)
Sweating.
(iii)
Closing of eyes on being approached by an object.
(iv)
Wider opening of pupil in dim light and constriction

in strong light.
(v)
Salivation on tasting the food.
(vi)
Opening of mouth on hearing a loud sound.
(vii) Coughing during swallowing.
It avoids overtaxing of brain. (v) Coordination of body

activities.
(viii) Persistalsis.
(ix)
Discharge of bile.
(x)
Breathing.
(xi)
Jerking of knee when hit below knee cap.
Immune system is only developed in the vertebrates.

Here the organisms have the capacity to develop anti-bodies
against foreign body or microbes. It may be natural or
artificial.
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Conditioned/acquired reflexes: They are those reflex

actions that are not present at birth but develop later in life
through learning, habit, experience or regular association of
an indifferent stimulus (without any effect) with uncondition
stimulus. Later on indifferent stimulus becomes conditioned
stimulus. However, conditioned reflexes are liable to change,
disappear or reappear. They reduce burden on doing the
work, e.g., pedalling, driving a vehicle, playing musical
instrument, writing, reading, daily chores, knitting without
looking, salivation at sight or smell of food. Pavlov (1906)
found that a dog salivated at the sight of food. He would
sound a gong every time the dog was given food. After
some days, the dog would salivate on hearing the bell even
without food.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Reflex Arc: It is the pathway taken by nerve impulses

generated at the receptor due to stimulus to reach the effector
organ during a reflex action. It has five parts :
(i) Receptor A tissue/organ/cell which reeives an
external or internal stimulus, e.g., skin eye, ear.
(ii) Sensory/Afferent Nerve Fibres They take the

sensory impulsed generated by the receptor to the central
nervous system.
(iii) Part of Central Nervous System It can be spinal

cord or brain. The sensory impulse is transferred here
to motor nerves fibres either direclty or through
interneurons.
(iv) Motor/Efferent Nerve Fibres They carry the motor

impulse generated in the CNS to the specific effectors.
In case of motor nerve fibres pass through anterior/
ventral root.
(v) Effector Organ It may be organ/muscle/gland which

on being activated by a motor impulse produces work
or substance to suitably deal with the stimulus.
Importance. (i) It controls a number of body activities.

(ii) Response to harmful stimulus is quick as to reduce harm.
(iii) The response is always accurate, useful/purposeful. (iv)
Natural Immunity : It means the ability of an organism

to counteract a particular disease and certain microbes
cannot take organism as a host. For example fish have natural
immunity against measles, horses are not affected by polio
and human can not be counteracted by hog cholera.
Artificial Immunity : It develops either by previous
attack of the disease or by vaccination. Unlike natural
immunity, it is brought about by the production of antibodies by the body.
Active Immunity : Here the body itself learns to

manufacture the anti-bodies against a particular disease,
even within very short period. Vaccine contains killed or
attenuated microbes (disease causing virus or bacteria) which
causes a mild form of the disease in the human body. After
vaccination the body learns to produce antibody within 15
days.
Passive Immunity : Here the antibodies are borrowed

from outside and they provide very short term immunity,
generally last for about 6 months. For example the tetanus
vaccine of the mother can protect the new born only for 6
months.
Antigens are foreign bodies or microbes which enter

the body like dust, pollen, etc. Without antigen the body
cannot produce antibody.
Antibody is highly specific protein which kills the

antigens or neutralize the toxic substance produced by
the microbes. Antibody produced by the body can affect
only against a specific antigen of that particular disease
and so are highly specialised.
The first vaccine was invented for Smallpox by Edward

Jenner in 1798
Lues Pasteur propounded the Germ Theory of disease

and scientifically explained the B-vaccination (anti-rabies
vaccine).
BIOLOGY [73]
CHRONICLE
SENSORY ORGANS
IAS ACADEMY
from our skin and cools us down.
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Sense organ/receptor is a specialised body structure

having specialised cells which can pick up an external or
internal stimulus and transmit the same to the central nervous
system as nerve impulse. Only brain can perceive sensations.
Sense organs are avenues for receiving stimuli. The sense of
taste, smell, sight and hearing are called special senses
because their receptors occur in specific organs. The sense of
touch/pressure/pain is called general senses as its receptor
cells lie scattered in skin and various body parts.
According to Type of Stimulus.
(1) Mechanoreceptors Sensitive to mechanical stimuli like

pressure, gravity, pain, current, sound, touch.
(2) Chemoreceptors Sensitive to chemicals or their

concentration as in taste, smell, gases, humidity, etc.
(3) Photoreceptors Sensitive to intensity and wave length

of light, image formation.
(4) Thermoreceptors Sensitive to temperature changes,

including heat and cold.
SENSE OF TOUCH SKIN
Our skin is the largest organ. It covers our entire body

and has a surface area of around 2 square metres. Its thickness
varies from 0.5mm on our eyelids to 4mm or more on the
palms of our hands and the soles of our feet. In total, it
accounts for around 16 per cent of our body weight.
ToughPhysical Barrier: Skin consists of two main layers:

the outer epidermis and the inner dermis. Cells in the deepest
layer of our epidermis divide constantly to make new cells.
The new cells are pushed towards the surface of our skin.
They eventually die and become filled with keratin, an
exceptionally tough protein. Keratin provides our body with
a durable overcoat, which protects deeper cells from damage,
infection and drying out. Cells on the surface of our skin
rub and flake off steadily and are continuously replaced with
new ones. About every 30 days, our body produces a totally
new epidermis. Inner dermis consists of strong collagen and
elastic fibres pierced by blood vessels. It also contains touch,
pressure and pain sensors and is packed with hair follicles,
sweat and oil glands. The oil glands produce a lubricant that
keeps our skin soft and prevents our hair from becoming
brittle.
3. our hairs lie flat to make sure little warm air doesnt get
trapped between our skin and our hairs.
Skin Layers: Skin is the largest organ of the body (18 ft2.).
It regulates body temperature and acts as the organ of touch.
It protects the inner organs from infection & injuries.
I.
Epidermis
(i) Cornified layer : have dead cells; to cut the loss of water
from evaporation & to prevent from microbes.
(ii) Malpighian layer : colour, contain malpighism cells

which secrete Melanin which protect the inner cells from
ultra-violet radiations. When more melanin is secreted,
the skin colour becomes tan. White-men have more
possibility of skin cancer. Skin cancer may be of two types:
(a) Localised Skin Cancer- can be treated, not fatal,
less harmful (b) Melonoma- most serious, known as skin
cancer, fatal, pigment cell are affected, most common in
Southern Hemisphere due to erosion of ozone layer.
II. Dermis (inner layer)
It is more thicker, true skin, regulates the body

temperature through capillary vassels & sweat glands, have
millions of capillary blood vessels, sweat glands, nerve
endings, sebaceous glands and hair follicles. If temperature
increases the capillary vessels expand & sweat glands help in
evaporation; air conditioner of the body; sweat glands also
remove the waste products; sebaceous glands- kills bacteria
& keeps the skins soft & the body hair lustrous; found at the
root of the hair follicles.
When we need to retain heat, the opposite happens, our

blood vessels narrow, we produce less sweat and our hairs
stand up on end to trap warm air around our body.
Temperature control: Our skins blood vessels, sweat

glands and hairs play a crucial role in regulating our body
temperature. When we need to cool down:
1. blood vessels widen and allow heat to escape through
our skin.
2. we start sweating, and as our sweat dries, it uses heat
[74]
BIOLOGY
Skin colour: Our skin contains specialised cells called

melanocytes. They produce melanin, a brown substance,
which absorbs some of the Suns harmful ultraviolet rays.
Fair-skinned people only have melanin in the lower layers
of their epidermis. People with dark skin have larger
amounts of melanin in all layers. Freckles and moles are
nothing else but small patches of skin with more melanin
than in the surrounding area.
smell is lost) indicating that most of our taste is actually

related to smell.
Metallic Taste spreads all over the tongue; tastes are in

the form of chemical impulses; for tastes, tongue must be
moist; well developed in man.
Our sense of taste also helps us maintain a consistent

chemical balance in our body. Like sugar and salt for
example, satisfies our bodys need for carbohydrates and
minerals, similarly, eating sour foods such as oranges and
lemons supplies our body with essential vitamins like
vitamin C.
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Wrinkles: As we age, the number of collagen and elastic

fibres in our dermis decreases. Additionally, we lose fat
from the tissue under our skin. As a result, our skin
becomes less elastic and begins to sag and wrinkle.
Skin Receptors : Pressure, Pain, Touch/Tactile,

Temperature Receptors.
Meissners Corpuscles (Tactile Corpuscles): Low

frequency vibrations and movements of objects, also pain.
Free Nerve Endings: Touch, pressure and pain.
Hair End Organs (Basket Nerve Endings): Touch and

movement of objects.
Merkels Corpuscles (Merkels Discs): Tactile receptors,

constant touch.
Pacinian Corpuscles: Pressure, tension and tissue

vibrations.
Golgi-Mazzoni Organs (Organs of Golgi): Heavy touch,

pressure, joint rotation.
End Bulbs of Krause/Krauses Corpuscles: Cold.
Ruffinis Organs or Corpuscles: Warmth
Maximum number of tactile corpuscles occur in figner

tips and lips.
Cold sensation is more developed in fore-head region.
SENSE OF TASTES TONGUE
Taste is a sense connected with

feeling about food taken in mouth.
It determines selection of food, its
palatability and stimulation of
reflexes for secrection of saliva,
gastric juices and pancreatic juices.
There are four basic tastes sweet
(sugars, glycerol), saltish (sodium),
sour (acidic substance) and bitter
(e.g., quinine, nicotine). Chillies and pepper give burning
sensation. Gustatorceptros are chemoreceptors. They are
located on the tongue, a few on palate, pharynx and tonsillar
pillars. Organs of taste are taste buds. Some 10,000 of them
occur on tongue in or around papillae with a papilla having 1
to 100 taste buds. Though a taste bud can be sensitive to two
or more basic tastes, it is specialised for one only. The taste
buds for sweet taste are located at tip and anterior surface of
tongue, saltish antero-laterally, sour on sides and bitter
towards base (posterior side).
Sensation of taste is collected by facial (VII cranial,

glossopharynegeal (IX cranial and vagues (X cranial taken
to brain stem and then taste centre in temporal lobes of
cerebrum for interpretation. However, the sense of taste
is imparied in bad cold (when the sense of olfaction or
SENSE OF SMELL NOSE
Sense of smell is the ability to perceive chemicals diffusing

through air. It is well developed in mammals and in humans
too who can distinguish many odours. Dogs, cats, rats and
rabbits have very well developed olfactoreceptors. The
olfactory sense is useful in search of food, selection of food,
detection of enemies, preys, predators and mates. Nose is the
organ of olfaction or smell. There are some 100 million
olfactory cells which are actually bipolar neurons.
Mucus present over olfactory epithelium picks up

particles and molecules present in the inhaled air. An
impulse is generated in the nerve-fibre which is taken by
olfactory nerve to olfactory bulb of fore-brain and then
transmitted to olfactory area of temporal lobe of cerebrum
for interpretation. However, continuous perception of a
smell does not occur. Olfactory centre of brain gets fatigued
of a smell within 2.5 10/0 minutes. This is helpful to
human beings in living and working in premises having
odorous chemicals. The ability to condition one self in an
odorous environment is known as olfactory adaptation.
Perfume sprayed over ones clothes will stop smelling to
that person after some time while other persons will be
able to smell the same.
Our sense of smell warns of dangers such as smoke and

poisonous gases. It also helps appreciate the full flavours
of food and drink.
Our sense of smell is 10,000 times more sensitive than the

sense of taste.
When our olfactory receptors are stimulated, they
BIOLOGY [75]
transmit impulses to our brain. This pathway is directly

connected to our limbic system, the part of our brain that
deals with emotions.
SENSE OF SOUND EAR
is differentiated into three parts vestibule, semicircular

canals and cochlear duct.
Vestibule consists of an epithelium having sensory cells

and supporting cells.
Semicircular Canals are three semicircular ducts borne

over the utriculus at right angles to one another. One
end of each semicircular canal is swollen to form ampulla
having a sensory spot known as crista.
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Organ of hearing; organ of maintenance of equilibrium

of body; audible range of human- 20 to 20000 fr/sec. (hertz).
An ear has three parts external, middle and inner.
1. External Ear. It consists of pinna, external auditory canal
and tympanum.
(a) Pinna: It is the funnel-shaped oval projecting part which
Cristae maintain dynamic equilibrium of the body.
Cochlear Duct is a spirally coiled tube of 21/2 turns. The

coils of cochlear duct are held by ligaments. Cochlear duct
lies in a coiled part of bony labyrinth called cochlear bone.
The two are collectively called cochlea. They have receptor
organ for hearing called organ of Corti. There are some
eight types of sensory cells specialised to perceive
different sound vibrations. The sensory cells or organ of
Corti are also called phonoreceptors.
Our ear flap funnels sound waves into our outer ear canal.
The waves travel along this passage until they hit our eardrum
and cause it to vibrate. As a result, our ossicles start moving.
They, in turn, pass on vibrations to a thin layer of tissues at
the entrance of our inner ear called the oval window. The
movement of the oval window then sets off wave-like motions
in the fluid in our cochlea.
consists of elastic cartilage covered by skin and having

muscles (not functional in humans). It is meant for
collecting sound waves.
(b) External Auditory Canal/Meatus: The canal is oblique

S-shaped irregular passage from outside to tympanum.
External auditory meatus is covered by skin having hair
in the outer part and ceruminous or wax glands in the
inner part. Secretion of ceruminous glands is called
creumen or ear wax. Hair and ear wax trap dust particles
and microbes. Ear wax also lubricates tympanum.
(c) Tympanum (Ear Drum): It is an oval, bluish grey, tight,
stretchable membrane capable of vibrating, that lies at
the end of external auditory canal. Tympanum is made
of fibrous connecting tissue covered by stratified
epithelium on external side and mucous membrane on
the inner side.
2. Middle Ear: It has an irregular air-filled tympanic cavity

lined by mucous membrane and enclosed inside
temporal bone of skull. Tympanic cavity leads to
Eustachian tube that opens into pharynx through a valve
for equalising air pressure. A ligament supported chain
of three bones or ear ossicles occurs between tympanum
and oval window outer hammer shaped malleus (in
contact with tympanum,) middle anvil-shaped incus and
inner stirrup-shaped stapes (in contact with oval
window). The ear ossicles are meant for transmitting as
well as amplifying vibrations received from ear drum.
2. Internal Ear: It is an irregular endolymph filled organ

called membraneous labyrinth that occurs inside a
perilymph filled bony labyrinth. Membranous labyrinth
[76]
BIOLOGY
Our organ of hearing, the spiral organ of Corti, runs

through the inside of our cochlea. It consists of thousands of
sensory hair cells, attached to a membrane. Tiny sensory hairs
emerge from each sensory hair cell and pierce into a second,
gel-like membrane above. Whenever the fluids in our cochlea
are in motion, the first membrane vibrates and squashes the
sensory hairs against the second membrane. The movement
of our sensory hairs is then translated into nerve impulses,
which travel along our cochlear nerve to our brain.
Because we have two ears, we are able to locate the source
of a sound. If a sound comes from the right, for instance, it
will reach our right ear slightly sooner than our left ear. Or it
will be slightly louder in our right ear. As a result, we will
recognise the sound as coming from our right.
SENSE OF SIGHTEYE
Organs of sight are a pair of eyes lodged in eyes sockets

or orbits of skull having cushion of fat for frictionless
movement and protection from shock. Each eye is rounded
and called eye ball. It is 25 cm in diameter . It can move in
the orbit by six strap shaped occular muscles: Eyes are
protected by eye lids and tear glands. Eye brows are supraorbital arched eminences bearing obliquely projecting hair.
They can be brought down to protect the eye ball from dust,
sweat and rain. Eye lids are a pair of movable skin folds
supported by stiff connective tissue plates which lie above
and below the eye and cover the same at intervals by coming
together in the process of blinking, closing of eyes during sleep
or rest. Eye lids bear stiff hair or eye lashes at the edges. They
are lubricated by glands of Moll. Margins of eye lids posses
Meibomian or tarsal glands (modified sebaceous glands).
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smooth muscles which are operated by sympathetic and

parasympathetic nerves respectively. The iris provides
colour to eyes. It can be blue (only at the back), grey, brown
(dark, light) or black (depending upon layers having
pigment). The central perforation of iris is called pupil.
Its size is controlled by radial (contraction dilates pupil)
and circular (contraction constricts pupils) muscles in
response to dim and strong light respectively.
Lens: It is transparent, elastic, biconvex structure which
is suspended in the cavity of eye ball behind the pupil by
means of suspensory ligaments. Lens is made of layers of nonnucleated elongated cells and intercellular proteins. It is
covered by a thin transparent membrane called lens capsule.
The convexity of lens is slightly more on the back as compared
to the front. Stretching and relaxation of suspensory ligaments
changes the focal length of the lens for accomodation.
The inner surface of eye lids is lined by mucous membrane

called palpebral conjuncntiva. Secretion of Meibomian
glands helps in frictionless blinking and holding tears over
the exposed part of eye ball. Eye lashes and blinking are
protective against dust particles, flies, rain, etc. A small
reddish patch on the inner corner of eye is called plica
semilunaris (may be vestigial third eye lid or nictitating
membrane). Tear gland (lacrimal = lacrymal = lachrymal
gland) is an almond shaped racemose gland lying in the upper
part of orbit that secretes a watery fluid or tear having
antibacterial lysozyme (water + sugar + amino acid + proteins
+ minerals + salt + urea). It is poured over the exposed part
of eye ball by 6 10 tear ducts. The lacrimal secretion or tear
moistens and cleanses the eye ball and eye lids, provides
protection from microbes and nourishes the cornea.
Wall of eye ball has three concentric layers fibrous
tunic, uvea and retina. Out of these only fibrous tunic is
complete.
Fibrous Tunic (Sclerotic): It is the outermost covering of

eye ball. The coat is made of fibroelastic connective tissue. 5/
6th of it is opaque and bluish white, largely hidden but a part
present in front as white of eye. It is called sclera, has blood
vessels and provides attachment to eye muscles. The front
part (1/6th) of fibrous tunic is thicker, transparent, bulged
out cornea which is devoid of blood vessels. Cornea is
nourished by aqueous humour and partly by lacrimal
secretion. Cornea and the exposed sclera is covered by a
transparent membranous epidermis called conjunctiva
(bulbar conjuctiva). It provides protection and lubrication.
Cornea admits light and helps in rough focussing.
Uvea (Choroid): It is middle pigmented and vascular coat
which is differentiated into three parts choroid, ciliary body
and iris.
(i) Choroid : It lines the sclera. Because of its pigmented

nature, choroid prevents internal reflection. It provides
nourishment and oxygen to retina.
(ii) Ciliary Body : It is ring-shaped thick muscular structure
occuring at the junction of choroid and iris. Its epithelium
secretes aqueous humor.
(iii) Iris : It is an opaque muscular pigmented and perforated

diaphragm having radial (dilator) and circular (sphincter)
Cavity of Eye Ball: Lens and suspensory ligaments

divide the cavity of eye ball into anterior aqueous chamber
and posterior vitreous chamber. Aqueous chamber is filled
with clear watery fluid or aqueous humor secreted by ciliary
body. It nourishes lens and cornea. Aqueous humor also
maintains shape and pressure in the front part of eye. The
posterior vitreous chamber (between lens and posterior part
of eye ball) contains a non-replaceable jelly-like transparent
substance called vitreous humor/vitreous body. It maintains
shape of eye ball and provides pressure for keeping the lens
in position. Vitreous chamber contains a lymphoid hyaloid
canal from lens to blind spot.
Retina: It is the delicate inner non-vascular light sensitive
coat of the eye ball . It is sensory and differentiated into two
parts, outer pigmented part and inner nervous part. The
pigmented part is made of cuboidal cells with dark brown
granules and fringe-like protoplasmic processes. It continues
beyond ora serrata. The inner nervous part is transparent and
made of three layers
(i) Outer photosensitive layer of visual/photoreceptor cells
called rods and cones.
(ii) Middle layer of bipolar nerve cells.
(iii) Inner layer of ganglion cells that form nerve fibres.
Glowing of eyes in cats and dogs is due to presence of

reflecting layer of tapetum behind the retina. The area of retina
where optic nerve and blood vessels enter and leave the eye
ball is called blind spot (optic disc) as it does not contain
visual cells. An area lateral to blind spot is the spot of image
formation. It is called yellow area or muscular lutea. A
depression in the yellow area is called yellow spot or fovea
centralis. It lies on optical axis, has maximum density of cone
cells and forms the sharpes vision.
Human eye has about 120 million rod cells and 7 million
cone cells. Cone cells are more abundant in the yellow
area. Yellow spot has exclusively cone cells.The animals
which can see in dark have very high number of rod cells
(e.g., Owl, Bat).
A rod cell has an outer pigment part drawn out as a rod,

the inner end contains a nucleus. The pigment present in
rod cells is called visual purple or rhodopsin. It consists
BIOLOGY [77]
of protein and vitamin A. Rods produce a blurred grey

white image in dim light. In twilight a coloured flower
will appear only black due to rod-mediated vision.
Rhodopsin is bleached in strong light but is reformed in
dim-light with the help of vitamin. A. Deficiency of
Vitamin A leads to night blindess (no vision in dim light)
because of little rhodopsin.
A cone cell has a conical outer pigmented part and a
branched inner part. The pigment is known as visual
violet or iodospin. It is actually of three types
corresponding to three basic colours green sensitive
chlorolabe, blue sensitive cyanolabe and red sensitive
erythrolabe. Cone cells produce sharp, coloured image
is bright light. Alongwith humans, colour vision is present
in paes, monkeys, birds, lizards, snakes, fresh water fishes,
cray fishes, etc. Other animals have black-white vision.
In humans colom blindness is caused by a defect in the
colom sensitive cells (Cones).
3. Astigmatism. Cornea or lens is curved unequally in

different regions so as to produce a blurred image
(foccusing at different points in different regions).
Complementary lenses (cylindrical lenses) are prepared
to correct astigmatism.
4. Presbyopia. It is old age (after 40 years) far sightedness
due to loss of elasticity in the eye lens so that near objects
(e.g., written or printed words) are not correctly visible.
Convex/bifocal lenses correct the vision.
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wearing (spectacles with) convex or divergent lenses.
5. Cataract. In older persons (60 years and above) the eye

lens becomes opaque reducing visibility. Cataract can be
nuclear (central portion capacity) or cortical (peripheral
opacity). Cataract is corrected by (i) Removing or opaque
lens and wearing special spectacles. (ii) Replacing opaque
lens with artifical infraocular lens. (iii) Laser treatment of
opacity.
Working: Eye, like photographic (camera, has to parts

diopteric or focussing and sensory/receptor
(a) Focussing It is carried out by cornea (rough focussing)

and lens (fine focussing) so that image is formed on fovea
centralis or yellow spot. Aqueous and vitreous humors
help in keeping the light rays on proper path. For
focussing at nearer objects, the ciliary muscles contract,
the suspensory ligaments are loosened and the lens
becomes more convex. Human beings have binocular
(monocular in Frog) and ssterescopic (3-dimensional)
vision, because both the eyes are focussing an the same
object with very slight variation of angle. It gives clearer
image with better idea of distance.
(b) Reception An inverted but real image is formed over
the retina. A black and white blurred image is formed in
dim light due to perception by rods. A sharp coloured
image is produced in day light due to perception by conces
in the area of fovea centralis. The stimulus perceived by
rods and cones is converted into impulses which are
transferred to bipolar ganglion cells and then nerve fibres
of optic nerve to be carried to visual area of occipital lobe
of cerebrum for interpretation.
TRIVIA
Koths, Butterfiles: Chemoreceptors occur on antennae.
Chillies: Not bitter taste but produce burning pain.
Vibrations to which Human Ear is Most Sensitive: 1000

cycles/sec.
Pinna: Absent in certain mammals like Platypus,. and

many aquatic forms like Whale, Seal, Sirenian.
Colour Blindness: Sex linked recessive. Three types

protanope (red), tritanope (blue) and deuteranope (green).
Glaucoma: It is an eye defect in which intra-ocular

pressure becomes different in the two chambers causing
acute pain leading to damaged retina and hence blindness.
Squint/Strabismus, Diplopia or two images: Correct

surgically.
Binocular Vision: Found in mammals and some birds.
Stereoscopic/Three Dimensional Vision: Occurs in

primates.
Cones: Absent in Owis, Shrews, Moles, Hedge Hogs,

Bats, etc. Pure cone retina occurs in squirrels.
Harderian Glands: Present at the angle of eye, secrete

lubricant for nictitating membrane in animals where the
latter is present.
Eye Size: Diameter at birth is about 17.5 mm and at

puberty 20-21 mm. In relation to body size, Deer possess
the largest eyes.
Colour Vision: Occurs in bees, reptiles, birds, monkeys,

apes and humans. Absent in most domesticated animals.
Eye-Lids: Absent in snakes and fishes.
Common Refractive Eye Defects
1. Myopia (Short Sightedness). Common in young persons/

students due to either higher convexity of lens or longer
eye ball which results in image of distant objects (writing
on black board, bird on a tree) being formed in front of
the retina. It is corrected by wearing (spectacles with)
concave or convergent lenses.
2. Hypermetropia (Far or Long Sightedness). The image of

nearer objects (words in a book) is blurred due to its being
formed beyond retina due to eye ball being short or lens
being flattened (with low convexity). It is corrected by
[78]
BIOLOGY
CHRONICLE
EXCRETION &
OSMOREGULATION
IAS ACADEMY
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Excretion is the process by which the metabolic waste

products formed as a result of anabolism and catabolism
are eliminated from the body. An important requisite for
the continuation of life therefore is the removal of metabolic
waste products such as ammonia, urea, uric acid, bile
pigments, excess salts and water. The organs concerned with
this function are called excretory organs. In addition to the
kidney, the skin, lung, intestine and liver also eliminate
metabolic waste products directly or indirectly. The removal
of carbon dioxide from the lungs is also an excretory process.
Nitrogenous wastes i.e. ammonia, urea and uric acid are
derived from catabolism of dietary proteins. Major metabolic
waste products are:
Kangaroo Rat). It is the most common condition e.g.,

Earthworm, Snail, Prawns, cartilaginous (elasmobranch)
fishes, adult amphibians, aquatic reptiles, mammals, etc.
1. Nitrogenous Waste: They are formed during metabolism

of excess proteins, amino acids, nucleic acids, alkaloids,
etc. Nitrogen waste products include ammonia, urea,
uric acid, creatine, creatinine, hippuric acid, amino acids
and allantoin. Depending upon the major nitrogen
excretory product, animals are aminotelic, ammonotelic,
ureotelic and ureotelic and uricotelic.
During the process of respiration, CO2 is given back to

environment through stomata of the leaves. Some plants
produce insoluble solid waste product like tannin, alkaloids
such as quinine or morphine. These waste products are
stored in leafs, fruits or bark cells and are removed when a
leaf or fruit falls or when the bark peels off. The excess of
salts are deposited in the form of insoluble crystals within
the tissues and cells, so these crystals are formed as a product
of excretion. Some of the excretory products of roots act as
a solvent by which the complex materials in the soil are
broken down before being absorbed by the root.
2. Non-nitrogenous Waste : Oxalic acid, lactic acid.
3. Excess Chemicals: Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Lead,

Chloride, Phosphate, Iodine, pigments, drugs,
chloesterol, hormones, vitamins, wax, etc.
Uricotelism: It is the elimination of uric acid and urates

as the main nitrogenous wastes. Uric acid is little toxic and
least soluble in water though it can be suspended in the
same. Very little water is required for elimination of uric
acid. Uricotelism occurs in birds, lizards, snakes, land snails,
terrestrial crustaceans and insects. Droppings of birds and
lizards have whitish patch of uric acid on one side.
EXCRETORY MECHANISM IN PLANTS
EXCRETORY ORGANS OF INVERTEBRATES
4. Bile Pigments: Bilirubin, biliverdin and urochrome are

breakdown products of haemoglobin formed by liver.
5. Carbon-dioxide
6. Excess water
Unicellular Organisms: They mostly live in water.

Excretory organs are absent. Contractile vacuoles may
occur (e.g., Amoeba, Paramecium) for excretion and
AMMONOTELISM
It is the elimination of nitrogenous wastes mainly in the

form of ammonia. Ammonia is highly toxic and water
soluble. Ammonotelism is found in aquatic invertebrates
like annelids, aquatic crustaceans, aquatic molluscs, bony
fishes, aquatic amphibians, aquatic larvae of amphibians,
lungfishes and Xenopus toad inside water, earthworm in
water saturated soil, etc. Animals without an excretory
system are ammonotelic. Most protozoan protists are also
ammonotelic.
UREOTELISM
It is elimination of nitrogenous wastes mostly in the

form of urea. Urea is less toxic than ammonia. It is water
soluble but can be concentrated to some extent (100 times in
humans, several hundred times in camels, sharks and
BIOLOGY [79]
ORGANS & METABOLIC WASTES

Organ
Metabolic Wastes or By-products

Water, urea, uric acid, salts of sodium,
calcium, magnesium, potassium creatinine,
excess of glucose and certain vitamins.
2 Liver
Bile pigments, toxins, urea.
3 Skin
Sweat containing water, urea, uric acid, sodium

chloride, ammoniacal salts, heat.
4 Lungs
Carbon dioxide, water vapours, heat.
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1 Kidney
osmoregulation. Main excretory product is ammonia,

rarely amino acids. It passes out through diffusion.

Sponges: Ammonia formed by individual cells diffuses

out into water present on the outside canals and
spongocoel.
Coelenterates (e.g., Hydra): Ammonia passes out of cells

through diffusion into water present on the outside.
Platyhelminthes (e.g. Planaria, Liver Fluke, Tapeworm) :
They have an excretory system with excretory pores,
excretory capillaries. They create a current for flow of
excretory fluids.
Annelids (e.g., Earthworm, Neries/Sandworm, Leech):

Their excretory organs are nephridia. Each nephridium
has a nephrostome, nephridial body/tubule and
nephridial pore. They body tubule of the nephridium is
coiled and surrounded by blood capillaries.
Nephrostome is funnel shaped ciliated pore which can
pick up materials from body cavity. Blood capillaries
selectively secrete waste products into tubule and
selectively absorb useful substances from its interior.
Crustaceans (e.g., Prawan): The excretory organs are a

pair of green glands situated at the base of second
antennae and a median renal sac that lies over the
stomach and reaching upto gonads. The renal sac has
excretory cells that extract waste products from outside.
Renal sac is connected to the bladder of each green gland
by a lateral duct. A small duct or ureter takes urine to
a renal pore opening on a small papilla on the inner side
of coxa.
Insects, Centipedes and

Millipedes: The excretory
organs are malpighian
tubules. Scorpions and spiders
have malpighian tubules,
green glands or both. Urine
consists of uric acid, urates,
guanine, salts and water.
Echinoderms:
Excretory
organs are absent. Amino
acids, ammonia and other
waste materials diffuse out.
Molluses: One or two kidneys

take part in extracting waste
products and discharging the
same into mantle cavity.
[80]
BIOLOGY
EXCRETORY ORGANS
OF VERTEBRATES
Urinary system of a vertebrate consists of two kidneys,

two ureters, a urinary bladder (absent in birds) and urethra
(present only in mammals).
Kidney: They are a pair of reddish brown slightly

flattened, bean shaped organs present in the lumbar
region along the dorsal wall, one on either side of
vertebral column. Weight is 150170 gm. Size is 10 cm
length, 5 6 cm breadth and 4 cm thickness. Left kidney
occurs at a slightly higher level than the right one.
Internally, the kidney has two parts, granular outer
darker renal cortex and striated inner pale renal
medulla. A kidney has 1.2 million uriniferous tubules
or nephrons embedded in a connective tissue. Nephrons
are structural and functional units of kidneys. Each has
a length of 45 cm and is differentiated into H
Bowmans capsule, neck, promximal convoluted tubule
(PCT), loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubules (DCT)
and collecting tubule.
Bowmans capsule is blind cup-shaped end of

uriniferous tubule which has a double wall of thinwalled flattened cells supported over basement
membrane, lobed with a narrow lumen. The hollow of
Bowmans capsule contains a globular bunch of fine
EXCRETORY PRODUCTS OF ANIMALS

Ammonotelic: Which release NH3 (Ammonia) ex : Lower organisms (ceoleutrates, protozoa, sponges) aquatic amphibians,
fresh water fishes.

Uricotelic:
Which release uric acid.

example : In Reptiles, Birds and egg laying mammals (Platypus, anteater)
Ureotelic:
Which releases urea.
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example : Land amphibious, mammals, earthworm, round worm

Ammonitic:
Which release amino acids.

example: some molasses.
blood vessels (= capillaries) called glomerulus.

Glomerulus is maintained in position by connective
tissue. Bowmans capsule, glomerulus and its connective
tissue are together called malpighian capsule/
malpighian body or renal capsule. Glomerulus obtains
blood from an afferent arteriole and is drained out to
form an efferent arteriole. Since this filtration is very
fine and is caused by pressure, it is known as
ultrafiltration. About one-fifth of blood plasma flowing
through kidneys is filtered out as glomerular or
nephric filtrate. Its volume is 125 ml/min. The
reaction is alkaline. Filtrate contains urea, amino acids,
creatinine, hormones, vitamins, salts/ions, glucose, etc,
i.e., all small sized molecules. Bowmans capsules and
glomeruli are absent in marine fishes and desert
amphibians.
The hormone helps in absorption of water from the

nephric filtrate and pass out hypertonic urine. In the
absence of hormone, water is not absorbed by the tissue
fluid and hence hypotonic or dilute urine passes out.
This is a mechanism to regulate water balance in the body.
Birds cannot make urine as hypertonic as mammals can
do. Reptiles produce only hypotonic urine. The urine of
both groups contain uric acid. Dilute urine is stored in
cloaca where water is reabsorbed and only semisolid
urine is passed out alongwith faeces.
Ureters: They are a pair of narrow, whitish muscular

and distensible tubes of about 30 cm in humans. Ureters
undergo peristalsis to pass urine from kidneys to urinary
bladder.
Urinary Bladder: It is a median pyriform bag that occurs

in the pelvic part of abdominal cavity. Bladder is capable
of considerable stretching with a capacity of 300 800
ml of urine.
Urethra: It is a tube that connects urinary bladder with

external opening of urinary tract.
URINE
It is transparent amber-coloured (due to urochrome),

often hypertonic fluid formed by urinary system as excretory
product which is released at intervals. An adult human
produces 1.0 1.8 litres of urine/day. Reaction is acidic
but becomes alkaline on standing. Urea is changed to
ammonia on standing.
Composition of urine: Water 95%, Urea 2%, Uric acid

0.05%. Amount of urine secreted per day is 1.5 to 2 liters
approximately. It depends upon the water intake, diet,
climate, mental state and physiological condition. Tea,
Coffee, Alcohol and other beverages increase the formation
of urine.
Abnormal constituents of Urine:
1. Glucose - In diabetes mellitus
2. Blood - In case of bleeding, tumour or infection in the

kidneys.
3. Excessive water in urine - In diabetes insipidus.
4. Acetone and auto acetic acid - During fasting or

starvation. In such a case proteins are used as a source
of energy.
Urine Tests: Urine is tested for-
(i) Albuminuria: Loss of proteins.
(ii) Pus. Presence of pus cells, casts and haemoglobin indicate

destructive changes in kidneys or a severe urinary tract
infection (UTI)
(iii) Haematuria: Occurrence of blood due to kidney stones,
lesions in kidneys or urinary tract.
(iv) Calculi: Small stones.
(v) Bile Pigments: Jaundice.
(vi) Glucosuria: Presence of glucose due to diabetes.
(vii) Ketonuria: Presence of ketones due to metabolism of

fatty acids instead of glucose during diabetes, starvation
and pregnancy.
(viii) HCG: Occurrence of human chorionic gonadotropin
indicates pregnancy (Pregnancy test).
OTHER ORGANS OF EXCRETION

IN HUMAN
There are four other major organs besides kidney which

are involved in excretion. These are skin, lungs, intestine
and liver.
(a) Skin: The skin acts as an organ of excretion with the

help of the sweat glands present in it. These glands
remove water, urea and some salts from blood and
excrete them on the surface of the skin. The excretion of
water by sweat glands aids in regulating the body
temperature.
BIOLOGY [81]
(b) Lungs: The lungs are the chief organs of respiration, they
absorb oxygen and eliminate CO2. The loss of water
vapour during breathing is an unavoidable consequence.
The alveoli of lungs must remain moist if they are to
remain in an active state. The rate of respiration is
regulated by the nerves.
Kidney Stones: Two types (i) Oxalate crystals (ii) Urice

acid crystals. Uric acid crystals can accumulate in other
places in the body as well.
Uremia: When blood urea content is above 0.05%.

However, in elasmobranch fishes, blood urea content is
2.0 2.5% . The excess is used for osmoregulation.
Urochrome: A yellowish pigment which provides

colouration to urine and is believed to be derived from
brochrome chemicals of haemoglobin.
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(c) Intestine: The intestine plays a minor role in

excretion. It has a lining of epithelial cells. These cells
excrete certain salts for example those of calcium and
iron.
(d) Liver: It may be considered as an accessory excretory

organ because it plays only a minor role in excreting
waste products directly from the body. Urea, the chief
nitrogenous waste material in the human body is formed
in the liver. The breakdown of amino acids which takes
place in it, results in the accumulation of nitrogenous
wastes. These nitrogenous wastes breakdown further
into ammonia. The liver converts the ammonia along
with carbon dioxide into urea with the help of specific
enzymes, urea is removed by the kidneys eventually.
The haemoglobin of the dead red blood cells is broken
down in the liver. In this process the liver manufactures
bile pigments through the bile ducts. The bile pigments
pass into the intestine and are thrown out along with
the faces.
Osmoregulation or Homeostasis : Kidneys maintain

osmotic pressure of the blood by regulating its percentage
of water and salts while removing wastes like urea from the
blood. This is called osmoregulation. If the concentration of
blood is higher than that of the body cells, water will be
drawn out from them and they will shrink and if the blood
has lower concentration, the cells will absorb water from
the blood and will swell. Hence, the need to maintain the
right concentration of blood plasma.
Artificial kidney: An artificual kidney is used to replace
the non-functional or damaged kidney in its excretory
functions. It works on the principle of dialysis. The blood of
these patients is pumped into a cellophane tube suspended
in a salt solution of same ion concentration as plasma. As
blood flows through this tube mineral ions and nitrogenous
wastes may diffuse out like ammonia and urea freely from
the blood to the surrounding solvent because cellophin
membrane has pores large enough to allow free passage.
Thus the excess of those mineral and nitrogenous products
are removed from blood but plasma proteins are retained
in the blood because the pores of the cellophin are too small
to allow passage of those large solute molecule.
Aminotelic Animals: Animals excreting amino acids,

e.g., some molluses (Pila, Unio) and some echinoderms
(Starfish, Holothuria).
Marine Teleosys: Excretory product is trimethylamine

oxide (T.M.O.)
Spiders. Excretory product is guanine.
[82]
BIOLOGY
Amount of Nephric Filtrate: 160 180 litres/day with

a later concentration of 99% so that only one precent
liquid is excreted as urine.
Polyuria: Production of unusually excessive amount of

urine.
Diuresis: Increased secretion of urine. The chemicals

stimulating diuresis are called diuretic e.g., disodium
citrate, glucose, caffein.
Dysuria: Painful urination.
Oligouria: Less urine.
Anuria: Absence of urine.
Diabetes Insipidus: Hypotonic polyuria, several times

a day due to deficiency of ADH vasopression. Thirst
and dehydration occur.
In 24 hours, our kidneys filter around 150 litres of blood

and produce roughly 1.5 litres of urine.
When our kidneys detect that our blood pressure is

dropping, they secrete an enzyme called renin. This
enzyme triggers a chain of events that makes our kidneys
reabsorb more salt and water, leading to an increase in
blood pressure.
People can live healthily with one functioning kidney.

However, when about 90% of kidney function has been
lost, a person can only survive by having dialysis.
Dialysis works by using a machine that replicates the
blood-cleaning function of healthy kidneys. In the most
extreme cases of kidney failure, survival depends on
the person receiving a donor organ.
TRIVIA
Haemodialysis/Dialysis/Artificial Kidney: It is
employed in case of uremia or excessive concentration
of urea in the blood due to renal damage. Artificial
kidney performs dialysis (separation of micromolecules
and ions from colloids/macromolecules) of blood or
haemodialysis of waste products (urea, uric acid,
creatinine, phosphate, sulphate, etc.) so as to prevent
toxicity that may lead to death. Blood from an artery
(recently from a vein with pumping mechanism) is
mixed with heparin, cooled to 0C and passed through
results in deposition of urates in cartilages, kidneys, joints

and soft tissues resulting in various type of disorders
and joint pains. Swollen and painful big toe is quite
common.
cellophane tubes when waste products pass into

dialysing fluid. Purified blood is warmed, mixed with
antiheparin and passed into a vein.
Camels excrete a highly concentrated urine in order to
conserve water. They do not sweat till body temperature
rises above 55 60C. Camels can also tolerate
desiccation upto 40% cellular water content.
Guana : Faecal deposition of birds (especially marine)

having uric acid can be used as fertilizer due to being
rich in nitrogen and phosphorus.
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Gout : Non-elimination of uric acid from human body

due to excessive formation or reduced tubular secretion
BIOLOGY [83]
CHRONICLE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
IAS ACADEMY
and nucleus and are involved in the expression of hormonal

action. The functions of various glands like thyroid, adrenal,
ovary and testes are regulated by hormones secreted by the
pituitary gland. The secretion of pituitary gland hormones
are regulated by hypothalamus. Hormones are effective in
very low concentration, e.g., 0.003 ppm in case of adrenaline.
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Endocrine System is a system of isolate glands that pour

their secretions directly into venous blood or lymph for
passage to different body organs in order to control their
functioning, metabolism, cell permeability, growth,
differentiation and stress conditions. Endocrine system
comprises endocrine glands and their hormones. It is
therefore, also called hormonal system. The branch of science
that is connected with the study of endocrine glands,
hormones and their effect is known as endocrinology.
Chemically there are different kinds of hormones. These
are:
TYPE OF GLANDS
1. Biogenic Amines: Hormones of pineal gland (melatonin)

and adrenal medulla (catecholamines, viz, adrenaline,
noradrenaline).
Gland is an organ, tissue or cell that secretes a chemical

for performing a particular function outside.
2. Modified Amino Acids: Hormones of thyroid are

iondinated tyrosine, e.g,, thyroxine.
Exocrine Gland: It is a gland that pours its secretion on

the surface or into a particular region by means of ducts
for performing a metabolic activity, e.g., sebaceous
glands, sweat glands salivary glands, gastric glands,
intestinal glands.
Endocrine Gland: It is an isolated gland which secretes

informational molecules or hormones that are poured
into venous blood or lymph for reaching the target organ
because the gland is not connected with the target organ
by any duct. Endocrine gland is, therefore, also called
ductless gland.
Heterocrine Gland (Mixed Gland): It is a gland that has

both exocrine and endocrine tissue, the former pouring
their secretion through ducts while the latter pour their
secretion directly into blood/lymph. Mixed organ is an
organ which has both an endocrine activity and a
metabolic function, e.g., gonads.
HORMONES
In 1905, the term hormone was proposed by Hardy The

hormones are formed by certain aggregates of cells referred
to as endocrine glands. The role of the hormones is to direct,
regulate and coordinate the activities of the various organs.
There are certain other endogenous (originating from within)
substances called tissue factor or autocoids produced by
specialized group of cells. These are different from hormones
as they produce their effects without entering the blood
stream. Their release is controlled by hormones metabolic
products, cell enzymes etc.
The action of a hormone on a cell in the target organ

and its effect are mediated by stimulation or the synthesis
of specific proteins or other products. Specific recognition
sites for a particular hormone are present in the cytoplasm
[84]
BIOLOGY
3. Peptides: Hormones of hypothalamus (ARH, TRH, GRH,

GIH), intermediate (MSH) and posterior lobes of
pituitary (ADH, oxytocin). ACTH of anterior pituitary
and calcitonin of thyroid belong to this category. They
may further be differentiated into short peptides (e.g,
oxytocin, ADH) and long peptides (e.g., calcitonin,
ACTH).
4. Proteins: Hormones of pancreas (e.g., insuling,
glucagon), gastrointestinal tract, some female hormones
(e.g., relaxin of ovary and hCG of placenta),
parathormone (PTH) and most hormones of anterior
pituitary except ACTH (e.g, TSH, FSH, LA, LTH, GH)
are proteinaceous.
5. Steroids: Hormones are derived from cholesterol and

other steroids, e.g., aldosterionie, cortisol, sex corticoids
(adrenal cortex), testosterone, estradiol, progesterone
(gonads except relaxin, placenta except hCG).
Characteristics of Hormones:
They are regulatory chemicals that control and

coordinate functions of different body organs.
Hormones are formed by ductless or endocrine glands.
Hormones are poured into circulatory system in which

they are soluble and carried to target cells.
They function as chemical messengers or information

molecules.
Hormones generally function away from the area of their

formation.
They are effective in very low concentration of picograms or micrograms.
Hormone molecules are small in size.
2. Adrenocorticotropin Releasing Hormone (ARH or

ACTH-RH): Stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete
adrenocorticotropin or adrenocorticotrophic hormone.
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3. Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GRH): Stimulates

secretion of gonadotropins by adenohypophysis which
are of two types, FSH and LH. There may be two distinct
releasing hormones, FSH-RH and LH-RH in female and
ICSH-RH in males.
4. Somatrotropin Releasing Hormone or Growth

Hormone Releasing Hormone (SRH or GH-RH):
Stimulates production fo growth hormone or
somatotrophic hormone by antrior pituitary.
5. Somatostatin or Growth Inhibiting Hormone (GIH): It
inhibits adenohypophysis to secrete growth hormone.
They belong to diverse categories of proteins, peptides,

amino acids derivatives, amines, steroids, etc.
Hormone molecules get attached to the membranes of

target cells at specific points having receptors for inward
passage or reaction.
They inhibit or stimulate specific processes in the target
cells.
Hormones do not provide raw materials or energy. They
simply start certain reactions and are consumed in the
process.
Hormones are formed in response to specific stimuli.
They may be formed in the inactive state e.g., pro-Insulin.
Hormones control most activities like membrane
permeability, cell division, cell growth, cell
differentiation, regeneration, reporductive activity,
production of enzymes and metabolism, ion and
water balance of the body, adaptations and emergencies,
etc.

Pineal Gland
It is a stalked small rounded gland found behind the

anterior choroid plexus on the epithalamus. Calcification
occurs in middle age. The gland secretes two biogenic amine
hormones:
1. Serotinin: Also by disintegrating blood cells. Constricts
(vasoconstriction) blood vessel at the place of injury.
2. Melatonin: The hormone develops pale skin colour in
amphibians. Its concentration is maximum at midnight
and minimum during noon. The hormone delays
puberty, opposes FSH and LH hormone (hence
antigonadotrophic).
6. Prolactin Releasing Homone or Luteotrophic or

Lactogenic Hormone Releasing Hormone (PRH, LTHRH): The anterior pituitary is stimulated to secrete
prolactin or LTH.
7. Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone or Luteotrophic or
Lactogenic Hormone Inhibiting Hormone (PIH, LTHIH): The hypothalmic hormone stops synthesis of LTH
by anterior pituitary.
8. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone Releasing Hormone

(MSH-RH or MRH): The releasing hormone induces
intermediate pituitary to secrete MSH.
9. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone Inhibiting Hormone
(MSH-IH or MIH): The inhibiting hormone or factor
stops synthesis of MSH.
Pituitary Gland
Below hypothalamus at the base of brain, it has three

parts anterior lobe, intermediate lobe and posterior lobe.
Pituitary gland is also called master endocrine gland
because many of its hormones control the functioning of
other endocrine glands, (viz, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH).
Actually hypothalamus should be called master or supermaster endocrine gland.
Anterior Lobe of Pituitary:
1. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Proteinaceous

hormone that controls structure and functioning of
thyroid inclnding synthesis and release of its hormones.
2. Lipotropin or Adipokinetic Hormone: The hormone

stimulates liberation of fatty acids from stored body fats.
It is found below thalamus and connected to Pituitary

at the base of brain. They are peptide in nature.
3. Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH, Corticotropin

or Corticotrophic Hormone): The petide hormone
controls structure and functioning of adrenal
cortex especially secretion of glucocorticoids and sexcorticoids.
1. Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH or TSH-RH):

Stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete thyrotropin or
thyroid stimulating hormone.
4. Growth Hormone/Somatotropin or Somatotrophic

Hormone: Proteinaceous hormone that brings about
body growth by retention of proteins/amino acids,
Hypothalamus
BIOLOGY [85]
deposition of proteins in tissues, retention of calcium

and growth of long bones as well as other parts of
skeleton, growth of muscles, growth of visceral organs,
control of metabolism, etc. Hypersecretion produces
dwarfism and acromicria while hypersecretion gives rise
to gigantism and acromegaly.
Acromegaly: Acromegaly is the condition of abnormal

growth of hands, feet, and face especially lower jaw in an
otherwise normal sized individual due to oversecretion of
growth hormone in an adult. The appearnace may be gorillalike.
Diabetes Inspidus: It is hormonal abnormality of polyuria
(excessive urine) or micturating dilute urine (hypotonic, surgarfree) several times a day. Diabetes inspidus is due to deficiency
of ADH/vasopressin causing a loss of 5 litres or mroe of
urine per day. Therefore, it is accompanied by excessive thirst
(polydipsia) and dehydration.
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5. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH, Gametokinetic

Factor): It is a proteinaceous gonadotrophic hormone
which stimulates spermatogenesis in testes, maturation
of Graafian/ovarian follicles and secretion of estrogens
in ovaries.
to excess secretion of growth hormone or somatotropin. Limbs

are extraordinary long. Height is about 2.15 m (7).
6. Luteinising Hormone/Interstitial Cell Stimulating

Hormone (L.H. ICSH): It is a proteinaceous
gonadotrophic hormone. LH stimulates ovulation,
development of corpus luteum and secretion of
progesterone in females. ICSH activates interstitial or
Leydigs cells of tests to secrete testosterone and other
androgens.
7. Prolactin/Lactogenic or Luteotrophic Hormone (LTH):

Proteinaceous hormone (often included under gonadotrophins) that stimulates development of mammary
glands during pregnancy and lactation after child birth.
Intermediate Lobe of Pituitary: It stimulates synthesis

and dispersal of melanin pigment in skin of fishes,
amphibians and some reptiles. In human beings it may
be connected with pigment maintenance in hair, Addison
disease and pregnancy releated skin pigmentation
(hyperpigmentation in excess).
Posterior Lobe or Pituitary.
1. Oxytocin(Pitocin): It is known as birth hormone because

it stimulates uterine contractions during child birth.
Oxytocin is also termed as milk ejection hromone
because it stimulates ejection of milk secreted by
mammary glands under control of protactin or LTH.
2. Vasopression or Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)/

Pitressin: The hormone is essential for reabsorption of
water from nephric filtrate in distal convoluted tubules
and collecting tubes so that urine is hypertonic and water
loss from body is minimised. ADH has pressor effect,
can cause arteriole consetriction, raise blood pressure
and cause contraction of several smooth muscles like
those of intestine, gall bladder, urinary bladder, etc.
Deficiency causes diabetes inspidus.
Dwarfism: It is the condition of having smaller body

size (1-1.3m) due to premature stoppage of body growth
and reduced development of skeleton mainly because of
undersecretion of growth hormone from the begining.
Intelligence and alertness are normal.
Acromicria: The condition of normal body and
intelligence but smaller hands, feet and face due to deficiency
of growth hormone in later stage of develpment.
Gigantism: It is the condition of extra-oridinary growth

in height caused by abnormal elongation of long bones in
childhood before the fusion of epiphyses. Gigantism is due
[86]
BIOLOGY
Thyroid
It is the largest endocrine gland with weight of about

25 gm, at the upper end of trachea below larynx. It has
some 3 million follicles, arranged in lobules. Follicles secrete
iodinated amino acids tetraiodo-thyronine and triidothyronine. Out fo these tetraiodothyronine is populary called
thyroxine. Another hormone called calcitonin is secreted by
interfollicular cells.
1. Thyroxine (Tetraoidothyronine): The hormone is

iodinated form of amino acids tyrosine which is stored
in follicular colloid of thyroid gland and is released into
blood when required. (i) Thyroxine controls basal
metabolic rate or BMR. (ii) It regulates urine output.
(iii) It maintains nervous and muscular tonus. (iv)
Physical growth and mental faculties are controlled by
thyroxine. (v) Hormone is required for tissue
differentiation and metamorphosis. (vi) Thyroxine is a
factor in reproduction. Deficiency of thyroxine or
hypothyroidism results in cretinism, myxedema and
iodine deficiency goitre. Excess of thyroxine or
hyperthyroidism produces exophthalmia (= Graves
disease).
2. Calcitonin (CT) or Thyrocalcitonin:It is hypocalcemic

and hypophosphatemic peptide hormone of which
checks excess plasma Ca2+ and phosphate by decreasing
mobilisation from bones. Deficiency of calcitonin results
in osteoporosis or loss of bone density (due to
dissolution by parathormone).
Cretinism: Hypothyroidism in infant and children

results in the disorder called cretinism which is characterised
by dwarfism, physical and mental deficiencies or underdevelopment with a peculiar infantile facial expression, large
head, thick legs, pot belly, pigeon chest, protruding tongue,
swollen eye lids, short neck, dry skin and uncoordinated
gait.
Myxedema (Myxoedema): It is disorder found in adults

due to hypothyroidism. The disorder is characterised by
puffy appearance due to subcutaneous accumlation of fat,
low basal metabolism, lower heartvate and body
temperature, lack of alertness, retarded sexuality and raised
blood cholesterol.
development of sex glands. The gland contains lymphoid

tissue that forms lymphocytes. Three types of hormones are
believed to be formed by thymus-thymosin, thymin I and
thymin II. Thymosin believed to accelerate cell division,
lymphocyte formation, development of resistance to infection
and attainment of sexual maturity.
Adrenals/Suprarenals
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Goitre: It is disorder characterised by enlargement of

thyroid which brings about a swelling in the neck region. It
occurs in certain pockets in northern hilly areas where soil
and ground water is deficient in iodine. Cretinism and
myxedema may also occur. Enlargement of thyroid is a
distress development by the body in order to rope in
whatever iodne is available in the diet and produce more
thyroxine.
Exophthalmia/Graves Disease: It is result of
hyperthyroidism or thyrotoxicosis which is accompanied
by enlargement of thyroid gland as well as over-secretion
of thyroxin probably due to failure of feedback system and
hence higher production of TSH by pituitary. Besides
swelling in the neck region, Graves disease is characterised
by protrusion of eyes or exophthalmia. Ohter traits are high
BMR, accelerated oxidation of food, increased appetite,
accompanied by leannes, increased heart beat, faster pulse,
higher body temperature, excessive sweating restlessness,
nervousness diszziness, little sleep and fine tremor in
stretched hands.
Parathyroids
They are four oval, small endocrine glands situated close

to the two lobes of thyroid, two on each side. The main
secretion is a proteinaceous hormone parathormone/PTH/
Collips hormone. Small quantity of calcitonin is also
formed. Parathormone secretion is under feedback control
operated by calcium level in blood passing through the
parathyroid glands. PTH maintains optimum level of plasma
calcium by (i) Mobilisation from bones (ii) Reduced urinary
excretion. (iii) Increased absorption from intestine. The level
of phosphorus is not allowed to remain high by stimulating
its urinary excretion. Optimum Ca level blood plasma is
essential for proper functioning of muscles, heart, nerves
and membrane permeability. Hypoparathyroids result in
parathyroid tetany while hyperparathyroidism leads to
osteitis fibrosa cystica.
Parathyroid Tetany: Decreased secretion of PTH

decreases calcium level in blood plasma from 10 mg/
100 ml to 5 mg/100 ml while phosphorus level rises
from 5mg/100 ml. It causes muscular twitching, cramps
and spasms especially of hands, feet, face and larynxmuscular hypersensitivity.
Osteitis Fibrosa Cystica: The disorder is due to

hyperparathyroidism or excessive secretion of PTH. The
hormone mobilises excess of calcium from bones forming
cavities in their interior, maing bones soft, liable to
fracture and develop deformities. The excess of plasma
calcium is deposited in various parts of body bringing
about calcification of soft tissues. It produces stones in
kidney and ureters causing renal insufficiency.
Thymus
It is a temporary gland, the endocrine nature of which

is doubtful. The glands is present in children with maximum
development at puberty after which it atrophies due to
They are a pair of glands lying over kidneys. They secrete

over tenty hormones which are grouped under
mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids and sex corticoids.
1. Mineralocorticoids: They are steroid hormones which

regulate electrolyte and water balance in body, sweat,
bile, urine and saliva. Deficiency is one of the causal
agents of Addisons disease while over-secretion causes
aldosteronism or Conns syndronme.
2. Glucocorticoids: Glucocorticoids are steroid hormones

e.g., cortiosol, cortisterone. The hormones are invovled
in metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. A
major function is glucogenesis or synthesis of glucose
from glycogen, breakdown of fat and proteins (formation
of amino acids and their decamination). Cortisone/
cortisol is anti-inflamatory. Deficiency of glucocorticoids
is one of causative reasons of Addisons disease.
Overscecretion produces Cushings syndrome.
3. Sex Corticoids: They are steroid androgen hormones.

Their exact role seems to be elaboration of proteins. In
males they have a role is development and maintenance
of external sex characters. In excess they cause adrenal
virilism in females.
4. Adrenaline/Epinephrine: It is an amine (biogenic amine

or catecholamine) hormone secreted for meeting an
emergency as in cold, injury, pain, emotional setress,
anger, fear, grief, fall in blood sugar/blood presusre,
etc. Hence emergency hormone or hormone for fight,
fright and flight. Adrenaline increases blood supply to
muscles and heart by constriction of spleen for pouring
reserve blood and constriction of artieroles of skin and
abdominal organs. It is bronchiodilator (dilates
bronchioles) for higher rate of blood oxygenreaton. There
is reduction in peristalsis, digestion (relaxation of smooth
muslces) and urinary activity (relaxation of bladder
muscles and contraction of sphincters). Pupil dilates.
Cardiac output increases due to increased rate and force
of heart beat. Blood pressure is raised. There is increased
availability of blood to cardiac and skeletral muscles
due to higher availability and dilation of arterial vessels
supplying them. Glucose and oxygen supply is increased
to skeletal muscles. Muscle fatigue is little. Arrector pili
muscles beocme active.
5. Noradrenaline/Norepinephrine: It is a biogenic amine.

It is tonus hormone for circulatory system. Noradrenaline
raises systolic and diastolic pressure through
consetricting small arteries without mobilising body
reserves or raising function of skeletal/smooth muscles.
Deficiency of adrenaline/noradrenaline does not
BIOLOGY [87]
produce any marked physical/physiological deformity

being emergency hormones.
Female Sex Hormones

They belong to both steroid and protein categories. The
hormones are secreted by growing graffian/ovarian follicles
(esetrogesns = oestrogens), corpus luteum (progesterone,
relaxin) and placenta (estrogen, progesterone, hCG).
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Addisons Disease: It usually results due to destruction

of adrenal cortex or deficient secretion of aldosteronice and
cortisol. There is electrolyte upset with low plasma Na+
through increased urinary elimination and high plasma K+,
reduced blood volume, lower pressure, marked anaemia,
hypoglycaemia, great muscular weakness, nausea, vomitting,
diarrhoea and bronze pigmentation.
moustaches, masculine voice) fail to develop. Spermatozoa

are not formed. Castration is artificial removal of testes.
Secondary male characters/accessory male characters do not
differentiate. Castrated human males are called eunuchs
and oxen (instead of bulls) in case of cattle.
Cushings Syndrome: The syndrome is due to elevated

level of plasma cortisol and related hormones due to
carcinoma of adrenal cortex, excessive does noradrenaline
secretion or dose of ACTH. It results in higher blood volume,
higher blood pressure higher blood sugar or hyperglyceamia,
glycosuria (sugar in urine), obesity, wasting of limb muscles,
electrolyte imbalance with rise in Na+ in plasma. A related
but rare disease is Cushing disease due to excessive
hormone stimulation in adrenal cortex by tumour/
hyperplasia of anterior pituitary. It mainly cocurs in females
and causes obesity, hyperglycaemia, hypertension,
glycosuira and virilism.
Conns Syndrome/Aldosteronism: Oversecretion of
aldosterone due to adrenal cortical tumour causes Conns
syndrome rise in blood volume and blood pressure but
without oeema, muscular weakness, high plasma Na+ due
to renal excretion resulting kidney damage and polyuria,
low Ca2+ level and msucular tetani.
Virilism/Adrenal Virilism/Androgenital Syndrome:

Excessive secretion of sex corticoids caused by adrenal
tumour results in virilism or appearance of male secondary
characters in females like male voice, beard, moustaches,
stoppage of menstruation and growth of clitoris.
Male Sex Hormones
Male sex hormones or androgens are produce by testes

(mixed organs). They are secreted by Leydigs cells or
interstitial cells found in the connective tissue around
seminiferous tubules. Androgens are steroid hormones
produced under control fo ICSH of anterior pituitry with
maximum activity at puberty. Two common androgens are
testosterone and androsterone. The time of puberty
testosterone cause development of male seecondary sex
organs (like seminal vesicles. prostate and other glands,
scrotum, penis), external/accessory male sex characters (like
beard, moustaches, masculine voice, body hair, comb and
wattles in cock), growth in body tissue, broadening of
shoulders, growth of muscles, higher metabolism, increased
sebaceous gland activity, normal skin and formation of
sperms though spermatogenesis is mainly due to FSH.
Deficient androgen secretion causes eunuchoidism.
Eunuchoidism: Eunuchoidism is a hormonal disorder
due to nonsecretion of testosterone in a genetically male
individual. The secondary male sex organs are
underdeveloped and nonfunctional (prostate gland, seminal
vesicle, penis). The accessory male characters (beard,
[88]
BIOLOGY
1. Estrogens: They are steroid hormones secreted by

growing ovarian follicles under instructions from
anterior pituitary through FSH. At puberty the hormone
is required for development of female secondary sex
organs (like vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, duct system
of mammary glands), external/accessory female sex
characters (like high pitch voice, breasts, development
of female pattern of body hair), body contour (like
broadening of pelvis, fat deposition in thighs) and onset
of menstrual cycle.
2. Progesterone: It is steroid hormone secreted by corpus

luteum (emptied enlarged Graahan follicel) under the
influence of LH of anterior pituitary in the second half
of menstrual cycle and hCG of placentia during
pregnancy. Routinely progresterone cause temporary
changes in endometrial lining of uterus (secretory phase)
for receiving egg. During pregnancy it helps in attaching
embryo to uterine wall, development of placenta,
maintenance of pregnancy and growht of secretory
alveoli in mammary glands.
3. Relaxin: The proteinaceous hormone is secreted by

corpus luteum towards the close of gestation period for
loosening of pelivic ligaments, softening and relaxing of
uterus for decreasing discomfort of carriage and easy
child birth.
4. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): The
proteinanceous hormone is secreted by placenta for
maintaning corpus luteum (and hence continued
secretion of progresterone), hCG in urine is an indication
of pregnancy.
Pancreas
It is a heterocrine gland where exocrine glandular part

occurs as acini. The endocrine part constitutes 2-3%^ and is
represented by Islets of Langerhans or pancreatic islets.
The islets have 5 types of endocrine cells secreting different
hormones-insulin by Bitta-cells, glucagon by Alpha-cells,
gastrin by Gamma-cells, somatostatin by Delta-cells and
panchreatic polypebtide by F-cells. Somatostatin seems to
be a local hrmoned that keeps a check on escessive secretion
by Bitta and Alpha -cells. Polypeptide (pancreatic) may check
secretory activity of digestive glands while gastrin in similar
to the one produced by pyloric stomach.
3. Cholecystokinin: It is produced by duodenum in

response to pressure of food. Cholecystokinin stimulates
flow of pancreatic enzymes and contraction fo gall bladder.
4. Enterocrinin: The hormone secreted by intestinal
muscosa stimulates secretion of succus entericus or
intestinal juice.
5. Villikinin: Intestinal hormone that stimulates movement
of intestinal villi.
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1. Insulin: It is proteinanceous hormone secreted by Bitta cells of islets of Langerhans as proinsulin whenever there
is high glucose and amino acids content in blood. Insulin
lower glucose content of blood by promoting its (a)
Absorption by cells for respiration (b) Absorption by
liver and muscles for glycogenogenesis or conversion
to glycogen. (c) Helping in conversion of glucose to fatty
acids. It reduces amino acids content of blood by
promoting their absorption by individual cells and
formation of proteins in them. Deficiency of insulin
causes diabetes mellitus.
2. Glucagon: Proteinaceous hormone secreted by Alphacells of islets of Langerhans whenever there is decreased
level of plasma glucose (hypoglycaemia). Glucagon
promotes (a) Glycogenolysis or conversion of glycogen
to glucose in liver cells and passage of latter into blood.
(b) Diamination of amino acids and formation of glucose.
Excess of glucagon may cause glycosuria.
TRIVIA
Releasing and Inhibitory Hormoens: Hormones of

hypothalamus and kidney (renin) which control secretion
fo trophic hormones.
Trophic Hormones: Hormones controlling activity of

other endocrine glands, e.g., anterior pituitary hormones
like thyrotropin for thyroid.
Hormones Connected with Reproduction: FSH, LH

(ICSH), oxytocin, sex hormones.
Hormones Connected with Connected with

Reproduction: FSH, LH (ICSH), oxytocin, sex
hormones.
Hormones Connected with Growth and Development:

GH (somato-trophin), thyroxine.
Hormones of Digestive System: Gastrin, secretin,

enterocrinin, etc.
Hormones Connected with Metabolism: Insulin,

glucagon, calcitonin, corticioids.
Pituitrin: ADH + oxytocin of posterior pituitary.
Gastrointestinal Mucosa
Certain cells present in the lining of digestive tract have

endocrine activity. All the gastrointestinal hormones are
proteinanceous in nature.
Female Contraceptive Pills: Generally contain oestrogen

and progesteron.
Gravidex Test: Test for pregnancy, e.g., hCG test.
Largest Endocrine Gland: Thyroid.
Largest Endocrine Organ: Gut.
Temporary Endocrine Gland: Corpus luteum, placenta.
Receding Endocrine Gland: Thymus, shrinks after

puberty.
Smallest Endocrine Gland: Pituitary (0.5-1.0 gm.)
Triple F. Glands: Emergency glands or adrenals for

flight, fight and fright.
Diabetes/Diabetes Mellitus: The disorder is causeed

by deficient insulin production. It is characterised by (a)
Hyperglycaemia or high level of blood glucose, 300-1200
mg/100 ml from normal 90 mg/100 ml due to regular supply
from alimentary canal and failure of cells to absorb glucose.
(b) Glycosuria or glucose in urince. (c) Polyuria or excessive
urination due to increase in water content of urine. (d)
Polydispsia or excessive thirst. (e) Dehydration. (f) Reduced
storage of fat and protein synthesis. (g) Oxidation of fatty
acids and amino acids for energy release. (h) Acidosis and
ketone bodies. (i) Growth hormone becomes ineffective. (j)
There is wasting of body tissues. Healing power is reduced.
Injuries may result in gangrenes. (k) Diabetes may lead to
coma or unconsiousness. The disorder is kept under control
by administration of insulin and hypoglycemics.
1. Gastrin: It is produced by pyloric mucosa (small quantity

by ?-cells in pancreas) in response to presence of food
in stomach. Gastrin stimulates secretion of gastric juices
and churning movements of stomach. Hypersecretion
produces gastric ulcers and other gastric problems.
2. Secretin: Entry of HCL in duodenum stimulates

secretion of secretin from duodenal mucosa. The
hormone stimulates secretion of water and bicarbonate
in bile and pancreatic juice. It inhibits stomach
movements and secretion of gastric juice.
BIOLOGY [89]
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
Sucker stem as in mint banana which run horizontally

under ground can be separated and grown individually
and each is able to develop into separate plant. The
vegetative multiplication in the certain storage felshy
leaf like Bryophyllum has also been found very useful.
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Reproduction is the formation of new similar young living

organisms by the grown up individuals of a species or race.
It is meant for perpetuation of the race/species because
individuals are bound to die after a life span. Reproduction
provides group immortality. Four processes are basic to
reproduction DNA replication, cells division, formation of
reproductive units and development of a new individual.
Animal reproduction is of two types, asexual and sexual.
Reproduction is the inherent property of the living
organisms to continue their race Sby producing offsprings.
Reproduction is of two types: (i) Asexual reproduction, (ii)
Sexual reproduction
Tubers like potato, when cut into pieces with a bud in

each piece and sown each grow into individual tuber
plants.
Bulbs are also propagated by separating the young bulb

eg. Crinum or adventintious ends of the scale leaves eg.
Urginea.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
The development of new individuals without the fusion

of the male and female gamates is known as asexual
reproduction. The asexual reproduction usually includes
miotic division of the body (somatic) cells. Therefore it is
also known as somatogenic reproduction. The sexual
reproduction is common only in lower plants and animals
and it is of following types:
(i) Binary fission: In the binary fission, the body splits in

such a way that two equal and identical halves are
produced. It is most common in protozoans, bacteria
and some lower metazoans.
(ii) Budding: In certain multicellular animals, e.g. hydra

and fungi the body gives out a small outgrowth known
as the bud, the bud is supported by the parent body
and it ultimately develops into a new individual.
(iii) Gemmule formation: In certain metazoan animals, e.g.
fresh water sponges and in some bryophytes such as
Marchantia, the asexual reproduction is carried on by
certain peculiar asexual bodies known as gemmules,
which is composed of a group of undifferentiated cells
which contain stored food material.
It is a mode of multiplication in which the new

individuals or young ones are formed through the process
of formation and fusion of gametes. Haploid (gametes)diploid (individual) attraction occurs. Gametogenesis
involves meiosis. Fusion of gametes or fertilization restores
the chromosome number. The offspring is produced by
growth of the fusion product of gametes called zygote.
Sexual reproduction is commonly bi-parental.
Exogamy: Sexual reproduction involving gametes from

different parents (bi-parental).
Unisexual: Organism in which the two sexes occur in

different individuals, e.g., humans, mammals, birds,
lizards.
Bisexual/Hermaphrodite: Organism in which the two
PARTHENOGENESIS
It is the development of a new individual from a single

gamete (generally the egg/ovum) without involving
fertilization. Parthenogenesis can be natural or artificial.
Natural parthenogenesis may be obligatory or cyclic.
Obligatory/Complete Parthenogenesis: Males are

absent; females develop parthenogenetically, e.g.,
rotifers, Typhlina brahmina (small lizard, 15 cm long).
(iv) Spore formation: In many unicellular plants, fungi etc.

the asexual reproduction by spore formation is very
common under unfavourable conditions. In this process
the condensation of protoplasm due to reduction in the
water content results. These spores under favourable
conditions abosorbs water and germinate to form a new
plant.
Cyclic/Incomplete Parthenogenesis: Both sexual and

parthenogenetic individuals occur. In aphids several
generations of parthenogenetic females develop
followed by formation of both males and females to
perform sexual reproduction. In Honey Bee, male or
drone develops parthenogenetically (no meiosis at the
time of spermatogenesis) while queen and workers
develop from fertilized eggs. Also in wasps and ants.
(v) Vegetative reproduction: A fragment or part of the plant

grows to produce new plants. Fragmentation is very
common in algae and fungi. In higher plants the
vegetative propagation takes place in many ways under
the following ways:
Artificial Parthenogenesis: Sugar, salt, alkaloids and

other chemicals, heat, cold, pricking and other stimuli
can stimulate eggs to undergo cleavage and form
parthenogenetic embryos. Being haploid, they
generally do not survive.
[90]
BIOLOGY
types of sex organs (mal and female) occur in the same

individual, e.g., Earthworm.
1. Sexual reproduction in plants
Accessory/External Sex Characters: They are traits

which do not have any direct role in reproduction but
provide specific features and structures to the two sexes.
The important external/accessory sex characters of human
male are beard, moustaches, body hair on shoulder and
chest, pubic hair on both lateral and vertical direcitons,
comparatively more height with more muscular body, larynx
apparent externally, voice low pitched with breathing more
by means of diaphragm. The important accessory sex
characters of human females are high pitched voice, breast,
broader pelvis, lateral public hair, rounded body contous
with more subcutaneous fat in thighs buttocks and face,
and sternal breathing.
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This is very coommon type of reproduction in the

angiospermic plants. Meiosis (reduction division) occurs in
the male and female parts of a flower to form male (pollen
grains) and female (ovum) gametes. In order to produce
seeds (to reproduce) male and female gametes fuse together
to form zygote that divides miotically and develops into a
seed. The process of transference of pollen grains from the
another of a flower to the stigma of the same or of different
flower is called pollination. It is of two types:
vagina, external genitalia, Bartholin glands and mammary

glands.
(i) Self-pollination: If the pollen grains are transferred to

the stigma of the same flower or between two flowers
borne by the same parent then it is self pollination or
autogamy.
(ii) Cross-pollination: If the pollen-grains are transferred

to the stigma of a different flower borne by a different
plant then it is called cross-pollination or allogamy.
All unisexual flowers are cross pollinated. However the
bisexual flowers also show the following characteristics to
favour cross-pollination.
2. Mammalian Reproduction
Primary Sex Organs: Gonads which form gametes are

called primary sex organs testis (plural testes) in males
and ovary (plural ovaries) in females. Testis produces sperms
and secretes testosterone (formation and maintenance of
secondary sex organs, accessory male glands and external
sex characters). Ovary produces ova. Maturing Graffian
follicles secrete estrogens for development and maintenance
of secondary sex organs, accessory or external sex characters
and part of mensetrual cycles. Progesterone produced by
ruptured Graffian follicles or corpus luteum controls a part
of menstrual cycle, implantation and development of
placenta.
Secondary Sex Organs: Sex organs, glands and ducts

which do not produce gametes but are otherwise essential
for sexual reproduction are known as secondary sex organs.
In human male reproductive system, the secondary
sex organs are vasa efferentia, epididymes, vasa
deferentia, ejaculatory ducts, seminal vesicles, urethra,
prostate glands, Cowpers glands and penisin. Secondary
sex organs of a human female include fallopian tubes, uterus,
Species
Mare
Cow
Ass
Goat
Ewe
Sow
Bitch
Cat
Rabbit
Life-span
(yrs)
Gestation Period
(months)
Litter No.
27
18
24
17
13
14
16
15
5
11
9
12
5
5
4
2
2
1
1
1
1
1-8
1-3
4-6
1-12
1-6
1-13
Puberty: Beginning of sexual maturity or ability

to reproduce is known as puberty. Primary sex organs
being functioning. Secondary sex organs develop fully under
the influence of sex hormones produced by primary sex
organs. Growth is rapid. It is accompanied by slow
development of accessory/external sexual characters.
Puberty occurs at the age of 10-14 years in girls and 13-15
years in boys.
Characteristics of Human Reproduction
(i)
Human beigns are nonseasonal breeders.
(ii)
There is no oestrus/heat.
(iii)
In human females the ability to produce young ones

begins at menarche (beginning of menses) and ends
at menopause (stoppage of menses).
(iv)
In human females the reproductive phase has 28 day

repeated menstrual cycle.
(v)
Fertilization is internal.
(vi)
There is vivipary. i.e., giving birth to young ones.
(vii) Foetus develops inside uterus and is nourished by

joint special structure called placenta.
(viii) Infants can be fed on mothers milk.
(ix)
Parental care is very well developed.
MALE GENITAL
Below the bladder and between the legs the plum sized
testes and expandable sausage-like penis exist which make
and deliver sperm into a woman.
Sperm and male sex hormones are made in two plum

sized glands called the testes.
The testes lie in a sac called the scrotum that hangs

outside the body, between the legs. This arrangement
maintains sperm at a temperature slightly below body
temperature, which is essential for the production of
healthy sperm.
Each testis has a long highly coiled tube attached to it

known as an epididymis. Immature sperm pass out of
BIOLOGY [91]
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the testes into the epididymes. As sperm make their way
through these tubes, they mature and learn to swim.
Maturation takes between one and three weeks, after
which they are either ejaculated out of the body or
reabsorbed into the body.
Every day a man makes between 50 and 500 million

sperm.
Sperm and urine both leave the body through a tube

called the urethra that runs down the middle of the penis.
Semen is a milky white, sticky mixture of sperm and

fluid secretions. It provides nutrients to energise sperm
and acts as a transport medium to carry sperm through
the penis, out of the body and into a womans vagina.
During ejaculation, sperm are propelled from the

epididymis along a duct called the vas deferens. This
carries sperm upwards, out of the scrotum, towards the
penis.
En route, fluids from the seminal vesicles (the small

red glands at the end of the vas deferens) and the
prostate gland dilute the sperm. These fluids provide
the optimal environment for sperm to swim and survive
in the acidic conditions of the female reproductive tract.
During ejaculation, a man produces between two and

five millilitres of semen that contains between 50 and
130 million sperm per millilitre.
The tiny bulbourethral glands secrete a thick, clear

mucus that drains into the urethra. It clean the urethra
before ejaculation and act as a lubricant during sex.
FEMALE GENITAL
Behind the bladder there is uterus, or womb, the size of

an upside-down pear which produce eggs, have sex, carry
a developing baby and to give birth.
[92]
The female genitals consist of two glands called ovaries

that are responsible for producing eggs and female sex
hormones.
BIOLOGY
Once women reach sexual maturity, they experience a

hormone regulated monthly fertility cycle known as a
menstrual cycle. These hormones control the maturation
and release of an egg from one of the ovaries every
month, and they affect the lining of the womb making
it ready to receive a fertilised egg.
Mature eggs are released from the ovary and move along
the fallopian tube to the uterus. If an egg is fertilised, it
tries to embed itself in the uterus wall, ready to develop
into a foetus. If no egg becomes implanted, the uterus
lining is shed, and this results in a flow of menstrual
blood, know as the period.
When a baby girl is born, she already carries all the

eggs that she will ever produce through her life. A boy,
however, does not carry sperm at birth, and only begins
to produce sperm when he reaches sexual maturity.
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
It is a series of cyclic changes that occur in the

reproductive tract of human females and other primates with
a periodicity of 28 days, right from menarche to menopause.
It is characterised by menses or loss of blood for a few dyas.
Menstrual cycles consists of the following phases.
1. Menstrual Phase: It is the pahse of menstrual flow

menses which continues for 3-5 days and involves
discharge of blood (a total of 50-100 ml). Mensetrual
phase is also called funeral of unfertilised egg or
shedding tears of lost ovum. First day of menstrual phase
is also considered to be first day menstrual cycle.
2. Post-Menstrual/Follicular Phase: Anterior pituitary

secretes FSH which stimulates follicular cells of Graafian
follicle to secrete estrogen (a) Recovery Phase. It last for
2 days and brings about repiar of ruptured blood vessels
and mucous lining or endometrium of reproductive tract.
(b) Proliferative Phas.e The endomitrial lining begins
to thicken, especially that of uterus. There is
development of blood capillaries, elongation and coiling
and autumn for bitches), called breeding seasons. In case of

no fertilization, the endometrial breakdown is not
accompanied by rupturing of blood vessels. Hence, there is
no bleeding.
TRIVIA
Androgenesis: Development in which embryo has only
paternal chromoscomes.
Gynogenesis: Development in which embryo has only

maternal chromosomes.
Amenorrhoea: Non-occurrence of menses.
Human Ovum: Maximum diameter (0-1 mm) in any

human cell.
Birds: In many birds (exception some birds of prey)

only the left ovary and left oviduct and functional. The
right ones are non-functional.
Inguinal Hernia: Protrusion of intestinal loop into

scrotum.
Seminiferous Tubules: Structural and functional units

of testes.
Cowpers Glands: Homologous with Bartholins glands

of females.
Seminal Vesicle: Also called uterus masculinu.s
Spontaneous/Reflex Ovulator: Ovulation without any

external induction.
Induced Ovulator: Ovulation after copulation e.g.,

Rabbit.
Castration/Orchidectomy: Removal to tests. It produce

eunuchs. Castration changes aggressiveness of male into
docile nature.
Hysterectomy: Surgical removeal of uterus.
Gynaecomastia: Development of breasts in males/

enlargement of males mammary glands due to hormonal
disturbance.
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of uterine glands, greater activity of uterine muscles

thickening and development of more cilia in epithelial
lining of fallopian tubes.
3. Fertility Phase/Ovulation: Production of FSH decreases

while that of LH increases. Presence of both FSH and
LH causes ovulation. The ovum is drawn into fallopian
tube. It is viable for two days when fertilization can
occur. Ovulation takes place between 10-14 days (fertility
period 10-16 days of menstrual cycle).
4. Pre-Menstruation/Luteal/Secretory Phase: It operates

under the influence of progesterone produced by corpus
luteum (empty proliferated Graafian follicle and
supervised by LH of anterior pituitary. Endomitrial
lining thickens and its glands become secretory. Uterine
movements are reduced. The stage is meant for receiving
fertilized ovum. In the absence of fertilization, corpus
lutem degeneretes. LH level falls. Progesterone level is
reduced. Reduced level of both progesterone and
estrogen causes menses.
Estrous Cycle: It is a series of cyclic changes that occur

in the reproductive tract of nonprimate mammalian females
with variable periodicity indifferent aniamls. There is a
period of estrous or heat near the time of ovulation due to
rising level of estrogen. It lasts for only 18 hours in cow.
The female receives the male only during estrous or heat.
There is generally specific period of oestrous (= estrous,
except for domesticated mammals), may be two (spring
BIOLOGY [93]
CHRONICLE
HUMAN DISEASES
IAS ACADEMY
Disease is a condition of disturbed functioning of the

body caused by infection, defective diet, heredity,
environment or depraved condition of brain. Health is a
state of complete physical, mental and social well being.
Mechanical Agents: Fractures, sprains, dislocation,

injury, chronic friction.
TYPES OF DISEASES
Genetic Agents: Excess or deficiency of chromosomes,

mutations, harmful alleles, e.g, colour blindness,
albinism, haemophilia, Turners syndrome.
Degeneration: They include old age change like peptic

ulcers, hypertension, atherosclerosis.
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Physical Agents: Heat (e.g., stroke), cold (frost bite),

radiations, sound (impaired hearing), humidity, etc.
1. Congenital Diseases: Diseases contracted before birth

due to defective heredity (chromosomal abnormalities
and gene mutations), physiological disturbance or
transplacental transmission, e.g. Hemophilia, Downs
syndrome, colour blindness, hare-lip, transplacental
syphilis.
2. Acquired Diseases: Disease contracted after birth due
to infection, defective diet, hypersensitivity, injury,
addition, degeneration, cancer, depression, etc.
3. Infectious Diseases: They are diseases due to pathogens

that can be transferred from one individual to another,
e.g. flu, malaria, typhoid.
4. Deficiency Diseases: Disease caused by absence or

deficiency of an essential element, e.g., anaemia, goitre.
5. Degenerative Diseases: Disease caused by ageing

resulting in malfunctioning or decreased efficiency.
INFECTION
Infection is invasion, establishment and growth of

pathogen in a host. Contamination is occurrence of harmful
organisms or their products in articles of use, e.g., milk,
food, water, garments. Infestation is occurrence of animal
parasites on or inside the body of an individual.
Carrier is an animal or healthy human host which
harbours the pathogen without being harmed (due to
counter-balancing of its antigens with antibodies) and passes
the same to another susceptible individual.
Transmission of Infectious Diseases :
1. Direct Transmission: An intermediate agent is absent.
CAUSES OF DISEASES/DISEASE AGENTS
Disease agent is organism, substance or force which

causes disease due to its excessive presence, deficiency or
absence.
[94]
Pathogens/Biological Agents: They are biological

entities which cause infectious diseases, e.g., viruses
(mumps, chicken pox, small pox), mycoplasma (e.g,
bronchitis, acute leukemia), chlamydia (e.g, trachoma),
bacteria (e.g. cholera, tetanus), fungi (ringworm, thrush,
moniliasis, pulmonary aspergillosis), protozoa (e.g.
giardiasis, sleeping sickness), helminths (e.g., filariasis,
ascariasis, taeniasis), other organisms (e.g., scabies).
Nutrient Agents: Deficiency of vitamins (e.g., beriberi,

scurvy, night blindness), minerals (e.g., anaemia, rickets),
carbohydrates, fats and proteins (e.g., kwashiorkar,
marasmus), or excess of food (e.g., obesity).
Chemical Agents: Endogenous Agents- Excess presence
of uric acid, reduced secretion of ADH (diabetes
insipidus) or insulin (diabetes mellitus). Exogenous
Agents- Pollutants (e.g., pneumoconiosis), allergens
(allergy).
BIOLOGY
Direct Contact With Infected Persons: The disease are

called contagious, e.g., ringworm, syphilis.
Droplet Infection: Transmission is from an infected

person to a healthy person in mist emitted from nose
and mouth while sneezing, spitting, talking and
coughing.
Contact with Soil: Soil borne pathogens enter the host

through injured or exposed parts, e.g. tetanus.
Animal Bite: Rabies is spread through bite of dog/cat.
Transplacental Transmission: Mother transfers virus of

German measles and bacterium of syphilis through
placenta.
2. Indirect Transmission: An intermediate agent is

required.
Vectors: Vectors are living agents for transferring

pathogens, e.g, housefly, mosquito, tse-tse fly, sandfly.
Mosquitoes are vectors of malaria, encephalitis, filaria,
yellow fever, etc. Housefly is vector of cholera,
dysentery, typhoid, diarrhoea, conjunctivitis,
poliomyelitis, etc.
ABC of ALLERGY
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Allergy is noninfectious unusual reaction or hypersensitivity of an individual to a foreign substance or agent that is
harmless to other individuals. Allergen is a foreign substance or agent that produces hypersensitivity in an individual e.g.,
pollen, spores, dust, scent, woollen, silk or nylon, lotions, nail polish, lipstick, drug, egg white, fur, feathers, shell fish etc.
The allergen on first contact functions as a mild antigen. The process is called sensitisation. It produces antibodies which
remain attached to mast cells. Whenever, the allergen enters the body of a sensitised person, it causes antigen-antibody
reaction and lysis of mast cells. This releases histamine which dilates arteries and causes fluid accumulation. Important
allergic reactions are
Sneezing,
Coughing,
Watering of Eyes,
Oedema or accumulation of tissue fluid below and difficulty in expiration,
Hay Fever: Allergic swelling and secretion of mucous membrane of nose, throat and conjunctiva in response to pollen
and spores.
Urticaria: Allergic skin eruptions characterised by multiple, circumscribed raised pinkish itchy blisters persisting for a
few days.
Eczema: A dermatitis started with reddening of skin, formation of vesicles, rupturing of vesicles and forming of scales.
Anaphylaxis (Anaphylactic Shock): It is a hypersensitive reaction of the body to a foreign substance like bee sting,
penicillin, serum protein, etc. that results in shortness of breath and collapse due to marked dilation of arteries, very
low blood pressure, collection of tissue fluid below skin, little supply of blood to brain and other vital organs which
may prove fatal. Allergic reactions are countered by the administration of antihistamines like phenindamine, diphenhydramine and cyclizine.
Vehicle Borne: An article of food, water, ice, etc carries

the pathogen for transmission e.g. cholera, typhoid,
dysentery.
Air Borne: Dust and air current spread disease like

typhus in dried feces of lice.
Fomite Borne: Articles handled or coming in contact

with patients are a cause of disease transmission, e.g.
door handles, taps, crockery, currency, garments.
Unclean Hands: They transfer germs to healthy persons,

food, utensils, etc.
Every pathogen has a specific portal of entry into the

body. Invasiveness of a pathogen is its ability to gain entry
into host and grow. Virulence is the ability of pathogen to
produce disease. Toxigenicity is power of a pathogen to
form toxins capable of damaging host cells. Host has three
lines of defence against invasion by pathogens. There are
nonspecific (external defence and nonspecific internal
defence) and specific defence mechanisms.
1. External Defence/First Line of Defence/Physical and
Chemical Barrier: It consists of physical barriers of skin,
membranes, friendly microorganisms and chemical
barriers.
Skin: Keratinised dead outer cells do not allow entry to

pathogens. Oil and sweat are inhibitory to growth of
most pathogens.
Nostril Hair: They filter out dust and microorganisms

from inhaled air.
External Friendly Microorganisms/Friendly Bacteria:

Many friendly bacteria live on skin and secrete chemicals
harmful to pathogens.
Mucous Membranes: They line digestive,

respiratory and urinogenital tracts so as to
prevent entry of germs into body tissues.
Mucus and Cilia: Mucous membrane of the nasal tract

possesses cilia for pushing back dust and germs. It also
secretes mucus for trapping and killing them.
Internal Friendly Microorganisms: They occur in

intestine and vagina.
Chemical Barriers: (i) Sweat, oil and secretions of

external friendly bacteria are acidic to prevent growth
of many pathogens. (ii) Lysozyme or bacteriolytic
enzyme is present in sweat, tears, saliva and mucus.
(iii) HCL of gastric juice has germicidal properties. (iv)
Bile does not allow growth of microorganisms.
2. Nonspecific Internal Defence/Second Line of Defence:

A pathogen having entered body tissues/fluid is
confronted with second line of defence consisting of
phagocytosis and inflammatory response.
Phagocytosis: Phagocytes present in blood come out of

capillaries through diapedesis. Phagocytes of blood and
macrophages present in tissues attack germs and engulf
them. Pus may collect. Pus is a thick liquid formed in
the region of wound and is composed of tissue fluid,
damaged body cells, dead phagocytes, some leucocytes
and microorganisms.
Inflammatory Response:
It is reaction of
living tissues to injury, irritation or infection which is
characterised by pain, swelling, redness and heat. It is
BIOLOGY [95]
(ii) Helper T-cells : They activate B-lymphoctyes to produce

antibodies.
(iii)Suppressor T-Cells: The cells protect the body tissues
and chemicals from attack of phagocytes and their
antibodies.
(iv) Memory T-Cells: They are sensitised T-cells which retain
memory of antigen-specificity for future, sometimes life
long. Killer, helper and suppressor T-cells are also called
effector cells Action of B-cells. The antigen specific helper
T-cells stimulate specific B-lymphocytes to multiply
rapidly forming clone of plasma cell. In the presence of
antigen the plasma cells form antibodies at the rate of
2000 molecules per cell/per second, a total of some 20
trillions per day.
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caused by release of an amine called histamine from

body tissue and lymphocytes. Histamine dilates blood
capillaries, makes them more permeable, lowers blood
pressure, allows greater leakage of phagocytes and
plasma so that tissue fluid accumulates. Toxins released
by pathogens and pyrogens (substances capable of
producing fever/pyrexia) produced by leucocytes raise
body temperature to stimulate phagocytes and inhibit
microorganisms. However, body temperature may rise
too high when it is brought down by administration of
antipyretic drugs (e.g. paracetamol, aspirin) and cold
packs.
3. Specific Internal Defence/Immune System/Third Line

of Defence: It is a system that provides resistance to
infection. A constituent of pathogen behaves as antigen.
Antigen (antibody generating) is any foreign substance

like protein or polysaccharide present on external coating
of pathogen, toxin of pathogen, white of egg, feathers,
constituent of a vegetable, fruit, meat, drug, chemical,
tissue or organ transplant which induces the immune
system to produce antibodies.
Antibodies are proteinaceous substances occurring

naturally in blood plasma or produced by immune
system in order to overcome the toxic effect of antigens.
They are immunoglobulins/gammaglobulins like IgA,
IgD, IgE, IgG and IgM. Each has a specific area (Vregion) for binding with antigen. Immune system is
capable of distinguishing body cells and their
macromolecules from foreign cells and substances. The
system consists of two parts humoral and cell-mediated.
Robert Koch (1876): First to establish connection between

disease and pathogen (anthrax disease of sheep due to
Bacillus anthracis).
Pasteur (1879): Development of vaccines through

attenuation of pathogens (idea from cholera bacteria).
Father of Immunology: Edward Jenner (1749-1823).
Antibodies/Immunoglobulins:
(i) IgA: Main antibody is secretions

microorganisms and their toxins.
attacking
(ii) IgG: Main antibody in body fluids (in circulation) for

attacking microorganisms and their toxins.
(iii) IgD: Membrane bound antibody.
(iv) IgE: Allergic reactions.
ANTIBODY MEDIATED
IMMUNE SYSTEM
The immune system comprises antibodies present in

body humors (blood, lymph). Cell Mediated Immune System
(OMIS) comprises lymphocytes that defend the body against
pathogens, cancers and foreign structures like tissue
transplants.
Cells of Immune System : They are two types of

lymphoctyes (B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes) which
develop from stem cells or haemocytoblasts in liver of fetus
and bone marrow thereafter. B-lymphocytes (after bursa
Fabricii in birds) undergo early differentiation in bone
marrow and later inside bursal lymphoid tissue (peyers
patches, appendix, tonsils). T-lymphocytes undergo
differentiation in thymus. They then come to lie inside
spleen, tonsils and lymph nodes.
(v) IgM: Largest antibody, takes part in lysing

microorganisms along with IgC (also as opsonin).
COMMON HUMAN
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
They are infectious diseases caused by pathogens which

can spread from infected persons to healthy persons.
Communicable diseases are grouped according to the type
of pathogens, viz., viral, mycoplasmal, rickettsial,
chlamydial, bacterial, protozoan, helminthetic, etc.
Influenza/Flu : It is highly infectious viral disease which

often spreads in epidemic/pandemic- (spreading
throughout country/continent) form. It affects nose,
throat, eyes and upper respiratory tract. The disease is
accompanied by sneezing, coughing, headache, sore
throat, body aches and fever for 4-5 days. The common
flu virus is Myxovirus influenza. Incubation period is 2
3 days. Complications include development of
bronchitis, ear infection and pneumonia. The disease
spreads through direct contact, unclean hands and
droplet method.
Small Pox : It is an eruptive viral disease which has

been completely eradicated through widespread
Action of T-cells: T-cells are long lived cells (4-5 years,

some through life) which develop antigen specificity through
previous contact. They respond to an antigen by forming a
clone of cells. The cells differentiate into four types :
(i) Killer T-cells: The cells reach the site of infection of

agglutination, attract other cells and phagocytes to feed
on antigen containing pathogens.
[96]
BIOLOGY
urine and nasal secretions contaminating food, water,

drinks, either directly of through flies with an incubation
period of 5 17 days. During incubation period, the
virus multiples in alimentary canal. Then it passes to
lymph, blood and finally central nervous system in
dorsal horn cells of spinal cord and brain stem.
Preparalytic stage (1 4 days) is characterised by fever,
sore throat, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, headache, stiff
back, stiff neck, twitching and convulsions. During
paralytic stage, motor nerves are affected resulting in
atrophy of muscles, generally of arms and legs but may
affect those of diaphragm (only iron lung can save),
larynx and pharynx (fatal). Vaccine (Salks vaccine), now
oral also, is available for taking at the age of 6 weeks,
10 weeks, 14 weeks, booster (18 24 months).
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compulsory vaccination. The disease is caused by Variola

virus. Incubation period is 12 days. The disease begins
with headache, backache, chill, high fever, rashes
appearing on third day of illness as reddish spots which
change into vesicles, pustules and finally scabs in third
week. The scabs fall down leaving permanent pox marks,
especially over face. Complications, include blindness.
Death could also occur. First vaccination developed by
Edward Jenner (1796) was against small pox. Diseases
used to spread through fomite transmission.
Chicken Pox : It is a contagious and fomite transmitted

eruptive viral disease which is more common but less
severe in children upto 10yrs and severe but rare in
adults. The disease is caused by virus Varicella zoster
with incubation period of 14-16 days. Illness begins with
slight fever, shivering and backache. There are then
prodormal or transitory rashes with crops of pinkish
centripetal spots appearing first on trunk, fore-head and
face. Uneasiness, aches and high fever accompany. Spots
turn into fluid filled vesicles and then scabs in five days.
Scabs fall off without leaving any mark. Use of boric
acid, calamine and benzyl benzoate reduces itching and
tendency to scratch. No drug, no vaccine. Single attack
gives life long immunity.
Measles: It is a highly infectious eruptive viral disease

of children below the age of five and caused by Rubella
Virus/Polynosa morbillorum. Disease is transmitted by
contact, fomite and droplet methods. Portal of entry is
respiratory tract and conjunctiva. Incubation period is
10 14 days. In preruptive stage (3 4 days), there is
hoarseness, cough, sneezing and running nose due to
inflammation of respiratory tract, redness or watering
of eyes, loss of appetite and fever. White Koplicks spots
appear opposite molar teeth in buccal cavity on third
day. Fourth day begins with skin rash, small raised red
spots (rubella) in crescent shaped groups starting from
back of ears, reaching fore head, face (bloated and
blotchy) and then body. By 5-6th day and the rashes
begin to subside. Vaccination is available which is given
at the age of one. Prior to that the infant carries passive
immunity from mother.
Mumps : It is an acute infectious one time viral disease
of school going children which is characterised by
swollen parotid salivary gland, hence infectious
parotitis. Adults without previous infection may catch
the disease. The pathogen is Paamyxo/Mumps, Virus. It
is transmitted by direct contact, droplet method and
fomite method. Incubation period is 12 26 days. Due
to mumps the patient has difficulty in swallowing and
opening of mouth. There is high fever. In adults, mumps
may cause damage to sex organs. Antibiotic are given
to prevent secondary infection. Vaccination is available
(MMR- mumps, measles and rubella a German measles).
Poliomyelitis/Polio/Infantile Paralysis : It is highly

infectious viral disease of infants and children (hence
infantile paralysis) that may attack adults also. Causal
agent is Polio Virus. Disease is transmitted through faces,
Rabies/Hydrophobia : It is a fatal viral disease (Rabies

Virus) that is transmitted to human beings by biting/
saliva of rabid dog or cat. Incubation period is 1 3
months. Multiplication occurs in neurons (nourotrophic).
It leads to encephalitis, fear of water, severe headache,
high fever, alternate excitement and depression, spasm
of throat and chest leading to death. Bitten person should
be immediately administered vaccine that develops
antibodies before the virus becomes active. Dog should
be watched for 10 days for the development of rabies
symptoms (running a muck, change of voice, excessive
salivation). Rabid dog should be killed. Stray dogs and
cats must be eradicated while pets should compulsorily
be immunised.
Hepatitis : It is two types, A and B. Hepatitis A

(Epidemic jaundice) is more common in children and
young adults with incubation period of 15 50 days
which is spread through faecal-oral route. There is high
fever. Hepatitis B occurs at any age, has an incubation
period of 50 160 days, carrier state of upto 5 yrs, with
little fever. Mode of transmission is parenteral. Hepatitis
is accompanied by loss appetite, nausea, whitish stool,
but orange brown urine and jaundice., Personal
cleanliness, boiled water, properly heated, cooked/
cleaned food articles and control of flies are required in
period of epidemic. Vaccine is available.
Trachoma : It is an eye disease caused by Chlamydai

trachomatis (primitive procaryote) with an incubation
period of 5 12 days and characterised by granular
outgrowths on eye-lids, cornea and conjunctiva. It is
spread through direct or indirect contact with the patient.
Trachoma can lead to visual impairment. Antibiotics are
effective.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
Cholera (Vischuchika of Ayurveda) : It is a highly

communicable bacterial disease caused by Vibrio cholerae
( = V. cornmae) which is transmitted through food, water,
drinks (fomite transmission) and direct as vomits and
stools of patient contain innumerable pathogens. Floods,
fairs, wars, and other calamities often lead to epidemic
BIOLOGY [97]
of respiratory passage, cold, cough and mild fever in

beginning, leading to accumulation of mucus and
inspiratory whoop. Convulsions and pneumonia may
occur. Antibiotic erythromycin is effective. Vaccination
is available in form of DPT (diphtheria, pertussis, tetani)
for thrice inoculation to infants at monthly intervals.
Diphtheria : It is an acute infectious bacterial disease

(Corynebacterium diphtheria) of mostly children which
spreads through droplet method. Incubation period is
1/2-5 days. Portal of entry is upper respiratory tract
though implanation may occur anywhere. Exotoxin
produced by pathogen causes epithelial necrosis. In the
beginning there is mild fever, sore throat, mild headache
and lassitude. Later on semisolid material oozes out of
throat where a grey false tough membrane may develop
choking air passage. An offensive odour is produced.
Antitoxin given within 12 hrs. may give relief. Antibiotics
may also provide some relief. Membrane has to be
removed surgically. Schick test can indicate
susceptibility. Triple vaccine, DPT, is useful.
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outbreak. Incubation period is a few hours to five days.

There is acute diarrhoea with rice water stool (upto 40
per day), vomiting, muscular cramps, anuria and rapid
dehydration. Oral dehydration (oral intake of sweetened
and salted rice water or electrolyte solution), intravenous
dehydration and antibiotics (e.g, chloramphenicol) can
treat the disease. Chlorination (by chlorogen or tropical
chloride of lime/TCL) or ozone treatment of water,
boiled water, disinfected food are essential for
prevention. If untreated, the disease leads to collapse
marked by sunken eyes, hollow cheeks, bluish colour,
subnormal temperature, washermans hands and feet,
shallow quick respiration which may lead to death or
slow recovery.
Pneumonia : Pneumonia is bacterial (Diplococcus

pneumoniae) droplet transmitted disease of lungs with
an incubation period of 1 3 days and characterised
by accumulation of mucus/fluid in alveoli and
bronchioles so that respiration becomes difficult. If
untreated, pneumonia leads to death.
Plague/Bubonic Plague : It is essentially a bacterial

disease (Pasteurealla/Yersinea pestis) of rats which is
spread by rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis). The disease kills
the rats. Rat fleas leave the dead rats and attack humans.
Incubation period is 2 6 days. The disease is
characterised by high fever, lung infection and painful
enlargement of groins/armpits (bubo). It spreads in
epidemic form. If untreated (effective antibiotic is
tetracycline), the disease proves fatal. Anti-plague
vaccine, spray of insecticides, killing of rats, nose caps
and high cots are some preventive measures.
Typhoid : It is an acute infectious bacterial disease

(Salmonella typhi) which spreads through food, milk and
water contaminated with sewage, flies or faulty personal
hygiene. Incubation period is 1 3 weeks. The pathogen
causes lesions in the intestinal wall. There is high fever
in steps with perfuse pea soup diarrhoea which may
become haemorrhagic. A rose coloured rash may occur
on upper abdomen at the end of first week. Lately,
resistance typhoid has appeared. Vaccine provides
immunity for 1 3 years. Antibiotics are available.
Typhoid is diagnosed by Vidal test.
Tuberculosis/TB : It is a bacterial (Mycobacterium

tuberculosis) disease where the pathogen destroys the
infected tissue and releases toxin called tuberculin (test
called Mantoux reaction is tuberculin specific), Lung
tuberculosis is more common but other forms (intestinal,
bone, skin, meningitis also occur. Disease is spread by
direct contact and droplet method. Incubation period is
from a few days to several months. The symptoms
include evening-night fever, night sweating, loss of
weight, cough, difficult breathing and haemoptysis
(blood stained sputum) in case of pulmonary TB while
there is acute pain in other cases. Meningitis leads to
coma. Sputum, tuberculin, X-ray and gastric analysis
are carried out to diagnose disease. Antitiuberculosis
drugs are streptomycin, isoniazid. analysis are carried
out to diagnose disease. Antituberculosis drugs are
streptomycin, isoniazid, thiacetazone, PAS, ethambutol,
pyrazinamide, kanamycin, rifamycin, etc. Surgery is
required for removing infected lump. Vaccination with
BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) provides immunity.
Salmonellosis. It is caused by Salmonella enteridis and

S. typhimurium. The bacterium often contaminates meat
and other proteinanceous food articles. The pathogen
causes diarrohea, vomiting, nausea, headache and
paratyphoid fever. Antibiotics are helpful in curing. Oral
or intravenous rehydration is required.
Shigellosis. It is due to bacterium Shigella shigae. S,

flexneri and other species. The disease spreads through
contaminated food. Shigellosis is characterised by
frequent passage of stool with mucus, blood and
abdominal cramps. Effective antibiotics are available.
Oral or intravenous rehydration is required.
Tetanus/Lock Jaw (Dhanustamba) : It is an incurable

bacterial disease (Clostridium tetani) characterised by
painful muscular contraction of jaw. It causes mortality
in infants and mothers. The bacterium occurs in intestine
of horse and other animals from where they pass out as
spores (viability 60 yrs) in their excreta that mixes in
street dust and contaminates various articles including
rusted iron. Wounds and cuts, surgical instruments
coming in contact with road dust may cause entry of
bacteria into body. Incubation period is 3 28 days.
Injection of ATS within 24 hours of injury gives passive
immunity while tetanus toxoid gives active immunity.
Children are immunised at the age of 6 weeks, 10 weeks,
[98]
Pertussis/Whooping Cough : It is an infectious bacterial

disease (Bacillus Haemophilus pertussis) of children which
is characterised by attack of irritating cough
accompanied by inspiratory whoop/gasp. The disease
spreads through direct contact and droplet method.
Incubation period is 1015 days. There is inflammation
BIOLOGY
14 weeks, 11/2 yrs. and 4 yrs. 2 3 vaccinations are

given during pregnancy. Disease begins with headache,
chill, irritability followed by back pain, stiff neck and
spasm of jaw.Ultimately there is lock jaw, spasm of chest,
abdomen and spine leading to death due to heart failure,
suffocation and exhaustion.
Leprosy : Leprosy is contagious chronic
bacterial (Mycobacterium leprae) of warmer climates which
is contracted on prolonged closer contact through skin
lesions, nasal and throat discharge. Incubation period is
2 5 yrs. Infection begins with appearance of
hypopigmented skin patches with little sensation,
thickening of peripheral nerves, numbness in some body
parts, pain in some other, unexplained fever, finally
appearance of ulcers, nodules, lesions, scalyscabs,
followed by deformities in fingers, toes and wasting of
body parts. Surgery along with drugs (diaminodiphenyl
sulphone, alepol, chaulmoogra oil) can cure the disease.
However, the disease carries a social stigma.
Amoebiasis : The disease is characterised by

abdominal pain, alternating diving worms (e.g., male
fern oil, chenopodium oil) but solices have to be
removed surgically, diarrhoca and constipation, stool
with blood mucus and mucous membrane pieces. The
disease can be cured by drugs like metronidazole,
stremetine and emetine. It can be prevented through
sanitary disposal of human excreta, safe drinking water,
proper washing of vegetables and salad.
Giardiasis/Backpackers Disease : The disease is

characterised by mild diarrhoea involving passage of
pale bulky and greasy stool.
Filaria/Filariasis/Elephantiasis : The disease is known

in India since sixth century. Affected body parts can be
reconstructed through surgery. Drugs available are
hetrazan, MSE and diethylcarbamazine.
Taeniasis : Tapeworm infection can also occur in

vegetarians through improperly washed raw vegetables.
At times the embryos released from bladder worms pass
on to different body parts and form cystercerci. They
cause damage to different body parts, blindness (in eyes),
epilepsy-like fits (in brain). The prevention requires
proper washing of vegetables, checking pork for
brownish spots and proper cooking. Drugs are available
for removing worms (e.g., male fern oil, chenopodium
oil) but solices have to be removed surgically.removing
worms (e.g., male fern oil, chenopodium oil) but solices
have to be removed surgically.
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P.malariae. Quartan fever, incubation period 28 30 days,

persistent subchemical malaria. (iii) Plasmodium. Irregular,
daily or tertian, malignant, may develop into cerebral
malaria, P. falciprsum. Irregular, daily or tertian,
malignant, may develop into cerebral malaria, incubation
period 6 12 days, (iv) P. ovale. Benign tertian (S.
America, W. Africa), incubation period 1015 days.
VENEREAL DISEASE (V.D.)/SEXUALLY

TRANSMITTED DISEASE (S.T.D)
Gonorrhoea: It is a venereal bacterial disease (Neisseria

gonorrhoeae) which is spread through sexual contact,
common toilets and under clothes with incubation period
of 2 5 days. The bacterium lives in genital tubes,
produces pus-containing discharge, pain around
genitalia and burning sensation during urination. It may
lead to arthritis and eye infection in children of
gonorrhoea afflicted mothers. Disease can be cured
through use of appropriate antibiotics.
Syphills: It is highly infectious venereal bacterial disease

(Treponema pallidum) with incubation period of 4-5 weeks.
Transmission is through sexual contact and from mother
to children. In the first stage there is indurated infectious
and painless ulcer or chancre on the genitals and swelling
of local lymph glands. In the second stage, chancre is
healed and there are skin lesions, rashes, hair loss,
swollen joints and flu-like illness occasionally. In the
tertiary stage chronic ulcers (gummata) appear on palate,
nose and lower leg. There can be paralysis, brain
damage, blindness, heart trouble and aorotic
impairment. The disease is curable through appropriate
antibiotics.
PROTOZOAN DISEASES
Malaria: It is a communicable protozoan disease of

tropical and subtropical areas which is caused by species
of Plasmodium and spread through female Anopheles. The
disease was known to Charaka and Surata. It is
characterised by recurring rigors (consisting of chill,
shivering, rise in temperature upto 106F, perspiration
and gradual fall of temperature), anaemia, toxaemia and
splenomegaly (enlarged spleen). (i) P.vixax. Benign
tertiary fever, incubation period 1015 days. (ii)
COMMON HUMAN
NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASE
They are diseases which develop in persons suffering

from them. They are not transmitted to others.
Diabetes/Diabetes Mellitus
Cardio-Vascular Disease:
1. Arteriosclerosis: It is a degenerative disorder occuring

in elderly persons where by the arteries lose their
elasticity due to hardening and thickening of fibrous
tissue.
2. Atherosclerosis: It is narrowing of arteries and arterioles
due to insolubilisation and deposition of cholesterol
inside and over the intima.
3. Phypertension: Prehypertension is in American
classification for cases where a person's blood pressure
is elevated above normal but not to the level co to he
hypertension (high blood pressure).
BIOLOGY [99]
bacterial infection that produces an antibody called

rheumatoid factor. It results in inflamed synovial
membranes followed by development of hard tissue over
the cartilage causing stiffening of joint and painful
movements. Bones may fuse. Rheumatoid arthritis is
more common in women between 2040 yrs. In certain
cases subcutaneous nodules and painful swelling of
smaller joints of hands and feet occur.
4. Hypotension: Occurs when blood pressure during and

after each heartbeat is much lower then usual.
2. Osteo-Arthritis It is a degenerative arthritis where

secretion of synovial fluid decreases and bone heads
develop excrescences that limit movements, causing joint
fixation or ankylosis. Knuckles become swollen and
knobby with bony outgrowths or Herdens nodes on
the sides of phalangial joints. Articular cartilage and
bone undergo slow degeneration.
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5. Rheumatic Heart Diseases (R.H.D.): Rheumatic fever

(due to streptococcal infection, also cox shake B-4 virus)
produces toxins that causes inflammation of different
body parts including joints and endocardium. Repeated
fever causes damage to heart walls, heart muscles,
scarring and malfunctioning of heart valves, especially
atrio-ventricular ones. Heart functioning becomes
irregular with age. It may give rise to low blood pressure
and heart attack.
6. Hypertensive Heart Disease: Continuous hypertension

leads to overwork by heart causing damage to its
muscles and valves. It may lead to heart attack. Other
complications are chronic nephritis (damage to renal
arteries), blindness (damage to arteries supplying eyes)
and brain stroke resulting in paralysis, loss of speech
and other functions.
7. Coronary Heart Disease: Blood flow to heart walls may

be reduced due to hardening and narrowing of coronary
arteries and appearance of blood clot in a coronary artery
that blocks blood supply to a part of heart. Coronary
thrombosis is occlusion of a coronary vessel by a clot of
blood, stoppage of blood supply to a part of heart wall
leading to heart attack. Myocardial infarction is necrosis
or death or a part of myocardium/middle layer of heart
wall caused by reduced blood supply. Angina pectoris
is a severe temporary cardiac pain radiating to arms
due to myocardial ischaemia/deficient oxygen due to
reduced blood supply at the time of physical activity
causing heart to beat faster.
8. Heart Attack: Failure in the working of heart is heart
attack. It may be caused by valvular obstruction or
degeneration, degeneration of cardiac muscles, blood
insufficiency or myocardial infarction. Symptoms of
impending heart attack are (i) Irregular pulse. (ii) Pain
in chest in the area of heart or chest pain moving to
arms. (iii) Murmur. (iv) Constant low/high blood
pressure. (v) Internal haemorrhage. (vi) Nausea,
vomiting after exercise. The risk factors include (a)
Continuing stress conditions. (b) Diabetes. (c) Obesity.
(d) Raised cholesterol. (e) Smoking, (f) Sedentary habit.
(g) Drug/alcohol addiction.
Stroke (Cerebro-Vascular Accident or CVA): It is brain

damage due to stoppage of blood to a part caused by (i)
Clot formation in an artery. (ii) Rupturing of an artery
due to weakening of its wall and hypertension. (iii)
Sustained contraction or spasm of an artery. The affected
brain part does not receive oxygen and nutrients resulting
in damage to nerve cells and their defunctioning. Such
a stroke leads to paralysis, loss of consciousness, loss of
speech, hearing or memory and even death.
Arthritis: It is a disease/syndrome characterised by pain

in joints.
1. Rheumatoid ArthritisIt is believed to be caused by
[100] BIOLOGY
Gout: It is a diet related disease that is produced due

to deposition of sodium biurate (uric acid) in superficial
layer of articular cartilage, especially metatarsophalanged joint of great toe, to a lesser extent fingers
and knee. There is a sudden acute pain, especially in
great toe accompanied by swelling, chill, fever, headache
and tachycardia.
Cancer : Cancer is a group of diseases characterised by

uncontrolled proliferation of cells and ability of
proliferated cells to invade other tissues/parts of body.
Neoplasm is a new abnormal tissue that is capable of
continued growth, formation of tumor, crowding and
disrupting of normal cells. Tumors are of two types,
benign and malignant. Benign tumor is a larger localised
mass of abnormal tissue which presses other tissues but
does not infiltrate adjacent tissues because it is
encapsulated in connective tissue. Malignant tumor is a
large mass of abnormal tissue which is not encapsulated,
is capable of invading adjacent tissue and distant sites
Metastasis is spread of cancerous cells from one part of
the body to other parts through blood, lymph or
formation of secondaries from a malignant tumor.
Cancers are of three types:
1. CarcinomaIt is cancer of epithelial/epidermal tissues

and their derivatives like skin, mucous membrane,
glands, lungs, breast, pancreas, stomach, etc.
2. Sarcoma It is cancer of primitive mesodermal tissue
like connective tissue, bone, muscle, lymph nodes.
3. Leukemia It is malignancy where there is unwanted

and uncontrolled increase in number of white blood
corpuscles (200,000 - 1000,000/mm3) and immature or
myeloid stem cells. In common type of leukemia, the
white blood corpuscles infiltrate bone marrow, spleen,
liver, lymph nodes and other organs causing damage
and increasing their size. In myelocytic leukemia (9th
and 22nd chromosomes bring their jumping genes
together) erythroblastic tissue of bone marrow
degenerates. There is bleeding at different places. Tonsils
and cervical glands enlarge. The most common cancers
in India are mouth-throat cancer in men and uterinecervical cancer in women.
essential for metabolism of homogentisic acid/alkapton

formed from phenylalanine and tyrosine. As a result
alkapton accumulates in body producing arthritis and
other damages. Alkapton is also excreted in urine.
Exposed urine appears brownish-black.
INCOMPATIBLE GENES
Rh-Factor Incompatibility.
ABO Incompatibility: O groups mothers do not possess

antigen A or B groups fetus in O-groups mother invites
antibodies of the mother causing partial destruction of
erythrocytes and production of bilirubin. The baby,
therefore, suffers from mild anaemia and jaundice.
Similarly B-group fetus in A-group mother or A-group
fetus in B-group mother is attacked by antibodies of
mother. ABO hemolytic disease of new born is quite
common and less severe as compared to Rhincompatibility. It occurs even in first baby.
Phenylketonuria (P.K.U.): Homozygous recessive alleles

cause absence of phenylalanine hydroxylase in liver. The
enzyme is essential to change phenylalanine to tyrosine.
There is increased phenylalanine in blood
(hyperphenylalaninemia) and urine. By products of
phenylalanine also occur in excess. They include
phenylpyruvate, phenylacetate, phenyllactate,
phenylacetylglutamine. There is severe mental
retardation, hypopigmentation of skin and hair, eczema,
mousy odour of skin, hair and urine.
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RECESSIVE DEFECTIVE
AUTOSOMAL GENES
Sickle Cell Anaemia: It is due to a recessive (now

considered codominant) autosomal gene, HbS, HbS, HbS
individuals die during infancy but HbA. HbS individuals
survive. The allele has survival value because
heterozygotes have an advantage over normal
individuals in malaria infested areas because they resist
damage from Plasmodium falciparum (30% population
carries the allele in Nigeria). HbS produces haemoglobin
with ?-chain having valine amino acid instead of
glutamic acid at 6th position (Ingram, 1958).
Heterozygotes are normal individual with 55 60%
Hb A and 35 40% HbS. They develop sickle cell crisis
under conditions of oxygen distress like high altitude
and strenuous exercise. At this time 6 valine develops
hydrophobic bonds with complementary site of an
adjacent strand. Other interactions amongst molecules
also occur causing development of helical polymer of
about 14 strands. It changes membrane permeability and
development of sickle cell form. Sickle cells are rigid
and obstruct capillary blood flow. It results in further
deoxygenation and sickling. A mild form of sickle cell
anaemia occurs in Singhalese.
Thalassemia: It is a group of genetic disorders which
result from defective synthesis of subunits of
haemoglobin. In thalassemia out of the four genes
present on 11th chromosomes, absence of two genes
produces microcytic and slight hypochromic
erythrocytes without significant anaemia but deficiency
of third genes develops microcytic hypochromic
erythroctyes with marked hemolytic tendency. Death
occurs in foetus in case of deficiency of all the genes. In
thalassemia the two genes present on 16th chromosomes
are defective. In thalassemia minor (one defective gene)
the erythrocytes are microcytic with higher RBC count
but 15% lower haemoglobin than normal. In thalassemia
major both the genes are defective. Disease manifestation
begins at the age of 4 6 months .
Alkaptonuria: Homozygous recessives do not produce
liver enzyme homogentisate/alkapton oxidase which is
Albinism: Enzyme tyrosinase (also inhibited by excess

phenylalanine) is absent due to homozygous recessive
autosomal alleles. Melanin or pigment formation from
dihydrophe-nylalanine is stopped. There is lack of
pigment in skin, hair and iris. Eye disorders may occur
due to damage from bright light.
Tay Sachs Disease/Infantile Amourotic Idiocy:

Recessive autosomal disorder due to deficiency of
enzyme, D-N-acetylhexosaminidase. It cause
accumulation of lipid GM2 or Tay-Sachs ganglioside
that damages brain and spinal cord resulting in mental
retardation and paralysis. Death of the child occurs at
the age of 3 4 yrs.
Muscular Dystrophy: Three types of muscular

dystrophy occurs due to recessive autosomal alleleslimb-girdle, distal and congenital.
DOMINANT DEFECTIVE
AUTOSOMAL GENES
Huntingtons Disease/Huntingtons Chorea: It is a

dominant autosomal disorder due to an allele on short
arm of chromosome 4. The characteristics of disease may
start at the age of 1540 yrs but can also occurs in still
older persons. There is atrophy of parts of brain resulting
in respiratory irregularity, faulty articulation of speech
irregular arrhythmic movements of limbs, a peculiar
dancing gait and bizzare grimacing.
Polydactyly: Having more than five digits.
Achondroplasia: It is an inherited dominant autosomal

disorder where the long bones do not grow resulting in
dwarfism. Intellect is not affected.
Muscular Dystrophy: Muscular dystrophy due to

dominant autosomal gene, can be of four types
myotonic, facioscapulohumoral, caculopharyngeal and
scapuloperoneal.
SEX LINKED DISORDERS
G 6 PD Deficiency Syndrome: The sex linked recessive

trait (present on X-chromoscomes), homozygous in
BIOLOGY [101]
Barr Body: It is a darkly stained heterochromatic Xchromosome which appears below nuclear envelope
when cells are stained with orcein dye. It is absent in
human males, one in normal human females, one in
males with Klinefelters syndrome, two in super-females.
Y-Spot : Quinacrine stained nucleus shows a bright

flourescent band on the long arm of Y-chromosome. A
single spot indicates normal male, two super males.
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females, single in males, causes deficiency of glucose 6phosphate dehydrogenase which is essential for carrying
out hexose monophosphate shunt. The shunt is required
to produce reduced glutathione for protecting
sulphahydryl groups of haemoglobin and erythrocyte
membrane during oxidant stress. In the absence of G 6
PD haemoglobin crystallises and erythrocyte membrane
ruptures. Beans (hence favism) and certain drugs induce
hemolysis in G 6 PD deficient persons e.g., Vitamin K,
chloramphenicol and quinine (no effect in certain cases),
p-aminosilicylic acid, phenacetin, actanilid, sulphonamide, sulphanilamide, chloroquine, pamaquine, etc.
Hemophilia (Bleeders Disease, John Otto, 1803): It is a

sex linked recessive trait which is known as bleeders
disease because the exposed blood does not clot due to
the absence of plasma thromboplastin (haemophilia C/
christmas disease) or antihaemophilia globulin
(haemophilia A). The defect has been inherited in the
family of British Crown through Queen Victoria.
Red-Green Colour Blindness: It is a sex-linked recessive

trait which is more common in males due to presence of
only one X-chromosome. In the syndrome the sufferers
are unable to distinguish between red and green colour.
Congenital Night Blindness: The sex-linked recessive

trait causes reduced development of visual purple and
hence night blindness. Night blindness caused by
vitamin A deficiency is acquired night blindness.
Muscular Dystrophy: Sex linked muscular dystrophies

are of two types : (i) Duchennes Pseudohypertrophic
muscular dystrophy which onsets at the age of 5 with
progressive weakness of girdle muscles, inability to walk
after the age of 12, cardiomyopathy, mental impairment,
respiratory failure in 2nd or 3rd decade. (ii) Beckers/
Benign pseudohypertrophic muscular dystrophy is milder
form in which symptoms appear late and are less severe.
Respiratory failure occurs after 4th decade.
SEX CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITIES
Turners Syndrome (Turner et al, 1938): There is single

X-chromosome (44 + XO) due to fusion of (22 + O) ovum
with gymnosperm (22 + X). The defect is also called
female Turners syndrome. Male Turners syndrome
does not survive (44 + Y). The individuals are female
with limited secondary sex characters, rudimentary
ovaries, lack of menstrual cycle, undeveloped breasts,
short stature, webbed skin over neck, low set ears, shield
like chest, abnormal jaw formation, subnormal
intelligence.
Klinefelters Syndrome (Klinefelter, 1942): Sex

complement is XXY. It is produced by fusion of normal
androsperm (22 + Y) with egg having 2 ~ (22 + XX) or
normal egg (22 + X) with sperm having both
chromosomes (22 + XY). The individuals are males with
undeveloped testes, feminine secondary sex characters
(gynecomastia) like very few body hair and enlarged
breasts, small prostate gland, long limbs with occasional
mental retardation.
Super females: The sex complement is XXX, XXXX or

XXXXX. They are mentally retarded and commonly
infertile.
Supermales: The sex complement is XYY (Hauschika,

1962). There is overproduction of testosterone and defects
produced thereof. The super males have no superior
traits. They may be taller with a criminal bend of mind.
AUTOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
Downs Syndrome/Mongolian Idiocy/Mongolism

(L.Down 1866, cytological basis J. Lejeune, 1959): It is
due to trisomy of 21st chromosome (47, + 21st). The
syndrome in characterised by rounded face, broad forehead, flattened nasal bridge, open mouth, projecting
lower lip, protruding tongue, skin fold at eye corners,
short neck, small flat hands with stubby little fingers,
loose jointedness at ankles, mental retardation, cardiac
deformities, under developed gonads and genitals. Risk
of Downs syndrome is higher in parents below 18,
fathers above 49 and mothers around 45.
Edwards Syndrome: Trisomy of 18th chromosome.

Malformed ears, receding chin and defective nervous system.
PatauSyndrome: Trisomy of 13th chromosome. A

chromosomal abnormality in which a patient has an
additional chromosome 1. It disrupts normal course of
development, camsing heart and kidney defects.
[102] BIOLOGY
Amniocentesis : Taking out of small quantity of amniotic

fluid and testing biochemicals as well as cells contained
in it. Cells of both the mother and foetus are present.
Amniocentesis is important for determination of sex,
genetic abnormality and physiological defects.
MENTAL HEALTH
Mental Health is a state of development of individuals

personality and emotional attitude towards family members,
society, social institutions, work, leisure, stresses and strains,
and balanced satisfaction of potential conflicting instinctive
drives. A mentally sick person has (a) Inability to
concentrate. (b) Absence of sound sleep. (c) Worrisome
behaviour. (d) Short temper. (e) Unhappiness. (f) Mood
fluctuations from depression to elation (g) Tendency to get
upset by a change in routine. (h) Apprehensive nature (i)
Bitterness. (j) Dislike of others. (i) Considering others to be
electrical discharge in a pat of brain often leading to

warning cry, fits of convulsions like jerking, stiffness,
tongue biting, sensory changes, loss of bladder and
bowel control, ending in loss of consciousness, falling
down and sleep.
Parkinsons Disease is a sporadic disorder of middle

and late life which is characterised by stooped posture
stiffness and slowness of movements, fixity of facial
expression and rhythmic tremor of limbs which subsides
on relaxation of actively willed movement. The disease
is caused by development of melanin containing nerve
cell aggregates in brain stem and Lewy bodies in the
cells.
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wrong. (k) Children getting on nerves. (m) Feeling of pains/

aches in different body parts without any actual ones.
Mental illness is a state of mind in which a person is not
able to think, behave and interact with others normally.
Onset of mental illness is exhibited by (i) Changes in
behaviour and personality due to abnormality of thoughts,
memory, feelings, perception and judgement. (ii) Difficulty
in adjustment with family members and colleagues. (iii)
Inability to carry on daily business, with signs of tension,
trembling, depression, aggressive behaviour, fear, phobia,
etc. There is thus social and vocational dysfunctioning.
Types of Mental Illness
1. Pyschosis/Insanity/Madness: It is a serious type of

mental illness in which the patient loses touch with
reality. Psychosis may be caused by disease of central
nervous system. The patient is not aware of illness and
refuses to take the treatment.
2. Mental Disabilities: The disabilities are caused by

physical, physiological and psychological defects like
(i) Injury (ii) Infection from worms, tuberculosis, measles,
leprosy or encephalitis. (iii) Nutritional deficiency during
development of infant. (iv) Radiation damage during
neural development. (v) Toxicity of lead and mercury.
(vi) Degeneration due to ageing. (vii) Tumors
or neoplasms. (viii) Poor availability of oxygen, glucose/
blood supply. (ix) Excessive intake of alcohol. (x)
Excessive use of psychotropic drugs.
Epilepsy is a mental illness charactersied by abnormal
3. Neurosis/Psychoneurosis: It is a less severe form of

mental illness where the patient is aware of the problem
and tries to seek help. There is abnormal anxiety, fear,
sadness, vague aches and pains. Neurosis develops due
to stress and anxiety in patients environment. The
patient shows excessive/prolonged reaction to a given
stress, e.g., anxiety neurosis, hysteria, obsessional
neurosis, reactive depression.
Schizophrenia is a type of mental illness which is

charactersied by disorganised personality, shallowness
of emotional life, auditory hallucinations, delusions,
illogical thinking, sense of being influenced by others
and feeling of being controlled by outside forces.
Schizophrenia can be caused by excessive dopamine
production, alternations in neuropeptides, increased
ventricular brain ratios and decreased frontal lobe
activity.
UNIVERSAL/NATIONAL IMMUNISATION PROGRAMME
With the success of small pox eradication programme, an impetus has been given to eradication of six preventable diseases
through universal immunisation programme. The six diseases are diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), polio tetanus, tuberculosis
and measles. The programme was launched by W.H.O. in May, 1974 and is expected to reach every child by 2000 A.D. In India, it was
launched in 1985 with reaching every child in 1992. India has fixed the year 2000 A.D. as the year of health for all. Vaccination schedule
against six short-listed diseases and two additional ones (cholera and typhoid) followed in India.
Age
Vaccination
Dose
Birth to 12 months 1. D.P.T. (triple vaccine, against diphtheria,
Three doses (commonly oral) at intervals of 4 6 weeks.
whooping cough/pertussis and tetanus)
2. Polio (Sabins oral, previously Salks injectable)
Three doses at intervals of 4 6 weeks.
3. B.C.G. (against T.B. Bacillus Calmette Guirin)
Intradermal, one
vaccine
9 15 months
Measles vaccine (M.M.R. or Measles, Mumps
One dose.
and Rubella)
8 24 months
1. D.P.T.
Booster dose
2. Polio (oral)
Booster dose
3. Cholera vaccine (can be repeated
One
every year before summer)
5 6 years
1. D.T. (Bivalent vaccine against
Booster dose
diphtheria and tetanus)
2. TAB (vaccine against Salmonella typhi,
Two doses at intervals of 1 2 months
S. paratyphi A and S. paratyphi B) or Typhoid
Paratyphoid vaccine
10 years
1. Tetanus
Booster dose
2. TAB (Typhoid)
Booster dose
16 years
1. Tetanus
Booster dose
2. TAB
Booster dose
Mothers (Pregnant Tetanus
Non-Immunised. Two doses, first between 16-24 weeks
and
Women)
second between 24 32 weeks
Immunished Previously. One dose four weeks before the
expected date of delivery.
BIOLOGY [103]
Treatment of Mental illness

Drugs/Psychochemotherapy : A number of drugs are
available to treat different types of mental illness, e,.g.
sedatives for promoting sleep, transquillisers for reducing
anxiety (e.g. lithium), antidepressants (e.g., trimipramine,
trazodone), antipsychotic (e.g. chloropromazine,
thioridazone, thiothixene, loxapine, clozapine, supiride)
Nicotine is an addictive toxic chemical. In small quantity

nicotine relaxes muscles, improves nerve transmission and
releases adrenaline that enhances heart beat, contracts
peripheral blood vessels and increases blood pressure.
Regular use leads to coronary diseases, coronary artery
occlusion and heart failure. Tobacco leads to male infertility.
In pregnant women, nicotine causes abnormal foetus
development. Tobacco addiction often leads to gastric and
duodenal ulcers. Heat, irritants and carcinogens (cyclic
hydrocarbons, heavy metals and others) cause cancers in
various parts. Mouth cancer occurs in tobacco chewers and
reverse smokers. Lip cancer is more common in pipe and
cigar smokers. Tongue, pharynx, larynx and lung cancers
occur due to smoking, 95% of lung cancers are related to
heavy smoking.
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Shock Treatment/Electropathy/ECT (Electroconvulsive

Therapy): The treatment is useful in curing acute depression,
acute mania, stupor (Confusional state) and some types of
schizophrenia. The treatment given by expert psychiatrists
involves placing of electrodes on the head of the
patient and providing an electric stock for a fraction of
second by passing a current of definite voltage. It produces
convulsion.
Smoking and chewing tobacco is harmful because of

heat, irritation to lips, throat, respiratory tract and ingredients
of tobacco or its smoke.
Psychotherapy: It is treatment involving psychological

techniques like psychonalysis, discussion, explanation,
reassurance, etc. Psychoanalysis (founded by Freud) is a
method of reviving past and forgotten emotional experiences
of a person so as to find out the reason for mental illusion
and helping the patient to readjust attitude to causal
experiences. Pychotherapy also allows the patient to talk
about ones troubles, reassuring suggesting and helping the
patient to find out the solution or readjustment.
SocialTherapy/Rehabilitation: Mental health is
governed to a large extent by adjustment of an
individual in the community and the attitude of the
individual towards the community. Sympathy shown by
family members and community is extremely useful to an
individual to overcome misery and adjust to stresses and
strains.
Alcoholism/Alcohol Addiction
Alcoholic beverages are of two types low alcohol

content (e.g., Bear, Wine, Toddy) and high alcohol content
(e.g. Vodka, Brandy, Whisky, Gin, Rum, Arrack). Major
effects are:
1. Gastric Disorders: Alcoholism causes gastric ulcers and
inflaminationa of gastric mucosa/gastritis.
2. Depressant: Alcohol is general depressant and reduces
efficiency of all organs.
3. Arterial Dilation: The arteries undergo dilation, become

rigid and brittle.
4. Energy: Alcohol is oxidised to release energy which is

dissipated from skin making the face flushy. Alcohol
addiction reduces level of blood sugar so that nutrient
supply to different tissues becomes deficient. Alcoholism
leads to brain damage. Amnesia or loss of memory is
quite common.
Acrophophobia: Fear of height/altitude.
Algophobia: Fear of pain.
Claustrophobia: fear of enclosed space.
Lyssophobia: Fear of becoming insane.
Mysophobia: Fear of dirt and contamination.
Drug Addition/Drug Dependence
Nyctophobia: Fear of darkness.
Xenophobia: Fear of strangers.
In common usage a drug is a chemical formulation

used to prevent/cure a disease or enhance physical/mental
welfare. Addictive drugs are usually psychoactive or
influencing brain. Psychotropic/neurological drugs are those
drugs which influence brain altering behaviour,
consciousness and power of perception hence mood
altering drugs. Depending upon the effect on CNS,
psychotropic drugs are of two types, narcotics and stimulants.
ADDICTION
Addiction is the state of having yielded to and becoming

physically, physiologically or psychologically dependent on
a habit, practice, drug, tobacco, alcohol and other beverage.
Medically addiction is of three typestobacco, alcohol and
drugs.
Tobacco Addiction
The use of tobacco originated in America where Red

Indians used to smoke it. It spread to other parts of the
world in 1600s. Tobacco is smoked as cigarette, cigar, biri,
pipe, hookah (hubble-bubble), chewed in betel or lime,
flavoured pan masala, etc.
[104] BIOLOGY
Narcotics Drugs that depress CNS, e.g. opiates,

sedatives, transquillisers.
Stimulants Drugs that stimulate/activate CNS e.g.

amphetamine, caffeine, cocaine.
Types of Drugs
Psychotropic drugs are Tranquillizers differentiated into

four types sedatives and transquillizers, opiate narcotics,
stimulants and hallucinogens.
1. Sedatives: Sedatives and Tranquillizers depress brain

activity to give feeling of calmness and relaxation. The
drugs or formulations overcome mental irritability and
excitement, assuage pain, and lower activity causing
drowsiness or sleep, e.g barbiturates. Barbituarate are
derivatives of barbituric acid, a chemical formed from
urea and melonic acid.
Habucinogens are formulations which change ones

perceptions, thoughts and feelings without any true
sensory stimulus.
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2. Tranquillizers: They are formulations that reduce

anxiety, mental tension and fatigue without inducing
sleep e.g. benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide, methyl
pentynol, meprobamate, hydroxyzine, etc. Some drugs
have both sedative and transquillizer properties,
tranquillo-sedatives, e.g diazepam (Valium).
of Cocoa plant. The drug is bitter, white, crystalline

powder. It is inhaled or injected. Cocaine gives a feeling
of pleasure followed by hallucination. There is increase
in heart beat, blood pressure and body temperature.
Plasma half life is about I hour.
3. Opiate/Opioid Narcoties: Opium is dried latex of unripe

capsules of Poppy plant. It is taken orally or smoke.
Opium has narcotic, analgesic, astringent and sedative
effect. It contains a number of alkaloids like morphine,
codeine, papaverine, thebaine, etc. Semisynthetic drugs
produced from morphine and thebaine are
hydromosphone, oxycodone, heroin or diacetyl
morphine. Synthetic opiods are methadone, meperidine,
propoxyphene, diphenoxylate, pentazocine, etc. Opiates
are widely used to numb pain, relieve spasm, reduce
anxiety/tension and cause drownsiness. They are,
however, addictive.
4. Stimulants: These drugs provide excitement and make

a person more active and wakeful. Addiction leads to
psychological dependence. Physical or physiological
dependence is absent. Withdrawal leads to
restlessness, depression and anxiety.
Caffeine is present in small quantities in Tea, CocoaCola and other nonalcoholic beverages. In small
quantities as contained in these drinks. caffeine brings
about a refreshing change. It is diuretic.
Amphetamines in common uses are methedrine,

dexedrine and benzedrine. The drugs are popularly
called pep pills. They are used by some persons to
work continously for hours or to reduce weight.
Cocaine is a local anaesthetic, vasoconstrictor and

powerful stimulant which is obtained from the leaves
Mescaline is a water soluble white powdery alkaloid,

which is obtained from the crowns of cactus Lophophora.
The alkaloid is similar to LSD and is highly
hallucinogenic. It is also used in experimental psychology
to produce hallucinations.
Psilocybine/Psilocybin is a hallucinogenic drug

obtained from mushroom Psilocybe mexicana. The
mushroom contains both psychotropic and
hallucinogenic drugs. It has been in use by locals in
Mexico during various ceremonies.
LSD or D-Lysergic acid diethylamide is crystalline

alkaloid derived from ergot, an extract got from fruiting
body of fungus Claviceps purpurea. There is marked
hallucinaion, ecstasy and emotional outburst. There are
mood changes, visual illusions, conflicting often bizarre
preceptual changes, LSD leads to CNS damage,
noncoordination of body parts, chromosomal aberrations
and psychosis.
PCP/Phencyclidine is a veterinary medicine used in

immobilising large animals (dissociative anaesthetic).
PCP is available to addicts as angel dust or white
granular powder.
Hemp/Cannabis produces four types of hallucinogenic

products. (i) Bhang- It is fresh/dried leaves and
flowering shoots of both male and female plants used
as ingredient of a drink or other food article (ii) Ganja/
Marijuana- Dried unfertilised female inflorescence.
Usually smoked in cigarettes. (iii) Charas/Hashish- Resin
collected from flowering tops of generally female plants.
Smoked (iv) Hash Oil- A lipid soluble plant extract.
Highly concentrated.
BIOLOGY [105]
CHRONICLE
APPLICATIONS OF BIOLOGY IAS ACADEMY
CT Scanning (Computerised/Computed Tomographic

Scanning): It is based on X-rays. X-ray imaging is carried
out to detect diseases of lung, heart, fractures, joints,
health of hollow organs, including kidneys through
formulations having barium and iodine. However, direct
X-rays cannot differentiate soft tissues. Images of all the
structures in the path of X-rays are also superposed.
CT/scanning was developed by Godfrey Hansfield in
1972 (Nobel-Prize 1979). It is a noninvasive technique
with low level of radiation. CT scanning employs more
than 30,000, 2 4 mm beams of X-rays falling in
different horizontal plains. Computer reconstructs the
images. The technique is useful in diagnosis of disorders
in any part of the body like abdomen, chest, spinal cord
and brain, internal haemorrhages, tumours, abscesses,
disc-diseases, etc. It determines the method useful for
treating disorders and for assessing result of treatment.
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DIAGNOSTIC INSTRUMENTS
ECG (Electrocardiograph: It is an instrument used to

record myo-electrical changes during cardiac cycle.
Electrocardiogram is the recording to electrical potential
produced during cardiac cycle from initiation and spread
of cardiac impulse from SA node to AV node, AV bundle
and Purkinje fibres. Abnormality in any part of the wave
indicates pathological disorder of the region like
myocardial damage, angina pectoris, valvular defects,
coronary thrombosis, arterial flutter, sino-arterial block
and ventricular fibrillation. Ecocardiography is
sonographic (ultrasound) imaging of heart, great vessels,
heart valves, heart walls, etc to know any abnormality.
It is also used to record blood flow velocity and blood
turbulance.
EEG
(Electro-encephalograph):
It
is
an
electricity operated instrument having electron tubes,
transistors, microprocessors, microcomputers and
digitals that is used in recording frequency, amplitude
and morphology of electric activity from different parts
of the brain. Electro-encephalogram is the recording of
electrical potentials originating from different parts of
the brain in the form of waves. EEG can diagnose
epilepsy, brain tumours, abscesses, subdural haematoma,
brain injury, drug induced hypothermic necrotic and
other types of electrocerebral silent areas, sleep
disorders, metabolic and drug effects on brain.
Squid: Super-conducting quantum interference device,

e.g., magnetoencephalograph.
MET: It is magnetoencephalographi technique which

employs SQUID for picking up weak magnetic waves
emanating from brain. The technique gives information
about the health of various parts of the brain.
Autoanalyser: It is a fully automatic, computerised

instrument which can analyse qualitatively and
quantitatively various biochemicals present in body
fluids like urea, uric acid, ketones, chloesterol, glucose,
proteins, enzymes, etc.
IMAGING INSTRUMENTS
Tomography: It is a technique of development of threedimensional impression of an internal area through

imaging of different layers. Tomography can indicate
cysts, tubercular foci, calculi, cancer, etc.
[106] BIOLOGY
CAT Scan: Computerised axial tomography (CAT) is

specialised radiological technique (X-rays) for study of
various parts inside the skull and location of any
pathological condition. Now replaced by CT scanning.
PET: Positron emission tomography or positron

tomographic scanning is an investigative technique in
which positron (positive electron) emitting radio-isotopes
(generated by cyclotron) of common elements like 11C,
13
N, 15O and 18F are incorporated in biochemicals like
glucose, ammonia, amino acids, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
etc. The biochemicals are injected or inhaled in small
amounts and traced in the body. When provided to brain
and monitored by PET comeras, computer indicates
where neurons are damaged and are not metabolising
normally. Thus PET is useful in measuring (i) Metabolic
rates. (ii) Regional blood volume and blood flow. (iii)
Areas of abnormalities like disease and defects. (iv)
Identification of specific centres in brain like colour
processing in visual cortex of humans.
MRI/Magnetic Resonance Imaging: NMR is a

noninvasive technique which can map internal tissues,
highlight pathological changes and study tissue
metabolism. A strong external magnetic field is created
by large water cooled resistive magnets/super
conductive magnets using liquid helium. Patient lies in
the centre of magnetic ring. The external magnetic field
generates magnetic resonance in nuclei of hydrogen
atoms. Nuclei of carbon, phosphorus and sodium can
also produce magnetic resonance. The signals are picked
up by receiver coil, changed to digital form, and supplied
to computer for image formation. Spectroscopy is used
for study of tissue metabolism. NMR is superior to CT

and PET because (i) No ionising radiations are employed
(ii) Images can be obtained from any plane instead of
only cross-sectional area. (iii) Study of tissue metabolism
(PET gives information of regional metabolic rate, CT
only static anatomic images).
Sonography/Ultrasound Imaging: Ultrasound (beyond
human hearing or above 20,000 Hz) is produced by
passing electricity through crystals of lead zirconate/
piezoelectric effect. Ultrasound is impinged on body
parts. It is partly reflected as it passes from one layer to
another. The reflected waves are picked up by lead
zirconate crystals and changed to electrical signals which
can be observed by oscilloscope screen/film. Sonography
is also called echography. The visual record is known
as echogram/sonogram. Ultrasound imaging is useful
in studying the health of internal organs and diagnosing
the disorder (e.g., kidney stones, gall bladder stones,
intestinal obstruction fallopian tubes, uterus, etc.). It is
often employed in determination of age, health and sex
of the foetus.
Angiography/Arteriography: A radio-opaque contrast

medium or fluoroscopic chemical is passed through
various parts of the heart to study health of walls, valves,
atria, ventricles, coronary arteries, etc. For study of
coronary arteries (coronary angiongraphy), the chemical
is injected directly into each coronary artery orifice and
filming the progress of chemical 30 60 times per
second.
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pressure for 30 40 sec for two or more times till the

blockage is removed. The same is confirmed through
coronary angiography.
Implants: Implants are devices fitted in various body

parts to overcome disorders, e.g., heart valves, joints,
vascular grafts, cosmetic surgery. The material used in
implants is nontoxic and biocompatible. Two common
types of implants are artificial heart valves and vascular
grafts.
Artificial Heart Valves: Heart valves (semilunar,

bicuspid, tricuspid) are working round the clock, some
1,04,000 operations a day and 1000 million cycles in 26
: 5 years. They may becomes damaged due to wear and
tear, rheumatic fever and other diseases. Such valves
require replacement with artificial ones as defective heart
valves can lead to heart failure. Artificial valves are of
two types :
THERAPEUTIC INSTRUMENTS
Pace-maker: It is an electric device first developed by

Chardack (1960) which is connected to heart for covering
up any deficiency of myogenic functioning so as to make
it beat normally (72-80/min, say from 30-40/min). A
pace-maker has a pulse generator having long lasting
lithium halide cells and a biocompatible plastic covered
fine metallic string for functioning as electrode. In the
common type, the pulse generator is placed below skin
under right clavicle while the string/cable is passed via
superior vena cava, right atrium and allowed to rest
against the tip of right ventricle.
Laser: Laser or light amplified by stimulated emission

of radiation is a beam of very high energy particles.
Depending upon the source of generation, it is called
argon laser, carbon dioxide laser or neon laser. Medical
lasers are used in place of several types of operations
because they can be targeted on any tissue/organ inside
the body, e.g., removal of opacity of eye lens, gall bladder
stones (broken into powder form), treatment of tumours
(e.g, retinal, brain, cancerous), kidney stones, etc. Laser
beam focussed on a tissue can selectively burn out
cancerous cells, or break stones into fine powdery mass.
Angioplasty: It is a technique of opening a blocked
coronary artery through balloning. The process is called
percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty
(PTCA). Coronary artery-bypass surgery (CAS) is
resorted to when the main left coronary artery or threevessel coronary artery is blocked. A deflated dilation
catheter and a guiding catheter are advanced over a
guide wire into the blocked segment of coronary artery.
The balloon is inflated with several atmospheres of
(i) Mechanical Valves. They are made of special

biocompatible plastics, metal alloys and ceramics,
having ball/disc occulder. Mechanical valves
develop tendency of blood coagulation. Hence,
blood anticoagulants are required.
(ii) Tissue Valves. Obtained directly from pigs,
cadavers (corpses) or made from pericardium of
animals. The valves have the tendency to calcify
with time, especially in young.
Vascular Grafts/Artificial Arteries: Parts of blood

vessels, especially arteries may become defective due to
blockage, atherosclerosis, disease or aneurysm (dilation
like a balloon with chances of rupturing and consequent
death) requiring replacement. Artificial arteries/vascular
grafts are pliable tubes generally made of fibrous plastic
of dacron or teflon. They are less efficient when diameter
is less than 6 mm. Rubber metallic (silver) and glass
tubes can also be used.
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology is the study and utilisation of living

organisms or substances obtained from them in industrial/
domestic and agricultural processes for producing useful
materials. It is used in preparation of biogas, biofertilisers,
alcoholic beverages, nonalcoholic beverages, sewage
treatment, bread and other foods, dairy products, organic
acids, enzymes, vitamins, antibiotics, vaccines, steroids,
BIOLOGY [107]
molasses for rum and fermented juices for wines and brandy.
Yeast does not possess sufficient diastase/amylase.
Therefore, either 1% malt or Rhizopus is used when the
nutrient medium consists of complex carbohydrates as
present in cereals and Potato. Hydrolysis of starch is carried
out in separate tank.
1. Bioreactor/fermentation tank is sterilised with the help
of steam under pressure. The nutrient medium is added
into the tank and sterilised similarly. The nutrient
medium diluted with warm water is called mash.
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hormones, transplants, gene therapy, etc. Biotechnology has

advanced rapidly in the last two decades due to advances
in biology, microbiology, biochemistry, immunology,
molecular biology, genetic engineering and chemical
engineering. Any organism can be used in biotechnology,
e.g, cattle, pig, sheep, horse, monkey, yeast and a large
number of microorganisms. For better yield, it is imperative
to select a suitable strain/variety, evolve a suitable technique
for extraction and purification of product. The first use of
biotechnology must have been in pre-historic time when
humans discovered the fermentation for alcoholic beverages
and dairy products.
Methodology
Industrial utilisation of a biotechnology invovles three

processes laboratory scale process, pilot plant scale and
manufacturing unit. The development from laboratory scale
to manufacturing unit is called calling up.
1. Laboratory scale: Soon after the discovery of use of

microorganism, the maximum number of strains are
searched and the most suitable strain is selected and
multiplied. A laboratory scale apparatus/plant is
manufactured. It has a glass fermenter. All the
parameters of the process are worked out like nutrients
for the microbe, pH, aeration, disposal of CO2 if evolved,
optinum temperature, byproducts, product inhibition or
stimulation, time of optimum production, separation of
product and its purification. Ultimately, the laboratory
scale process is finalised.
2. Pilot Plant Scale: It is an intermediate stage where

working of the laboratory scale process is tested, cost
and quality of the product are evaluated. Glass vessels
are replaced by metallic containers. The container where
fermentation is carried out is called bioreactor. Aeration
system, pH corrections and temperature adjustments are
perfected.
3. Manufacturing Unit: Its size is determined by the
economic worked at during the pilot plant scale process.
Bioreactor is often large. Microorganisms are added in
bioreactors in three ways : (i) Support growth system
or on surface of nutrient medium. (ii) Suspended
growth system or suspended in nutrient medium. (iii)
Column or immobilised growth system where
microorganisms placed in calcium alginate beads are
kept in columns.
ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION
Louis Pasteur found for the first time that beer and
butter milk are produced due to activity of Yeast and Yeastlike microorganisms. Yeast species used in alcoholic
fermentation are Saccharmoyces cerevisiae (Brewers Yeast),
S. ellipsoidens (Wine Yeast), S. sake (Sake Yeast) and S.
pireformis (Ginger Beer/Ale Yeast). The nutrient medium is
barley malt for beer, fermented cereals for whisky, fermented
[108] BIOLOGY
2. When the nutrient medium is cooled down to

appropriate temperature, it is inoculated with
appropriate strain of Yeast. Fermentation occurs in three
ways: (i) Batch Process- Bioreactor is very large (capacity
upto 2,25,000 litres of medium). Yeast and nutrient are
allowed to remain there till maximum alcohol content is
achieved (6-12%). It is called wash/wort. The same is
removed and the tank sterilised for the next batch. (ii)
Continuous Process- There is a regular removal of a
portion of fermented liquor/wash and addition of more
nutrient. (iii) Immobilised Yeast- Lately Yeast is being
used in immobilised state in calcium alginate beads.
The technique is 20 times more efficient.
3. In case of beer, the fermented liquor is filtered, lightly

hopped and pasteurised. In case of wines, 10-27% alcohol
content is achieved through refinement and
concentration. Fortification by direct addition of alcohol
content is achieved through refinement and
concentration. Fortification by direct addition of alcohol
may also be carried. Distillation is done in other cases.
4. Bye-products of alcoholic fermentation are CO2 and

Yeast. A number of other chemicals can be formed with
the change of nutrient medium, pH and aeration-npropanol, butanol, amyl alcohol, phenylethanol, glycerol,
acetic acid, pyruvic acid, succinic acid, lactic acid, caproic
acid, ethyl acetate, acetaldehyde, diacetyl, etc.
Food Yeast
Common food yeast is Torulopsis utilis. It is cultured

over molasses and starchy materials like Potato at 5 pH.
Ammonium phosphate is added for stimulating growth.
Waste sulphite liquor of paper industry is also used. Yeast
obtained from brewing industry can be used as substitute
food yeast. Food yeast is collected from culture, washed,
dried and changed into cakes or pellets. It has 40-50%
proteins, smalll quantity of fat, carbohydrates and vitamins.
Fat rich food yeast is Endomyces vernalis. Both fats and
proteins occur in Cryptococcus species. Vitamins include
niacin, folic acid, thiamine and some others.
Bakers Yeast: Selected strains of Saccharomyces are used

as Bakers Yeast. It is available as powder or cake. The
same is added to flour during kneading. Yeast secretes
amylase (changes some starch to maltose), maltase
(maltose to glucose) and zymase (glucose to ethyl alcohol
and CO2) evaporate. The bread becomes soft and porous.
salt is now wiped and the cheese allowed to ripen for 116 months.
Cheese
It is nutritive product of curdling and fermentation of
milk that contains protein (20-35%), fat (20-30%), minerals
and vitamins.
Unprocessed Cheese: Milk is curdled with the help of
cheese culture Streptococcus lactis, S.cremoris, Leuconostoc
citrovorum, etc. Curd is heated gently to separate cheese
from liquid called whey. Any liquid left in cheese is
allowed to drain by hanging it in cloth. It is salted and
mixed with cream for marketing. Unprocessed/
unripened cheese has short shelf life.
Yoghurt: It is produced by first curdling of milk with the

help of Streptococcus themophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus
at 4046C and then partial fermentation by Yeast.
Butter Milk: It is acidulated product which is formed by

inoculating milk with starter culture of Streptococcus
cremoris, S.Lactis. Lactobacillus acidophilus, Leuconostoc
citrovorum or L. dextranicum followed by fermentation
with Yeast.
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Processed Cheese: It is of two types, cottage/unripened

and ripened. Pasteurised skimmed milk is inoculated
with cheese culture. Within 1-2 hours, rennet is added.
Formerly, stomach of sheep and goat (lining has rennin)
or sap of fig trees (enzyme ficia) was used. Rennet was
isolated from Calfs stomach by Christian Hansen (1874).
Fruit extract of Withania coagulans is also effective. Curd
is placed in cloth lined porous containers for draining
the whey. The left out solidified material is called cottage
cheese. It can be consumed as such. Whey contains lactic
acid, lactose and minerals. Blocks of cottage cheese are
salted and placed in brine solution for a few days. The
Dextran: It is a plasma extender having 6 10%

solution of dextrins which is given in case of
haemorrhage, shock and hehydration. Dextrins are
soluble polyglucans or polymers of D-glucose. They are
preparted either through partial hydrolysis of starch or
partial polymerisation of simple sugars through microor
ganism Leuconostoc mesenteroids or enzyme dextran
sucrase. The enzyme is more useful as detran (= dextrin)
of suitable molecular weight can be obtained more easily.
Organic Acids
Lactic acid was the first organic acid produced through

fermentation.
BIO TECH. ENZYMES
Rene Reamer (1752) demonstrated digestive power for gastric juice. Dufrunfaut (1830) found that malt extract has the potential
to change starch into sugar. Payen and Persoz (1833) prepared alcoholic extract of malt and named it diastase. Kuhne (1878)
named the biocatalyst as enzyme. Buchner (1897) extracted the fermenting enzymes complex of Yeast and named it as zymase.
Duclaux (1883) developed a system of naming enzymes. Over 2220 enzymes are known but only 250 (1-1.5%) are used in industry.
Enzyme extraction and purification is difficult and expensive. Change in pH, temperature and a number of other factors deactivate
enzymes.
Immobilisation of Enzymes: It is the process of fixing enzyme to or enclosing it in a solid support so as to protect it from
deactivation and attack from proteases, maintain enzyme purity, ability to recover it after reaction and perform continuous
reactions. Enzyme immobilisation is achieved by (i) Cross-linking of enzyme molecules. (ii) Attaching covalently to a solid support.
(iii) Entrapping in a gel. (iv) Encapsulating in small artificial cells.
Enzyme
Source
Applications
1. Protease
Mortierella renispora, Aspergillus
Chill proofing of alcoholic drinks. Cleaning of hides. Degumming

of
silk, Removing proten stains, manufacture of liquid glue,
Softening
of bread and meat.
oryzae, Bacillus subtilis
2. Amyases
Rhizopus oryzae, Aspergillus
oryzae, A. niger (taka diastase)
Bacillus species.
Separation and desizing of fibres, Clearing of starch

related turbidity
in jucies, Softening and sweetening of bread, Alcoholic
beverages
from starchy nutrients.
Amylase, glucoamylase and gluco-isomerase are used in
converting Corn starch into sweet fructose rich Corn Syrup
(sweeter than sucrose) that is used in sweetening and flavouring
buiscuits, cakes and soft drinks.
3. Rennin/Rennet
Stomach of calf.
4. Cellulase
5. Pectinase
Myrothecium verrucaria (fungus)

Byssochalmys fulvo
Dissolving cell walls for specific staining and protoplast fusion.

Clearing of fruit juices, Retting of fibres, Preparation of green
coffee.
Aspergillus niger, Penicillium notatum Removal of glucose in foods to prevent browning (e.g., Egg).
Saccharomyces fragilis, Torula cremoris. Prevents crystal formation in ice cream and processed cheese.
VArious Sources
Pig insulin to human insulin or humulin.
6. Glucose Oxidase
7. Lactase
8. Protein Modifying
Enzymes
9. Streptokinase (T.P.A
Hemolytic Streptococci
or Tissue Plasminogen
Activator)
Preparation of cheese.
Fibrinolytic, used in clearing blood clots inside blood vessels.
BIOLOGY [109]
antifoaming agent. Aeration is provided. After four days,

cells are collected. They contain upto 2.5% riboflavin.
Butyl alcohol is used in extraction. Reside after
separation of fermented mash also contains B2.
2. B12 (Cobalamin/Cyanocobalamin): It was first isolated
from liver extract in 1948 and fermentation during
antibiotic production. Organisms used are
Propionibacterium frendeureichii, Pseudomonas denitrificans,
Bacillus megatherium and Streptomyces oliaceous. Nutrient
medium is made of starch, corn syrup, corn sugar or
molasses. The cells are harvested and autolysed to
separate the vitamin.
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1. Acetic Acid: It is both microbial and synthetic. Vinegar

is 10 - 13% ripened acetic acid. Initially melasses or
other sugar solution is allowed to undergo alcoholic
fermentation by least. It is an anaerobic process. As soon
as 10 12% alcohol is formed, the liquid is filtered to
remove Yeast. It is aerated and inoculated with
Acetobacter aceti. The latter produces acid. When 10
13% acetic acid content is achieved, the liquid is filtered.
The filtrate is allowed to ripen. It is pasteurised and
called vinegar. The acid is concentrated for other
purposes. Vinegar is used as souring agent, preservative
and condiment. Acetic acid is used in plastics,
pharmaceuticals, and production of solvents and
flavouring agents.
2. Citric Acid: Aspergillus niger, Mucor species and Yeast

(when medium is deficient in Fe and Mn) can ferment
sugar to produce citric acid. Citric acid is preservative
(food and canies) and flavouring agent. It is also used
in medicines, engraving, dyeing and inks
3. Lactic Acid: First organic acid to be fermented, lactic
acid is obtained by the activity of a number of bacteria
like Streptococcus lactis, Lactobacillus delbreukin, L.
bulgaricus and fungus Rhizopus over a variety of nutrient
media like hydrolysed corn or potato starch, molasses,
sulphite liquor, etc. It can also be extracted from whey.
Lactic acid is used in clearing, flavouring and preserving
confectionery, fruit juices, lemonades, pickles, curing of
meat, canned fish vegetables and medicines. It is used
as mordant in tanning, dyeing, printing of wool and
preparation of plastics.
4. Other Organic Acids: (i) Gallic acid is obtained with

the help of Aspergillus niger. It is employed in ink
making. (ii) Gluconic acid is manufactured through the
agency of Penicillium purpurogenum, for use as calcium
gluconate (providing calcium to infants, lactating
mothers and treating milk fever in high milk yielding
cows) and in preparation of pharmaceuticals.
VITAMINS
Funk while working on causes and treatment of berberi isolated Vitamin B1 (thiamine) in 1911 and coined the
term of vitamin in 1912. Vitamin A was discovered by Mc
Collum, Vitamin C by Szent-Gyorgyi (1928) and Vitamin D
by Mellanby. First vitamin obtained through microbial
activity was Vitamin C. Most vitamins are synthesised.
Microbial activity is used in following cases:
1. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): Manufactured chemically,
secreted by intestinal bacteria, it was first obtained from
activity of mould Ashbya gossypii in 1938. Present day
strains yield 100 300 time more vitamin. Other
microbes used are Clostridium butyricum, C.acetobutylicum
and yeast-like Eremothecium ashbyii. Nutrient medium
consist of crude sugar (1%), corn syrup (1%) , sulphite
liquor (0.5%), some peptone of animal source and
[110] BIOLOGY
3. Vitamin C: Acetobacter is helpful in dehydrogenation of

D-sorbitol and its conversion to L-sorbose. The latter is
precursor vitamin C or L-ascorbic acid.
Pasteur: First to prove that Beer and Butter Milk are

products of fermentation by Yeast.
Christian Hansen (1874): First to purify an enzyme, rennet.
Streptomyces griseus: Produces 41 different types of

antibiotics.
Bacillus subtilis: Forms 60 types of antibiotics.
Saccharomyces pombe: Ginger Beer Yeast.
Saccharomyces prombe: African beer Yeast.
DNA Finger Printing: Developed by Alec J. Jeffreys in

1985. He found hypervariable repeating sequences in
DNA as distinctive for every human being. First used
for a criminal case in 1988.
Babes (1855): First demonstrated antibiosis. Concept was

propounded by Paul Vuillemin (1889).
STEROIDS
They are complex crystallisable lipids having a tetracyclic

hydrocarbon core (one 5-carbon and three 6-carbon rings)
and a long side chain. They are constitutents of cell
membranes, hormones and some important biochemicals
like cholestrol, progesterone oestrogen, testosterone
cortisterone, and cortisone. Steroids are used medicinally in
correcting hormonal imbalance, anabolic stimulants, birth
control pills, antifertility drugs, anti-inflammatories, relieving
pain and suppressing immune responses, Various steroids
differ from one another in radicals likeOH=O,COCH3,
COCH2OH. Murray and Peterson (1950) found that Rhizopus
stolonifer could bring about hydroxylation required for
steroid synthesis. Since then a number of microorganisms
have been found to perform this activity. Different
microorganisms produce different steroids from progesterone
like pregnane, cortexolone, androsterone, etc. Formation of
anti-inflammatory drug prednisolone from cartexolone
requires microbe-mediated first hydroxylation and then
microbe-mediated dehydrogenation.
ABC OF ANTIBIOTIC
Antibiotic
Source
Action
Tonsilitis, Sore Throat, Gonorrhoea, Rheumatic Fever, some
Pneumonia types.
Antifungal, especially for Ringworm.
Antifungal for Candidiasis and overgrowth of
Intestinal Fungi during excessive antibiotic treatment.
Antifungal for Thrush
Broad spectrum antibacterial especially against Salmonella
and Shigella.
Syphilis, Lymphonema or Reticulosis.
Meningitis, Pneumonia, Tuberculosis and Local Infections.
Toxic in some through eighth cranial nerve.
Typhoid, Typhus, Whooping Cough.
Atypical Pneumonia, Bacterial Urinary Infections.
Viral Pneumonia, Osteomyelitis,
Whooping Cough, Eye Infections.
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Pencillin
Pencillium chryso-genum, P. Acetic
notatum + Phenyl Acid
Griseofulvin
Penicillium griseofulvum
Nystatin
Streptomyces noursei
Hamycin
Fumagillin
Streptomyces pimprei
Aspergillus fumigatus
Bacitracin
Streptomycin
Bacillus licheniformis
Streptomyces griseus
Chloramphenicol/
Chloromycetin
Tetracyclines/
Aureomycin
Hydrogenation
Oxytetracycline/
Terramycin
Erythromycin
Streptomyces venezuelae,
S. lavendulae, Now synthetic
Streptomyces aureofacines
Chlorotetracyline
Streptomyces rimosus
Intestinal and Urinary Infections (Spirochaetes, Rickettsiae,

Viruses).
Typhoid, Common Pneummonia, Diphtheria, Whooping
Cough etc.
Streptomyces erythreus
Good Antibiotic: (a) Harmless to host with no side effect.

(b) Harmless to normal micro-flora of alimentary canal.
(c) Ability to destroy pathogen as well as broad
spectrum. (d) Effective against all strains of pathogen.
(e) Quick action.
Resistance to Antibiotics: Pathogens often develop

resistance to existing antibiotics so that newer antibiotics
so that newer antibiotics are required to be produced.
The resistance is produced due to (i) Development of
copious mucilage. (ii) Alteration of cell membrane so
that antibiotic cannot recognise the pathogen. (iii)
Alteration of cell membrance which prevents antibiotic
entry. (iv) Change to L-form by pathogen. (v) Mutation
in pathogen. (vi) Development of pathogen enzyme
capable of modifying antibiotic.
Production of Antibiotic: Suitable strain of

microorganism is cultivated on a sterilised nutrient
medium provided with optimum pH, aeration,
temperature, antifoaming agent and antibiotic precursor
(if any). When sufficient antibiotic has diffused into the
medium, the microorganism is separated and the
antibiotic extracted from medium by precipitation,
absorption or solvent. It is purified, concentrated and
bioassayed before packing.
ANTIBIOTICS
The term was coined by Waksman (1942). Clinically,

an antibiotic is a substance produced by a microorganisms
which in low concentration inhibits the growth and
metabolic activity of pathogenic organisms without harming
the host. Antibiosis was first shown by Babes (1855). Pasteur
and Joubert (1899) proposed concept of antibiosis. Rene
Dubois was first to produce an antibiotic named tyrothricin
from Bacillus brevis. However, first antibiotic is generally
associated with the name of Alexander Fleming (1928) when
he discovered penicillin from Penicillium notatum (did not
allow growth of Staphylococus aureus). Waksman and
Woodruff isolated actinomycin in 1941 and streptothricin in
1942. Waksman and Albert (1943) and Waksman (1944)
discovered streptomycin. Burkholder (1947) isolated
chloromycetin.
Over 7000 antibiotics are known. Every year some 300
new antibiotics are discovered by means of hypersensitive
microorganisms (started in 1970). Streptomyces griseus
produces more than 41 antibiotics while Bacillus subtilis can
give about 60 antibiotics.
Broad Spectrum Antibiotic: It is an antibiotic which

can kill or destroy a number of pathogens that belong
to different groups with different structure and wall
composition.
Specific Antibiotic: It is an antibiotic which is effective

only against one type of pathogens.
Action. An antibiotic acts on pathogen by (i) Disruption

of wall synthesis. (ii) Disruption of plasmalemma repair
and synthesis. (iii) Inhibition of DNA/RNA/protein
synthesis.
Antibiotics are obtained from lichens, fungi eubacteria,

and actinomycetes. The common antibiotic, from lichens is
usnic acid (Usnea and Cladonia). Amongst elubacteria, two
account for most antibiotics, Bacillus (70%) and Pseudomonas
(30%), Fungi yield a number of antibiotics like penicillin,
patulin and griseofulvin (Penicillium species), cephalosporins,
antiamoebin (Emericellopsis), polyporin (Polystictus
sanuineus), clitocybin (Clitocybine gigantea), citrinin
(Aspergillus clavatus, Penicillium citrinum), clavacin (Aspergillus
clavatus), etc. Most famous drugs are got from actinomyeetes,
especially Streptomyces.
BIOLOGY [111]
weakening (attenuation) of the pathogen. The vaccines

are seldom of uniform quality. They may have side
effects.
VACCINES
Second Generation Vaccines: They are vaccines made

of pure surface antigens of the pathogens only which
are multiplied through genetic engineering or
recombinant DNA technique, e.g., vaccine against
hepatitis B.
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Vaccine is a liquid containing dead, attenuated form or

antigens of a pathogen which can be injected or taken orally
to provide immunity (acquired active, short or long duration)
towards that pathogen. Vaccination or administration of
vaccine was discovered by Edward Jenner (1796) when he
immunised a boy against small pox by inoculating him with
milder cow pox. The technique of attenuating or weakening
of pathogen was discovered by Louis Pasteur (1879, agaisnt
cholera).
First Generation Vaccines: They are the ones obtained

by conventional technique involving killing or
[112] BIOLOGY
Third Generation Vaccines: They are purest, highest

potency vaccines which are synthetic in nature.
BIOLOGY
(SAMPLE QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS))
1. Which of the following is/are true about Japanese Encephalitis?
I. It is spread by mosquitoes.
II. Its vaccine is prepared at Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow.
III. The government has allocated separate
budget allocation for its eradication.
(a) Only I.
(b) Only II.
(c) Only III.
(d) I, II and III.
2. Which of the following are true about Polio?

I. It is a non-communicable disease.
II. There is no drug to kill its virus or control
its spread.
III. The virus enters the body through mouth
and multiplies in intestine.
IV. All the people infected by virus don't get
Polio.
(a) I , II and III.
(b) I, II and IV.
(c) II, III and IV.
(d) I, II, III and IV.
5. Nowadays there is a large scale promotion of

for using Olive oil in cooked food. Which of the
following is implicit to this?
1. Olive oil has more than 70% mono-unsaturated fats, meaning a single bond in its
structure which reduces bad fats and triglycerides.
2. Using these oils can be highly beneficial in
reducing the fat deposition in liver.
3. There is also a problem associated with olive
oil-its overabundance of oleic acid, which
creates an imbalance on the cellular level
that can inhibit prostaglandin production,
which can increase the risk of breast cancer.
4. It is widely considered to make a significant decrease in the waist circumference,
body mass index levels and insulin resistance in people.
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 3 and 4
(d) all of the above
3. Consider the following statements:

1. Iron fortified Iodized Salt is to be promoted
to battle Malnutrition in the Country.
6. Which of the following statements is NOT correct about breathalyzer?

(a) It is used for estimating blood alcohol content from breath sample.
2. Double fortified salt has been made mandatory in PDS distribution.
(b) It analyses breath by oxidizing ethanol

content in the breath into acetic acid.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are

correct?
(c) Breathalyzer also uses infrared beam to

analyze alcohol content in breath.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both
(d) None
4. Pigeon pea provides a well-balanced diet when

accompanied with cereals and known as the
"poor people's meat" because of its high ------(a) fat content
(b) carbohydrate content
(c) protein content
(d) iron content
(d) Use of breath mints or onion can fool a

breathalyzer test.
7. (1) WBC's are formed in bone marrow, while
RBC's are formed in Liver & Spleen.
(2)WBC's count is higher in females, whereas
RBC content is higher in males.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) (1) is correct
(b) (2) is correct
(c) Both are correct
(d) Both are wrong
Biology IAS Academy

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8. Which of the following is fat soluble vitamin?

(a) Vit. B & C
(b) Vit. A & D
(c) Vit. B & E
III. form collagen, a tissue

that helps to hold cells
together
D. Niacin
IV. Aids in reproduction

and cell regeneration
(d) Vit. K & C
9. In the human body, which structure is the appendix attached to?

(a) Large intestine
(b) Small intestine
(d) Stomach
Codes:
(a) A-I; B-III; C-II; D-IV
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(c) Gall bladder
C. Riboflavin
(b) A-II; B-III; C-IV; D-I
10. The food we eat has to be processed to generate particles which are small and of the same
texture. This is achieved by crushing the food
with our teeth. When we eat something we
like, our mouth 'waters'. This is actually not
only water, but fluid called saliva secreted by
the salivary glands. The saliva contains an enzyme called ------(a) salivary protease
(b) salivary amylase
(c) salivary lipase

I. During the process of respiration, complex
organic compounds such as glucose are
broken down to provide energy in the form
of ADP.
13. Recently scientists have created the world's first

genome-wide digital atlas of gene enhancers in
the brain. Consider the following statements
about gene enhancers and select the correct
answer?
I. Gene Enhancers are short pieces of DNA
in the human genome.
III. 'They are switches that tell the actual genes

when to become active and make a protein.
Codes:
(a) I, II only
II. Anaerobic respiration makes more energy

available to the organism.
(b) II, III only
Select the correct answer from the below code:

(a) Only I
(d) All
(b) Only II
(c) Neither I nor II
(d) Both I and II
Vitamins are organic food substances found

only in living things, i.e. plants and animals.
They are essential for human bodies to function
properly, for growth, energy and for our general well-being. Match the following Vitamins
in list I with their correct benefits to the human
body in list II.
Vitamins
Benefits
A. Beta Carotene
B. Ascorbic Acid
(d) A-II; B-IV; C-III; D-I
II. They are actual genes, so they give rise to

proteins.
(d) pepsin
12.
(c) A-I; B-IV; C-II; D-III
I. helps the body turn food

into energy
II. promotes a healthy immune system
(c) I, III only
14. Consider the following statements about

Cyanobacteria and select the correct answer?
I. Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green
bacteria or blue-green algae are a phylum
of bacteria that obtain their energy through
photosynthesis.
II. Cyanobacteria can be found only in aquatic
habitat both oceans and fresh water.
III. Cyanobacteria can convert carbon dioxide

into 2, 3 butanediol, that can be used to
make paint, solvents, plastics and fuels.
Codes:
(a) I, II only
(b) I, III only
(c) II, III only
(d) All
Biology
15. Cellular respiration is the process of breaking

down food molecules to obtain energy and store
it in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
molecules. The process of breakdown of glucose molecules involves two major stages - glycolysis (anaerobic respiration) and aerobic respiration. Read the following stements:
I. Glycolysis process takes place in the cytoplasm of the cells.
II. Aerobic respiration takes place in mitochondria.
III. The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon
dioxide, water and energy takes place in
cytoplasm of the cell.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) I and III
17. Immunization is one of the most important preventive health actions in children's lives, as it
provides protection against the most dangerous
childhood diseases. GOI has recently introduced
the pentavalent vaccines in few states. Read
the following statements regarding Pentavalent
vaccines:
I. The vaccine protects children from diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, hepatitis
B and Haemophilus influenza type b.
II. It was introduced as a pilot project in India in Kerala only. Whereas now it has been
introduced in Gujarat, Karnataka,
Haryana,Goa, J&K and Pondicherry.
III. It will be provided along with the current
Hepatitis B and DPT primary vaccination
schedule in the immunization programme.
(c) I and II
Which of the above statements are true?

(a) Only I
(d) All of the above
(b) Only I and II
(b) II and III
(c) Only II
16. Couples could be assisted to have children
through certain special techniques commonly
known as assisted reproductive technologies
(ART).Consider these statements regarding this:
I. Artificial insemination (AI), followed by
embryo transfer (ET) is one of such methods. In this method, popularly known as
test tube baby programme, ova from the
wife/donor (female) and sperms from the
husband/donor (male) are collected and are
induced to form zygote under simulated
conditions in the laboratory.
II. Transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into the fallopian tube (GIFT - gamete
intra fallopian transfer) of another female
who cannot produce one, but can provide
suitable environment for fertilisation and
further development is another method attempted.
III. In in vitro fertilisation (IVF)), the semen
collected either from the husband or a
healthy donor is artificially introduced either into the vagina or into the uterus (IUI
- intra-uterine insemination) of the female.
(d) Only II and III

18. The brain is one of the largest and most complex organs in the human body. It is made up
of more than 100 billion nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called synapses.
Read the following statements realted to human brain and choose the correct answer from
the codes given below:
I. The human brain is the fattest organ in the
body.
II. The cerebellum is the largest part of the
brain, accounting for 85 percent of the
organ's weight, controls all voluntary actions in the body.
III. The two hemispheres of the brain contribute to the processing and understanding of
language: the left hemisphere processes the
rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech
while the right hemisphere processes the
emotions conveyed by it.
IV. The Hypothalamus part of the brain regulates body temperature much like a thermostat.
Which of the statements is/are correct?

(a) Only I and II
Codes:
(a) II and III
(b) Only II and III
(b) III and IV
(c) Only III
(c) I, II and IV
(d) Only II
(d) I, III and IV
Biology
19. Mitochondria are powerhouse of the cell and it

has symbiotic origin. Choose the correct statements about mitochondria:
i. Mitochondria are involved with synthesis
of ATP in the cell.
ii. Mitochondria are absent in bacteria.
II. Covering both sides of leaf with a plastic

film will reduce both stomatal and cuticular transpiration.
III. Leaves with bigger surface will transpire
faster and leaves with smaller surface will
transpire slower.
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iii. Mitochondrion contains DNA and Ribosome.
lowing statements are true in relation to transpiration and water movements in plants?
I. Removing all the leaves from a plant will
increase the flow of water up the stem.
Choose the correct answers:
(a) i, ii and iii

(b) i and ii
(c) i and iii
(d) ii and iii
Codes:
(a) Only II
(b) I and II
(c) II and III
20. Which of the following statements are true

about Human Genome Project's result?
I. The total number of genes in human call is
about 30000.
(d) I and III
II. Exact functions of about 50 percent genes

are unknown.
23. Which of the following statements are true

about tears secreted by the glands?
I. Tear fluid contains water, glucose, urea,
sodium, and potassium.
III. About 98 percent of genome codes for protein.
II. They lubricate the eye, and help to keep it

clear of dust.
Choose the correct answers:
(a) I, II and III
III.
It contains an enzyme known as lysozyme.
(b) I and II
Codes:
(a) I and II
(c) I and III
(b) II and III
(d) II and III
(c) I and III
(d) All

I. DNA computing will use DNA codes to
store enormous amount of data.
24. What is the importance of roughage in our diet?

I. It helps in retaining water in the body.
II. A hard strain of bacteria has been selected

for DNA computing called Bacillus subtilis.
II. It is necessary for normal functioning of

the liver as it balances intestinal pH.
III. DNA computer can deliver the drug and

scan the tissue for a specific disease.
III. Attracts water and forms a viscous gel

during digestion, slowing the emptying of
the stomach and intestinal transit, shielding carbohydrates from enzymes, and delaying absorption of glucose, which lowers
variance in blood sugar levels.
Which of the above statements is/are NOT

correct?
(a) Only I and II
(b) Only II and III
(c) Only I
Codes:
(a) I and II
(d) None
(b) II and III
22. Transpiration is the evaporation of water from

aerial parts of plants, especially from leaves but
also from stems and flowers. Which of the fol-
(c) I and III
(d) III only
Biology
25. Bile is a complex fluid containing water, electrolytes and a battery of organic molecules including bile acids, cholesterol, phospholipids
and bilirubin. Which of the following are true
about bile?
I. It is an enzyme secreted by the liver which
helps in emulsifying fats in food.
II. It is a watery green liquid.
IV. Biles are critical for digestion and absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins in the
small intestine.
Codes:
(a) I, II and III
(b) II, III and IV
(c) I, III and IV
III. The gall bladder stores and concentrates

bile during the fasting state.
(d) III and IV
Biology
BIOLOGY (SAMPLE QUESTIONS)

(ANSWERS)
CHRONICLE
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1 (a)
14 (b)
2 (c)
15 (c)
3 (a)
16 (d)
4 (c)
17 (a)
5 (c)
18 (d)
6 (d)
19 (a)
7 (d)
20 (b)
8 (b)
21 (d)
9 (a)
22 (c)
10 (b)
23 (d)
11 (c)
24 (c)
12 (b)
25 (b)
13 (c)
Biology
BIOLOGY
(UPSC QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS))
1. Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) allows genes to be transferred
1. across different species of plants
Select the correct answer using the codes given

below.
(a) 1 only
2. from animals to plants
(b) 2 and 3 only
3. from microorganisms to higher organisms
(c) 1 and 3 only

below.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
5. Which of the following diseases can be transmitted from one person to another through tattooing?
1. Chikungunya
2. Hepatitis B
3. HIV-AIDS
2. Improper handling and storage of cereal grains

and oilseeds result in the production of toxins
known as aflatoxins which are not generally
destroyed by normal cooking process. Aflatoxins are produced by
(a) bacteria
(b) protozoa
(c) moulds
(d) viruses
3. Consider the following organisms
1. Agaricus
2. Nostoc
3. Spirogyra
Which of the above is / are used as biofertilizer
/ biofertilizers
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 only
(e) 2 and 3

below.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
6. Consider the following minerals
1. Calcium
2. Iron
3. Sodium
Which of the minerals given above is/are required by human body for the contraction of
muscles?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) 3 only
4. Which of the following adds / add nitrogen to
the soil?
1. Excretion of urea by animals
2. Burning of coal by man
3. Death of vegetation
7. With reference to the food chains in ecosystems, which of the following kinds of organism
is / are known as decomposer organism/organisms?
1. Virus
2. Fungi
3. Bacteria
Biology IAS Academy

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below.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
2. Stem cells can be used for screening new

drugs.
3. Stem cells can be used for medical therapies.
below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
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(d) 1, 2 and 3
1. Stem cells can be derived from mammals

only.
8. Consider the following fauna of India:

1. Gharial
2. Leatherback turtle
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
3. Swamp deer
Which of the above is/are endangered?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None
9. Which of the following leaf modifications occurs/occur in desert areas to inhibit water loss?
1. Hard and waxy leaves
2. Tiny leaves or no leaves
3. Thorns instead of leaves

below.
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
10. Widespread resistance of malarial parasite to

drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts
to develop a malarial vaccine to combat malaria. Why is it difficult to develop an effective
malaria vaccine ?
(a) Vaccines can be developed only against
bacteria
(b) Man does not develop, immunity to malaria during natural infection
(c) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium
(d) Man is only an intermediate host and not

the definitive host
11. With reference to 'stem cells', frequently in the

news, which of the following statements is/are
correct?
12. At present, scientists can determine the arrangement or relative positions of genes or DNA
sequences on a chromosome. How does this
knowledge benefit us?
1. It is possible to know the pedigree of livestock.
2. It is possible to understand the causes of all
human diseases.
3. It is possible to develop disease-resistant

animal breeds,
Which of the statements given above is/are

correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 Only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
13. When the bark of a tree is removed in a circular fashion all around near its base,it gradually
dries up and dies because
(a) Water from soil cannot rise to aerial parts
(b) Roots are starved of energy
(c) Tree is infected by soil microbes
(d) Roots do not receive oxygen for respiration
14. Regular intake of fresh fruits and vegetables is

recommended in the die since they are a good
source of antioxidants. How do antioxidants
help a person maintain health and promote
longevity?
(a) They activate the enzyme necessary for
vitamin synthesis in the body and help
prevent vitamin deficiency
(b) They prevent excessive oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and protein in the body and
help avoid unnecessary wastage of energy
Biology
(c) They neutralize the free radical produced

in the body during metabolism
(a) When inhaled into the human body, CO is

converted into CO2
(d) They activate certain genes in the cells of

the body and help delay the ageing process
(b) The inhaled CO has much higher affinity

for haemoglobin as compared to oxygen
15. King Cobra is the only snake that makes its

own nest. Why does it make its nest ?
(a) It is a snake-eater and the nest helps attract other snakes
(b) It is a viviparous snake and needs a nest to
give birth to its offspring
(c) It is an oviparous snake and lays its eggs in
the nest and guards the nest until they are
hatched
(d) It is a large, cold blooded animal and needs
a nest to hibernate in the cold season
16. Which one of the following processes in the
bodies of living organisms is a digestive process?
(a) Conversion of glucose into glycogen
(b) Breakdown of glucose into CO2 and H20
(c) Breakdown of proteins into amino acids
(d) Conversion of amino acids into proteins
17. From the point of view of evolution of living
organisms, which one of the following is the
correct sequence of evolution ?
(a) Otter -Tortoise - Shark
(b) Shark - Tortoise - Otter
(c) Tortoise - Shark - Otter
(d) Shark - Otter - Tortoise
18. Consider the following statements :
1. Hepatitis B is several times more infectious
than HIV/AIDS
2. Hepatitis B can cause liver cancer.
Which of the statements given above is /are
correct ?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
19. Excessive release of the pollutant carbon monoxide (CO) into the air may produce a condition in which oxygen supply in the human body
decreases. What causes this condition ?
Biology
(c) The inhaled CO destroys- the chemical

structure of haemoglobin
(d) The inhaled CO adversely affects the respiratory centre in the brain
20. Consider the following statements :
1. Every individual in the population is equally
susceptible host for Swine Flu.
2. Antibiotics have no role in the primary
treatment of Swine Flu
3. To prevent the future spread of Swine Flu
in the epidemic area, the swine (pigs) must
all be culled.
correct ?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
21. With regard to the transmission of the Human
Immuno deficiency Virus, which one of the
following statements is not correct ?
(a) The chances of transmission from female
to male are twice as likely as from male to
female
(b) The chances of transmission are more if a
person suffers from other sexually transmitted infections
(c) An infected mother can transmit the infection to her baby during pregnancy, at childbirth and by breast feeding
(d) The risk of contracting infection from transfusion of infected blood is much higher than
an exposure to contaminated needle
22. Consider the following statements about
probiotic food :
1. Probiotic food contains live bacteria which
are considered beneficial to humans.
2. Probiotic food helps in maintaining gut
flora.
correct ?
3
24. Among the following, which one lays eggs anad

does not produce young ones directly ?
(a) Echidna
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 Only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(b) kangaroo
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) Porcupine
(d) Whale
CH
IA R
S ON
AC I
C
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E
EM
Y
23. What is the pH level of blood of normal

persoan?
(a) 4.5-4.5
(b) 6.45-6.55
(c) 7.35-7.45
25. The release of which one of the following into

ponds and wells helps in controlling the mosquitoes ?
(a) Crab
(d) 8.25-8.35
(b) Dogfish
(c) Gambusia fish
(d) Snail
Biology
BIOLOGY (UPSC QUESTIONS)

(ANSWERS)
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
CH
IA R
S O
AC NI
C
AD L
E
EM
Y
1 (a)
14 (c)
2 (c)
15 (c)
3 (b)
16 (c)
4 (c)
17 (b)
5 (b)
18 (c)
6 (c)
19 (b)
7 (b)
20 (a)
8 (c)
21 (a)
9 (d)
22 (c)
10 (b)
23 (c)
11 (b)
24 (a)
12 (d)
25 (c)
13 (a)
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BIOLOGY

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A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE

Cytology : Study of cell structure is called cytology.

Embryology : It is the study of fertilization and

Anthropology : Study of origin development and culture

Aphidology : Study of aphids.

Apiculture : Rearing of bees.

Exobiology : Study of possibility of life in the outer

Araneology : Study of spiders.

Microbiobiology : It is the study of structure, life cycle

Arboriculture : Cultivation of trees and shrubs.

Arthrology : Study of joints.

Bacteriology (Ehrenberg) : Study of bacteria.

Bioclimatology : Study of climatic effects on biological

Pathology : Study of diseases, effects, casual agents,

Eugenics : Study of factors connected with impairment

Biometerology : Study of effects of atmospheric changes

Euthenics : Study of environmental conditions that

Biometrics : (Biometry = Biostatistics). Statistical study

Euphenics : Treatment of defective heredity through

Biotechnology : Technology connected with employing

Cryobiology : It is the study of effects of low

Brylogy : Study of bryophytes.

Acarology : Study of ticks and mites.

Cardiology : Study of heart.

Actinology : (i) Study of radiation effects (ii) Study of

Carcinology : (i) Study of crustacea (ii) Study of cancers

Aerobiology : Study of air borne organisms as well as

Chemotaxonomy : Taxonomy based on chemicals

Agriology : Comparative study of primitive tribal

Chirology : Communication system for deaf and mute

Agrobiology : Quantitative science of plant life and plant

Chondrology : Study of cartilages.

Agrology : Soil science dealing with production of crops.

Cnidology : Study of coelentrates.

Agronomy : Science of soil management of domesticated

Conchology : Study of shells.

Coprology (Scatology) : Study of excrements.

Agrostology : Study of grasses.

Craniology : Study of skulls.

Andrology : Study of male reproductive organs.

Angiology : Study of blood vascular system, including

Ctetology : Branch of biology connected with acquired

Animal Husbandry : Raising and management of

Cytotaxonomy : Classification of organisms based on

Anthology (Bessey) : Study of flowers and flowering

Dactyology : Communication system as for deaf using

Chronicle IAS Academy

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

Dendrochronology : Counting and analyzing annualgrowth rings of trees.

Dendrology : Study of trees.

Dentistry : Care of teeth including cure, removal, filling

Dermatology : Study of skin and other body coverings.

Desmology : Anatomy/study of ligaments.

Dysteleology : Study of appearene of vestigical organs

Chronicle IAS Academy

Ecobiology : (i) Study of adaptations in relation to habitat.

Economic Botany/Economic Zoology : Branch