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Leah Sanson
7 May 2015
Rhetoric of Professional Writing
Dr. Martin
The Whole Truth and Nothing But the Truth
Although the definition of rhetoric differs throughout expansive time periods and
rhetoricians, one basic definition that most can agree on and base their own interpretations on
includes, rhetoric is the study of effective speaking and writing. And the art of persuasion
(Cline). One essential figure in the development of rhetoric is Plato. Plato, although there is not
a specific day, was born in the year 427 BC in Athens, Greece. Plato lived in a time where the
Sophists were dominating ideas and research and most of his ideas on rhetoric were arguments
against the Sophists. All of his ideas are still applicable today through the government and the
advancement of technology and it is arguable that Plato is even more ethical than the food
labeling marketing teams found in America today due to the manipulation of visual rhetoric.
Plato was one of the many fore fathers of rhetoric, starting out with his schooling and
learning ideas from pre-Socratic thinkers, he was very critical of the use of rhetoric, Plato has
become known as rhetorics implacable foe, largely responsible for its unsavory reputation in the
western tradition (Bizzell & Herzberg 80). Many thought that Plato just hated rhetoric because
all of his works are criticisms of it but that is not true. As Bizzell and Herzberg stated, The
notion that Plato condemns all rhetoric is an error (80). Plato had many positive ideas on
rhetoric and actually thought that rhetoric was very useful in politics, rhetoric is turned into a
tool to be used for the advancement of the social and political ends (Yunis 101) and along with
the use of rhetoric in politics, he asked his fellow rhetoricians, must not be the art of rhetoric

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taken as a whole, but kind of soul-moving power of discourse not only in the courts of law and
other public gatherings but in private places also? (Yunis 103). Rhetoric, in Platos eyes, not
only could be successfully used in public settings, but also in smaller private settings when
applicable, such as small gatherings or more household events.
Most of Platos ideas on rhetoric are an argument against the Sophists. That is why most
individuals think his ideas are negative. The sophists of this time practiced rhetoric in order to
persuade and not to discover truth. Their art was to persuade the crowd and not to convince
people of the truth (Pecorino). This was problematic to Plato and he disagreed mostly with their
use of rhetoric. Unlike Plato, the Sophists lacked morals, especially when it came to their
audience. Platos main concern with the Sophists is that their rhetoric does not provide an
adequate view of justice (Plato V. Sophists). Plato envisioned a different kind of rhetoric that
differed from that of the Sophists, discourse that is more analytic, objective, and dialectical. He
believed that such discourse can delineate the truth behind appearances (Bizzell & Herzberg
81). One of his greatest works that deals with rhetoric, Gorgias, questions the value of rhetoric
(Bizzell and Herzberg 82). This dialogue is actually a complete argument with the Sophists and
holds the main idea that rhetoric is the knack of persuasive speech (Dikmans), he also argues
the sophists when he dismisses political rhetoric as flattery (Yunis, Taming Democracy 10). In
this piece, Plato rejects almost every motive element in the realm of knowledge but comes to
terms with the argument that rhetoric is a form of art (Grassi). Also in Gorgias, Plato explains
how rational knowledge in speech is the most successful form. As a result rational knowledge
(episteme) and rational speech is superior; it admits no form of opinion besides itself, no form
that is not covered by founded knowledge. Since rhetoric does not convince by means of such
rational knowledge, it remains always in the realm of psuedoknowledge (Grassi). This

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dialogue shows that there should be a balance between rational knowledge and emotion to create
successful rhetoric. Plato thought of rhetoric more ethically and his ideas of a transcendent truth
are developed and can be seen through his theories of rhetoric.
A transcendent truth is the absolute truth. This idea of an absolute truth was divulged
heavily into by Plato, to Plato, the philosophers task is to help others remember by clearing
away the worldly debris that obscures the truth (Bizzell and Herzberg 81). Although the
absolute truth is not commonly found today, one can still see it present in certain ideas such as
those that are unarguable, like gravity. We can know it is there because we somehow knew it
before our birth, when our souls were with the Divine. Finding truth now, when we exist in the
flesh, is difficult (Bizzell and Herzberg 81). A transcendent truth can be found is Platos work
and throughout his idea of rhetoric because he believed a proper rhetoric was a skill to help
mankind arrive at a transcendent truth (Cline). He believed that rhetoric should be used for the
common good of the audience and should help them arrive at a common truth. With this idea, it
is exemplified just how ethical Platos rhetoric really was. The transcendent truth deals with his
idea of some sort of philosophical rhetoric and this can be seen in his work, Phaedrus, which
states that Rhetoric should have its foundation a knowledge of truth, which can only be obtained
by those passionate in its pursuit (Dikmans). Also in Phaedrus, Plato outlines three different
kinds of speech. This helps future rhetoricians distinguish between different situations. The first
kind of speech is the external, rhetorical speech, which refers to the emotive and opinion filled
speech that deals mostly with pathos. This is seen as the false kind of rhetoric. The second kind
of speech arises directly from a rational standpoint. This is not completely effective because it is
purely rational and does not relate to the passions of the audience. The third and final type of
speech is the true rhetorical speech. This is the most productive of all types of speech. (Grassi).

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It is said that this is the original speechof the wise man, of the Sophos, who is not only
epistetai, but who with insight leads, guides, and attracts (Grassi). Both the philosophical and
ethical components of Platos knowledge have survived expansive time periods.
Although Plato expressed his ideas over 2,000 years ago, many of his ideas are present
today and have created establishments for what they are known for today, such as the democratic
government found in the United States. Platos ideas on rhetoric can be applicable to the everchanging audience in the twenty first century. In todays society, there are two major changes
emerging, through gender equality and technology. The question of gender equality is not only
present in politics but in rhetoric as a whole, and the advancement in technology and visual
rhetoric has changed the application of rhetoric dramatically.
Rhetoric in the twenty-first century needs to follow the leads of Plato where he creates
and deploys a rhetoric of gender that can aid us in understanding our new we (Kochin 8). In
this time, Plato tailored his rhetorical speeches to his audience and included the we where it
included woman as well. In the twenty first century, [w]e, in our new and unprecedented
rhetorical situations, need to develop a rhetorical art that is suited for the new public in which
men and women for the first time have the full right to speak and listen (Kochin 9). Womens
rhetorical theory evolved between 1600 and 1700 in England (Donaworth 1). And from this
time, a womans position in society has increased dramatically and it is a constant battle for
women to be seen on the same standard as men. Rhetoricians now have to conform their ideas to
their new audience and we can see many politicians using these strategies today, by making it
a point to apply their policies and ideas to the women in their audience as well. Many politicians
are bringing up the issue of equal pay in hopes of gaining more female voters to vote for them.

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Both in the twenty-first century and in ancient Greece, there is an advancement of
technology that greatly affects rhetoric in its time. In todays society, technology has affected
rhetoric and communication because writing online and through social media is shorter and more
accessible than the traditional written word. For ancient Greece, it was the development of the
phonetic alphabet, or the transition to written language, that affected the rhetoric of
communication in its time. The move from oral memory to the phonetic alphabet was
accompanied by profound changes in human mentality (Gibson 1). Plato was not in favor of
this transition to written language, with Plato, modes of thinking associated with the oral
tradition gave way to the new vocabulary, syntax, and modes of cognition associated with
abstract philosophical thought (Gibson 1), he thought that the spoken word was more effective
for rhetoric than the written word because speaking could easily be argued, while it is much
harder to do so when something is written. He also thought that the spoken word was superior
to written word (because it cannot defend itself and can therefore lead to misunderstanding)
(Dikmans). But this did not stop him from advancing with society and commandeering the
rhetoric dealing with the new writing system. The rhetoricians today should take the same stance
as Plato did during his time, we must face the interiorization of the media as Plato in his
rhetoric faced the interiorization of the phonetic alphabet Plato resisted the new technology of
writing even as he artistically manipulated it (Welch 105). Social media and other
electronically based sources changed rhetoric forever. Now we can obtain information with the
click of a mouse and what we put on the Internet stays there forever. Social media is not just a
platform for just entertainment anymore; its a form of communication. We rely on different
aspects like Facebook, Facebook messenger or direct messenger on twitter. We can see
information displayed ethically through a campaign for a fundraiser for a charity or an

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organization online. On the other hand, the unethical side of rhetoric on social media can be seen
through cyber bullying and false information spread throughout the Internet. Cyber bullying is
harmful form of slander on the Internet that has taken many adolescent lives. Cyber bullying is a
form of communication that is changing constantly and can be seen as a negative form of
rhetoric, for the teenagers are convincing their peers that someone is an outcast or should be
shunned. Not only has the written word advanced through technology, but the image has
become more powerful as well. On the contrary, the image is a powerful way of bringing home a
point, both logically and emotionally.
The advancement of rhetoric goes beyond just adapting words to technology. The
advancement of visual rhetoric is also very important. We are a very fast paced society and in
being such, we want reliable information and we want it now. Visual rhetoric allows the reader
to gain information and be persuaded with just one glance. As stated, since professional
communicators now largely have access to a variety of typographical tools, any discussion of the
rhetoric of practical documents must encompass the language of visual design (Kostelnick 189).
We are a fast paced society, largely because of technology and the readiness of information and
this affects visual rhetoric because we see documents before we read them: this initial encounter
evokes an aesthetic response but one with immediate practical consequences (Kostelnick 200).
As David Olson has pointed out, the way information is presented in the graphic media has
helped to position us in the world, at least in those cultures such as ours where the use of the
symbolism of visual communication is predominantly social (Tapia 5). Visual rhetoric is used
today not just in documents, but in labels as well and one manipulation of visual rhetoric consists
of the visual elements on a food label. Plato would not approve.

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Plato used rhetoric more ethically than any marketing team working on food labels for
any food company today. Plato believed in the all-knowing truth and using rhetoric for the
common good of the people, what we see today is manipulators of language gaining too much
power and confusing the general public to the point where they dont even know what kind of
cereal to buy. In the twenty first century, this would be a modern example of the argument
between the Sophists and Plato, with the food labelers comparable to the sophists.
Food labeling today is a dangerous and confusing game. Food manufacturers take
advantage of using vague terminology to describe their products, correctly assuming that most
consumers wont do much investigating beyond the initial glance at the package (Morrow).
Marketers are constantly putting false information on labels to sell the product. Marketers
strategies are sophisticated, subtle, and effective. They know such labels as fresh, cholesterolfree, all natural, and low sodium will appeal to consumers who are both concerned and
confused (Welford 6). They also are masters at stretching the spirit of the law in order to
achieve their own objectives. Ambiguity is their ally and innuendo their weapon (Welford 6).
Which is the exact opposite of what Plato believed to be the correct use of rhetoric. Plato
thought logic was essential and that arguments should lead to some kind of truth, which is a far
nobler goal than any marketing team in the food industry today.
Food labels, whether it is the nutritional labels or the product label itself, have one goal
and one goal only, and that is to sell the product. Marketers have been mastering this art for
quite some time and know just what will trigger certain responses in Americans. For example,
Food Inc. (2009) explores the false form of pastoral paradise. Commentator Michael Pollan
points out that the most popular iconography on packaged foods is a scene of a cow, farm, or
rolling fields. (Gonzales 57). When in fact, only thirteen slaughterhouses are used for most of

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the nations meat and only four major meat companies dominate the industry, and none of them
have sites that are even comparable to the pastoral scene that most Americans believe they look
like. (Food Inc.). They are factories, not farms. Yogurt companies also use similar strategies,
like placing an enlarged, succulent looking strawberry on the front of the container, hoping that
customers will be drawn by the image and conclude that their product is healthy and a good
choice. Rather than real facts, marketers also use colors to draw their customers in. Colors like
blue and green are used most frequently because of they evoke emotions such as calmness and
security in the customer. When a customer is shopping around in a grocery store, they are often
busy, and on the run, and dont have time to look product by product and read all the fine print to
find a product that is the best for them, so the image does all the talking. Also, companies know
what kinds of key words to put on the package nice and big so that they stick out to customers
and they will, in turn, buy that certain product.
Familiarity with well-known name brands and the trust in the government regulations
also give the consumer a sense of security in the food that they are consuming. This can be
detrimental to the populations health because not many people know to look past the label and
research the true facts about the different kind of food they are consuming. Marketers do not just
use images on labels to persuade customers, they also use text. Marketers use key words like
healthy and words associated to gain credibility for their product. The visual rhetoric of the
label looks convincing, with the brand name big and the more important, health based details in a
smaller print. Once the consumer sees the name brand and then a promising, healthy slogan
underneath, they look no further. An example of this, that includes false advertising, deals with a
brand named Promise Margarine. Not something known to all consumers is that margarine does
not contain any cholesterol and what this company is advertising is a package [that] has a

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picture of a heart on it; a mention of heart disease; and the slogan, Get Heart Smart (Welford
9). But what this company fails to mention is not only that all margarine is cholesterol free but
also margarine contains roughly 25 percent trans-fatty acids and some saturated fatty acids that
can raise blood cholesterol (Welford 9). One last example of cunning labeling involves the
brand, Quaker Oats. They printed, nice and large, Can Help Reduce Cholesterol. Also added,
in smaller print, are the words when part of a fat-modified, low-cholesterol diet (Welford 9).
This deceives the consumer into thinking that just the cereal will help them lower their
cholesterol. Although, when the consumers did keep their diet to what the company suggested,
there was a drop in cholesterol but that was due to the fat free diet, not so much the cereal.
There is even a more well-known example of food label rhetoric turned on the company
itself, On April 24, 1991, the FDA seized 2,400 cases of Procter & Gamble Companys Citrus
Hill Fresh Choice orange juice in a milestone case. The FDA contended that the term fresh was
false, misleading, and confusing to customers since the product was made from concentrate
(Welford 7). And although problems like these rarely cause deaths overnight because it
normally takes years for fat, sodium, and sugar to do serious damage (Welford 6-7) these can
cause deaths over a period of time. People may not be concerned with this because they may not
see an effect on their health overnight, but these lies can cause many different health problems in
the future and throughout old age that customers are not aware of. There are other common
examples that can be found in more products than one may think. Take trans fat for example,
the label trans fat free can be employed when the product contains less than 0.2 grams of trans
fat per serving That 0.2 grams can really add up over time, which could easily cause us a
myriad of health problems (Morrow). Trans fat can increase your risk of developing heart

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disease, a stroke, and developing type two diabetes by increasing ones levels of harmful
cholesterol and decreasing the healthy form of cholesterol (American Heart Association).
All of this information shows the negative side of rhetoric and the true example of what
Plato didnt want to happen, this is the nasty side of rhetoric: it is being used to persuade and
manipulate people, twisting the facts so that we dont know what we are really buying
(Morrow). This kind of label manipulation can be quite dangerous and negatively affect many
peoples health throughout America. To protect the lives of many Americans, marketing teams
should be more ethical with their selling strategies and stop lying, whether it be through omission
or through a plain lie, because they are causing great harm to those citizens of our nation. These
marketing strategies are comparable to those of the Sophists because they do not take into
account the ethical side of their rhetorical argument and only care about their selfish need to gain
control or win an argument.
Ethos is one of the most important factors in rhetoric. It allows the audience to have faith
in the speaker, and it makes the rhetoricians argument a great deal more convincing. Plato is
one rhetorician that took this concept very seriously and made his points ethical. He believed in
providing the common good for the audience and providing a common truth. The Sophists of this
time did the exact opposite and provided a pseudo truth for their audience just to win an
argument. We can see the same dynamic today with the advancement of rhetoric in technology
and graphics but also with food labeling. Companies are constantly trying to deceive their
audiences into thinking that they are buying a healthy product. Platos ideas on rhetoric should
be taken into account more often, especially when focusing on aspects that could harm many
Americans, like the nations food.
Works Cited

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American Heart Association. Trans Fat. 5 Aug 2014. Web. 4 May 2015.
Bernard, Suzanne. Platos Dialogues Phaedrus. 1997. Web. 29 Apr 2015.
Bizzell, Patricia & Herzberg, Bruce. Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the
Present. Bedford/St. Martins: Boston. Web. 15 Apr 2015.
Cline, Andrew R. Rhetorica. N.d. Web. 20 Mar 2015.
Dickmans, Greg. The Performer as Orator: Rhetoric and Historically Informed Performance.
2014. Web. 24 Apr 2015.
Donaworth, Jane. Converstaional Rhetoric: The Rise and Fall of a Womens Tradition, 16001700. 2012. Web. 6 May 2015.
Food Inc. Dir. Robert Kenner. Magnolia Home Entertainment, 2009. Film.
Gibson, Twyla. Epilogue to Plato: The Bias of Literacy. 2005. Web. 26 Apr. 2015.
Gonzales, Amalia K. The Visual Rhetoric of Craftmanship. 18 Aug 2010. Web. 25 Apr 2015.
Grassi, Ernesto. Rhetoric and Philosophy. N.d. Web. 20 Apr 2015.
Kochin, Michael, S. Gender and Rhetoric in Platos Political Thought. Tel Aviv University.
2002. Web. 28 Apr. 2015.
Morrow, Sagan. Analyzing Everyday Rhetoric: Disposition of a Raw Foodist. 25 Jan 2011.
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Pecorino, Philip A. Sophists. 2000. Web. 24 Apr 2015.
Plato V Sophists (or, philosophy v rhetoric). N.d. Web. 25 Apr 2015.
http://people.uwplatt.edu/~ciesield/platovsoph.htm
Tapia, Alejandro. Graphic Design in the Digital Era: The Rhetoric of Hypertext. 2003. Web. 4
May 2015.

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Welch, Kathleen E. The Contemporary Reception of Classical Rhetoric: Appropriations of
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Welford, Win. Supermarket Semantics: The Rhetoric of Food Labeling and Advertising. March
1992. Web. 25 Apr 2015.
Yunis, Harvey. Eros in Platos Phaedrus and the Shapre of Greek Rhetoric. Bu.edu. n.d. Web.
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Yunis, Harvey. Taming Democracy: Models of Political Rhetoric in Classical Athens. Cornell
University Press. Web. 4 May 2015.