Andrea Crane

Gloria Creed-Dikeogu
Research Techniques & Technology
27 February 2016

Crane |1

How insects can be used in forensic entomology

This essay is intended to give the readers an overview of the use of insects in forensic
investigations and a glance into the scope of the interesting field of forensic entomology.
Forensic entomology is the study of the application of insects and other arthropods in criminal
investigation. Insects or arthropods are found in a decomposing vertebrate corpse or carrion.
These insect colonizers can be used to estimate the time of death, time interval between death
and corpse discovery, movement of the corpse, cause of death, and association of suspects at the
death scene.
This review is aimed at providing an analysis of the possibilities of using forensic data
based on insects and their larvae morphology, growth histories, species distribution and their
tissue toxins used in criminal investigations. An elementary knowledge of entomology is
assumed in presenting illustrated keys in most of the accounts of the relevant taxa of arthropods,
and many other insects that are found on a body at the different stages of corpse decomposition.
By expanding our knowledge into different fields of study whether that be scientific,
mathematics, or the social sciences, we expand our minds into different spheres of intelligence
we may not have been aware of earlier. My aim here is so enlighten and inspire any mind into
this interesting and most important field. The references below start the in depth journey into this
scope of practice and the different facets that are involved. For example: the stages of

Andrea Crane
Gloria Creed-Dikeogu
Research Techniques & Technology
27 February 2016

Crane |2

decomposition, different insects that are found, heat and time intervals in determining maggot
mass and time of death, and much more.
Mitochondrial DNA Investigations
Human mitochondrial DNA has become a useful tool in forensic investigations. Its polymorphic
nature and maternal inheritance are characteristics that have, combined with its sequence
information, enabled investigators to identify missing persons, war casualties and individuals
involved in mass disasters and criminal cases. Various screening procedures have been developed
to reduce the need to sequence samples that do not match, but DNA-sequence information is still
necessary to verify a match. Even though several challenges remain before mitochondrial-DNAsequence information can be used unambiguously, comparative mitochondrial-DNA-sequence
analysis appears to be a reliable and powerful means for human identification.
During the course of forensic investigations, the authors of these articles have
encountered situations where it would have been useful to have evidence, other than direct
contact between the two, for concluding that a carrion-fly maggot developed on a particular
human victim. If a maggot collected during a death investigation did not develop on the victim,
then its age is not relevant to estimating the postmortem interval. In this study they demonstrate
that mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence data can be obtained from the dissected gut of a
maggot that had fed on human tissue. These data can be used to identify both the human corpse
upon which the maggot had been feeding and the species of the maggot itself. As you may see, I

Andrea Crane
Gloria Creed-Dikeogu
Research Techniques & Technology
27 February 2016

Crane |3

have developed a pattern of what sources I am using for my exploration into forensic
entomology. These are unique in the fact that it gives a deeper look into the mitochondrial DNA
of the inside of the maggots to determine "who" the person is that has died. Each source takes a
different look into the same study so i can grasp the entire scope of what forensic entomology is
made up of. Please see references below for a well-defined look into DNA sections of this
practice.
Butler, JM and BC Levin. "Forensic applications of mitochondrial DNA." Trends Biotechnol
(1998): 16: 158-62.
Wells, JD, et al. "Human and insect Mitochondrial DNA Analysis from Maggots." J Forenesic
Science (2001): 685-687.

Overviews of Forensic Entomology including but not limited to histories, general topic
investigations, and problematic issues.
A basic knowledge of the general appearance of insect of forensic importance, and a
basic understanding of the proper methods for their collection, will allow investigators to make
accurate and representative collections from the death scene. Insects have existed on earth for
about 250 million years; comparatively humans have existed for about 300,000 years. Such an
enormous amount of time has allowed insects to attain a wide diversity in both form and

Andrea Crane
Gloria Creed-Dikeogu
Research Techniques & Technology
27 February 2016

Crane |4

development. There are currently about 700,000 described species and it is estimated that there
may be more than 10 million species of insects yet to be described. Enhanced knowledge on the
behalf of law enforcement officials will provide for better communication between police,
medical examiners, coroners, and forensic entomologists. This particular source is great for the
fact that it breaks down exactly what a researcher is looking for in each stage of body
decomposition. This information is detrimental because there are a wide variety of insects that
are present at different stages of decomposition and it directly relates to estimating the time and
death of that individual. Forensic entomology is the study of insects/arthropods in criminal
investigation. Right from the early stages insects are attracted to the decomposing body and may
lay eggs in it. By studying the insect population and the developing larval stages, forensic
scientists can estimate the postmortem index, any change in position of the corpse as well as the
cause of death. Forensic odonatologists are called upon more frequently to collaborate in
criminal investigations and hence should be aware of the possibilities that forensic entomology
have to offer and use it as an adjunct to the conventional means of forensic investigation. These
sources give a complete look into entomology, what the basis consists of, the nature of the
investigations done and the time and possible "missing pieces" that one should be aware of when
conducting such investigations. Listed below are some great sources that give us the overview.
Byrd, J. H. Forensic Entomology. 1998-2014.
<http://www.forensicentomology.com/procedure.htm>.

Andrea Crane
Gloria Creed-Dikeogu
Research Techniques & Technology
27 February 2016

Crane |5

Isaac, Joseph, et al. "The use of insects in forensic investigations: An overview on the
scope of forensic entomology." J Forensic Dent Sci. (2011): 89-91.
Insects involved in investigations & stages of decomposition
The ubiquity of entomological problems involves many people other than entomologists.
In recent decades forensic entomology has focused on the eld of medicolegal death
investigation, the main theme of this book. Perhaps recent decades is not completely
applicable. Interest in the effects of insects upon human remains has been with us since the dawn
of human history. J.H. Byrd has been a forensic pathologist for many years, and I have used his
publications throughout my research path. His insights bring much depth into this forgotten
study.
Insects are frequently the first organisms to arrive at a dead body. By their activities they
begin a biological clock that will allow for an estimation of the postmortem interval (PMI). In
this publication, the two general approaches to estimation of the PMI using entomological data
are reviewed: (a) use of individual species developmental patterns; and (b) use of arthropod
succession data. Recent advances in studies of the biologys of various Diptera (flies) have
allowed for more accurate estimates, as have recent detailed studies of the roles of various
arthropods in the decomposition process. Five stages of decomposition (fresh, bloated, decay,
post-decay, and skeletal) are suggested as reference points in the decomposition process. These

Andrea Crane
Gloria Creed-Dikeogu
Research Techniques & Technology
27 February 2016

Crane |6

stages are largely artificial, but serve as convenient references in court situations. Factors that
may delay invasion of the remains by arthropods or alter developmental patterns, such as
wrapping of the body, climate, or presence of drugs and toxins in the remains, are discussed. A
general plan of approach to the estimation of PMI using entomological data is presented. Without
such studies, it is difficult for young scientists to really grasp what they are looking for and being
able to properly identify the exact species of fly they are looking at.
1.

Fresh stage (Days 1-2): which begins at the moment of death and ends when the

bloating of the carcass is observed. Even though autolysis occurs at this stage gross
morphological changes do not occur at this point. Insects were seen attracted within the first 10
min of death to the carcass but no egg laying (oviposition) was found during this state. Cellular
breakdown also occurs during this stage. Even though morphological changes and odors are not
obvious to humans, the chemical released from the cellular breakdown attracts insects even in
this early stage.
2.

Bloated stage (Days 2-7): Putrefaction begins at this stage. Gases produced by the

metabolic activities of anaerobic bacteria cause an inflation of the abdomen and the carcass
forming a balloon-like appearance during the later part. Arthropod activities combined with the
putrefaction processes cause internal temperatures of the carcass to raise.
3.

Decay stage (Days 5-13): Abdominal wall is penetrated, resulting in the deflation

of the carcass and ending the bloated stage, the internal temperature rises to 14 degrees above the

Andrea Crane
Gloria Creed-Dikeogu
Research Techniques & Technology
27 February 2016

Crane |7

ambient temperature followed by a drop signifying the end of the decay stage. Decaying odors
are high during increased temperatures and drop with a fall in temperature. There is a steady
decrease in the weight of the carcass by 10th day because of the conversion of carcass biomass to
dipteran larval biomass. The larvae depart from the carcass to pupate.
4.

Post-decay stage (Days 10-23): The post-decay stage begins when most of the

Diptera larvae leave the carcass, leaving behind bones, cartilage, hair, small portions of tissue,
and a large amount of wet, viscous material known as byproducts of decay (BOD). The BOD is
the major site of remaining arthropod activity during this stage.
5.

Remains stage (Days 18-90+): This stage is characterized by bones with little

cartilage remaining and the body has started to dry up. The transition from post-decay to remains
stage is gradual, with declining adult and larval Diptera populations. (Tullis K and Goff M L.
1987).
Below are some publications that one may deem useful when analyzing the insects
present on a decomposing body.
Byrd, J. H and J.L. (eds.) Castner. "Forensic Entomology: the Utility of Arthropods in Legal
Investigations." CRC Press, Boca Raton (2000).
Charabidze, D., D. Gosset and V. Hedouin. "An Experimental Investigation Into the
Colonization of Concealed Cadavers by Necrophagous Blowflies." J. Insect Sci. (2015):

Andrea Crane
Gloria Creed-Dikeogu
Research Techniques & Technology
27 February 2016

Crane |8

15(1): 149.
Goff, Lee M. "Estimation of postmortem interval using arthropod development and successional
patterns." Forensic Science (1993): 81-94.
Greenberg, B. "Behavior of postfeeding larvae of some Calliphoridae and muscid (Diptera)."
Ann Entomol Soc Am (1990): 83: 1210-4.

Metcalf, Jessica L et al. A Microbial Clock Provides an Accurate Estimate of the Postmortem
Interval in a Mouse Model System. Ed. Roberto Kolter. eLife 2 (2013): e01104. PMC.
Web. 21 Feb. 2016.
Heat & time interval calculations on determining maggot mass and time of death in forensic
investigations
Establishing the time since death is critical in every death investigation, yet existing
techniques are susceptible to a range of errors and biases. For example, forensic entomology is
widely used to assess the postmortem interval (PMI), but errors can range from days to months.
Microbes may provide a novel method for estimating PMI that avoids many of these limitations.

Andrea Crane
Gloria Creed-Dikeogu
Research Techniques & Technology
27 February 2016

Crane |9

Here we show that postmortem microbial community changes are dramatic, measurable, and
repeatable in a mouse model system, allowing PMI to be estimated within approximately 3 days
over 48 days. Our results provide a detailed understanding of bacterial and microbial eukaryotic
ecology within a decomposing corpse system and suggest that microbial community data can be
developed into a forensic tool for estimating PMI. Sonja Swiger's study demonstrated that
maggot masses formed within a carcass maintain temperatures above ambient throughout larval
development. The maggots mass for Bear 3 July 2004recorded a maximum temperature of
40.59C which was 11C higher than the recorded ambient temperature. The maggot mass for
Bear 4 September 2004 recorded a maximum temperature of 49.56C which was 19C higher
than the ambient temperature. The high temperature recorded within a maggot mass suggests the
larvae are in fact regulating their developmental rates as opposed to the ambient temperature.
Her main focus was how temperature directly relates to the decomposition of the bears that were
analyzed in her study and how that correlates with the sheer number of maggots that were found
on them. Length of the oldest maggots recovered from a body often provides an accurate
estimate of the time since death. The length of maggots of Protophormia terraenovae of known
age, at peak of feeding, was measured after 5 days immersion in one of 15 killing and
preservative solutions, some of which are routinely used at autopsy and in forensic entomology;
controls were killed in boiling water. The highly significant alterations in maggot length
underscore a need for standardization in the treatment of maggots collected at the crime scene
and at autopsy if their length is to be interpreted in a valid and consistent way. Recommendations

Andrea Crane
Gloria Creed-Dikeogu
Research Techniques & Technology
27 February 2016

C r a n e | 10

are made for treatment of maggots wherever they are collected. The work of Sonja and two other
publications are listed below that demonstrate time and heat intervals as discussed in the subject
heading.
Rajagopal, Kavitha, et al. "Molecular identification of fly maggots recovered from corpses
during death scene investigation in Malaysia." AsPac J. Mol. Biol. Biotechnol. (2012):
73-82.
Swiger, Sonja Lise. "Effects of Maggot Mass on Decomposition and Post Mortem Interval
Calculations." PhD Dissertation. 2007.
Tantawi, TI and B Greenberg. "The effect of killing and preservative solutions on estimates of
maggot age in forensic cases." J Forensic Sci (1993): 38: 702-7.

Conclusion
Forensic entomology is an emerging field in forensic sciences, where the insects feeding
on corpses are studied. It has become an important tool in criminal investigations. By doing this
assignment I have gained a better understanding regarding the complexity that this field has to
offer. It is evident from my studies that molecular identification of forensically important insects
may be useful in supplementing conventional taxonomic identification. All of my publications

Andrea Crane
Gloria Creed-Dikeogu
Research Techniques & Technology
27 February 2016

C r a n e | 11

have been taken from PubMed. PubMed offers a very wide variety of scientific sources that are
reliable, up to date, and offer many different insights on this complex field. There are also many
dissertations and step by step experiments that young researchers can mirror to make their own,
which is very important to me especially considering I am in the process of writing my thesis
over Forensic Entomology in order to obtain my Bachelors Degree in Biology. However, errors
can and will be made along the way and will warrant further in-depth studies. Dr. Robert D. Hall,
forensic entomologist, states that "If you ask insects the right question, they give an honest
answer".