3

Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1 Historical notes
Australian Standard (AS) 3600-1988 Concrete Structures, the first of the AS 3600 series, was
published in March 1988. In line with European practices, it was a unified code covering
reinforced and prestressed concrete structures. In effect, AS 3600-1988 Concrete Structures was
the revised and amalgamated version of AS 14801982 Concrete Structures Code and
AS 14811978 Prestressed Concrete Code, which it then superseded. Limit state design
philosophy was adopted in AS 3600-1988. In practice, especially in strength design, engineers
familiar with AS 14801982 could make the changeover without too much difficulty. Many of
the design equations for shear, torsion, slabs and columns changed, but the strength design
procedure was basically the same, that is, to ensure

Ru S *

Equation 1.1(1)

where for a given section of any structural member to be designed, S* was the action effect or
axial force, moment, shear or torsion due to the most critical combination of the external service
loads, each multiplied by a corresponding load factor; Ru was the computed ultimate resistance
(or strength) of the member at that section against the said type of action effect; and was the
capacity reduction factor specified for the type of ultimate strength in question.
Since 1988, AS 3600 has been revised and updated three times and published consecutively
at approximately six-year intervals as AS 3600-1994, AS 3600-2001 and now AS 3600-2009
(the Standard). However, the limit state design philosophy remains unchanged in the latest
version of the Standard in which Clause 2.2.2 states that

Rd Ed

Equation 1.1(2)

where Rd Ru is the design capacity, and Ed S*, the design action effect.
Although the strength design procedure is unchanged, the recommended load factors are
generally lower than previously specified. However, accompanying these lower load factors are
reduced values of . These changes to , if seen in isolation, are no doubt retrograde because the
implications are that we are less confident now in our design formulas than we were before. A
probabilistic-based analytical model was adopted to re-evaluate the reliability of the design
procedure. Unfortunately, actual failure statistics were inadequate for the probabilistic analysis
to produce a new and more reliable procedure (in terms of load factors and ). Instead, the new

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procedure was calibrated simply using designs based on the old AS 14801982 code. In
simplistic terms, the old and the new codes applied in parallel should lead to the same design.
Note also that in AS 3600-2001, which appeared in 2002, N-grade or 500 MPa steel was
specified, leading to modifications in serviceability specifications and other consequential
changes. In AS 3600-2001, an additional strength grade for concrete was introduced the
characteristic compressive strength f c 65 MPa. Two more grades are now provided in AS
3600-2009 ( f c 80 MPa and 100 MPa). This has resulted in modification to many of the
design equations.
Henceforth, unless otherwise specified, all procedures, clauses, terms, formulas, factors and
so forth refer to those given in AS 3600-2009.

1.2 Design requirements

In addition to strength and serviceability, durability and fire resistance are specific design
requirements see Sections 4 and 5 of the Standard, respectively, for details. Since most of the
recommended procedures for durability and fire resistance are empirical, they will not be dealt
with in as much depth in this book.
Durability requirements mainly affect the choice of concrete strength and the provision of
adequate concrete cover for reinforcement (see also Section 1.4). The four exposure conditions
originally specified in AS 14801982 had been revised. Since AS 3600-1988, there have been
six classifications: A1, A2, Bl, B2, C and U, in order of severity. Minimum concrete strength
grades and concrete covers for all except Classification U are detailed in Tables 4.10.3.2 and
4.10.3.3 of AS 3600-2009 for different types of construction method andor environment. Note
that Classification C has been expanded into C1 and C2 in these tables. For Classification U, the
designer is responsible for providing their own concrete strength and cover specifications
appropriate to the desired design. Additional durability requirements for abrasion, freezing and
thawing, and other environmental and chemical actions may be found in Clauses 4.6 to 4.9 of
the Standard.
Design for fire resistance is achieved by providing adequate concrete cover.
Recommendations are given in the form of tables and charts in Section 5 of the Standard.

1.3 Loads and load combinations

For the first time, the provisions for loads and load combinations are no longer available in AS
3600-2009. The recommendations adopted herein follow those given in the loading Standard
ASNZS 1170.02002.

1.3.1 Strength design

For every member section in question, the design effective resistance (Ru) must be able to
sustain the action effects (S*) due to the following load combinations:
(a) Dead load only

1.35G

Equation 1.3(1)

(b) Dead load and live load

1.2G 1.5Q

Equation 1.3(2)

(c) Dead load and long-term imposed action

1.2G 1.5 1Q

Equation 1.3(3)

(d) Dead load, wind and live load

1.2G Wu c Q

Equation 1.3(4)

(e) Dead load and wind action reversal

0.9G Wu

Equation 1.3(5)

(f) Dead, earthquake and live load

G Eu c Q

Equation 1.3(6)

(g) Dead load, liquid pressures and live load

1.2G Su c Q

Equation 1.3(7)

where G is the effect due to permanent action (dead load); Q is due to imposed action (live
load); Wu is due to ultimate wind action (wind load); Eu is due to ultimate earthquake action
(earthquake load); and Su is due to snow load or liquid pressure or earth andor ground water
pressure; the combination and long-term load factors, c and l, vary from 0.0 to 1.2 and 1.0,
respectively, depending on the function of the structure to be designed. For convenience, the
values for c and l are reproduced from the ASNZS Standard in Table 1.3(1).

Table 1.3(1) Live load factors for strength design

Type of live load

Combination factor (c)

Short-term factor

Long-term factor

(s)

(l)

Domestic

0.7

0.4

0.4

Offices

0.7

0.4

0.4

Parking area

0.7

0.4

0.4

Storage area

0.7

0.4

0.6

Other

1.0

0.6

0.6

0.7

0.4

0.4

All other roofs

0.7

0.0

0.0

Floors

1.0

0.6

Floors of domestic housing

1.0

0.4

0.4

Roofs used for floor type

1.0

0.6

0.4

All other roofs

1.0

0.0

0.0

Balustrades

1.0

0.0

0.0

Long-term installed

1.0

1.0

1.2

Concentrated imposed actions, Q

Distributed imposed actions, Q

Floors

Roofs
Roofs used for floor-type
activities

0.4

activities

machinery, tare weight

Source: Standards Australia (2002). AS/NZS 1170.0:2002 Structural design actions General principles, Standards
Australia, Sydney, NSW. Reproduced with permission from SAI Global under Licence 1004-C029. The Standard is
available online at <http://www.saiglobal.com>.

1.3.2 Serviceability design

The following load combinations must be considered when designing for serviceability.
(a) Short-term effects
(i)

(ii)

G Wu

(iii) G s Q

Equation 1.3(8)

(b) Long-term effects

(i)

(ii) G l Q

Equation 1.3(9)

Note that as per Clause 4.2.4 in ASNZS 1170.02002, the following combination is required
for fire resistance design,

G cQ

Equation 1.3(10)

For Equation 1.3(8), the values for the short-term load factor (s,) may also be found in Table
1.3(1).

1.3.3 Application
The purpose of load combinations is to obtain the most critical condition for which the structure
must be designed. For the same structure, there may be more than one live load (see, for
example, Clause 2.4.4 of the Standard) or wind load pattern, each of which, in combination with
other loads, may be critical to different members or different sections of the same member. This
makes the computation of S* very tedious indeed. This is particularly true in column design and
the design for shear and torsion where the critical condition is not governed by individual
actions, but the interaction of two different effects. For example, in column design, the
interaction of axial force and bending moment must be considered.

1.4 Concrete cover and reinforcement spacing

1.4.1 Cover
For durability design of a concrete structure under various environmental conditions, concrete
of suitable strength must be specified by the designer, and adequate cover for the steel
reinforcement must be provided. Note that cover means clear cover, or to the outside of the
reinforcing steel. To guide the designer of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures,
Table 4.3 of the Standard defines seven classifications of exposure, namely A1, A2, B1, B2, C1,
C2 and U, in order of increasing severity. These definitions are re-presented in Table 1.4(1).
For the first six exposure classifications, combinations of concrete strength and minimum
cover are specified for various types of construction process andor environment. These are
contained in two tables in the Standard; for convenience they are reproduced herein as Tables
1.4(2) and (3). Note that for crack control, Clause 8.6.1(b) of the Standard states that the
maximum cover shall not be greater than (100 mm db2) where db is the bar diameter.

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Table 1.4(1) Exposure classifications
Surface and exposure environment

Exposure classification

1. Surfaces of members in contact with the ground

(a) Members protected by a damp-proof membrane

A1

(b) Residential footings in non-aggressive soils

A1

(c) Other members in non-aggressive soils

A2

(d) Members in aggressive soils

(e) Salt rich soils and soils in salinity-affected areas

2. Surfaces of members in interior environments

(a) Fully enclosed within a building except for a brief period of weather exposure during
construction
(b) In industrial buildings, the member being subject to repeated wetting and drying

A1
B1

3. Surfaces of members in above-ground exterior environments

(a) Inland areas (50 km from coastline)
(i) Non-industrial and arid climatic zone

A1

(ii) Non-industrial and temperate climatic zone

A2

(iii) Non-industrial and tropical climatic zone

B1

(iv) Industrial and any climatic zone

B1

(b) Near-coastal areas (l km to 50 km from coastline), any climatic zone

(c) Coastal areas and any climatic zone

B1

B2

4. Surface of members in water

(a) In fresh water

B1

(b) In soft or running water

5. Surface of maritime structures in sea water

(a) permanently submerged
(b) in spray zone

B2

C1
C2

(c) in tidalsplash zone

6. Surfaces of members in other environments
Any exposure environment not otherwise described in Items 1 to 5 above

a The castal zone includes locations within 1 km of the shoreline of large expanses of salt water. Where there are strong
prevailing winds or vigorous surf, the distance should be increased beyond 1 km and higher levels of protection should
be considered.
b The spray zone is the zone from 1 m above the wave crest level.
c Further guidance on measures appropriate in exposure Classification U may be obtained in AS 37352001.
Source: Standards Australia (2009). AS 3600-2009 Concrete Structures. Standards Australia, Sydney, NSW.
Reproduced with permission from SAI Global under Licence 1004-C029. The Standard is available online at
<http://www.saiglobal.com>.

9
Table 1.4(2) Required cover (mm), where standard formwork and compaction are used
Exposure
classification

Characteristic concrete strength ( f c )

20 MPa

25 MPa

32 MPa

40 MPa

50 MPa

Al

20

20

20

20

20

A2

(50)

30

25

20

20

B1

(60)

40

30

25

B2

(65)

45

35

C1

(70)

50

C2

65

= not applicable
Notes:
(1) Figures in parentheses are the appropriate covers when the concession given in Clause 4.3.2 of the Standard,
relating to the strength grade permitted for a particular exposure classification, is applied.
(2) Cover should not be less than the greater of the maximum nominal aggregate size and bar diameter.
Source: Standards Australia (2009). AS 3600-2009 Concrete Structures. Standards Australia, Sydney, NSW.
Reproduced with permission from SAI Global under Licence 1004-C029. The Standard is available online at
<http://www.saiglobal.com>.

Table 1.4(3) Required cover (mm) where repetitive procedures and intense compaction or self-compacting concrete are
used in rigid formwork
Exposure
classification

Characteristic concrete strength ( f c )

20MPa

25MPa

32MPa

40MPa

50MPa

Al

20

20

20

20

20

A2

(45)

30

20

20

20

B1

(45)

30

25

20

B2

(50)

35

25

C1

(60)

45

C2

60

= not applicable
Notes:
(1) Bracketed figures are the appropriate covers when the concession given in Clause 4.3.2, relating to the strength
grade permitted for a particular exposure classification is applied.
(2) Cover should not be less than the greater of the maximum nominal aggregate size and bar diameter.
Source: Standards Australia (2009). AS 3600-2009 Concrete Structures. Standards Australia, Sydney, NSW.
Reproduced with permission from SAI Global under Licence 1004-C029. The Standard is available online at
<http://www.saiglobal.com>.

10

Adequate concrete cover must also be provided for fire resistance. In-depth and wideranging recommendations are provided in Section 5 of the Standard. It is appropriate here to
remind the reader that following durability design for environmental factors, checks must be
made against the requirements for fire resistance. Increase the cover if necessary.

1.4.2 Spacing
No minimum spacing for bars in beams or other structural elements is specified in the Standard;
it only qualifies that the minimum clear distance between parallel bars (including bundled
bars), ducts and tendons shall be such that the concrete can be properly placed and
compacted ... (see Clauses 8.1.9, 9.1.5 and 11.7.3 of the Standard).
Table 1.4(4) Minimum clear spacing of parallel bars
Bars between which clear

Direction in which

Minimum clear spacing (or pitch)

spacing is measured

spacing is measured shall be the greatest value of ...

Horizontally

25 mm

1db

1.5a

Vertically

25 mm

1db

50 mm

3db

1.5 a

Vertically

25 mm

1db

Horizontally

40 mm

1.5db

1.5a

Horizontally

15 mm

1db

1.5a

Pitch or helix

40 mm

3db (pitch)

1.5a (pitch)

(a) Horizontal bars in beams

(b) Horizontal bars in slabs, walls Horizontally

and footings

(c) Vertical bars

(d) Bars in ribs of hollow-block or
concrete-joist slab construction
(e) Helical reinforcement
where

a the maximum nominal size of the aggregate

db the diameter of the larger bar, or
twice the diameter of the larger bar in the bundle, or
the diameter of a pipe or a conduit, in which case the spacing applied between adjacent parallel pipes or conduits,
whichever is the greater or the greatest, as applicable, or
the diameter of the bar forming the helix.
Source: Standards Australia (2009). AS 3600-2009 Concrete Structures. Standards Australia, Sydney, NSW.
Reproduced with permission from SAI Global under Licence 1004-C029. The Standard is available online at
<http://www.saiglobal.com>.

For crack control, Clause 8.6.1(b) of the Standard recommends that the center-to-center
spacing of bars shall not exceed 300 mm near the tension face of the beam. The Standard
specifies the maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement or closed ties for shear
(Clause 8.2.12.2), torsion (Clause 8.3.8(b)), columns (Clause 10.7.4.3(b)), and for torsion strips
and spandrel beams of flat plates (Clause 9.2.6(b)). For crack control of slabs, Clause 9.4.1(b)

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specifies that the maximum center-to-center spacing shall not exceed the lesser of 300 mm and
2.0Ds where Ds is the overall depth of the slab. For walls, on the other hand, the minimum clear
spacing as per Clause 11.7.3 shall not be less than 3db. For general guidance on minimum
reinforcement spacing, the designer may refer to AS 14801982. Relevant recommendations are
reproduced in Table 1.4(4).
For ease of reference, the various maximum spacing specifications are collated in Table
1.4(5).
Table 1.4(5) Maximum centre-to-centre spacing of parallel bars and closed ties
Beams

300 mm (Clause 8.6.1(b))

Slabs

Lesser of Ds and 300 mm (Clause 9.4.1(b))

Bars

Lesser of 0.5D and 300 mm or

Shear

Lesser2 of 0.75D and 500 mm (Clause 8.2.12.2)

Lesser of 0.12ut and 300 mm (Clause 8.3.8(b))

Torsion

Lesser of

Ties

Columns

Dc

and 1.5db for single bars or

0.5 Dc and 7.5db for bundled bars (Clause 10.7.4.3(b))

Torsion strips and

Not exceeding the greater of 300 mm and Db or Ds (Clause 9.2.6(b))

spandrel beams
Notes:
1 For crack control purposes.
2 In case of
3

Dc

V * Vu ,min

(see Section 5.2.2 and Equation 5.2(13)).

is the diameter of a circular column or the smaller dimension of a rectangular column.