2013 Report Alternative Fuels
2013 Report Alternative Fuels
2013 Report Alternative Fuels
8th Edition
RAF-covers.indd 1
2013-11-25 1:58:25 PM
8th Edition
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Summary
The alternative jet fuels sector has remained quite
active over the last year with new initiatives launched
for their promotion and development and with an
increasing number of countries expressing interest.
Airlines and major aircraft manufacturers have been
strongly involved in these initiatives, aiming at securing
a future supply of sustainable aviation fuels. Technology
developments are also increasing with an impressive number of technology companies at work and
numerous processes being developed or proposed
for approval.
Prospective alternative jet fuel producers spent 2013
generating the technical data necessary to support the
ASTM International qualification process for their new
fuels. Four of these producers or groups of producers
have made sufficient progress in the ASTM qualification process to issue ASTM research reports for
review by key aviation fuel community stakeholders.
These reports contain technical data describing the
fuel composition, properties, and performance in
aircraft engines and test rigs. It is anticipated that
the ASTM International process to review, ballot,
and issue annexes for the drop-in fuel specification,
D7566, will occur for one or more of these new pathways in 2014.
Different sustainability standards are in use for aviation biofuels, both regulatory and voluntary. Due to the
considerable differences between these standards,
there is a need for harmonization. A selection of three
important standards are reviewed in this report: the
Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB), the
International Sustainability and Carbon Certification
(ISCC), and US Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS).
The RSB has recently certified the first biojet fuel
supplier (SkyNRG) and several aviation biofuel initiatives have recommended using RSB standards for
their biofuel supplies. The ISCC is the most widelyused of the voluntary certification schemes that are
recognized under the European Renewable Energy
Directive (RED). The US Renewable Fuel Standard
(RFS) provides a very effective incentive system based
on tradable certificates (RINs) that are generated for
each batch of biofuel.
Biojet pathways face significant cost challenges.
Depending on the details of the particular pathway, the
price premium of the biofuel over conventional jet fuel
could be the result of high feedstock costs, high capital
expenses, or some combination of the two. There are
incentive structures in place in certain countries which
help reduce these additional cost burdens for the fuel
producer. Energy technology is expected to improve
over time due to market competition, experience, and
innovation, which should drive down fuel production
costs, while conventional jet fuel prices are expected
to increase.
Quick Facts
Recommendations
Table of Contents
Alternative Fuels Foreword 2013 ...........................................................................................1
Summary ................................................................................................................................................2
Quick Facts ..........................................................................................................................................................................3
Recommendations ..............................................................................................................................................................3
1.5
2.5
2.6
3. Sustainability ............................................................................................................................... 25
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4. Economics..................................................................................................................................... 33
4.1 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 33
4.2 Conventional Jet Fuel Price Development and Incentives for Alternative Fuels
as Points of reference ..................................................................................................................................................... 33
4.3 Actual Purchase Prices ..................................................................................................................................... 34
4.4 Theoretical Purchase Prices ............................................................................................................................. 35
4.5 Cost Drivers ......................................................................................................................................................... 36
4.6 Future Cost Reductions ..................................................................................................................................... 37
4.7 Concluding Remarks........................................................................................................................................... 38
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
Glossary ............................................................................................................................................... 69
Acronyms ............................................................................................................................................ 71
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... 72
Report on
Alternative
Fuels
1. Overview of Biojet
Fuels in 2013
1.1
Chapter Summary
1.2
Background
1.3
The Challenges
10
1.4
Progress in Sustainable
Alternative Fuels
for Aviation
1.4.1
Commercial Use of
Alternative Fuels
1.4.2
Technology Developments
11
1.4.3
States and
Multi-Stakeholders
Initiatives
1.4.4
Outcomes of ICAOs
Assembly
12
1
Figure 1 multi-stakeholder initiatives (from announcements referenced in ICAOs GFAAF database1). Situation as of October 2013.
13
1.5
Conclusion
14
2. Technical Certification
2
2.1
Chapter Summary
2.2
Introduction
2.3
15
limitation. Fuels that are found not to be drop-in fuels do not meet the existing approved operating limitation and
must therefore undergo a separate regulatory approval process following the ASTM International qualification
process (see Figure 2).
16
established by the fuel producer prior to the initiation of the D4054 test program. The D4054 data is
used to demonstrate that the proposed specification
properties are sufficiently robust to ensure that all
synthetic blending components meeting those properties will be fit-for-purpose for use on turbine engines
and aircraft when blended with conventional jet fuel.
The D4054 data must also substantiate that the
proposed specification properties adequately control
the blending component performance when subjected
to the process variability that is expected to occur
during large-scale production. The D4054 data and
the proposed specification properties are then used
as the basis for development of a proposed annex
for incorporation into D7566 as a drop-in synthetic
jet fuel. The iterative nature of this process evolves
from the re-adjustment of the initial proposed specification properties that typically occurs upon review
of the D4054 test results by the ASTM membership.
2.4
ASTM Research
Report Overview
2.4.1
Process Description
ASTM Research Reports typically start with an overview of the pathway, or process that is used to produce
the new fuel. A description of feedstock requirements,
process steps, and intermediary products is provided
(see Figure 4 for an example). The process description
is important because it is used to establish the controlling definition of the fuel which will be specified in the
D7566 specification annex.
Figure 4 ATJ-SPK Process Description (extracted from ATJ-SPK ASTM Research Report Version-October 17, 2013)
17
2.4.2
Figure 5 Composition of Neat ATJ-SPK Samples (extracted from ATJ-SPK ASTM Research Report, Version-October 17, 2013)
18
Figure 6 Viscosity of HDCJ fuel as a function of temperature (Extracted from HDCJ ASTM Research Report Version 4, November
2012). Stars represent HDCJ samples, which fall within the acceptable range.
19
Figure 7 Elastomeric Seal Material Compatibility of Blended ATJ Fuel (extracted from ATJ-SPK ASTM Research Report,
Version-October 17, 2013)
The FFP properties include data on many fuel performance properties, plus data on fuel handling and
storage and performance in ground filtration systems.
The Tier 1 and 2 data section typically concludes with
an environmental and toxicology assessment which
will assess the impact of the new fuel relative to petroleum-derived jet fuel.
2.4.3
Tier 3 Component/rig/
APU Testing
20
2
Figure 11 Honeywell Lean Blowout Data (extracted from ATJ-SPK
ASTM Research Report, Version-October 17, 2013)
Figure 9 Droplet Size Comparison (extracted from ATJ-SPK ASTM
Research Report, Version-October 17, 2013)
2.4.4
21
Figure 12 Honeywell HTF7000 Engine Durability Test (extracted from 2012 CRC Aviation Fuel Meeting Presentation,
USDOT / RITA / Volpe Center Alt Fuels Propulsion Engine Durability Evaluation, May 2, 2012)
2.5
There are currently nine active task forces in the aviation fuel subcommittee of ASTM International that are
in various stages of the D4054 qualification process
(see Figure 13). The following is an overview of the
status of each of these task forces.
2.5.1
2.5.2
Approved Fuels
22
2.5.3
23
2.5.4
2.6
Conclusion
24
3. Sustainability
3
3.1
Chapter Summary
Different sustainability standards are in use for aviation biofuels, both regulatory and voluntary. A selection
of the most relevant standards is described in more
detail in this chapter. Due to the considerable differences between these standards, there is a need for
harmonization.
The three standards reviewed in this chapter are the
Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB), the
International Sustainability and Carbon Certification
(ISCC), and US Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS). The
RSB has recently certified the first biojet fuel supplier
(SkyNRG) and several aviation biofuel initiatives have
recommended using RSB standards for their biofuel
supplies. The ISCC is the most widely-used of the
voluntary certification schemes that are recognized
under the European Renewable Energy Directive
(RED). The US RFS provides a very effective incentive
system based on tradable certificates (RINs) that are
generated for each batch of biofuel.
IATA gratefully acknowledges Rolf Hogan at RSB and
Andreas Feige at ISCC for their contributions to this
chapter.
3.2
Introduction
25
3.3
Roundtable on
Sustainable Biomaterials
2013 has seen steady progress on biofuel sustainability in aviation through wider commitment to the
RSB standard and the first RSB-certified biojet coming
online. The Natural Resource Defense Council called
for stronger commitment to the RSB by the sector
and Midwest Sustainable Aviation Biofuels Initiative
(MASBI) recognized the standard in its findings. The
RSB multi-stakeholder process has also endorsed an
approach to address the indirect impacts of biofuels
which will allow airlines to identify RSB certified fuels
that have not displaced food production or led to the
destruction of natural habitats. The months ahead look
set for further progress on sustainability as the RSBBoeing initiative to encourage certification of small
farmers picks up speed.
It has been a busy year for RSB with a newly independent secretariat being established in Geneva,
the expansion of scope of the standard into biomaterials and the adoption of a new name Roundtable
on Sustainable Biomaterials. The expansion of scope
allows the certification of other forms of bioenergy such
as biogas as well as a range of materials produced
from biomass including bio-plastics and lubricants.
The new Secretariat has been busy streamlining the
standard to make it more user-friendly and revising the
standard in line with the expansion of scope.
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
8. https://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Documents/agm69-resolution-cng2020.pdf
26
3.3.4
Advocating Sustainability
3.3.5
In the USA, in June 2013 the Midwest Aviation Sustainable Biofuels Initiative (MASBI) published its findings
recommending the use of sustainability criteria consistent with international credible standards such as the
RSB. This initiative, led by United Airlines, Boeing,
the city of Chicago, Honeywells UOP and Clean
Energy Trust, echoes the findings of similar initiatives
in Brazil, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand and the US
Pacific Northwest.
3.3.6
3.3.7
Promoting Smallholder
Production with Boeings
Global Corporate Citizenship
Program
With the help of Boeings Global Corporate Citizenship program the RSB has launched an initiative to
promote the integration of the RSB standard into rural
development. The program should lead to an increased
production of sustainable biofuel while supporting
3.3.8
9. http://www.liib.org
27
3.3.9
Fast-track Certification of
Fuels from Forest Residues
The certification of biofuel production from forest residues will be facilitated by a simplified audit process for
forest management certified by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). Thanks to a comparative analysis
of the RSB and FSC standards, which identified gaps
and areas of overlap, FSC-certified operators will be
able to receive RSB certification by demonstrating
compliance only with those RSB requirements which
are not already covered by their FSC certification.
The main gaps are greenhouse gas calculation and
food security. Similar comparative studies are nearing
completion for the Bonsuccro standard and the International Finance Corporation (IFC) Sustainability
Framework Performance Standards.
3.4
The US Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for developing and implementing regulations
to ensure that transportation fuel sold in the United
States contains a minimum volume of renewable fuel.
The RFS was created under the Energy Policy Act
of 2005 and expanded in the Energy Independence
and Security Act of 2007 (EISA). The expanded RFS
(referred to as RFS2) established a mandate objective
of 36 billion gallons of biofuel use by 2022. While the
program is focused on ground transportation, entities
producing biomass based jet fuel can qualify for financial credit under the system.
RFS2 has the following three key properties:
1. The total renewable fuel requirement is divided
into four separate, but nested categories, each
with its own volume requirement.
Threshold reduction10
Conventional biofuel
20%
50%
50%
60%
3.4.1
Renewable Identification
Numbers under the RFS
10. Source: Regulatory Announcement EPA Finalizes Regulations for the National Renewable Fuel Standard Program
for 2010, EPA-420-F-10-007, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, EPA, February 3, 2010.
28
40
Conventional Biofuel
35
30
Billoin Gallons
25
20
15
10
0
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
Year
3.4.2
A number of additional pathways remain under consideration and are likely to evolve in the medium term.
The EPA has set up a petition process for evaluation
of new renewable fuel pathways. Pathways currently
under review through the petition process include the
following:
29
3.5
International Sustainability
and Carbon Certification
(ISCC)
30
3.5.1
3.5.2
Certification Scope
Farm/
plantation
Sustainability
audit by
independent
certification
body
Transport
Veg oil
producer
Transport
Chain of custody
audit by
independent
certification
body
Hydrogenation
plant
Chain of custody
audit by
independent
certification
body
Transport
Blender
Transport
Airport
Chain of custody
audit by
independent
certification
body
Certificate
Certificate
Certificate
31
ISCC sustainability criteria go beyond the RED requirements, which mainly focus on land use change after
the year 2008. The ISCC sustainability requirements
also cover the protection of areas with high biodiversity value, areas with high carbon stock and peat land
as well as land use change of protected areas after
January 2008. In addition to the land use requirements,
farms and plantations must comply with good agricultural practices, measures for environmental protection,
provide safe working conditions and social sustainability as well as compliance with laws and regulations.
Further details on the individual sustainability criteria
can be found within the ISCC document 20211.
11. http://www.iscc-system.org/en/certification-process/certification/basics/
32
4. Economics
4.1
Chapter Summary
4.2
33
4.3
$7
$6
$5
$4
$3
$2
$1
$0
2000
2010
2020
Year
2030
2040
Figure 17 EIA price projections for jet fuel in the United States
from 2012 Annual Energy Outlook. All values in year 2012
U.S. dollars.
Pathway
Quantity in L
(gal)
Total Cost
Min $/L
($/gal)
Max $/L
($/gal)
Contracts
(Suppliers)
HRJ/HEFA15
4,108,428
(1,085,450)
$41,534,620
10.11
(38.26)
7.07
(26.75)
39.37
(149.00)
12
(4)
FT16
2,763,050
(730,000)
$2,745,650
0.99
(3.76)
0.90
(3.41)
1.85
(7.00)
4
(3)
ATJ17
352,005
(93,000)
$5,487,000
15.59
(59.00)
15.59
(59.00)
15.59
(59.00)
4
(1)
DSH18
162,755
(43,000)
$1,106,390
6.80
(25.73)
6.80
(25.73)
6.80
(25.73)
4
(1)
HDC-D19
24,603
(6,500)
$57,525
2.34
(8.85)
2.34
(8.85)
2.34
(8.85)
2
(1)
Table 2 Alternative fuel purchases made by the U.S. Department of Defense shown by fuel pathway, from 2007 to November 2012.
Source: DLA Energy. Some prices may be artificially high, as contracts may also include R&D costs in addition to production costs.
Note 1 gal = 3.785 L
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) jet fuel is derived from gasification of carbonaceous feedstocks and the subsequent
conversion and upgrading of synthesis gas to liquid
fuels via a catalytic process. The U.S. military bought
730,000 gallons of FT jet fuel at an average price of
$0.99/L ($3.76/gal), though not from renewable feedstocks. The cost difference to conventional jet fuel in
DLAs procurement is the lowest for FT jet fuel.
15. Hydroprocessed Renewable Jet/Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids from camelina, algal oil, used cooking oil, tallow
16. Fischer-Tropsch Jet Fuel from natural gas, coal
17. Alcohol to Jet from alcohols
18. Direct Sugar to Hydrocarbon from sugar fermentation
19. Hydrotreated Depolymerized Cellulosic Diesel from lignocellulosic biomass
20. International Air Transport Association, (2012): IATA 2012 Report on Alternative Fuels, Montreal Geneva.
34
Alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) processes use commodity alcohols (ethanol, butanol) as platform molecules for
oligomerization or catalytic synthesis reactions.
Alcohols can also be produced from biomass via
advanced fermentation processes. So far, less than
378,500 L (100,000 gal) of ATJ were purchased by
the U.S military from a single supplier at a price of
$15.59/L ($59/gal).
Direct sugar-to-hydrocarbon (DSH) pathways rely on
genetically-engineered microorganisms that digest
sugars and produce hydrocarbon fuel components
(as opposed to alcohols, which are upgraded
in a separate process). DLA Energy procured
163,755 L (43,000 gal) of DSH jet fuel at a price of
$6.80/L ($25.73/gal).
Hydrotreated Depolymerized Cellulosic Diesel
(HDC-D) fuels are produced by hydrous pyrolysis
of biomass feedstocks followed by hydroprocessing
of the pyrolysis oil. So far, only 24,600 L (6,500 gal)
of HDC-D fuel have been purchased, at a price of
$2.34/L ($8.85/gal).
For commercial aviation, there is limited data available on costs of alternative fuel purchase agreements.
In 2011, Alaska Airlines purchased 105,980 L
(28,000 gal) of renewable jet fuel from used cooking
oil at an average price of $4.49/L ($17/gal)21.
In mid-2013, United Airlines entered into a purchase
agreement for 56.8 million L (15 million gal) of jet fuel
from agricultural waste and non-edible oils. There is no
data publicly accessible on the purchase price of this
renewable fuel. However, both parties state that the
fuel will be sold at prices competitive with conventional
jet fuel, which is likely inclusive of monetary incentives
through RFS222.
4.4
Theoretical Purchase
Prices
21. http://seattletimes.com/html/businesstechnology/2016719598_alaska09.html
22. http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/united-airlines-and-altair-fuels-to-bring-commercial-scale-cost-competitive-biofuels-toaviation-industry-210073841.html
23. Jones S, Male J, (2012): Production of Gasoline and Diesel from Biomass via Fast Pyrolysis, Hydrotreating and Hydrocracking:
2011 State of Technology and Projections to 2017, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, report PNNL-22133.
24. Pearlson M, Wollersheim C, Hileman J, (2013): A techno-economic review of hydroprocessed renewable esters and fatty acids
for jet fuel production, Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 8996.
35
HRJ/HEFA
FT
ATJ
Feedstock
Baseline ($/L)
High ($/L)
Soybean oil
1.16
1.20
1.27
Tallow
1.05
1.09
1.16
Yellow grease
0.88
0.92
0.99
Natural gas
0.77
1.03
1.28
Coal
0.87
1.17
1.97
Switchgrass
1.42
1.97
2.52
Sugar cane
0.61
1.37
2.34
Corn grain
0.71
1.57
3.65
Switchgrass
1.09
2.01
6.28
Table 3 Theoretical fuel prices for alternative jet fuels from different feedstocks and pathways.
Sources: Footnote 24 and ongoing MIT research.
4.5
Cost Drivers
25. Carter N, Stratton R, Bredehoeft M, (2011): Energy and Environmental Viability of Select Alternative Jet Fuel Pathways, AIAA 20115968, 47th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit, San Diego, CA, August 2011.
36
Feedstock OpEx
Non-Feedstock OpEx
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Figure 18 Percent contributions of operating and capital expenses to minimum selling prices.
Sources: Footnote 24 and ongoing MIT research.
4.6
As has been shown above, feedstock costs play a critical role for the economics of biofuels, especially in the
case of HEFA jet fuel. Waste oils and animal fats are
cheaper feedstocks that lead to relatively lower fuel
prices but are limited in availability. Alternative low-cost
feedstocks for HEFA processes include oilseed crops
grown in rotation with other crops on land that otherwise would have been left fallow, thereby increasing
the efficiency of land use. Two promising rotation
crops in the US include pennycress and camelina.
As long as oilseed rotation crops do not impact pest
control, moisture, and nutrient content of the soil in
comparison to fallow land, there are no opportunity
costs associated with using this land for these crops.
Costs are only incurred during the actual cultivation.
In a recent study, Winchester et al. (2013) estimate
that HEFA jet fuel from rotation crops in the U.S. such
as camelina and pennycress could be produced at
around $0.98/L ($3.70/gal)26. This paper also states
that these rotation crops could potentially be grown
on ~43 million acres in the U.S. per year, which could
yield up to 12. 1 billion L (3.2 billion gal) of renewable
jet fuel per year.
26. Winchester N, McConnachie D, Wollersheim C, (2013): Economic and Emissions Impacts of Renewable Fuel Goals
for Aviation in the US, in: Transportation Research Part A, forthcoming.
37
4.7
Concluding Remarks
38
5.1
Chapter Summary
5.2
US Defence Logistics
Agency (DLA) Energy
Biofuels Initiatives
5.2.1
Overview
IATA gratefully acknowledges Pam Serino (DLA), Kyriakos Maniatis (EC), Stefanio Pescarolo (Biochemtex),
Alexander Zschocke (DLH), Cesar Velarde CatolfiSalvoni (ITAKA), Angelica Hull (Swedish Biofuels),
Marcelo de Freitas Goncalves (Embraer) and Lukas
Rohlder (aireg) for their contributions to this chapter.
5.2.2
Military Application
DLA Energy has supported the services in their alternative fuel certification and approval efforts through
numerous procurement actions. During 2007 and 2008
DLA Energy awarded three contracts for 730,000
gallons of Fischer Tropsch aviation fuels derived from
both coal and natural gas feedstocks, fulfilling the
quantities required by the Air Force for testing and
certification. In 2009 and 2010 DLA Energy established seven contracts totaling 800,000 gallons for
delivery of hydrotreated renewable (HR) JP-8, JP-5
and F-76 for Air Force, Army and Navy certifications
programs. These fuels were derived from a variety
of feedstocks including camelina, tallow and algal
oil. Currently undergoing certification is fuel derived
from the dehydration and oligomerization of alcohols.
Over the past couple years DLA Energy has awarded
five contracts for alcohol to jet (ATJ) JP-8 and JP-5
for a total of 73,000 gallons. Lastly, DLA Energy has
supported other Navy certification efforts by awarding
contracts for alternative marine fuel F-76 derived
from direct sugar to hydrocarbon (43,000 gallons)
and hydroprocessed depolymerized cellulosic diesel
39
5.2.3
Promoting Commercialization
40
5.2.4
Pursuant to the concerns of biofuel feedstock availability, DLA has commissioned a study that is assessing
the factors related to their complete logistics chains
(including production, harvesting/recovery, oil extraction
and transportation to a refining/processing location).
The goal of the study is to develop sustainability metrics
for domestically produced, next generation (non-food
related) feedstocks to allow DLA Energy to establish
a foundation for assessing the further development of
feedstocks and feedstock processing. The metrics will
be used to evaluate existing feedstocks to assist in
determining which have the most viable sustainability
in order to enhance DoD acquisitions of biofuels; identify and evaluate new feedstocks; and identify areas
in renewable fuel production (feedstock growth, oil
extraction, oil processing etc.) in which improvements
can be made. The metrics address such elements
as land requirements; water requirements; economic
viability; greenhouse gas/carbon and other emissions;
current feedstock oil extraction methods/capabilities;
and environmental impacts and related concerns. The
study, initiated in 2011, was completed in early 2013;
the architecture developed by the project contractor,
LMI Government Consulting, addresses the sustainability of accepted biofuel production pathways,
specific to feedstocks used, by evaluating the risks
of a production enterprise to the existing Class III B
supply chain into which biofuels would be incorporated. Using technical indicator sheets developed by
LMI which address key measurable metrics, a total risk
assessment of a production enterprise can be determined, and with it an acceptability rating of contracting
for fuel from the enterprise, particularly for long term
contracts (which many start up enterprises desire in
order to justify initial capital requirements).
Through partnerships across the biofuels stakeholder
value chain, DLA Energy aims to assist the alternative fuels industry to grow into a strong supplier base.
With such a base, DLA Energy could then continue
doing what we have done for decades: buying fuel
for its customers, no matter how the product may
have changed.
5.3
The EU Biofuels
Flightpath Initiative
5.3.1
Background27
5.3.2
Objectives
27. The background and objectives were first presented in IATAs 2012 Report on Alternative Fuels.
28. Airbus, Lufthansa, Air France/KLM, British Airways, Neste Oil, Biomass Technology Group, UOP, Chemtex Italia, UPM
and the Directorate General for Energy
41
5.3.3
42
5.3.4
5.4
The European
Commissions Seventh
Framework Programme
43
5
5.4.1
44
Beyond this main technological and research objective, ITAKA also aims to contribute to the achievement
of a further EU objective: the need to coordinate efforts
and complementarities among European Initiatives on
sustainable aviation fuels, highlighted in the Flightpath
section above, and identified in the EU SWAFEA Study
(2011) recommendations: Setting up a knowledge
and test capability network within the EU to provide an
EU-based fuel evaluation capability.
ITAKA has been built aiming to engage key stakeholders participating in different EU initiatives in the
field, to make a first significant step in the establishment of such European network.
The project is framed in the implementation of the EU
policies, implementation of the EIBI of the SET-Plan
and specifically aims to be a contribution to the fulfilment of some of the short-term (2015) EU Flight Path
objectives and to the implementation of the EIBI of the
SET-Plan.
5.4.1.2 Technological/Scientific Impacts
The outcome of this project is significant since a negative result would impede large-scale commercialization
whereas a positive impact would support the case for
further development.
One of the most important technological steps taken in
ITAKA is testing the supply of aviation biofuel through
the normal logistic channels. Currently, aviation biofuel
is moved through dedicated systems, but when
existing infrastructure can be used as a result of nondedicated system improvements and tests, significant
cost reductions can be realised in the down-stream
logistics. This will bring the economic viability of biojet
fuel a step closer to reality.
One of the potential barriers to large-scale commercialisation in the EU market is the limited supply of
EU RED-certified biofuel (see Chapter 3). This project
will help overcome that barrier by conducting the first
full supply chain certification and by solidifying the
45
The main barrier to surpass in certifying larger quantities of sustainable biofuel is the psychological
barrier associated with subjecting a production facility
through the process of certification. The initial reluctance to certify stems from a lack of experience with
the certification process. The certification of the whole
chain will raise scientifically sound information that
will help to improve and further develop the regulatory
framework.
46
In conclusion, ITAKA will help to demonstrate the readiness of the technology to produce aviation biofuels in a
socially, and environmentally sustainable manner. With
a scale-up model under development by SENASA
(Section 5.4.4), these results will be extrapolated to
the 2020 scenario to further understand the impact in
the medium-long term.
5.4.2
Swedish Biofuels
5.4.2.1 Overview
The EU has demonstrated increased interest in the
greening of the aviation industry with substantial financial support for the Swedish Biofuels technology
that converts biomass to jet fuel via alcohols. A precommercial industrial scale plant with an annual
capacity of up to 10,000 tonnes of aviation fuel and
diesel will be constructed.
5.4.2.2 International Consortium
Swedish Biofuels AB will coordinate an international consortium over the next five years with the
goal of producing paraffinic biofuels for use in aviation. The project will be performed with the support
of the European Commission under the Framework
Programme 7.
The consortium consists of organisations with the
capability of supplying raw materials, designing,
constructing, and operating a pre-commercial industrial scale plant for the production of fully synthetic jet
fuel. Consortium members will also offer the possibility
of testing the biofuel in aircraft systems. Within the
scope of the project, environmental Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) will be carried out. The members of the
consortium are Swedish Biofuels (SE, jet fuel production process), Abengoa (ES, municipal solid waste
to ethanol), Lufthansa (DE, engine testing and flight),
SkyNRG (NL, marketing), E4Tech (CH, life cycle analysis), SCA (SE, raw material supply), Rameski Keskus
(EE, equipment), Perstorp (SE, industrial site), LanzaTech (UK, syngas to ethanol) and Vrije Universiteit
Brussel (BE, policy studies).
The capacity of the plant will be 10,000 tonnes per
year, of which 50% consists of jet fuel, the rest being
the byproducts aviation gasoline (AVGAS) and diesel.
The jet fuel produced will be compatible, without
blending, with in-service and envisaged jet engines for
both civilian and military applications. It will consume a
variety of sustainable raw materials focusing on wood,
municipal solid waste and biogas.
47
5.4.3
BIOREFLY Project
5.4.3.1 Overview
The BIOREFLY project is expected to be a 2000 ton
per year industrial scale demonstration biorefinery in
lignin-based aviation fuel.
The European Commission supports advanced
biofuels research and innovation, particularly in order
to improve production processes and to lower costs
for biofuel deployment. One of the principal measures
48
5
Figure 19 Biochemtex-IBP 40,000 ton/y second generation bioethanol plant Crescentino, It
49
50
5.4.4
The Spanish
Bioqueroseno Initiative
The Spanish Initiative for the Production and Consumption of Biokerosene for Aviation30 has its origins after
the first International Conference on Alternative Fuels
for Aviation that ICAO held in 2009, in which urged
States to encourage the development of sustainable
alternative fuels for aviation.
After two years of work with stakeholders, the Biokerosene Initiative was formalized in 2011, with the signing
of an agreement between the Spanish Ministries of
Industry & Energy, Transport (through the Civil Aviation
Authority) and Agriculture & Environment. SENASA,
a State-owned company linked to the Civil Aviation
Authority, coordinates this through the Observatory
of Sustainability in Aviation31 and several stakeholders
involved through the value-chain have joined.
5.5
5.5.1
Overview
5.5.2
5.5.2.2 Cameroon
A third feedstock that aireg is pursuing is Jatropha.
Together with the German Federal Ministry of Economic
Development aireg is investigating the set-up of a
lighthouse project in Cameroon that shall incorporate
the latest seeds and agricultural best-practices. As an
integral part of the project, the local community is to
benefit from a strict adherence to sustainability criteria
and rural development goals. By demonstrating the
economic viability of Jatropha as a feedstock for the
production of alternative aviation fuel, the project
would serve as a reference for a subsequent expansion of Jatropha cultivation in the region.
5.5.2.3 Russia
The vast amounts of underused land in parts of
Southern Russia and the suitability of camelina for
the local climate led aireg to support a conference
on the crop in Penza/ Russia. Farmers and agricultural conglomerates interested in cultivating camelina
founded the Association of Russian Camelina Growers
on-site. As a result, several thousand tons of certified
camellia oil was already available in 2013. The new
Association will foster the cooperation between the
agricultural sector and research institutions to provide
a significantly larger amount of camelina oil in the years
to come.
Feedstock development
5.5.2.1 Germany
A consortium of aireg members is assessing and developing several algae-based jet fuel pathways as part
of the AUFWIND project coordinated by Forschungzentrum Jlich. In order to prepare an industrial-scale
algae production, 5.75 million have been awarded
by the German Federal Ministry of Agriculture. The
project includes economic and ecologic analysis
of the entire value chain and will optimize different
photobioreactors to local conditions. After the 3-year
project phase with three pilot plants it is intended to
build at least one integrated demonstrator of the bestperforming pathway.
51
5
Figure 22 AUFWIND project structure
5.5.3
52
airegs market deployment strategy calls for an ambitious public support for alternative aviation fuels from
now until at least 2020. The initiative is confident that
the ecological and economic benefits can only be
realized with initial sizable funding for feedstock development and capacity building for refineries.
5.5.4
The most significant gathering of the growing alternative jet fuel sector in 2013 occurred during the Paris Air
Show. As in Paris 2011 and in Berlin 2012, the global
initiatives of CAAFI, aireg, AISAF and GIFAS put on
a remarkable presence with their Alternative Aviation
Fuels Pavilion (AAFP) run and organized by Kallman
Worldwide. With numerous international exhibitors
and an attractive presentation program throughout the
week, the AAFP drew significant crowds. Given its
previous success, AAFP will once more be the center
of gravity for all value chain partners during Berlin Air
Show 2014.
5.5.5
Policy Statements
5.6
Flightpath to Aviation
Biofuels in Brazil:
Action Plan
The study, conducted by UNICAMP (the State University of Campinas), encompassed eight workshops in
Brazil with the collaboration of more than 30 stakeholders with strong focus on feedstock, refining
technologies and logistics. Sustainability as a critical
issue was considered throughout the supply chain.
Polices to implement this new industry was one of
the outcomes. In addition, there were three regional
outreach workshops, conducted by EPFL and 4CDM,
which helped broaden the range of perspectives on
challenges and opportunities.
5.6.1
Feedstock
53
Figure 23 Land use and planted area with some biofuel feedstock in Brazil and potential for expansion.
5.6.2
Conversion and
Refining Process
5.6.3
Sustainability
32. This Figure does not represent the views of all stakeholders in the Project.
54
5.6.4
Logistics
Figure 25 Identified pathways for the production of sustainable jet biofuel in Brazil33
33. [Note: HEFA Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids; CH Catalytic Hydrothermolysis; DSHC Direct fermentation of Sugars
to Hydrocarbons; ATJ Alcohol to Jet; FT Fischer-Tropsh hydroprocessed synthesized paraffinic kerosene; HDCJ Hydrotreated
Depolymerized Cellulosic to Jet].
55
5.6.5
Conclusion
56
6. Notable Developments
6.1
Chapter Summary
6.2
Midwest Aviation
Sustainable Biofuels
Initiative (MASBI)
6.2.1
Summary
57
6
MASBI produced the report following a year-long
analysis of the benefits that could be delivered from
a robust sustainable aviation biofuels industry in the
Midwest. Noting the progress made in developing
biofuels, including its use on more than 1,500 commercial aviation flights globally, the coalition agreed
that more must be done to achieve the sustainable
production of commercial-scale and cost-competitive
advanced biofuels from sources such as non-food
crops and waste products. MASBI issued its report
in Chicago at a summit of aviation and energy experts,
biofuel developers, environmental organizations,
government officials and research institutions.
The aviation industry is interested in the development of alternatives to petroleum-based jet fuels to
address its largest operating cost and most significant
impact on the environment. The benefits of building
this industry extend beyond aviation. Developing a
commercial market for aviation biofuels has the potential to create jobs, generate economic growth, and
further contribute to innovation.
58
6.2.2
Fuels Initiative (CAAFI), the intent is to emphasize market demand, spur innovative approaches
to partnership across the value chain, and obtain
delivery of renewable fuel to be used in daily
operations.
In partnership with Boeing and Honeywells UOP,
United is funding the development of a $50,000
prize at the Clean Energy Trusts 2014 Clean
Energy Challenge. The prize will be directed
towards advanced biofuels projects in the
Midwest. The Clean Energy Challenge has been
a catalyst in jump-starting innovation within the
Midwest by allowing clean energy entrepreneurs
at varying stages of development to compete for
funding and to receive other resources for growth,
improving their chances of success.
Steering Committee members supported the
awarded group of Universities in their bid for the
Federal Aviation Administrations (FAA) new Air
Transportation Center of Excellence (COE) for
alternate jet fuels and the environment. Steering
Committee members Boeing, United, Honeywells
UOP and the Clean Energy Trust were all organizational partners for the Center of Excellence
and are committed to supporting this ongoing
research, which is critical for the future sustainable growth of the aviation industry.
59
6.2.3
60
6.3
Innovative Developments
at KLM
6.3.1
New Partnerships
In June 2012, KLM launched the worlds first Corporate bioFuel programme for contracted corporate
accounts. This allows the staff of the contracted
companies to fly a part of their company travel or their
travel on specific routes on sustainable biofuel. The
programme aims to stimulate the further development
and production of biofuels and as such reduces the
aviation industrys carbon footprint. In one year, the
number of programme partners has more than doubled
to fifteen. KLMs BioFuel Programme now includes the
City of Amsterdam, Loyens & Loeff, PGGM, FMO,
Delta Air Lines, Siemens, TomTom and CBRE Global
Investors. They followed initial customers including
Ahold, Accenture, DSM, Heineken, Nike, Philips and
Schiphol Group who have been supporting KLMs
BioFuel programme from the very beginning.
In 2013 KLM, Schiphol Group, Delta Air Lines, and the
Port Authority of New York initiated a joint project and
expanded cooperation resulting in the series of flights
from New York with sustainable biofuel.
61
6
6.3.2
62
6.3.3
6.4
Alternative Fuel
Developments in the
Nordic Countries
6.4.1
Overview
Climate Change, Global Warming, Pollution, Sustainability, Food Shortage, Growing World Population
and you-name-it-Green; subjects that we read about
almost daily in the media and issues that concerns
us all. Most human activities in our society and daily
life cause GHG emissions and pollution and aviation is no exception (2% to 3% of the total, global
manmade CO2 emissions). Consequently, we hear
voices stating stop flying, it pollutes and the world
is in financial crisis, we cant afford investing in a transition to alternative energy, away from a society based
on fossil fuels.
To quote James Hansen of NASA Global warming
is not a problem for the future; its a crisis for this
moment! Its a task for our generation! The good
news is that aviation is being extremely proactive in
efforts to reduce such CO2 emissions by introducing
new aircraft and engine technology as well as new
operational procedures and alternative fuels.
The latest IPCC report underlined and emphasized
that we are moving too slowly and we shall have difficulties to keep even the maximum 2 degrees Celsius
ceiling that the UN and many others have set as the
acceptable increase in average global temperature
before we reach a point of no return. This is further
recognition and confirmation of the seriousness of
this issue.
63
6.4.2
64
6.4.3
Airlines
Organizations
Authorities
Airports
Manufacturers
Boeing, Airbus
6.4.4
Feedstock Alternatives
6.5
SkyNRG
During 2013 SkyNRG invested in its Bioport proposition, which essentially creates a demand centre at
the end of the supply chain (airport/airline combination) and from there helps to structure a regional bio
jet fuel supply chain. A regional effort, in which the
airline plays an instrumental role in enabling the supply
chain, has multiple benefits including significant GHG
reductions. For example, it reduces price volatility,
helps improve regional energy security, brings social
economic development to (rural) areas, stimulates
innovation and research & development, and creates
a basis for new industries to grow or existing industries to diversify. Furthermore it engages a wide range
of (local) stakeholders as well; government, farmers,
industry, investors, knowledge institutes, NGOs etc.
A first tangible result of this strategy was announced
in April 2013, when SkyNRG launched its first Bioport
with Virgin Australia and Brisbane Airport Corporation34. The partnership expects to have a commercial
scale, regional bio jet fuel supply chain up and running
before 2020.
6.6
6.6.1
34. [http://www.virginaustralia.com/au/en/about-us/media/2013/VA_BRIS_SKYNRG_BIOPORT/
65
66
Figure 27 A KLM Boeing 777-200 is fueled at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York. Photo source: SkyNRG
6.7
6.7.1
6.7.2
Latin America
6.7.3
Europe
67
6.7.4
6.7.5
North America
68
Glossary
The applied definitions and acronyms in the report are mentioned in this glossary.
Definitions
1st generation biofuel
2nd generation biofuel
Agricultural residues
Alternative fuel
Anaerobic digestion
Aromatics
ASTM D1655
ASTM D7566
Barrel
Biochemical
Biodiesel
Biofuel
Biojet fuel
Biomass
Blend
Butanol
Carbon footprint
Carbon neutral
Catalyst
Cellulose
Cloud point
Def Stan 91-91
Density
Distillation
Drop-in fuel
Esterification
Ethanol
FAME/FAEE
Feedstock
Forest residues
Fractionation
Freezing point
FT fuel
Fuel additive
Gasification
Gallon
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocracking
Hydrogenated
Hydrotreatment
Hydroprocessing
= biofuel produced from biomass that may compete with food production,
degrade fresh water supply, cause deforestation and/or reduce biodiversity
= biofuel made from sustainable, non-food biomass such as algae, jatropha, etc.
= by-products from agriculture that are not or not well utilized
= fuel from non-petroleum source
= digestion in the absence of oxygen
= molecule with a carbon ring of unsaturated bonds
= ASTM Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels
= Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels Containing
Synthesized Hydrocarbons
= volume measure of 159 liters or 42 US gallons
= processing material with organisms or enzymes
= alkyl esters derived from fatty acids
= fuel produced out of biomass
= jet fuel produced out of biomass
= renewable biological raw material such as plants, algae, organic waste etc.
= mixing of different types of fuel
= alcohol with a 4-carbon atom based carbon chain
= net amount of carbon dioxide emissions addressed to the applied product
= with zero carbon footprint (CO2 emissions = CO2 absorption)
= material that facilitates a chemical reaction
= organic compound consisting of linked D-glucose units
= temperature at which solids (wax) begin to form and separate from the fuel
= UK Defense Standard for Turbine Fuel, Aviation Kerosene Type
= mass per unit volume
= the separation of liquids by means of difference in boiling points
= alternative fuel that is indistinguishable from conventional fuel, with no changes
of aircraft, engine or supply infrastructure required
= process to produce esters from fatty acids and alcohols, e.g. FAME and FAEE
= drinkable alcohol with 2 carbon atoms
= Fatty Acid Methyl Esters/Fatty Acid Ethyl Esters ester based biodiesels
= raw material such as biomass, oils, fats, coal and gas
= by-products from forestry industries
= physical separation through progressive evaporation of volatile components
= temperature at which a solid melts on warming
= fuel produced with the Fischer Tropsch process
= additive to fuel to improve a certain property
= process transforming feedstock into CO and H2 under high temperature
= 3.785 Liters
= molecules made out of carbon and hydrogen, used as fuels
= cutting down carbon chains under influence of hydrogen
= raw material upgraded by hydroprocessing
= saturating and removing impurities in hydrocarbons using hydrogen
= upgrading of oils with hydrogen, current technology in refineries
69
Industry residues
Lignin
Marginal lands
Methanol
Oil-crops
Paraffin
Polymerization
Pyrolysis
Solid biomass
Specific energy
SPK
Sustainable biomass
Switch grass
Syngas
Thermal stability
Waxes
70
Acronyms
AEMP
AER
AFRL
ASTM
ATA
BTL
BTU
CAA
CAAFI
CO2
CTL
DLA
DOE
EC
EPA
ETS
EU
EUA
EUAA
FT
FAA
FAE
FAEE
FAME
GE
GHG
GTL
HEFA
HRJ
ICAO
IEA
LCA
LGE
MJ
OEM
PARTNER
PPP
RED
RFS
RSB
SPK
SWAFEA
USAF
71
Acknowledgements
IATA would like to express its appreciation to the following experts for their valuable contributions
to this report:
72
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