IV.

REVIEW OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Figure 1. The
A second line

Immune System
of defense is housed within the body: a finely tuned
immune system that recognizes and destroys
foreign substances and organisms that
enter the body. The immune system can
distinguish between the body's own tissues and
outside substances called antigens. This allows
cells of the immune army to identify and
destroy only those enemy antigens. The ability

to

identify an antigen also permits the immune system to

"remember" antigens the body has been exposed to in

the past; so
immune
The immune
assist

that the body can mount a better and faster

response the next time any of these antigens appear.
system also includes other proteins and chemicals that
antibodies and T cells in their work. Among them are

chemicals that alert phagocytes to the site of the infection. The complement system, a
group of proteins that normally float freely in the blood, move toward infections, where
they combine to help destroy microorganisms and foreign particles. They do this by
changing the surface of bacteria or other microorganisms, causing them to die.
*

enzyme (EN-zime) is a protein that helps speed up a chemical reaction In the body.

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*

antigens (AN-tih-jens) are substances that are recognized as a threat by the body's

immune system, which triggers the formation of specific antibodies against the
substance.
*

bone marrow is the soft tissue inside bones where blood cells are made.

lymphatic (lim-FAH-tik) system is a system that contains lymph nodes and a network

of channels that carry fluid and cells of the immune system through the body.
*

immunity (ih-MYOON-uh-tee) is the condition of being protected against an infectious

disease. Immunity often develops after a germ is introduced to the body. One type of
immunity occurs when the body makes special protein molecules called antibodies to
fight the disease-causing germ. The next time that germ enters the body, the antibodies
quickly attack it, usually preventing the germ from causing disease.
Primarily, the immune system classifies a substance as:

a. Self-non-foreign they are normally ignored and tolerance and is exhibited

towards these substances. They are not deemed harmful.
b. Non-self termed as an antigen; a specific response is developed to a specific
antigen. The response is then stored in the immune systems memory cells for
future reference.
Components of the Immune System:

1. Lymphoid Structures
Spleen
- Composed of red and white pulp, acts somewhat like a filter.
- The red pulp is the site where old and injured red blood cells are
destroyed.

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- The white pulp contains concentrations of lymphocytes.

Lymph Nodes
- Are distributed throughout the body
- Are connected by lymph channels and capillaries, which remove
foreign material from the lymph before it enters the bloodstream.

2. Immune Cells Lymphocytes

a. B lymphocytes (or B cells) - produce immunoglobulins.
b. T lymphocytes (or T cells) - help control the immune response and destroy
foreign antigens directly.
c. Plasma Cells - are white blood cells that produce large volumes of
antibodies.
3. Tissues The remaining lymphoid tissues, such as the tonsils and adenoids and
other.
Mucoid Lymphatic Tissue contain immune cells that defend the bodys
mucosal surfaces against microorganisms.
Types of Immune Defense:
a. Innate or Nonspecific Immunity

Also termed as the persons natural resistance, and are the most basic and
primary of all defenses in the body. (skin, mucus membranes, phagocytic

activity)
4. Immune Cells Lymphocytes
d. B lymphocytes (or B cells) - produce immunoglobulins.
e. T lymphocytes (or T cells) - help control the immune response and destroy
foreign antigens directly.
f. Plasma Cells - are white blood cells that produce large volumes of
antibodies.

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5. Tissues The remaining lymphoid tissues, such as the tonsils and adenoids and
other.
Mucoid Lymphatic Tissue contain immune cells that defend the bodys
mucosal surfaces against microorganisms.

2 Types of Immunity
Active acquired through previous exposure of the disease or through
immunization wherein the body actively participates in formation of antibodies
for future reference.

Passive refers to whole, ready made immunity acquired from another, the
body is just passive in the process of developing antibodies, as it is already
made and given readily.

4 Types of Active Immunity

a. Humoral Immunity
b. Mucosal Immunity
c. Cell-mediated Immunity
d. Delayed HypersensitivityReaction
Antibodies or Immunoglobulins developed from B-cells through the stimulation
of cytokines produced by helper T-cells in the presence of an antigen. They attach to
specific determinant sites on antigens, and carries out phagocytosis and initiating
inflammation.
IgG

75%

Crosses placental barrier; present in circulation and tissue

spaces; antiviral, antitoxic and anti-bacterial properties;

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15%

activates complement
Found in body secretions and breast milk; protects mucous

10%

membranes from microorganisms

Forms natural ABO antibodies; present in early immune

IgE

.2%

responses; activates complement

Hypersensitivity reaction mediator; Involved in parasitic

IgD

.004%

infectious
Necessary for maturation of B lymphocytes

IgA
IgM

Hematologic System
Two types of blood vessels carry blood throughout our bodies:
1. Arteries carry oxygenated blood (blood that has received oxygen from the lungs) from
the heart to the rest of the body.
2. Blood then travels through veins back to the heart and lungs, where it receives more
oxygen.

The blood that flows through this network of veins and arteries is whole blood,
which contains three types of blood cells:
1. Red blood cells (RBCs)
- (also called erythrocytes) are shaped like slightly indented,
flattened disks. RBCs contain the iron-rich protein hemoglobin.
Blood gets its bright red color when hemoglobin picks up
oxygen in the lungs. As the blood travels through the body, the
hemoglobin releases oxygen to the tissues.

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-

The body contains more RBCs than any other type of cell, and each has a life span of
about 4 months. Each day, the body produces new RBCs to replace those that die or are
lost from the body.

2. White blood cells (WBCs)

- (also called leukocytes) are a key part of the body's system for
defending itself against infection. They can move in and out
of the bloodstream to reach affected tissues. Blood contains
far fewer WBCs than red blood cells, although the body can
increase WBC production to fight infection. There are several types of WBCs, and their
life spans vary from a few days to months. New cells are constantly being formed in the
bone marrow.
-

Certain types of WBCs produce antibodies, special proteins that recognize foreign
materials and help the body destroy or neutralize them. The white cell count (the number
of cells in a given amount of blood) in someone with an infection often is higher than
usual because more WBCs are being produced or are entering the bloodstream to battle
the infection.

3. Platelets
- (also called thrombocytes) are tiny oval-shaped cells

made

in the bone marrow. They help in the clotting process.

When

a blood vessel breaks, platelets gather in the area

and

help seal off the leak. Platelets survive only about 9

days in the

bloodstream and are constantly being replaced by

new

cells.
-

Platelets and clotting factors work together to form solid lumps to seal leaks, wounds,
cuts, and scratches and to prevent bleeding inside and on the surfaces of our bodies.

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The process of clotting is like a puzzle with interlocking parts. When the last part is in
place, the clot happens but if even one piece is missing, the final pieces can't come
together.