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UNIT I
TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING

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CONTENTS

1. 1 Introduction
1.1.1 Tacheometry
1.1.2 Uses Of Tachometry
1.1.3 Instrument
1.2 Systems Of Tachometric Measurement
1.2.1 Stadia Systems
1.2.2 Non - Stadia Systems
1.3 Principle Of Stadia Method
1.4 Determination Of Tacheometric Constants
1.5 Anallactic Lens
1.6 Inclined Stadia Measurements
1.6.1 Worked Example Problems
1.7 Uses Of Stadia Method
1.8 Errors In Stadia Measurement
1.9 Tangential Method
1.9.1 When Both Vertical Angles Are Angles Of Elevation
1.9.1.1When One of the Vertical Angles Is Elevation Angle and The Other Is Depression
Angle
1.9.2 Worked Example Problems
1.10 Sub tense Bar Method
1.10.1 Instrument
1.10.2 Method
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1.10.2.1 Effect Of Angular Error

1.10.3 Worked Example Problems
1.12 Traverse Surveying Introduction
1.12.1 Types of Traverse

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TECHNICAL TERMS

Tacheometry
It is a method of surveying in which horizontal distances and (relative) vertical elevations are
determined from subtended intervals and vertical angles observed with an instrument.
Stadia Systems
In there system's, staff intercepts at a pair of stadia hairs present at diaphragm, are considered.
The stadia system consists of two methods:

Fixed - Hair method

Movable Hair method

Fixed - Hair method

In this method, stadia hairs are kept at fixed interval and the staff interval or intercept
(corresponding to the stadia hairs) on the leveling staff varies. Staff intercept depends upon the
distance between the instrument station and the staff.
Movable - Hair method
In this method, the staff interval is kept constant by changing the distance between the stadia
hairs. Targets on the staff are fixed at a known interval and the stadia hairs are adjusted to bisect
the upper target at the upper hair and the lower target at the lower hair. Instruments used in this
method are required to have provision for the measurement of the variable interval between the
stadia hairs. As it is inconvenient to measure the stadia interval accurately, the movable hair
method is rarely used.
Non - stadia systems
This method of surveying is primarily based on principles of trigonometry and thus telescopes
without stadia diaphragm are used. This system comprises of two methods:

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Tacheometric systems - Tangential, stadia and subtense methods - Stadia systems - Horizontal
and inclined sights - Vertical and normal staffing - Fixed and movable hairs - Stadia constants Anallactic lens - Subtense bar.
Objective of Lesson 1
The objective of Lesson 1 is to Introduce Tacheometry and to discuss about the stadia method of
tacheometric surveying, explain non-stadia systems of tacheometric surveying.
1. 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1.1

Tacheometry

It is a method of surveying in which horizontal distances and (relative) vertical elevations are
determined from subtended intervals and vertical angles observed with an instrument.

1.1.2

Uses of Tacheometry

Tacheometry is used for

1. preparation of topographic map where both horizontal and vertical distances are required
to be measured;
2. survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods of measurements are inconvenient;
3. reconnaissance survey for highways and railways etc;
4. establishment of secondary control points.
1.1.3

Instrument

The instruments employed in Tacheometry are the

Engineer's transit and the leveling rod or stadia rod
The theodolite and the subtense bar
The self-reducing theodolite and the leveling rod
The distance wedge and the horizontal distance rod
The reduction tacheometer and the horizontal distance rod

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1.2
Systems of Tachometric Measurement
Depending on the type of instrument and methods/types of observations, tacheometric
measurement systems can be divided into two basic types:
(i) Stadia systems and

(ii) Non-stadia systems

1.2.1 Stadia Systems

In there system's, staff intercepts at a pair of stadia hairs present at diaphragm, are considered.
The stadia system consists of two methods:

Fixed - Hair method

Movable Hair method

Fixed - Hair method

In this method, stadia hairs are kept at fixed interval and the staff interval or intercept
(corresponding to the stadia hairs) on the leveling staff varies. Staff intercept depends upon the
distance between the instrument station and the staff.

Movable - Hair method

In this method, the staff interval is kept constant by changing the distance between the stadia
hairs. Targets on the staff are fixed at a known interval and the stadia hairs are adjusted to bisect
the upper target at the upper hair and the lower target at the lower hair. Instruments used in this
method are required to have provision for the measurement of the variable interval between the
stadia hairs. As it is inconvenient to measure the stadia interval accurately, the movable hair
method is rarely used.

1.2.2

Non - stadia systems

This method of surveying is primarily based on principles of trigonometry and thus telescopes
without stadia diaphragm are used. This system comprises of two methods:

Tangential Method

In this method, readings at two different points on a staff are taken against the horizontal cross
hair and corresponding vertical angles are noted.

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Subtense bar method

In this method, a bar of fixed length, called a subtense bar is placed in horizontal position. The
angle subtended by two target points, corresponding to a fixed distance on the subtense bar, at
the instrument station is measured. The horizontal distance between the subtense bar and the
instrument is computed from the known distance between the targets and the measured
horizontal angle.

Fixed-hair method or Stadia method

It is the most prevalent method for tacheometric surveying. In this method, the telescope of the
theodolite is equipped with two additional cross hairs, one above and the other below the main
horizontal hair at equal distance. These additional cross hairs are known as stadia hairs. This is
also known as tacheometer.

1.3

Principle of Stadia method

A tacheometer is temporarily adjusted on the station P with horizontal line of sight. Let a and b
be the lower and the upper stadia hairs of the instrument and their actual vertical separation be
designated as i. Let f be the focal length of the objective lens of the tacheometer and c be
horizontal distance between the optical centre of the objective lens and the vertical axis of the
instrument. Let the objective lens is focused to a staff held vertically at Q, say at horizontal
distance D from the instrument station.
By the laws of optics, the images of readings at A and B of the staff will appear along the stadia
hairs at a and b respectively. Let the staff interval i.e., the difference between the readings at A
and B be designated by s. Similar triangle between the object and image will form with vertex at
the focus of the objective lens (F). Let the horizontal distance of the staff from F be d. Then,
from the similar Ds ABF and a' b' F,

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as a' b' = ab = i. The ratio (f / i) is a constant for a particular instrument and is known as stadia
interval factor, also instrument constant. It is denoted by K and thus
d = K.s --------------------- Equation (1.1)
The horizontal distance (D) between the center of the instrument and the station point (Q) at
which the staff is held is d + f + c. If C is substituted for (f + c), then the horizontal distance D
from the center of the instrument to the staff is given by the equation
D = Ks + C ---------------------- Equation (1.2)
The distance C is called the stadia constant. Equation (1.2) is known as the stadia equation for a
line of sight perpendicular to the staff intercept.

1.4 Determination of Tacheometric Constants

The stadia interval factor (K) and the stadia constant (C) are known as tacheometric constants.
Before using a tacheometer for surveying work, it is reqired to determine these constants. These
can be computed from field observation by adopting following procedure.
Step 1 : Set up the tacheometer at any station say P on a flat ground.
Step 2 : Select another point say Q about 200 m away. Measure the distance between P and Q
accurately with a precise tape. Then, drive pegs at a uniform interval, say 50 m, along PQ. Mark
the peg points as 1, 2, 3 and last peg -4 at station Q.
Step 3 : Keep the staff on the peg-1, and obtain the staff intercept say s1 .
Step 4 : Likewise, obtain the staff intercepts say s2, when the staff is kept at the peg-2,
Step 5 : Form the simultaneous equations, using Equation (1.2)

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D1 = K. s 1 + C --------------(i)
and D 2 = K. s 2+ C -------------(ii)
Solving Equations (i) and (ii), determine the values of K and C say K1 and C1 .
Step 6 : Form another set of observations to the pegs 3 & 4, Simultaneous equations can be
obtained from the staff intercepts s3 and s4 at the peg-3 and point Q respectively. Solving those
equations, determine the values of K and C again say K2 and C2.
Step 7 : The average of the values obtained in steps (5) and (6), provide the tacheometric
constants K and C of the instrument.

1.5

Anallactic Lens

It is a special convex lens, fitted in between the object glass and eyepiece, at a fixed distance
from the object glass, inside the telescope of a tacheometer. The function of the anallactic lens is
to reduce the stadia constant to zero. Thus, when tacheometer is fitted with anallactic lens, the
distance measured between instrument station and staff position (for line of sight perpendicular
to the staff intercept) becomes directly proportional to the staff intercept. Anallactic lens is
provided in external focusing type telescopes only.

1.6

Inclined Stadia Measurements

It is usual that the line of sight of the tacheometer is inclined to the horizontal. Thus, it is
frequently required to reduce the inclined observations into horizontal distance and difference in
elevation.
Let us consider a tacheometer (having constants K and C) is temporarily adjusted on a station,
say P. The instrument is sighted to a staff held vertically, say at Q. Thus, it is required to find the
horizontal distance PP1 (= H) and the difference in elevation P1Q. Let A, R and B be the staff
points whose images are formed respectively at the upper, middle and lower cross hairs of the
tacheometer. The line of sight, corresponding to the middle cross hair, is inclined at an angle of
elevation q and thus, the staff with a line perpendicular to the line of sight. Therefore A'B' = AB
cos q = s cos q where s is the staff intercept AB. The distance D (= OR) is C + K. scos q (from
Equation 1.2). But the distance OO1 is the horizontal distance H, which equals OR cos q.
Therefore the horizontal distance H is given by the equation.
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H = (Ks cos q + C) cos q

Or H = Ks cos2 q + C cos q ----------------- Equation (1.3)
in which K is the stadia interval factor (f / i), s is the stadia interval, C is the stadia constant
(f + C) and q is the vertical angle of the line of sight read on the vertical circle of the transit.
The distance RO1, which equals OR sin q, is the vertical distance between the telescope axis and
the middle cross-hair reading. Thus V is given by the equation
V = (K s cos q + c) sin q
V = Ks sin q cos q + C sin q ----------------- Equation (1.4)

----------------- Equation (1.5)

Thus, the difference in elevation between P and Q is (h + V - r), where h is the height of the
instrument at P and r is the staff reading corresponding to the middle hair.

1.6.1

WORKED EXAMPLE PROBLEMS:

Ex 1-1 In order to carry out tacheometric surveying, following observations were taken through
a tacheometer set up at station P at a height 1.235m.
Horizontal
Staff
distance from
held
Staff
Angle of
P
Vertical
Reading (m) Elevation
at
(m)
Q
100
1.01
0
R
200
2.03
0
3.465, 2.275,
S
?
5 24' 40"
1.280
Compute the horizontal distance of S from P and reduced level of station at S if R.L. of station P
is 262.575m

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ompute the horizontal distance of S from P and reduced level of station at S if R.L. of station P is
262.575m

Figure Ex 1-1
Solution :
Since the staff station P and Q are at known distances and observations are taken at horizontal
line of sight, from equation - 1.2
i.e. from D = K.s + C, we get
100 = K. 1.01 + C --------------- Equation 1
200 = K. 2.03 + C --------------- Equation 2
where K and C are the stadia interval factor and stadia constant of the instrument.

Therefore Solving equation 1 and 2 ,

Substituting, value of K in Equation 1, we get
C = 100 - 1.01 x 98.04 = 0.98
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Now, for the observation at staff station S, the staff intercept

s = 3.465 - 1.280 = 2.185 m;
Given, the angle of elevation (of a observation at S), q = 5 24' 40"
Using equation 23.3 i.e., D = K s cos2 q + C.cos q, the horizontal distance of S from P is
D = 98.04 x 2.185 x cos2 5 24' 40" + 0.98 cos 5 24' 40"
= 212.312 + 0.9756 = 213.288 m

= (20.11 + 0.0924)m = 20.203 m

Thus R.L. of station S = R.L. of P + h + V - r
= 262.575 + 1.235 + 20.203 - 2.275
= 281.738 m
1.7

Uses of Stadia Method

The stadia method of surveying is particularly useful for following cases:

1. In differential leveling, the backsight and foresight distances are balanced conveniently
if the level is equipped with stadia hairs.
2. In profile leveling and cross sectioning, stadia is a convenient means of finding distances
from level to points on which rod readings are taken.
3. In rough trigonometric, or indirect, leveling with the transit, the stadia method is more
rapid than any other method.
4. For traverse surveying of low relative accuracy, where only horizontal angles and
distances are required, the stadia method is a useful rapid method.
5. On surveys of low relative accuracy - particularly topographic surveys-where both the
relative location of points in a horizontal plane and the elevation of these points are
desired, stadia is useful. The horizontal angles, vertical angles, and the stadia interval are
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observed, as each point is sighted; these three observations define the location of the
point sighted.
1.8

Errors in Stadia Measurement

Most of the errors associated with stadia measurement are those that occur during observations
for horizontal angles (Lesson 22) and differences in elevation (Lesson 16). Specific sources of
errors in horizontal and vertical distances computed from observed stadia intervals are as
follows:
1. Error in Stadia Interval factor
This produces a systematic error in distances proportional to the amount of error in the stadia
interval factor.
2. Error in staff graduations
If the spaces on the rod are uniformly too long or too short, a systematic error proportional to
the stadia interval is produced in each distance.
3. Incorrect stadia Interval
The stadia interval varies randomly owing to the inability of the instrument operator to observe
the stadia interval exactly. In a series of connected observations (as a traverse) the error may be
expected to vary as the square root of the number of sights. This is the principal error affecting
the precision of distances. It can be kept to a minimum by proper focusing to eliminate parallax,
by taking observations at favorable times, and by care in observing.
4. Error in verticality of staff
This condition produces a perceptible error in measurement of large vertical angles than for
small angles. It also produces an appreciable error in the observed stadia interval and hence in
computed distances. It can be eliminated by using a staff level.
5. Error due to refraction
This causes random error in staff reading.

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6. Error in vertical angle

Error in vertical angle is relatively unimportant in their effect upon horizontal distance if the
angle is small but it is perceptible if the vertical angle is large.
1.9

Tangential Method

The tangential method of tacheometry is being used when stadia hairs are not present in the
diaphragm of the instrument or when the staff is too far to read.
In this method, the staff sighted is fitted with two big targets (or vanes) spaced at a fixed
vertical distances. Vertical angles corresponding to the vanes, say q1 and q2 are measured. The
horizontal distance, say D and vertical intercept, say V are computed from the values s (predefined / known) q1 and q2 . This method is less accurate than the stadia method.
Depending on the nature of vertical angles i.e, elevation or depression, three cases of
tangential methods are there.

1.9.1

When Both vertical Angles are Angles of Elevation

V = D tan q1
and V+s = D tan q2
Thus, s = D ( tan q2 - tan q1 )

-------------------- Equation (2.1)

-------------------- Equation (2.2)

Therefore R.L. of Q = (R.L. of P + h) + V r -------------------- Equation (2.3)
where, h is the height of the instrument, r is the staff reading corresponding to lower vane.

When Both Vertical Angles are Depression AnglesFrom

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,
V = D tan q1
and V-s = D tan q2
Thus, s = D ( tan q1 - tan q2 )

-------------------- Equation (2.4)

-------------------- Equation (2.5)

Therefore R.L. of Q = (R.L. of P + h) - V r -------------------- Equation (2.6)
where, h is the height of the instrument, r is the staff reading corresponding to lower vane.

1.9.1.2

When one of the Vertical Angles is Elevation Angle and the other is Depression
Angle

V = D tan q1
and s - V = D tan q2
Thus, s = D ( tan q2 + tan q1 )

-------------------- Equation (2.7)

-------------------- Equation (2.8)

Therefore R.L. of Q = (R.L. of P + h) - V r -------------------- Equation (2.9)

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where, h is the height of the instrument, r is the staff reading corresponding to lower vane.

1.9.2 WORKED EXAMPL PROBLEMS

Ex 1.2 In a tangential method of tacheometry two vanes were fixed 2 m apart, the lower vane
being 0.5 m above the foot of the staff held vertical at station A. The vertical angles measured
are +1 12' and -1 30'. find the horizontal distance of A and reduced level of A, if the R.L. of
the observation station is 101.365 m and height of instrument is 1.230 m.

Figure Ex. 1.2

Solution :
Let D be the horizontal distance between the observation station P and staff point A. Then,
from Figure Ex2.1,
V = D tana1
s - V = D tana1
Or, s = D tana2 + D tana1

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Given, s = 2 m; a1= 1 30' & a2 = 1 12'

Therefore R.L. of A = 101.365 + 1.230 -1.11 - 0.5 = 100.985 m

1.10 Subtense Bar Method

1.10.1 Instrument
Subtense bar is a graduated bar of fixed length mounted horizontally on a tripod stan. The bar
is centrally supported on a leveling head and is fitted with a sighting device at the centre. At its
ends, there are targets and these are at fixed distance apart. The bar can rotate about the vertical
axis in a horizontal plane. It can be fixed at any position using a clamping and its tangent
screw. It is used to measure horizontal distance and difference in elevation indirectly where the
terrain is rough and requirement of accuracy is not high.

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Figure 1.10 Subtense bar

1.10.2 Method

Fig 2.5 shows a schematic diagram of a subtense bar having centre at C fitted with targets at
A and B. Let the separation between targets be s. A theodolite is set up at O. The bar is kept
perpendicular to the line of sight OC by means of a sighting device at the centre of the bar.
The horizontal angle between the two targets at the ends of the bar is measured, let it be q.
The horizontal distance

----------------- Equation (24.10)

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If the vertical angle of the centre of the subtence bar is b, then the difference in elevation (V)
between the centre of the bar and the centre of the telescope is
V = D tan b ---------------- Equation (2.11)
1.10.2.1 Effect of Angular Error

The effect of an error in the measurement of the angle q on the computed length D is as
follows):

---------------- Equation (2.12)

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where dD is the error in the distance D; dq is the error in the angle q. The angle q is in
radians.

It may be noted that the nature of error in computation of distance is opposite to the nature of
error in measurement of horizontal angle ie., a positive error in dq produces a negative error
in D and vice versa.

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WORKED EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

Ex 1.3 The horizontal angle observed at a theodolite station by a subtense bar with vanes 2.0 m
apart, is 0 30'. Find the horizontal distance between the theodolite station and subtense bar.If
the bar is 1 out from the normal direction to the line of sight, determine the error in the
measurement of horizontal distance.

Figure Ex 1.3
Solution :
Referring from, given s = 2.0 m; q = 30', Then from

The horizontal distance between the subtense bar and the theodolite,

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Referring figure Ex 24.2,

Therefore Error in horizontal distance = D - D'

= 229 .18 - 229.145 = 0.035 m

Exercise 1
Ex.1-1 What is tacheometry? Enumerate its uses.
Ex.1-2 Describe the conditions under which tacheometric surveying is advantageous.
Ex.1-3 What is an anallactic lens? State its significance in tachometric surveying.
Ex.1-4 A tacheometer is placed at a station A and readings on a staff held vertical upon a B.M.
of RL =100.0 meter and at station B are 0.640, 2.200, 3.760 and 0.010, 2.120, 4.230 m
respectively. The angle of depression of the telescope in the first case is 6 19' and in the second
case is 7 42'. Find the horizontal distance from A to B and the RL of station B, if the
instrument has constants 100 and 0.5.
Ex.1-5 To determine the distance between two points P and Q and elevation of Q, following
observation were made:
Height of tacheometer at P = 1.280 m
Vertical angle at P = + 4 25' 20 "

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Staff reading (with staff vertical) = 1.545, 1.905, 2.265

R.L. of P = 123.265 m.
Calculate the unknown parameters after establishing the fundamental relations.

Ex.1.6 What is tangential system of tacheometry? What are its advantages and disadvantages
over the stadia method?
Ex.1.7 In tangential method of surveying, two vanes were fixed at an interval of 1m on a 3m
staff with the upper vane at 2.0m. The staff was held vertical at station A and the vertical
angles measured for the two vanes were 6 30' 20 " and 4 15' 40 " respectively. Calculate the
R.L. and the horizontal distance of A, if the R.L. of a B.M. was 256.275m. Assume any other
data, if required.
Ex.1.8 The horizontal angle subtended at a theodolite station by a subtense bar with targets 2
m apart, is 15'40". Compute

The horizontal distance between the subtense bar and the theodolite.
The error in the horizontal distance if there is an error of +20" in the measurement of
horizontal angle, and
The error in the horizontal distance if the bar is 30' out from being normal to the line
joining the instrument and the subtense bar.

For Exercise 1
Ex.1-4

625.434 m; 91.432m

Ex.1-5

286.993 m

Ex.1.7

258.400 m; 25.3 m

Ex.1.8

438.860 m; 9.3374 m; 5 m

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1.11 CONTROL SURVEY

Working from whole to part - Horizontal and vertical control methods - Triangulation - Signals Base line - Instruments and accessores - Corrections - Satellite station - Reduction to centre Trignometric levelling - Single and reciprocal observations - Modern trends Bench marking
Ex15-2 In order to eliminate the uncertainty due to refraction, observations for vertical angle are
made at both ends of the line as close in point of time as possible. The vertical angle at the lower
of the two peaks to the upper peak is +3 02' 05"?. The reciprocal vertical angle at the upper peak
is - 3 12' 55"?. The height of instrument are kept to be same in all observation. The slope
distance between two mountain peaks determined by EDM measurement is 21,345m. Compute
the difference in elevations between the two peaks.
Solution :
Average vertical angle a = (3 02' 05" + 3 12' 55") / 2 = 6 15' 00 "
Difference in elevation = 21.345 sin 3 07' 30 " + 0.0675 (21.345 cos 3 07' 30 ")2
= (1.163 + 30.662) m
= 31.825 m Ex.15-1The following reciprocal levels were taken on two stations P and Q:

Instrument
station

Average near
readings, meter

Average distant,
readings, meter
R.L of P = 101.345 m

2.165

3.810
Distance, PQ = 1645 Km

2.335

0.910

Determine the elevation of Q and the error due to refraction when the collimation error is 0.003m
downward per 100m.
Ex.15-2 In order to reduce the error in measurement of vertical angle a set of measurements are
taken and find the average angle as 9 02' 05? form a height of instrument as 1.565m to a target
height 2.165m. If the elevation of the instrument station is 189.250m above mean sea level, find
the elevation of staff station. Assume any data, if required.

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Answers
For Exercise 15
Ex.15-1 99.810 m; 0.063 m
Ex. 15-2 204.134 m (Hints : Assume, tacheometric observation fitted with anallactic lens and
having fixed target of height 1 m)

Objective of Lesson 28
The objective of Lesson 28 is to explain the different steps involved in traverse surveying.

1.12 TRAVERSE SURVEYING INTRODUCTION

The fundamental network of points whose horizontal positions are accurately known are called
horizontal control. Traversing is most frequently employed method for establishment of
horizontal control points for surveys of limited extent or where the desired points lie along a
devious route.
Traverse
A traverse consists of a series of straight lines connected successively at established points,
along the route of a survey. The points defining the ends of the traverse line are called traverse
stations or traverse points. Distances between traverse stations are known as traverse side and
are measured either by direct measurement using a Tape or Electronic Distance Measuring
(EDM) equipment, or by indirect measurement using tacheometer. At stations where a traverse
side changes its direction, relative direction are measured with a transit or theodolite.
1.12.1 Types of Traverse
Fundamentally, there are two types of traverses:

Open Traverse
An open traverse originates from a point whose position may be known or unknown but
terminates to a point whose position is not known. In this type of traverse, computational check
is not possible to detect error or blunder in distances or directions. To minimize error, repeated
observations for measurements need to be taken. In Fig 1.3 consider a traverse ABCDE that
originates from the point A which may be unknown or may be defined with reference to known
point P lying on the line PQ of known azimuth, but it terminates to an unknown point E. Thus,
traverse ABCDE is an open traverse. An open traverse is generally used for exploratory purpose
such as mine surveying. It should generally not be used in civil engineering works unless
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situation dictates. So no further discussion on this will be done.

Closed Traverse
When a traverse originates from a known position and also terminates to known position then it
is called a closed traverse. (If the origin and terminating points are the same then it is called
closed-loop traverse Fig. 1.4 . (a) This type of traverse permits an internal check on the
accuracy of angular measurements, provides an indication of the consistency of measuring
distances as well as angles. But detection of systematic errors in linear measurement or errors
in the orientation of the traverse, is not possible. This type of traverse is recommended for
minor projects). A closed traverse that originates from a known point and terminates to another
known point Fig. 1.4 (b) is the most reliable. This type of traverse henceforth called as open
looped close traverse provides computational checks allowing detection of systematic errors in
both distance and direction and, therefore, preferred to all other types of traverse.

Traverse Surveying
Surveying for establishment of control points of a traverse consists of different steps of
operation. These are
Reconnaissance
During reconnaissance, extensive inspection and examination of the entire area to be
surveyed is carried out in order to identify suitable location for traverse stations; to ensure
inter visibility among traverse stations; to decide the method of traversing and type of
instruments suitable to field condition; to collect miscellaneous information related to
traverse surveying such as: (i) Transport facilities; (ii) Availability of food and water for the
survey party; (iii) Camping ground or stay arrangements; (iv) Availability of labour etc
Selection of the station sites
During selection of sites for traverse stations, following considerations are required to be
taken into account:
1. Location should be such that the basic principle of surveying, i.e., working from the
whole to the part gets implemented.
2. Number of stations should be as minimum as possible but the possible figures
joining the stations should be well conditioned.
3. Length of the traverse lines better be as long as possible to reduce the effect of
centering error.
4. The intervisibility among stations and at least between adjoining stations is required.
5. Stations may be positioned on firm and level ground.

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Marking of Stations
After finalizing the sites for locations of traverse stations, their positions are marked on the
ground. The station mark should be of permanent nature, so that same stations can be used in
future also, if required. For that necessary monument is constructed.

Field Measurements
The field measurements in traverse surveying consist of measurement of length and direction
of traverse sides and thus involve
Linear Measurements
Angular Mweasurements
Linear Measurements
The length of traverse sides are measured by direct method using tape or EDM (Module 3)
and by indirect method using tacheometer (Module 7). However, the choice of the method
depends on the method of traversing employed. The checking of the linear measurements
consists in taping each traverse line a second time, preferably in the reverse direction on
different dates and by different parties.

Angular Measurements
The direction of traverse sides are measured by deflection angles, interior angles, azimuth etc
(Module 6). Immediately after completion of a set of observation, an arithmetical check on
the angular error of closure is required to be performed in the field itself to detect any
blunder or excessively large error in angular measurement. For this, higher accuracy azimuth
of one line or two lines, depending on the method adopted, are required to be known or
determined before starting of the traverse surveying. The method of traversing depends on
the type of parameter used to define the direction of sides; such as

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Deflection Angle Traverse

Interior Angle Traverse
Azimuth Traverse

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Computations
The details of computation leading to determination of coordinates of stations is discussed in
Lesson

Deflection Angle Traverse

In this method of traverse surveying, successive stations are occupied and deflection angles
are measured by a transit or theodolite. At each station, a backsight is taken to the previous
station with vernier A set at zero. The telescope is then reversed by plunging it. A foresight to
the next station is then taken by turning the instrument about the vertical axis on its upper
motion, and the deflection angle is observed. The angle is recorded as right R or left L,
according to whether the upper motion is turned clockwise or counter clockwise. Usually,
deflection angles are observed twice, once with the telescope in face left and the other in face
right condition. Immediately after completion of traverse observation, an arithmetical check
on the angular error of closure should be performed to detect any blunder or excessively large
error in angular measurement.

To check the angular closure, azimuths are calculated from previously known azimuth of a
line. The unknown azimuth of a line is computed by adding the right deflection angle and
subtracting the left deflection angle with the forward azimuth of the previous line. Thus,
W.C.B. of a traverse line = Forward W.C.B. of the preceding line deflection angle.
360 needs to be subtracted from computed W.C.B., if it is more than 360 and to be added, if
the computed value is negative. Fig. 28.3 Illustrates the computations of azimuth using
deflection angles to the left and right.
The error of closure in a traverse observation can be determined by two ways. These are either
based on the computed azimuth or on the observed deflection angles.
In the azimuth adjustment method, the computed azimuth of the closing line is compared with
its previously observed value. If both the values agrees each other, there is no error of closure
otherwise it exist. To remove the error, a correction equal in magnitude but opposite in nature
to the error of closure is to be distributed among the observed deflection angles.
In the deflection angle adjustment method, the algebraic sum of the deflection angles is being
computed taking the right deflection angles as positive and left deflection angles as negative.
The general relation to compute the error of closure by this method is as follows:

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Ex28-1: Determine the azimuth of the sides of the open looped close traverse (Figure 28.4) by
azimuth correction method.
Solution :
Fig. 28.4 shows a deflection-angled closed traverse. It originates at point A lying on the line
PQ having azimuth of 47 53' 20" (determined from a previous survey). The traverse closes on
point F lying on a line XY whose azimuth is 319 55' 20" (also determined from a previous
survey). The deflection angle observed at different stations are shown in columm (2) of Table
28.1 of a azimuths of the sides of traverse (computed using Eq 28-1) are as shown in column
(3) of table 28.1. It is found that the calculated azimuth of XY (319 52' 20") fails to agree
with its previously observed value (319 55' 20"). Thus, there is an error of angular closure by 3' 00" for the traverse and thus needs a corrction of + 3' 00". Since six deflection angles are
measured, the correction to each angle is 30". The azimuth of AB receives a 30" correction
[column (4) of Table 28.1 since this azimuth has been obtained by considering only one
measured angle; azimuth of BC receives a 1' 00" correction, since this azimuth has been
obtained by considering two measured angles and so on. The correction to the last azimuth is 6
x 30" = 3' 00", since this azimuth has been obtained by using all six measured deflection
angles. Finally, the adjusted value of azimuth has been found (column 5) by making correction
(columm 4) to computed value (columm 3).
Table 28.1 Calculation of Adjusted of Azimuths of a Closed Traverse from Deflection Angles
Fig 28.4

Deflection Angle (2)

Line (1)

At (a)

Nature
(b)

Value

PQ
A

R (+)

L(-)

67 48' 40"

R (+)

40 15' 20"

BC
CD
R (+)

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L(-)

47 53' 20"

a priori
observed

47 53' 20"

118 14' 00"

+0' 30"

118 14' 30"

50 25' 20"

+1' 00"

50 26' 20"

90 40' 40"

+1' 30"

90 42' 10"

205 26' 40"

+2' 00"

205 28' 40"

Adjusted
Azimuth (5)

11446' 00"

DE
E

Correction
(4)

70 21' 40"

AB

Computed
Azimuth from
observed angles
(3)

13158' 00"
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EF
F
XY
XY
XY

L(-)

73 28' 40"

+2' 30"

73 31' 10"

- 40 07' 40"
319 52' 20"

+3' 00"
+3' 00"

- 40 04' 40"
319 55' 20"

11336 20"

Computed
a priori
observed
Angular error of closure =

319 55' 20"

- 3' 00"

TWO MARK QUESTIONS

1. What are the three types of telescope used in stadia surveying?
2. What are the advantages of an anallactic lens used in tacheometer?
3. List merits and demerits of movable hair method in tacheometric survey.
4. Compare tangential and stadia methods.
5. What is the difference between a theodolite and tacheometer?
6. What is tangential tacheometry?
7. What are the different systems of tacheometric survey?
8. What is a Base net?
SIXTEEN MARK QUESTIONS
1. Write a detailed notes on projection, map generalization map symbology and map
design, while generating a map.
2. (i) Explain how you would determine the constants of a tacheometer.

(16)
(4)

(ii) A tacheometer was set up at station A and the following readings were obtained
on a vertically held staff.

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Hair reading
Staff station

Vertical angle

3.225,

Remarks

B.M.

-2 18

3.550

R.L. of B.M. is 437.655 m

And 3.875
1.650
B

+8 36

2.515
And 3.380

Calculate the horizontal distance from A to B and the R.L. of B, if the constants of the
instrument were 100 and 0.4.

(12)

3. (i) Explain how a subtense bar is used with a theodolite to determine the horizontal
distance between two points.
(ii) A theodolite has a tacheometric multiplying constant of 100 and an additive constant of
zero. The centre reading on a vertical staff held at point B was 2.292 m when sighted
from A. If the vertical angle was +25 and the horizontal distance AB 190.326 m,
calculate the other staff readings and show that the two intercept intervals are not
equal. Using these values, calculate the level of B if A is 37.950 m angle of depression
and the height of the instrument is 1.35 m.
4. (i) Explain the different between tangential and stadia tacheometry.
(ii) How will you determine the stadia constants?

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(10)
(8)
(8)

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