1.

Introduction
Water Jet Machining (WJM) and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) are two non -traditional or
non-conventional machining processes. They belong to mechanical group of non -conventional
processes like Ultrasonic Machining (USM) and Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM). In these processes
(WJM and AJWM), the mechanical energy of water and abrasive phases are used to achieve
material removal or machining. The general grouping of some of the typical non-traditional
processes are shown below:

o Mechanical Processes
USM
AJM
WJM and AWJM
o Thermal Processes
EBM
LBM
PAM
EDM and WEDM
o Electrical Processes
ECM
EDG
EJD
o Chemical Processes
Chemical milling
Photo chemical machining
Fig: 1 Water Jet cutting

A water jet cutter, also known as a waterjet. is a tool capable of slicing into metal or other
materials using a jet of water at high velocity and pressure, or a mixture of water and an abrasive
substance. The process is essentially the same as water erosion found in nature but greatly
accelerated and concentrated. It is often used during fabrication or manufacture of parts for
machinery and other devices. It is the preferred method when the materials being cut are sensitive
to the high temperatures generated by other methods. It has found applications in a diverse
number of industries from mining to aerospace where it is used for operations such as cutting,
shaping, carving, and reaming. [1]

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2. History
Waterjet cutting can be traced back to hydraulic mining of coal in the Soviet Union and New
Zealand. Water was collected from streams and aimed to wash over a blasted rock face carrying
away the loose coal and rock. This method of mining was redeveloped in South Af rican gold mines
to remove blasted rock from the work area into a collection drift or tunnel. In the California Gold
Country between 1853-1886, pressurized water was first used to excavate soft gold rock from the
mining surfaces. The pressurized water allowed the miner to stand further back from the face being
washed. This was safer because there was less danger of being covered by a collapsing wall of
blasted rock. By early 1900s this method of mining had re ached Prussia and Russia. In these two
countries the pressurized water was used to wash blasted coal away.
In the 1930s it was Russia that made the first attempt at actually cutting the rock with the
pressurized water. A water cannon was used to generate a pressure of 7000 Bars.
In the 1970s technology was developed in the USA that was capable of creating a 40,000 Bar
pressure. Most of the waterjet mining growth after this involved combining a drill with the waterjet.
In 1972 Professor Norman Franz of Michigan worked with McCartney Manufacturing Compan y to
install the first industrial waterjet cutter. The equipment was installed in Alton Boxboard. Flow
industries also began to market industrial waterjet cutting equipment. It was Flow Industries who
added sand to a pressurized cleaning system to give metal a white finish. After this it was
demonstrated that abrasive waterjet systems could cut through metal and ceramics. From here the
waterjet cutting industry took off. [2]

3. Basic waterjet principles

Waterjets are fast, flexible, reasonably precise, and in the last few years have become friendly and
easy to use. They use the technology of high-pressure water being forced through a small hole
(typically called the "orifice" or "jewel") to concentrate an extreme amount of energy in a small
area. The restriction of the tiny orifice creates high pressure and a high-velocity beam, much like
putting your finger over the end of a garden hose.
Pure waterjets use the beam of water exiting the orifice to cut soft material like diapers, candy bars,
and thin soft wood, but are not effective for cutting harder materials.
The inlet water for a pure waterjet is pressurized between 20,000 and 60,000 Pounds Per Square
Inch (PSI) (1300 to 6200 bar). This is forced through a tiny hole in the jewel, which is typically 0.007"
to 0.020" in diameter (0.18 to 0.4 mm). This creates a very high-velocity, very thin beam of water
(which is why some people refer to waterjets as "water lasers") traveling as close to the speed of
sound (about 600 mph or 960 km/hr).

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Fig:2 Pure water jet machining

Fig:3 Abrasive water jet machining

An abrasivejet starts out the same as a pure waterjet. As the thin stream of water leaves the jewel,
however, abrasive is added to the stream and mixed. The high-velocity water exiting the jewel
creates a vacuum which pulls abrasive from the abrasive line, which then mixes with the water in
the mixing tube. The beam of water accelerates abrasive particles to speeds fast enough to cut
through much harder materials.

Fig:4 Water jet cutting process

The cutting action of an abrasivejet is two-fold. The

force of the water and abrasive erodes the
material, even if the jet is stationary (which is how
the material is initially pierced). The cutting action
is greatly enhanced if the abrasivejet stream is
moved across the material and the ideal speed of
movement depends on a variety of factors,
including the material, the shape of the part, the
water pressure and the type of abrasive.
Controlling the speed of the abrasivejet nozzle is

crucial to efficient and economical machining.

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4. Classification
Water jet machining process may be classified as follows:
1. Pure water jet cutting,
2. Abrasive water jet cutting,
3. Dynamic water jet cutting.

4.1 Pure water jet cutting

Pure waterjet is the original water cutting method. The first commercial applications were in
the early to mid 1970s, and involved the cutting of corrugated cardboard. The largest uses
for pure waterjet cutting are disposable diapers, tissue paper, and automotive interiors. In
the cases of tissue paper and disposable diapers the waterjet process creates less moisture
on the material than touching or breathing on it.

Fig:5 Pure waterjet cutting

Pure Waterjet Attributes

Very thin stream (0.004 to 0.010 inch in
diameter is the common range)
Extremely detailed geometry
Very little material loss due to cutting
Non-heat cutting
Cut very thick

Fig:6 Pure waterjet cutting system

Cut very thin

Usually cuts very quickly
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Able to cut soft, light materials

(e.g., fiberglass insulation up to 24" thick)
Extremely low cutting forces
Simple fixturing
24 hour per day operation

4.2 Abrasive Waterjet Cutting

The abrasive waterjet differs from the pure waterjet in just a few ways. In pure waterjet, the
supersonic stream erodes the material. In the abrasive waterjet, the waterjet stream accelerates
abrasive particles and those particles, not the water, erode the material. Abrasive waterjets using
standard parameters can cut materials with hardness up to and slightly beyond aluminum oxide
ceramic (often called alumina, AD 99.9).

Fig: 7 Abrasive waterjet cutting system

Abrasive Waterjet Attributes

Extremely versatile process
No Heat Affected Zones
No mechanical stresses
Easy to program
Thin stream (0.020to 0.050 inch in diameter)
Extremely detailed geometry
Thin material cutting
10 inch thick cutting
Stack cutting
Little material loss due to cutting

Fig: 8 Abrasive waterjet cutting

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Simple to fixture
Low cutting forces (under 1 lb. while cutting)
One jet setup for nearly all abrasive jet jobs
Easily switched from single to multi-head use
Quickly switch from pure waterjet to abrasive waterjet
Reduced secondary operations

4.3 Dynamic Waterjet cutting

Certain characteristics are inherent to the abrasive waterjet process. There are two distinct
attributes that waterjet operators can encounter when cutting with water: stream lag and taper.
Stream Lag occurs when the entry point of the waterjet cuts faster than the exit part. This is
because the jet is most powerful when entering the material and loses some of its pow er as it
exits.
Taper is a V-shaped natural occurrence that takes place when the power of the waterjet stream
decreases as it cuts through the material.

Fig: 9 Dynamic Waterjet Cutting

Given the challenges of stream lag and taper, the development of Flow's Dynamic Waterjet with
Active Tolerance Control was essential to the advancement of abrasive waterjet. Invented and
patented by Flow in 2001 to counteract stream lag and taper, Dynamic Waterjet allows you to cut
at top speed and to high precision .Stream lag and taper are no longer an issue in the waterjet
process, and the most versatile cutting tool has bee n transformed into a system that is highly
competitive with alternative cutting methods in accuracy, precision, and speed. [3]

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5.Water Jet Cutting Equipment

LP booster pump
Hydraulic unit
Additive Mixer

5B

Intensifier
Accumulator
Flexible high pressure
transmission line
On-off valve

5A

Orifice
Mixing Chamber

3
Point A

Focussing tube or inserts

Catcher
CNC table
Abrasive metering device
Catcher

2
Fig: 10 Schematic set-up of AWJM

5.1 Intensifier Pump

Pressurizing liquid to the 1500-4000 MN/m2 range is usually accomplished either by direct
mechanical drive applied to a small diameter plunger or by an intensifier where an intermediate
pressure fluid drives a large area piston, which in turn ,drives a small diameter ram which pumps
the cutting fluid. At these pressure, the main problem is sealing high pressure rams, and at high
pressure ,fatigue failure of the mechanical component can limit the life of the equipment. These
problems can be solved by allowing high pressure seals to be changed qui ckly by making them
easily available. Alternatively, the conventional fabric-backed, synthetic rubber seal can be
lubricated by adding soluble oil up to 5 percent to the water being pumped. Intensifier, shown in
Fig. 11 is driven by a hydraulic power pack. The heart of the hydraulic power pack is a positive

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displacement hydraulic pump. The power packs in modern commercial systems are often controlled
by microcomputers to achieve programmed rise of pressure etc.
The hydraulic power pack delivers the hydraulic oil to the intensifier at a pressure of p . The ratio of
h

cross-section of the two cylinders in the intensifier is say

A
(A = A
/A
).
ratio

large

small

Thus, pressure amplification would take place at the small cylinder as follows.

pw

pw
ph
Fig: 11 Intensifier schematic

phAlarge=pwAsmall
pw = ph(Alarge/Asmall)
pw = phAratio
Thus, if the hydraulic pressure is set as 100 bar and area ratio is 40, p = 100 x 40 = 4000 bar. By
w

using direction control valve, the intensifier is driven by the hydraulic unit. The water may be
directly supplied to the small cylinder of the intensifier or it may be supplied through a booster
pump, which typically raises the water pressure to 11 bar before supplying it to the intensifier.
Sometimes water is softened or long chain polymers are added in additive unit.
Thus, as the intensifier works, it delivers high pressure water (refer Fig. 11). As the larger piston
changes direction within the intensifier, there would be a drop in the delivery pressure. To counter
such drops, a thick cylinder is added to the delivery unit to accommodate water at high pressure.
This is called an accumulator which acts like a fly wheel of an engine and minimizes fluctuation
of water pressure.
High-pressure water is then fed through the flexible stainless steel pipes to the cutting head. It is
worth mentioning here that such pipes are to carry water at 4000 bar (400 MPa) wit h flexibility
incorporated in them with joints but without any leakage. Cutting head consists of orifice, mixing
chamber and focusing tube or insert where water jet is formed and mixed with abrasive particles to
form abrasive water jet.
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Typical diameter of the flexible stainless steel pipes is of 6 mm. Water carried through the pipes is
brought to jet former or cutting head. [4]

5.2 Tubing
High pressure tubing used to transport fluid from one system component to another is thick walled,
with the ratio of the outside to inside diameter at least 5 and sometimes as high as 10. The tubing
may be made from a stainless steel wall or a composite wall with stainless steel inside and carbon
steel as a jacket. Tubing may be used to constrain fluids at a pressure g reater than the yield stress
of the tube material by the use of a process known as autofrettaging or self hooping.

5.3 Tube-fittings
A metal to metal line contact is usual technique for achieving a fluid seal in high pressure tube
fittings, accomplished by drawing a cone shape into a rounded socket. The cone may be machined
directly onto the tubing or a cone shaped insert may be used. At the highest pressures, the
replaceable cone design is the most workable.

5.4 Valves
Most high pressure valves are of the needle type. The main flow passage is controlled by a cone
shape on the end of the needle fixed into a seat. A gland seal is usually required to eliminate leaks
along the stem.

5.5 Nozzles
Nozzles meant to convert the high pressure liquid to a high velocity jet present a severe challenge
to the designer. For minimum erosion, the nozzle material should be extremely hard. Yet to allow
the formation of smooth contour, the material should be ductile and easily machinable. Nozzles
made of sintered diamond or sapphire are available and they can be used as inserts in a steel holder
that provides needed strength and ductility. Diamond, tungsten carbide and special steels have also
been used successfully for making quality nozzles.
A nozzle with an exit diameter of 0.05-0.35 mm gives a coherent jet length up to 3-4 cm. A method
of increasing this length is to add to the cutting water up to 1 percent of long chain polymer, such as
polyethylene oxide with a molecular weight of four million, which produces m uch higher fluid
viscosities. With such an additives, coherent jets of up to 600 diameters in length have been
achieved.
In abrasive water jet systems use the same basic two-stage nozzle as shown in the FIG. First, water
passes through a small-diameter jewel orifice to form a narrow jet.

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1 - high-pressure
water inlet
2 - jewel (ruby or
diamond)
3 - abrasive (garnet)
4 - mixing tube
5 - guard
6 - cutting water jet
Fig: 12 Diagram of nozzle

7 - cut material

The water jet then passes through a small chamber where a Venturi effect creates a slight vacuum
that pulls abrasive material and air into this area through a feed tube. The abrasive particles are
accelerated by the moving stream of water and together they pass into a long, hollow cylindrical
ceramic mixing tube. The resulting mix of abrasive and water exits the mixing tube as a coherent
stream and cuts the material. It's critical that the jewel orifice and the mixing tube be precisely
aligned to ensure that the water jet passes directly down the center of the mixing tube. Otherwise
the quality of the abrasivejet will be diffused, the quality of the cuts it produces will be poor, and
the life of the mixing tube will be short. [5]

5.6 Mixing Chamber

Mixing means gradual entrainment of abrasive particles within the water jet and finally the abrasive
water jet comes out of the focussing tube or the nozzle. Fig.13 schematically shows the mixing
process.
During mixing process, the abrasive particles are gradually accelerated due to transfer of
momentum from the water phase to abrasive phase and when the jet finally leaves the focussing
tube, both phases, water and abrasive, are assumed to be at same velocity.
The mixing chamber, as shown in Fig.13 is immediately followed by the focussing tube or the
inserts. The focussing tube is generally made of tungsten carbide (powder metallurgy product)
having an inner diameter of 0.8 to 1.6 mm and a length of 50 to 80 mm.
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Water jet

Mixing
chamber

Trajectory of an
abrasive particle

Interaction with
focussing tube

Focusing
tube

Fig: 13 Schematic view of mixing process

Tungsten carbide is used for its abrasive resistance. Abrasive particles during mixing try to enter the
jet, but they are reflected away due to interplay of buoyancy and drag force. They go on interacting
with the jet and the inner walls of the mixing tube, until they are accelerated using the momentum
of the water jet.
Mixing process may be mathematically modelled as follows. Taking into account the energy loss
during water jet formation at the orifice, the water jet velocity may be given,

where, = Velocity coefficient of the orifice

The volume flow rate of water may be expressed as

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where,
= Coefficient of vena-contracta,

During mixing process as has been discussed both momentum and energy are not conserved due to
losses that occur during mixing. But initially it would be assumed that no losses take place in
momentum, i.e., momentum of the jet before and after mixing is conserved.

The momentum of air before and after mixing will be neglected due to very low density. Further, it
is assumed that after mixing both water and abrasive phases attain the same velocity of v

wj .

Moreover, when the abrasive particles are fed into the water jet through the port of the mixing
chamber, their velocity is also very low and their momentum can be neglected.

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5.7 Catcher
Once the abrasive jet has been used for machining, they may have sufficiently high level of energy
depending on the type of application. Such high-energy abrasive water jet needs to be contained
before they can damage any part of the machine or operators. Catcher is used to absorb the
residual energy of the AWJ and dissipate the same. Fig. 14 shows three different types of catcher
water basin type, submerged steel balls and TiB plate type.
2

(a) water basin

(b) steel/WC/ceramic balls

(c) catcher plates (TiB )

2

Fig: 14

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6. Mechanism of material removal

The general domain of parameters in entrained type AWJ machini ng system is given below:
Orifice Sapphires 0.1 to 0.3 mm
Focussing Tube WC 0.8 to 2.4 mm
Pressure 2500 to 4000 bar
Abrasive garnet and olivine - #125 to #60
Abrasive flow - 0.1 to 1.0 Kg/min
Stand off distance 1 to 2 mm
o

Machine Impact Angle 60 to 90

Traverse Speed 100 mm/min to 5 m/min
Depth of Cut 1 mm to 250 mm
Mechanism of material removal in machining with water jet and abrasive water jet is rather
complex. In AWJM of ductile materials, material is mainly removed by low angle impact by abrasive
particles leading to ploughing and micro cutting. Further at higher angle of impact, the material
removal involves plastic failure of the material at the sight of impact. In case of AWJM of brittle
materials, other than the above two models, material would be removed due to crack initiation and
propagation because of brittle failure of the material.
Fig-15 and Fig-16 show the cut generated by an AWJM . It is called a kerf.

Fig: 15 Schematic of AWJM kerf

Fig:16 Photographic view of kerf (cross-section)

The top of the kerf is wider than the bottom of the kerf. Generally the top width of the kerf is equal
to the diameter of the AWJ. Once again, diameter of the AWJ is equal to the diameter of the
focussing tube or the insert if the stand-off distance is around 1 to 5mm. The taper angle of the kerf
can be reduced by increasing the cutting ability of the AWJ. [4]

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7. Process Parameters
For successful utilization of WJM process, it is necessary to analyze the following process criteria:
1) Material Removal Rate (MRR)
2) Geometry and finish of work piece.
3) Wear rate of nozzle
However, the process criteria are greatly influenced by various process parameters as enumerated
below:
a) MRR depends on the reactive force F of jet.
Again, Reactive force=Mass flow rate (m) Jet velocity(V)
Hence MRR m V
And the velocity depends on fluid pressure whereas mass flow rate depends on both- nozzle
diameter (d) and fluid pressure (P).
Hence, MRR d P
British Hydromechanic Research Association have found following empirical relationship:

V=14.1P (1/2)
Q=0.67 K N d 2P (1/2)
HHP=K N d2 P (3/2)
F=0.079 K N d2 P
Where,
V=maximum water jet velocity at nozzle outlet (m/s),
Q=water flow rate through the nozzle,
HHP=hydraulic horsepower of jets (W),
F=reactive force of jet nozzle (N),
K=nozzle discharge co efficient (dimensionless),
N=no of nozzle used (dimensionless),
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P=pressure differential across the nozzle (bar),

d=nozzle orifice diameter (mm).
Apart from these, MRR is also greatly influenced by stand-off distance (SOD) of nozzle tip from the
surface of the material being cut.
It is found that MRR increases with increase of SOD up to a certain limit after which it remains
unchanged for a certain tip distances and then falls gradually. This is explained as follows. Small
MRR at low SOD is due to a reduction in nozzle pressure with decreasing distance, whereas a drop
in MRR at large SOD is due to a reduction in jet velocity with increasing distance.
A large SOD affects accuracy and quality. Water flares out because of a peeling off effect caused
by air friction. Theoretically, any divergences causes the jet to cut less effectively and less
accurately.
b) Geometry and finish of work piece depends on these factors:
1) Nozzle design.
2) Jet velocity, cutting speed and depth of cut.
3) Properties (especially hardness) of the material being cut.
c) wear rate of the nozzle depends mainly on the hardness of the nozzle material, pressure (hence,
velocity) of the jet and nozzle design.
From above it is clear that for a given material, the rate of cut, depth of cut and quality, a
compromise has to be made and optimum values of various parameters discussed above are to be
found out and used.

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8. Machining characteristic
Results of the tests conducted confirm the following:
1) Cutting or piercing ability of jets is most eminent when impinged perpendicularly on the work
piece surface.
2) Value of specific stock removal energy in cutting has been found to be lower than that in
piercing. This fact can be explained by assuming the groove generated in cutting allows for counter
flow of the jet to escape freely and lessens it tendency to build a liquid cushion .
3) Opening of the groove cut or the hole pierced becomes enlarged and irregular in shape with the
increase of SOD.
However, as stated earlier, the material removal rate increases as SOD is increased within a certain
range. It has been found that MRR is maximum for SOD between 3 to 5 mm.

Effect of Exit Pressure

Figure shows the variation of the depth of cut with the exit pressure P for several material (metals
and non-metals).It is clear from the figure that the liquid jets represent a fairly effective cutting tool
for some non-metallic materials.

Fig: 17 Groove depth Vs Exit pressure graph

Fig: 18 MRR Vs Exit pressure graph

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Extrapolation of this figure indicates that there is threshold pressure below which little or no cutting
can be achieved. For example, mild steel requires about 6 Kbar pressure to produce effect.
Variation of MRR with P indicating that the MRR varies approximately with P(3/2) and consequently
to the working power of a jet, except for the material which are less machineable at these pressure
levels, e.g. steel and brass. The working power E of a jet is the energy carried by a is density of liquid
and a is the cross sectional area of the jet. It is interesting to observe that the curve lead is
discontinuous and consist of two parallel lines. The value of specific stock removal energy (i.e. the
energy required to erode unit volume of the work material) changes from 3.310 to 0.5910^6
J/cm^3 at a pressure between 4 to 6 Kbar. Observation of the wall surfaces of the groove cut by the
jets of higher velocities suggests the occurrence of brittle fracture and is supposed to bear a certain
relation to the velocity of plastic waves propagating in the material.

Effect of Feed Rate

The effect of feed rate on stock removal is shown in figure.19. The removal rate increases with feed
rate and reaches a peak value and then tendency is to fall. This may because of erosion and removal

Fig: 19 MRR at different speed rates

process lagging behind the impacting phenomenon. The depth of groove has also been reported to
decrease with increase in feed rate. [6]

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9. Applications:
Aerospace

Application
Titanium bodies for military aircraft
Engine components (aluminum, titanium, heat-resistant alloys)
Aluminum body parts
Interior cabin panels
Custom control panels and structural components for special purpose aircraft such as crop dusters and float planes
Rough trimming of turbine blades on jet engines
Aluminum skin, struts, seats, shim stock, brake components, titanium & exotic metals used in
manufacturing landing gear

Industries
Aerospace, Tool & Die, Job Shop

Architectural/ Art Work

Application
To cut floor medallions, tabletop inlay, Wall inlay, metal inlay, out door stone, Border Tiles,
Artistic & Architectural designs, murals, Stone furniture, Kitchens countertops etc in ceramic
and stone segment.
Metal art work such as out door, Theme park , Special lighting, Museum art work etc,
For profile cutting of Stained glass such as Crafts, Church Mosaics, and Lamp Shades etc.
Components for architectural trim and window systems
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Signage letters in marble, glass, steel, aluminum, brass, plastics. etc.

Whether it's a large sign for a restaurant, decorative tiles, or intricate design work, the
WATERJET can create it in a wide variety of materials.
Waterjet machine can use by artist or those institute who teach art work

Industries
Architecture, Signage, Ceramic, stone, Marble, Granite, glass, Metal, Job Shop, Institute

Automotive

Application
For cutting Interior & Exterior trims such as headliners, carpets. Liners. Dumpers. Door and
instrument panels, seats, composite parts and castings
Robot waterjet can cut an automobile interior in any angles and separate Scraps
automatically
Flanges for custom exhaust systems
Specialty metal gaskets for antique automobiles
Specialty clutch components for racing cars
Specialty brake disks and components for racing cars
Custom skid plates for off-road motorcycles
Intricate decorative brackets and fittings for custom cars and motorcycles
Copper head gaskets for racing engines
Short run production for the model shops
JIT inventory control for piece parts on High Performance Radiators
Custom motorcycle bodies

Industries
Automotive, Marine, Job Shop

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Electronic

Application
Circuit boards (Populated & unpopulated)
Cable stripping (Insulation coverings)
Custom and short run electrical enclosures and control panels
Custom designed elevator control panels

Industries
Electronics, Solar, Machine Shop, Job Shop

Elevator/ lift Manufacturer

Application
In Manufacturing elevators, service lifts, Dumb waiters for various profiles cutting
To Manufacture architectural components and metal fittings for elevators

Industries
Elevator Manufacturer, lifts, dumb waiters

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Food Processing Equipment

Application
Components (primarily from stainless steel and plastic) for food processing lines
Guards, enclosures, food handling and packaging equipment
Custom food processing equipment
Beverage manufacturing equipment
Specialty liquid filling equipment

Industries
Food Services, Chemical, Electronics, Packaging Plants, Tool & Die, Machine Shops, Job Shop etc.

Gasket

Application
Gaskets of Asbestos, Rubber, Teflon, Copper, Titanium, etc for end users & O.E.M industries
like automotive, marine, Engineering, Aerospace and many more

Industries
Customized Gaskets industry, Marine Industry, Job Shop etc.

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Glass

Application
To cut Special shaped window panels for cabinets and doors
To cut Lens blanks from glass and quartz
To cut Glass components used in the electronic and medical industry
To cut Optical laser parts for various high tech industries
To cut Custom glass panels for the space shuttle
To cut Replacement glass for antique autos
To cut Art deco mirror designs
To cut flat glass with numerous contours, Stained glass, Bullet proof glass, Optical glass

Industries
Electronics, Carpentry, Glass, Aerospace, Lighting, Art, Job Shop etc.

Medical/Surgical

Application
Blanking out surgical instruments from special steel alloys
Cutting artificial limb components from carbon fiber
Composites
Manufacturing carbon braces and orthopedic appliances
Making prototype medical devices for test and evaluation

Industries
Medical, Surgical, Job Shop [7]
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10. Comparison of WJM & AWJM

1) With Wire EDM
Key Wire EDM strength
Extremely precise parts are possible [0.0001" (0.025mm)]
Very thick parts [over 12" (30 cm)] can be made
Intentional taper can be put into a part for die clearance and other uses

Key Waterjet Cutting Strength

Up to five to ten times faster depending on part thickness
No Heat Affected Zone (HAZ), so no need for secondary operations to remove the HAZ or
additional heat-treating to compensate for the process
Works well with non-conductive materials (such as glass, stone, plastic) as well as conductive
materials
Can pierce material directly without the need for a pre-drilled starter hole
Can produce large parts at reasonable costs
Simple and rapid programming and set up with minimal fixturing.

2) With Press Punch

Key Press Punch Strength
A well-understood familiar technology
Rapid production with thin material once the machine is properly programmed and set up
Relatively low capital cost (although tooling costs can add up)

Key Abrasive Waterjet Strength

Very rapid programming and set up for short run parts
No distortion of closely spaced parts
Minimal burr
Ability to work in a wide range of thickness, from sheet metal to plate
Ability to work in a very wide range of materials
No special tooling required for unusual shapes or profiles

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3) With Milling
Key Milling Strength
A well-understood familiar technology
Able to make three-dimensional parts
Rapid production if set up and programmed for long-run parts

Key Waterjet Strength

Very rapid programming and set up does not require a highly trained operator
Very low cutting loads mean fixturing is easier, and intricate and delicate parts can be
machined
One cutting tool performs all machining functions in all materials, so there is no need to
purchase and calibrate multiple cutting tools
Large cutting envelope compared to a machining center of comparable price
Minimal burr compared to conventional machining
Environmentally friendly; no oil-soaked chips and minimal scrap

4) With Laser
Key Laser Strength
Very fast production with thin, non-reflective materials such as sheet steel
Accuracy to 0.001" (0.025 mm) or better in thin material

Key Abrasive Waterjet Strength

Can produce parts up to 12" (30 cm) thick in virtually any material while holding tolerances
on the order of 0.003" to 0.005" (0.08 to 0.1 mm) for parts 2" (5 cm) thick or less
Can machine reflective, conductive and thicker materials such as stainless steel and
aluminum, copper and brass
Cuts without melting, providing a smooth uniform surface with very little burr or d ross
No Heat Affected Zone (HAZ), which may eliminate the need for a secondary operation to
remove HAZ. This also makes conventional secondary operations, such as reaming or
tapping, easier to perform.
No noxious gas or vapors produced during cutting
Simple and rapid programming and set up for short-run parts

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The key reasons laser shops and laser users buy a precision abrasivejet is it typically costs 1/3 the
capital price of a laser and can work a much wider variety of materials, particularly aluminum and
stainless steel over 1/2 inch (13 mm) thick. A shop that previously farmed out work to a laser house
can afford to buy an abrasivejet and perform the work in-house, saving money and improving
scheduling and flexibility. This also means a laser house can afford to purchase a precision
abrasivejet solely to work in thicker aluminum and stainless steel and in material that a laser can
not cut (such as composites, ceramics, titanium, etc).

5) With High Definition Plasma

Key Strength of High Definition Plasma
Relatively low capital costs.
Very rapid production rates in thin sheet metal, once properly set up and programmed.

Key Abrasive Waterjet Strength

No melting or heat-affected zone, so no heat distortion or crusted area to impair secondary
machining processes such as tapping holes.
Wider range of material capabilities.
Wider range of thickness capabilities.
Better precision in intricate parts
The key reason plasma shops buy precision abrasivejet is to do work that requires better precision
parts or a wider range of materials. [8]

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11. Advantages and Disadvantages of WJM & AWJM

11.1 Advantages
There is a reason that waterjet machining has rapidly grown in popularity since the mid -1990's.
Actually there are a number of reasons, listed below, but they mostly come down to "versatility." A
waterjet is a versatile and flexible machining tool. You can cut a wide variety of material efficiently
and cost-effectively and can create a wide variety of parts.

Cut virtually any material

Because waterjets cut using water and abrasive, they can work with a wide variety of materials.
These materials include:
Copper, brass, aluminum:
Pre-hardened steel
Mild steel
Exotic materials such as titanium, Inconel and Hastalloy
304 stainless steel
Brittle materials such as glass, ceramic, quartz, stone.
Laminated material
Flammable materials
One of the few materials that cannot be cut with a waterjet is tempered glass. Because tempered
glass is under stress, as soon as you begin to cut it, it will shatter into small fragments as it is
designed to do.

Fast setup and programming

With waterjet machining, a flat piece of material is placed on a table and a cutting head moves
across the material (although in some custom systems, the material moves past a fixed head). This
simplicity means that it's fast and easy to change materials and that no tool changes are required.
All materials use the same cutting head, so there is no need to program tool changes or physically
qualify multiple tools.
The movement of the machining head is controlled by a computer, which greatly simplifies co ntrol
of the waterjet. In most cases, "programming" a part means using a CAD program to draw the part.
When you "push print," the part is made by the waterje t machine. This approach also means that
customers can create their own drawings and bring them to a waterjet machine for creation.

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Little fixturing for most parts

There are very low sideway forces with waterjet machining--cutting the material doesn't push it.
The downward forces are also small, in the range of a few pounds. Typically, the largest force is
from the water in the tank pushing back up against the material.
Fixturing is generally a matter of weighing down the material by placing weights on it. Small parts
might require tabs to prevent them from falling into the tank.
The low side forces, means you can machine a part with walls as thin as 0.01" (0.25 mm). This is one
of the factors that make fixturing is so easy. Also, low side forces allow for close nesting of parts,
and maximum material usage.

Almost no heat generated on your part

What little heat is generated by the waterjet is absorbed by the water and carried into the catch
tank. The material itself experiences almost no change in temperature during machining. During
piercing 2" (5 cm) thick steel, temperatures may get as high as 120 F (50 C), but otherwise
machining is done at room temperature.
The result is that there is no heat affected zone (HAZ) on the material. The absence of a HAZ means
you can machine without hardening the material, generating poisonous fumes, recasting, or
warping. You can also machine parts that have already been heat treated.

No mechanical stresses
Waterjet machining does not introduce any stresses into the material.

Machine thick material

While most money will probably be made in thicknesses under 1" (2.5 cm) for steel, it is common to
machine up to 4" (10 cm). The thicker the material, the longer it will take to cut. A part made from
material twice as thick will take more than twice as long. Some companies make low tolerance parts
out of metal that is up to 5" to 10" thick (12.5 cm-25 cm), but it takes a long time and tends to be an
occasional operation. Typically, most waterjet parts are made from metal that is 2" (5 cm) or
thinner.

Are very safe

Obviously, you don't put any body parts in front of a waterjet machining head while it is on.
Anything that can cut through 2" steel will make short work of flesh and bone. Aside from this,
however, waterjets are very safe. A leak in a high-pressure water system tends to result in a rapid
drop in pressure to safe levels. Water itself is safe and non-explosive and the garnet abrasive is also
inert and non-toxic. One of the largest hazards is cuts from the sharp edges of material created by
the waterjet.
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Modern systems are now very easy to learn

Control of the waterjet head is complicated and requires careful calculation to get the proper speed
that will give the best result. This means that the system needs to be controlled by a computer,
which means that the user-interface for the system can be simplified and made friendlier. Modern
systems are designed the same way as m any other computerized CAD systems and are quickly
learned.

Environmentally friendly
As long as you are not machining a material that is hazardous, the spent abrasive and waste
material become suitable for land fill. The garnet abrasive is inert and can be disposed of with your
other trash.
If you are machining lots of lead or other hazardous materials, you will still need to dispose of your
waste appropriately, and re cycle your water. Keep in mind, however, that very little metal is
actually removed in the cutting process. This keeps the environmental impact relatively low, even if
you do machine the occasional hazardous material.
In most areas, excess water is simply drained to the sewer. In some areas, water treatment may be
necessary prior to draining to sewer. In a few areas, a "closed loop" system that recycles the water
may be required.
The pumps do use a considerable amount of electricity, though, so there is some additional
environmental (and cost) impact due to this.

No start hole required

Start holes are only required for materials that are difficult or impossible to pierce. A few poorly
bonded laminates can fall into this category, in which case pre -drilling or other special methods may
be used.

Narrow kerf removes only a small amount of material

The amount of material removed by the waterjet stream is typically about 0.02" (0.5 mm) wide,
meaning that very little material is removed. When you are working with expensive material (such
as titanium) or hazardous material (such as lead), this can be a significant benefit. It also means that
you can get more parts from a given sheet of material.
When machining or roughing out expensive materials such as titanium, your scrap still has value.
This is because you get chunks, not chips. [9]

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11.2 Disadvantages
Among various cutting methods, Waterjet cutting is one of the most useful machining processes
that can be readily substituted for many other cutting methods; however, this method too has
some limitations to what Steel Profiles it can cut.
1. By using waterjet metal cutting method only a limited number of materials can be cut
economically. Thus being one of the main disadvantages of waterjet cutting. While it is possible to
cut tool steels, and other hard materials, the cutting rate has to be greatly reduced, and the time to
cut a part can be very long. Because of this, waterjet cutting can be very costly and outweigh the
other advantages that it offers.
2. One more disadvantage of waterjet cutting method is that it is not possible to cut very thick parts
with waterjet cutting as there may be problems in maintaining the dimensional accuracy of the
metal to be cut. If the part is too thick, the jet may dissipate some, and cause it to steel cut on a
diagonal, or to have a wider cut at the bottom of the part than the top. It can also cause a ruff wave
pattern on the cut surface.
3. Taper is also a problem with waterjet cutting in very thick materials. Taper is when the Steel
Cutter jet exits the part at a different angle than it enters the part, and can cause dimensional
inaccuracy. Decreasing the speed of the head may reduce this, although it can still be a problem.
[10]

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12. Basic waterjet safety

In general, waterjets are quite safe. The nozzle is typically 0.1" (2.5 mm) or so from the material, so
it is difficult to get your fingers under it. High pressure tubing does not explode because water is not
very compressible. When a leak occurs, the pressure quickly drops to a safe level.
That said, like any machining tool, there are hazards to working with a waterjet. You should refer to
the manufacturer's material for complete safety information. The information provided here is
basic and does not cover all the potential hazards and should not substitute for carefully reading
the safety information provided by the manufacturer of the waterjet.

Beware the waterjet stream

Remember that the waterjet stream can cut through 2" steel, so it will make short work of any body
parts you place in front of it. It is a very dangerous cutting edge. Always take care before turning on
the machine to make sure that no body parts are in the way.

Eye protection
You can put splash guards on the nozzle and cover it with rags and you will still get the occasional
splash of water mixed with abrasive. You do not want to get abrasive in your eye,although it's inert,
it's still abrasive and will irritate your eyes and possibly scratch your cornea.

Motion control system

The motion control system pre cisely positions the nozzle at various locations on the table and can
move at up to 100 inches per minute (2.5 meters per minute). Don't let body parts get between the
nozzle and a solid object or they can be crushed.

Ear protection
When you are cutting above water always wear ear protection. The water exits the nozzle at about
the speed of sound and makes a lot of noiseenough noise to damage your hearing. When cutting
underwater, the noise level is much lower, but depending on your shop environment, you may still
want to use ear protection. [9]

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13. Future Research

Since its development, waterjet machining has seen many improvements in its design. Many
different types of abrasives, nozzles, flow rates, and jet positions have been experimented with to
name a few. Here at Michigan Tech, one of the elements be ing researched is the type of abrasive
used. Typically, garnet, which has a hardness of 8 on Mohs scale of hardness, is used because it is
much harder than most materials and because it breaks in clean, sharp edges. Garnet is considered
inexpensive when compared to abrasives like diamond, however, it still costs around $600 per ton
of abrasive. Working with the Daimler-Chrysler Corporation, Michigan Tech has found a way to used
crushed windshield glass as an acceptable replacement for garnet. Glass, which i s made of silica and
has a hardness of 6 of Mohs scale of hardness, is not as hard as garnet, however the cost of 1 ton of
glass is about $50. As far as hardness is concerned, silica glass is still harder than most materials,
and since it is crushed, the particles all have sharp edges that havent been worn due to erosion
that might occur in garnet, which has to be mined. The other benefit for using silica is that all the
glass being used is scrap window glass that would have otherwise been sent to a landfi ll where it
would be of no use.
Several other improvements and experiments that are being worked on by other companies are:
Using a cryogenic cutting fluid
Finding new uses for waterjet cutting such as turning, and polishing
Finding new ways to make waterjet cutting more efficient in already existing
manufacturing processes

14. Conclusions:
A variety of material can be cut by this process. Some of the material which have been successfully
cut at the British Hydromechanics Research Association (BHRA) using high pressure water jets are,
asbestos cement board, break shoe material, cordu roy, erepe, high density polyethylene, leather,
news print, fabric, plywood, polypropylene gasket material etc. The Japanese engineers too are
doing considerable researches in the field. It is expected that a safer and more effective tool for
quality cutting will emerge in the next few years with WJM opening up a new era in modern
machining.

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References
1. Water jet cutter- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_jet_cutter dated-13.02.2011
2. Waterjetcutting-http://www.mfg.mtu.edu/cyberman/machining/non_trad/waterjet/
dated-13.02.2011
3. Waterjet cutting machines & product- www.flowwaterjet.com dated-25.02.2011
4. Journal-Water jet machining & Abrasive water jet machining-Version-2 ME,IIT Kharagpur
nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/.../pdf/LM-37.pdf dated-06.02.2011
5. Modern Machining Process-P.C.Pandey & H.S.Shan
6. Non-conventional machining-P.K.Mishra
7. Application-http://www.waterjet.co.in/waterjet-applications.htm dated-16.02.2011
8. Waterjet cutting machines- http://www.omax.com/compare-waterjet.php dated25.02.2011
9. The most complete waterjet resources on the web- http://www.waterjets.org/ dated16.02.2011
10. Disadvantages of waterjet cutting method-http://www.articlesbase.com/industrial-articles/disadvantages-of-waterjet-cutting-method-1236554.html dated-16.02.2011
11. Google Images

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