Ampere - A

The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite
length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce
between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 Newton per meter of length.

Coulomb - C

The standard unit of quantity in electrical measurements. It is the quantity of electricity conveyed in
one second by the current produced by an electro-motive force of one volt acting in a circuit having a
resistance of one ohm, or the quantity transferred by one ampere in one second.

Farad - F

The farad is the standard unit of capacitance. Reduced to base SI units one farad is the equivalent of
one second to the fourth power ampere squared per kilogram per meter squared (s4 A2/kg m2).

When the voltage across a 1 F capacitor changes at a rate of one volt per second (1 V/s) a current
flow of 1 A results. A capacitance of 1 F produces 1 V of potential difference for an electric charge of
one coulomb (1 C).

In common electrical and electronic circuits units of microfarads μF (1 μF = 10-6 F) and picofarads pF
(1 pF = 10-12 F) are used.

Ohm - Ω

The derived SI unit of electrical resistance - the resistance between two points on a conductor when a
constant potential difference of 1 volt between them produces a current of 1 ampere.

Henry - H

The Henry is the unit of inductance. Reduced to base SI units one henry is the equivalent of one
kilogram meter squared per second squared per ampere squared (kg m2 s-2 A-2).

Inductance

An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field.

The standard unit of inductance is the henry abbreviated H. This is a large unit and more commonly
used units are the microhenry abbreviated μH (1 μH =10-6H) and the millihenry abbreviated mH (1 mH
=10-3 H). Occasionally, the nanohenry abbreviated nH (1 nH = 10-9 H) is used.

Joule - J

The unit of energy work or quantity of heat done when a force of one Newton is applied over a
displacement of one meter. One joule is the equivalent of one watt of power radiated or dissipated for
one second.

In imperial units the British Thermal Unit (Btu) is used to express energy. One Btu is equivalent to
approximately 1,055 joules.

Siemens - S

The unit of electrical conductance S = A / V

Page 1 of 53
Watt

The watt is used to specify the rate at which electrical energy is dissipated, or the rate at which
electromagnetic energy is radiated, absorbed, or dissipated.

The unit of power W or Joule/second

Weber - Wb

The unit of magnetic flux.

The flux that when linking a circuit of one turn, produces an Electro Motive Force - EMF - of 1 volt as it
is reduced to zero at a uniform rate in one second.

• 1 Weber is equivalent to 108 Maxwells

Tesla - T

The unit of magnetic flux density the Tesla is equal to 1 Weber per square meter of circuit area.

Volt

The Volt - V - is the Standard International (SI) unit of electric potential or electromotive force. A
potential of one volt appears across a resistance of one ohm when a current of one ampere flows
through that resistance.

Reduced to SI base units,

1 (V) = 1 (kg m2 / s3 A)

Page 2 of 53
Real Power

Wapplied = 31/2 U I cos Φ

= 31/2 U I PF (1)

where

Wapplied = real power (watts)

U = voltage (volts)

I = current (Amps)

PF = cos Φ = power factor (0.7 - 0.95)

For purely resistive load: PF = cos Φ = 1

Total Power

W = 31/2 U I (2)

Brake Horsepower

WBHP = 31/2 U I PF μ / 746 (3)

where

WBHP = brake horse power (hp)

μ = device efficiency

Page 3 of 53
Electric Power Formulas

W=EI (1a)

W = R I2 (1b)

W = E2/ R (1c)

where

W = power (Watts)

E = voltage (Volts)

I = current (Amperes)

R = resistance (Ohms)

Electric Current Formulas

I=E/R (2a)

I=W/E (2b)

I = (W / R)1/2 (2c)

Electric Resistance Formulas

R=E/I (3a)

R = E2/ W (3b)

R = W / I2 (3c)

Electrical Potential Formulas - Ohms Law

Ohms law can be expressed as:

E=RI (4a)

E=W/I (4b)

E = (W R)1/2 (4c)

Example - Ohm's law

A 12 volt battery supplies power to a resistance of 18 ohms.

I = (12 Volts) / (18 ohms)

= 0.67 Ampere

Page 4 of 53
Electrical Motor Formulas
Electrical Motor Efficiency

μ = 746 Php / Winput (5)

where

μ = efficiency

Php = output horsepower (hp)

Winput = input electrical power (Watts)

or alternatively

μ = 746 Php / (1.732 E I PF) (5b)

Electrical Motor - Power

W3-phase = (E I PF 1.732) / 1,000 (6)

where

W3-phase = electrical power 3-phase motor (kW)

PF = power factor electrical motor

Electrical Motor - Amps

I3-phase = (746 Php) / (1.732 E μ PF) (7)

where

I3-phase = electrical current 3-phase motor (Amps)

PF = power factor electrical motor

Page 5 of 53
 E = Voltage / I = Amps /W = Watts / PF = Power Factor / Eff = Efficiency / HP =
Horsepower

AC/DC Formulas
To Find Direct Current AC / 1phase AC / 1phase AC 3 phase
115v or 120v 208,230, or 240v All Voltages
Amps when HP x 746 HP x 746 HP x 746 HP x 746
Horsepower is Known E x Eff E x Eff X PF E x Eff x PF 1.73 x E x Eff x PF
Amps when kW x 1000 kW x 1000 kW x 1000 kW x 1000
Kilowatts is known E E x PF E x PF 1.73 x E x PF
Amps when kVA x 1000 kVA x 1000 kVA x 1000
kVA is known E E 1.73 x E
Kilowatts IxE I x E x PF I x E x PF I x E x 1.73 PF
1000 1000 1000 1000
Kilovolt-Amps IxE IxE I x E x 1.73
1000 1000 1000
Horsepower I x E x Eff I x E x Eff x PF I x E x Eff x PF I x E x Eff x 1.73 x PF
(output) 746 746 746 746

Three Phase Values

For 208 volts x 1.732, use 360
For 230 volts x 1.732, use 398
For 240 volts x 1.732, use 416
For 440 volts x 1.732, use 762
For 460 volts x 1.732, use 797
For 480 Volts x 1.732, use 831

E = Voltage / I = Amps /W = Watts / PF = Power Factor / Eff = Efficiency / HP =

Horsepower

AC Efficiency and Power Factor Formulas

To Find Single Phase Three Phase
746 x HP 746 x HP
Efficiency
E x I x PF E x I x PF x 1.732
Input Watts Input Watts
Power Factor
VxA E x I x 1.732

Power - DC Circuits

Page 6 of 53
 Watts = E xI
Amps = W / E

Ohm's Law / Power Formulas

P = watts

I = amps

R = ohms

E = Volts

Voltage Drop Formulas

2 x K x I x L K = ohms per mil foot
Single Phase VD = CM
(2 or 3 wire) CM= 2K x L x I (Copper = 12.9 at 75°)
VD
(Alum = 21.2 at 75°)
1.73 x K x I x L Note: K value changes with temperature. See Code chapter 9, Table 8
VD= CM

Three Phase L = Length of conductor in feet

1.73 x K x L x I
CM= VD I = Current in conductor (amperes)

CM = Circular mil area of conductor

Check out these Online Calculators!

Page 7 of 53
To better understand the following formulas review the rule of transposition in equations.
A multiplier may be removed from one side of an equation by making it a division on the
other side, or a division may be removed from one side of an equation by making it a
multiplier on the other side.

1. Voltage and Current: Primary (p) secondary (s)

Power(p) = power (s) or Ep x Ip = Es x Is

Es x Is Es x Is
A. Ep = B. Ip =
Ip Ep

Ep x Ip Ep x Ip
C. Is = D. Es =
Es Is

2. Voltage and Turns in Coil:

Voltage (p) x Turns (s) = Voltage (s) x Turns (p)
or Ep x Ts = Es x Ip

Es x Ip Es x Tp
A. Ep = B. Ts =
Ts Ep

Ep x Ts Ep x Ts
C. Tp = D. Es =
Es Tp

3. Amperes and Turns in Coil:

Amperes (p) x Turns (p) = Amperes (s) x Turns (s)
or Ip x Tp = Is x Ts

Is x Ts Is x Ts
A. Ip = B. Tp =
Tp Ip

Ip x Tp Ip x Tp
C. Ts = D. Is =
Is Ts

Page 8 of 53
 OHM’S LAW CALCULATOR

VOLTS=Voltage, AMPS=Current, OHMS=Resistance, WATTS=Power

Give me any TWO numeric values and I'll give you all FOUR. Press the
Ohm's Law button after you have made your entries:
VOLTS AMPS OHMS WATTS

RESET

Fundamentals: Electric Laws − Formulary − Equations

Formula wheel ▼ Important formulas
Electrical engineering laws Electronic engineering laws

Page 9 of 53
Formula 1 − Electrical (electric) power equation: Power P = I × V = R × I2 = V2 ∕
R
where power P is in watts, voltage V is in volts and current I is in amperes (DC).
If there is AC, look also at the power factor PF = cos φ and φ = power factor
angle
(phase angle) between voltage and amperage.
Formula 2 − Mechanical (mechanic) power equation: Power P = E ∕ t = W ∕ t
where power P is in watts, Energy E is in joules, and time t is in seconds. 1 W =
1 J/s.
Power = force times displacement divided by time P = F · s / t or:
Power = force times speed (velocity) P = F · v.
Electric (electrical) Energy is E = P × t − measured in watthours, or also in kWh.

Tip: The electrical power triangle (power formula)

The magic triangle can be used to calculate all formulas of the "electric power
law". You hide with
a finger the value to be calculated. The other two values show then how to do the
calculation.

Page 10 of 53
ENGINEERING FORMULA
ELECTRICAL
DIRECT CURRENT(DC)
I = current(amps.), V = voltage(volts), R = resistance(ohms), P = power(watts)
CURRENT:

I = V/R or I = P/V

VOLTAGE:

V= P/I or V = IR

POWER:

I2R or VI

RESISTANCE:

R = V/I

ALTERNATING CURRENT(AC):

Il = line current(amps.), Ip = phase current(amps.), Vp =

phase voltage(volts), Vl = line voltage(volts), Z =
impedance(ohms), P = power(watts), φ = power
factor(angle), VA = volt ampers

CURRENT(single phase):
I = P/(Vp cos(φ )

Page 11 of 53
  CURRENT(3 phase):

I = P/√3(Vl cos(φ )) or I = P/3(Vp cos(φ ))

POWER(single phase):

P = (VpIp cos(φ ))

POWER(3 phase):
P = √3(VlIl cos(φ )) or P = 3(VpIp cos(φ ))

Page 12 of 53
 Electrical Formula

Legend
R = Resistance, in ohms
P = Power, in watts
V = Voltage, in volts
I = Current, in amps
HP = Horsepower
L = Length
Eff = Efficiency e.g. 85% = 0.85
pF = Power Factor
Output kW = Net effective mechanical power of a motor

Ohms Law
Power = V2 or R x I2 or V x I
R

Voltage P or R x I or
= I

Resistance V or V2 or P
= I P I2

Current P or V or
= V R

Page 13 of 53
 Three Phase, Single Phase & DC Formula
Three Phase Single Phase Direct Current

I x V x 1.732 x
I x V x pF I x V
pF
kW = kW = kW =
1000 1000 1000

kW = KVA x pF kW = KVA x pF

HP x 746
kW =
1000 x Eff

I x V x 1.732 x I x V x pF x I x V x
Output pF x Eff Output Eff Output Eff
kW = kW = kW =
1000 1000 1000

I x V x 1.732 I x V
kVA = kVA =
1000 1000

kW
kVA =
pF

kW x 1000 kW x 1000 kW x 1000

I = I = I =
V x 1.732 x pF x
V x pF x Eff V x Eff
Eff

kVA X 1000 kVA X 1000

I = I =
V x 1.732 V

Page 14 of 53
 HP x 746 HP x 746 HP x 746
I = I = I =
V x 1.732 x pF x
V x pF x Eff V x Eff
Eff

I x V x 1.732 x pF I x V x pF x I x V x
x Eff Eff Eff
HP = HP = HP =
746 746 746

kW x Eff x 1000
HP =
746

kVA x Eff x 1000

x pF
HP =
746

kW x 1000 kW x 1000
pF = pF =
I x V x 1.732 I x V

HP x 746 HP x 746 HP x 746

Eff = Eff = Eff =
I x V x 1.732 x
I x V x pF I x V
pF

Voltage Drop

Vc x L x where: Vc = mV/Am
1000 x Vd
I L = Length
Vc = or Vd = I = Current
L x I 1000 Vd = Voltage Drop

Australian Standards specify a maximum of 5% voltage drop across the

Page 15 of 53
entire circuit (including
mains, submains and final subcircuit).

Maximum Circuit Length Calculation

where: Tha = System Impedance Factor

Tha x Uo x Sph x Spe Uo = Phase Voltage
Sph = Cable CSA
Spe = Cable Earth CSA
Resistivity = Resistivity for
Lmax =
Copper
Ia x Resistivity x Ia = Magnetic release
(Sph+Spe) operating current,
or fuse interupting
capacity

DC circuits

Library - Electrical Circuit Formulae

Resistance
The resistance R of a circuit is equal to the applied direct voltage E divided by
the resulting steady current I:
R=E/I

Page 16 of 53
Resistances in Series
When resistances R1, R2, R3, ... are connected in series, the total resistance RS
is:
RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

Voltage Division by Series Resistances

When a total voltage ES is applied across series connected resistances R1 and
R2, the current IS which flows through the series circuit is:
IS = ES / RS = ES / (R1 + R2)

The voltages V1 and V2 which appear across the respective resistances R1 and
R2 are:
V1 = ISR1 = ESR1 / RS = ESR1 / (R1 + R2)
V2 = ISR2 = ESR2 / RS = ESR2 / (R1 + R2)

In general terms, for resistances R1, R2, R3, ... connected in series:
IS = ES / RS = ES / (R1 + R2 + R3 + ...)
Vn = ISRn = ESRn / RS = ESRn / (R1 + R2 + R3 + ...)
Note that the highest voltage drop appears across the highest resistance.

Resistances in Parallel
When resistances R1, R2, R3, ... are connected in parallel, the total resistance RP
is:
1 / RP = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 + ...

Alternatively, when conductances G1, G2, G3, ... are connected in parallel, the
total conductance GP is:
GP = G1 + G2 + G3 + ...
where Gn = 1 / Rn

For two resistances R1 and R2 connected in parallel, the total resistance RP is:
RP = R1R2 / (R1 + R2)
RP = product / sum

The resistance R2 to be connected in parallel with resistance R1 to give a total

resistance RP is:
R2 = R1RP / (R1 - RP)
R2 = product / difference

Page 17 of 53
Current Division by Parallel Resistances
When a total current IP is passed through parallel connected resistances R1 and
R2, the voltage VP which appears across the parallel circuit is:
VP = IPRP = IPR1R2 / (R1 + R2)

The currents I1 and I2 which pass through the respective resistances R1 and R2
are:
I1 = VP / R1 = IPRP / R1 = IPR2 / (R1 + R2)
I2 = VP / R2 = IPRP / R2 = IPR1 / (R1 + R2)

In general terms, for resistances R1, R2, R3, ... (with conductances G1, G2, G3, ...)
connected in parallel:
VP = IPRP = IP / GP = IP / (G1 + G2 + G3 + ...)
In = VP / Rn = VPGn = IPGn / GP = IPGn / (G1 + G2 + G3 + ...)
where Gn = 1 / Rn
Note that the highest current passes through the highest conductance (with the
lowest resistance).

Capacitance
When a voltage is applied to a circuit containing capacitance, current flows to
accumulate charge in the capacitance:
Q = ∫ idt = CV

Alternatively, by differentiation with respect to time:

dq/dt = i = C dv/dt
Note that the rate of change of voltage has a polarity which opposes the flow of
current.

The capacitance C of a circuit is equal to the charge divided by the voltage:

C = Q / V = ∫ idt / V

Alternatively, the capacitance C of a circuit is equal to the charging current

divided by the rate of change of voltage:
C = i / dv/dt = dq/dt / dv/dt = dq/dv

Capacitances in Series
When capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... are connected in series, the total capacitance
CS is:
1 / CS = 1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...

Page 18 of 53
For two capacitances C1 and C2 connected in series, the total capacitance CS is:
CS = C1C2 / (C1 + C2)
CS = product / sum

Voltage Division by Series Capacitances

When a total voltage ES is applied to series connected capacitances C1 and C2,
the charge QS which accumulates in the series circuit is:
QS = ∫ iSdt = ESCS = ESC1C2 / (C1 + C2)

The voltages V1 and V2 which appear across the respective capacitances C1 and
C2 are:
V1 = ∫ iSdt / C1 = ESCS / C1 = ESC2 / (C1 + C2)
V2 = ∫ iSdt / C2 = ESCS / C2 = ESC1 / (C1 + C2)

In general terms, for capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... connected in series:
QS = ∫ iSdt = ESCS = ES / (1 / CS) = ES / (1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...)
Vn = ∫ iSdt / Cn = ESCS / Cn = ES / Cn(1 / CS) = ES / Cn(1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...)
Note that the highest voltage appears across the lowest capacitance.

Capacitances in Parallel
When capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... are connected in parallel, the total capacitance
CP is:
CP = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

Charge Division by Parallel Capacitances

When a voltage EP is applied to parallel connected capacitances C1 and C2, the
charge QP which accumulates in the parallel circuit is:
QP = ∫ iPdt = EPCP = EP(C1 + C2)

The charges Q1 and Q2 which accumulate in the respective capacitances C1 and

C2 are:
Q1 = ∫ i1dt = EPC1 = QPC1 / CP = QPC1 / (C1 + C2)
Q2 = ∫ i2dt = EPC2 = QPC2 / CP = QPC2 / (C1 + C2)

In general terms, for capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... connected in parallel:
QP = ∫ iPdt = EPCP = EP(C1 + C2 + C3 + ...)

Page 19 of 53
Qn = ∫ indt = EPCn = QPCn / CP = QPCn / (C1 + C2 + C3 + ...)
Note that the highest charge accumulates in the highest capacitance.

Inductance
When the current changes in a circuit containing inductance, the magnetic
linkage changes and induces a voltage in the inductance:
dψ /dt = e = L di/dt
Note that the induced voltage has a polarity which opposes the rate of change of
current.

Alternatively, by integration with respect to time:

Ψ = ∫ edt = LI

The inductance L of a circuit is equal to the induced voltage divided by the rate of
change of current:
L = e / di/dt = dψ /dt / di/dt = dψ /di

Alternatively, the inductance L of a circuit is equal to the magnetic linkage divided

by the current:
L=Ψ /I

Note that the magnetic linkage Ψ is equal to the product of the number of turns
N and the magnetic flux Φ :
Ψ = NΦ = LI

Mutual Inductance
The mutual inductance M of two coupled inductances L1 and L2 is equal to the
mutually induced voltage in one inductance divided by the rate of change of
current in the other inductance:
M = E2m / (di1/dt)
M = E1m / (di2/dt)

If the self induced voltages of the inductances L1 and L2 are respectively E1s and
E2s for the same rates of change of the current that produced the mutually
induced voltages E1m and E2m, then:
M = (E2m / E1s)L1
M = (E1m / E2s)L2
Combining these two equations:
M = (E1mE2m / E1sE2s)½ (L1L2)½ = kM(L1L2)½
where kM is the mutual coupling coefficient of the two inductances L1 and L2.

Page 20 of 53
If the coupling between the two inductances L1 and L2 is perfect, then the mutual
inductance M is:
M = (L1L2)½

Inductances in Series
When uncoupled inductances L1, L2, L3, ... are connected in series, the total
inductance LS is:
LS = L1 + L2 + L3 + ...

When two coupled inductances L1 and L2 with mutual inductance M are

connected in series, the total inductance LS is:
LS = L1 + L2 ± 2M
The plus or minus sign indicates that the coupling is either additive or subtractive,
depending on the connection polarity.

Inductances in Parallel
When uncoupled inductances L1, L2, L3, ... are connected in parallel, the total
inductance LP is:
1 / LP = 1 / L1 + 1 / L2 + 1 / L3 + ...

Time Constants
Capacitance and resistance
The time constant of a capacitance C and a resistance R is equal to CR, and
represents the time to change the voltage on the capacitance from zero to E at a
constant charging current E / R (which produces a rate of change of voltage E /
CR across the capacitance).

Similarly, the time constant CR represents the time to change the charge on the
capacitance from zero to CE at a constant charging current E / R (which
produces a rate of change of voltage E / CR across the capacitance).

If a voltage E is applied to a series circuit comprising a discharged capacitance C

and a resistance R, then after time t the current i, the voltage vR across the
resistance, the voltage vC across the capacitance and the charge qC on the
capacitance are:
i = (E / R)e - t / CR
vR = iR = Ee - t / CR
vC = E - vR = E(1 - e - t / CR)
qC = CvC = CE(1 - e - t / CR)

If a capacitance C charged to voltage V is discharged through a resistance R,

then after time t the current i, the voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vC
across the capacitance and the charge qC on the capacitance are:

Page 21 of 53
i = (V / R)e - t / CR
vR = iR = Ve - t / CR
vC = vR = Ve - t / CR
qC = CvC = CVe - t / CR

Inductance and resistance

The time constant of an inductance L and a resistance R is equal to L / R, and
represents the time to change the current in the inductance from zero to E / R at
a constant rate of change of current E / L (which produces an induced voltage E
across the inductance).

If a voltage E is applied to a series circuit comprising an inductance L and a

resistance R, then after time t the current i, the voltage vR across the resistance,
the voltage vL across the inductance and the magnetic linkage ψ L in the
inductance are:
i = (E / R)(1 - e - tR / L)
vR = iR = E(1 - e - tR / L)
vL = E - vR = Ee - tR / L
ψ L = Li = (LE / R)(1 - e - tR / L)

If an inductance L carrying a current I is discharged through a resistance R, then

after time t the current i, the voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vL
across the inductance and the magnetic linkage ψ L in the inductance are:
i = Ie - tR / L
vR = iR = IRe - tR / L
vL = vR = IRe - tR / L
ψ L = Li = LIe - tR / L

Rise Time and Fall Time

The rise time (or fall time) of a change is defined as the transition time between
the 10% and 90% levels of the total change, so for an exponential rise (or fall) of
time constant T, the rise time (or fall time) t10-90 is:
t10-90 = (ln0.9 - ln0.1)T ≈ 2.2T

The half time of a change is defined as the transition time between the initial and
50% levels of the total change, so for an exponential change of time constant T,
the half time t50 is :
t50 = (ln1.0 - ln0.5)T ≈ 0.69T

Note that for an exponential change of time constant T:

- over time interval T, a rise changes by a factor 1 - e -1 (≈ 0.63) of the remaining
change,
- over time interval T, a fall changes by a factor e -1 (≈ 0.37) of the remaining
change,
- after time interval 3T, less than 5% of the total change remains,
- after time interval 5T, less than 1% of the total change remains.

Page 22 of 53
Power
The power P dissipated by a resistance R carrying a current I with a voltage drop
V is:
P = V2 / R = VI = I2R

Similarly, the power P dissipated by a conductance G carrying a current I with a

voltage drop V is:
P = V2G = VI = I2 / G

The power P transferred by a capacitance C holding a changing voltage V with

charge Q is:
P = VI = CV(dv/dt) = Q(dv/dt) = Q(dq/dt) / C

The power P transferred by an inductance L carrying a changing current I with

magnetic linkage Ψ is:
P = VI = LI(di/dt) = Ψ (di/dt) = Ψ (dψ /dt) / L

Energy
The energy W consumed over time t due to power P dissipated in a resistance R
carrying a current I with a voltage drop V is:
W = Pt = V2t / R = VIt = I2tR

Similarly, the energy W consumed over time t due to power P dissipated in a

conductance G carrying a current I with a voltage drop V is:
W = Pt = V2tG = VIt = I2t / G

The energy W stored in a capacitance C holding voltage V with charge Q is:

W = CV2 / 2 = QV / 2 = Q2 / 2C

The energy W stored in an inductance L carrying current I with magnetic linkage

Ψ is:
W = LI2 / 2 = Ψ I / 2 = Ψ 2 / 2L

Batteries
If a battery of open-circuit voltage EB has a loaded voltage VL when supplying
load current IL, the battery internal resistance RB is:
RB = (EB - VL) / IL

The load voltage VL and load current IL for a load resistance RL are:
VL = ILRL = EB - ILRB = EBRL / (RB + RL)
IL = VL / RL = (EB - VL) / RB = EB / (RB + RL)

Page 23 of 53
The battery short-circuit current Isc is:
Isc = EB / RB = EBIL / (EB - VL)

Voltmeter Multiplier
The resistance RS to be connected in series with a voltmeter of full scale voltage
VV and full scale current drain IV to increase the full scale voltage to V is:
RS = (V - VV) / IV

The power P dissipated by the resistance RS with voltage drop (V - VV) carrying
current IV is:
P = (V - VV)2 / RS = (V - VV)IV = IV2RS

Ammeter Shunt
The resistance RP to be connected in parallel with an ammeter of full scale
current IA and full scale voltage drop VA to increase the full scale current to I is:
RP = VA / (I - IA)

The power P dissipated by the resistance RP with voltage drop VA carrying

current (I - IA) is:
P = VA2 / RP = VA(I - IA) = (I - IA)2RP

Page 24 of 53
Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone Bridge consists of two resistive potential dividers connected to a
common voltage source. If one potential divider has resistances R1 and R2 in
series and the other potential divider has resistances R3 and R4 in series, with R1
and R3 connected to one side of the voltage source and R2 and R4 connected to
the other side of the voltage source, then at the balance point where the two
resistively divided voltages are equal:
R1 / R2 = R3 / R4

If the value of resistance R4 is unknown and the values of resistances R3, R2 and
R1 at the balance point are known, then:
R4 = R3R2 / R1

Page 25 of 53
 Library - Electrical Circuit Theorems

Ohm's Law
When an applied voltage E causes a current I to flow through an impedance Z,
the value of the impedance Z is equal to the voltage E divided by the current I.
Impedance = Voltage / Current Z=E/I

Similarly, when a voltage E is applied across an impedance Z, the resulting

current I through the impedance is equal to the voltage E divided by the
impedance Z.

Current = Voltage / Impedance I=E/Z

Similarly, when a current I is passed through an impedance Z, the resulting

voltage drop V across the impedance is equal to the current I multiplied by the
impedance Z.

Voltage = Current * Impedance V = IZ

Alternatively, using admittance Y which is the reciprocal of impedance Z:

Voltage = Current / Admittance V=I/Y

Kirchhoff's Laws
Kirchhoff's Current Law
At any instant the sum of all the currents flowing into any circuit node is equal to
the sum of all the currents flowing out of that node:
Σ Iin = Σ Iout

Similarly, at any instant the algebraic sum of all the currents at any circuit node is
zero:
Σ I=0

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

At any instant the sum of all the voltage sources in any closed circuit is equal to
the sum of all the voltage drops in that circuit:
Σ E = Σ IZ

Similarly, at any instant the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed
circuit is zero:
Σ E - Σ IZ = 0

Page 26 of 53
Thévenin's Theorem

Any linear voltage network which may be viewed from two terminals can be
replaced by a voltage-source equivalent circuit comprising a single voltage
source E and a single series impedance Z. The voltage E is the open-circuit
voltage between the two terminals and the impedance Z is the impedance of the
network viewed from the terminals with all voltage sources replaced by their
internal impedances.

Norton's Theorem

Any linear current network which may be viewed from two terminals can be
replaced by a current-source equivalent circuit comprising a single current source
I and a single shunt admittance Y. The current I is the short-circuit current
between the two terminals and the admittance Y is the admittance of the network
viewed from the terminals with all current sources replaced by their internal
admittances.

Thévenin and Norton Equivalence

The open circuit, short circuit and load conditions of the Thévenin model are:
Voc = E
Isc = E / Z
Vload = E - IloadZ
Iload = E / (Z + Zload)

The open circuit, short circuit and load conditions of the Norton model are:
Voc = I / Y
Isc = I
Vload = I / (Y + Yload)
Iload = I - VloadY

Thévenin model from Norton model

Voltage = Current / Admittance E=I/Y

Impedance = 1 / Admittance Z = Y -1

Norton model from Thévenin model

Current = Voltage / Impedance I=E/Z

Admittance = 1 / Impedance Y = Z -1

When performing network reduction for a Thévenin or Norton model, note that:
- nodes with zero voltage difference may be short-circuited with no effect on the
network current distribution,

Page 27 of 53
- branches carrying zero current may be open-circuited with no effect on the
network voltage distribution.

Superposition Theorem

In a linear network with multiple voltage sources, the current in any branch is the
sum of the currents which would flow in that branch due to each voltage source
acting alone with all other voltage sources replaced by their internal impedances.

Reciprocity Theorem

If a voltage source E acting in one branch of a network causes a current I to flow

in another branch of the network, then the same voltage source E acting in the
second branch would cause an identical current I to flow in the first branch.

Compensation Theorem

If the impedance Z of a branch in a network in which a current I flows is changed

by a finite amount δ Z, then the change in the currents in all other branches of
the network may be calculated by inserting a voltage source of -Iδ Z into that
branch with all other voltage sources replaced by their internal impedances.

Millman's Theorem (Parallel Generator Theorem)

If any number of admittances Y1, Y2, Y3, ... meet at a common point P, and the
voltages from another point N to the free ends of these admittances are E1, E2,
E3, ... then the voltage between points P and N is:
VPN = (E1Y1 + E2Y2 + E3Y3 + ...) / (Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + ...)
VPN = Σ EY / Σ Y

The short-circuit currents available between points P and N due to each of the
voltages E1, E2, E3, ... acting through the respective admitances Y1, Y2, Y3, ... are
E1Y1, E2Y2, E3Y3, ... so the voltage between points P and N may be expressed as:
VPN = Σ Isc / Σ Y

Joule's Law

When a current I is passed through a resistance R, the resulting power P

dissipated in the resistance is equal to the square of the current I multiplied by

Page 28 of 53
the resistance R:
P = I2R

By substitution using Ohm's Law for the corresponding voltage drop V (= IR)
across the resistance:
P = V2 / R = VI = I2R

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

When the impedance of a load connected to a power source is varied from open-
circuit to short-circuit, the power absorbed by the load has a maximum value at a
load impedance which is dependent on the impedance of the power source.

Note that power is zero for an open-circuit (zero current) and for a short-circuit
(zero voltage).

Voltage Source
When a load resistance RT is connected to a voltage source ES with series
resistance RS, maximum power transfer to the load occurs when RT is equal to
RS.

Under maximum power transfer conditions, the load resistance RT, load voltage
VT, load current IT and load power PT are:
RT = RS
VT = E S / 2
IT = VT / RT = ES / 2RS
PT = VT2 / RT = ES2 / 4RS

Current Source
When a load conductance GT is connected to a current source IS with shunt
conductance GS, maximum power transfer to the load occurs when GT is equal to
GS.

Under maximum power transfer conditions, the load conductance GT, load
current IT, load voltage VT and load power PT are:
GT = GS
IT = IS / 2
VT = IT / GT = IS / 2GS
PT = IT2 / GT = IS2 / 4GS

Complex Impedances
When a load impedance ZT (comprising variable resistance RT and variable
reactance XT) is connected to an alternating voltage source ES with series
impedance ZS (comprising resistance RS and reactance XS), maximum power
transfer to the load occurs when ZT is equal to ZS* (the complex conjugate of ZS)

Page 29 of 53
such that RT and RS are equal and XT and XS are equal in magnitude but of
opposite sign (one inductive and the other capacitive).

When a load impedance ZT (comprising variable resistance RT and constant

reactance XT) is connected to an alternating voltage source ES with series
impedance ZS (comprising resistance RS and reactance XS), maximum power
transfer to the load occurs when RT is equal to the magnitude of the impedance
comprising ZS in series with XT:
RT = |ZS + XT| = (RS2 + (XS + XT)2)½
Note that if XT is zero, maximum power transfer occurs when RT is equal to the
magnitude of ZS:
RT = |ZS| = (RS2 + XS2)½

When a load impedance ZT with variable magnitude and constant phase angle
(constant power factor) is connected to an alternating voltage source ES with
series impedance ZS, maximum power transfer to the load occurs when the
magnitude of ZT is equal to the magnitude of ZS:
(RT2 + XT2)½ = |ZT| = |ZS| = (RS2 + XS2)½

Kennelly's Star-Delta Transformation

A star network of three impedances ZAN, ZBN and ZCN connected together at
common node N can be transformed into a delta network of three impedances
ZAB, ZBC and ZCA by the following equations:
ZAB = ZAN + ZBN + (ZANZBN / ZCN) = (ZANZBN + ZBNZCN + ZCNZAN) / ZCN
ZBC = ZBN + ZCN + (ZBNZCN / ZAN) = (ZANZBN + ZBNZCN + ZCNZAN) / ZAN
ZCA = ZCN + ZAN + (ZCNZAN / ZBN) = (ZANZBN + ZBNZCN + ZCNZAN) / ZBN

Similarly, using admittances:

YAB = YANYBN / (YAN + YBN + YCN)
YBC = YBNYCN / (YAN + YBN + YCN)
YCA = YCNYAN / (YAN + YBN + YCN)

In general terms:
Zdelta = (sum of Zstar pair products) / (opposite Zstar)
Ydelta = (adjacent Ystar pair product) / (sum of Ystar)

Kennelly's Delta-Star Transformation

A delta network of three impedances ZAB, ZBC and ZCA can be transformed into a
star network of three impedances ZAN, ZBN and ZCN connected together at
common node N by the following equations:
ZAN = ZCAZAB / (ZAB + ZBC + ZCA)
ZBN = ZABZBC / (ZAB + ZBC + ZCA)
ZCN = ZBCZCA / (ZAB + ZBC + ZCA)

Page 30 of 53
Similarly, using admittances:
YAN = YCA + YAB + (YCAYAB / YBC) = (YABYBC + YBCYCA + YCAYAB) / YBC
YBN = YAB + YBC + (YABYBC / YCA) = (YABYBC + YBCYCA + YCAYAB) / YCA
YCN = YBC + YCA + (YBCYCA / YAB) = (YABYBC + YBCYCA + YCAYAB) / YAB

In general terms:
Zstar = (adjacent Zdelta pair product) / (sum of Zdelta)
Ystar = (sum of Ydelta pair products) / (opposite Ydelta)

Page 31 of 53
 Library - Electrical System Formulae
Impedance
The impedance Z of a resistance R in series with a reactance X is:
Z = R + jX

Rectangular and polar forms of impedance Z:

Z = R + jX = (R2 + X2)½∠ tan-1(X / R) = |Z|∠ φ = |Z|cosφ + j|Z|sinφ

Addition of impedances Z1 and Z2:

Z1 + Z2 = (R1 + jX1) + (R2 + jX2) = (R1 + R2) + j(X1 + X2)

Subtraction of impedances Z1 and Z2:

Z1 - Z2 = (R1 + jX1) - (R2 + jX2) = (R1 - R2) + j(X1 - X2)

Multiplication of impedances Z1 and Z2:

Z1 * Z2 = |Z1|∠ φ 1 * |Z2|∠ φ 2 = ( |Z1| * |Z2| )∠ (φ 1 + φ 2 )

Division of impedances Z1 and Z2:

Z1 / Z2 = |Z1|∠ φ 1 / |Z2|∠ φ 2 = ( |Z1| / |Z2| )∠ (φ 1 − φ 2 )

In summary:
- use the rectangular form for addition and subtraction,
- use the polar form for multiplication and division.

Admittance
An impedance Z comprising a resistance R in series with a reactance X can be
converted to an admittance Y comprising a conductance G in parallel with a
susceptance B:
Y = Z -1 = 1 / (R + jX) = (R - jX) / (R2 + X2) = R / (R2 + X2) - jX / (R2 + X2) = G - jB
G = R / (R2 + X2) = R / |Z|2
B = X / (R2 + X2) = X / |Z|2
Using the polar form of impedance Z:
Y = 1 / |Z|∠ φ = |Z| -1∠− φ = |Y|∠− φ = |Y|cosφ - j|Y|sinφ

Conversely, an admittance Y comprising a conductance G in parallel with a

susceptance B can be converted to an impedance Z comprising a resistance R in
series with a reactance X:
Z = Y -1 = 1 / (G - jB) = (G + jB) / (G2 + B2) = G / (G2 + B2) + jB / (G2 + B2) = R +
jX
R = G / (G2 + B2) = G / |Y|2
X = B / (G2 + B2) = B / |Y|2
Using the polar form of admittance Y:
Z = 1 / |Y|∠− φ = |Y| -1∠ φ = |Z|∠ φ = |Z|cosφ + j|Z|sinφ

Page 32 of 53
The total impedance ZS of impedances Z1, Z2, Z3,... connected in series is:
ZS = Z1 + Z1 + Z1 +...
The total admittance YP of admittances Y1, Y2, Y3,... connected in parallel is:
YP = Y1 + Y1 + Y1 +...

In summary:
- use impedances when operating on series circuits,
- use admittances when operating on parallel circuits.

Reactance
Inductive Reactance
The inductive reactance XL of an inductance L at angular frequency ω and
frequency f is:
XL = ω L = 2π fL

For a sinusoidal current i of amplitude I and angular frequency ω :

i = I sinω t
If sinusoidal current i is passed through an inductance L, the voltage e across the
inductance is:
e = L di/dt = ω LI cosω t = XLI cosω t

The current through an inductance lags the voltage across it by 90°.

Capacitive Reactance
The capacitive reactance XC of a capacitance C at angular frequency ω and
frequency f is:
XC = 1 / ω C = 1 / 2π fC

For a sinusoidal voltage v of amplitude V and angular frequency ω :

v = V sinω t
If sinusoidal voltage v is applied across a capacitance C, the current i through
the capacitance is:
i = C dv/dt = ω CV cosω t = V cosω t / XC

The current through a capacitance leads the voltage across it by 90°.

Resonance
Series Resonance
A series circuit comprising an inductance L, a resistance R and a capacitance C
has an impedance ZS of:
ZS = R + j(XL - XC)
where XL = ω L and XC = 1 / ω C

Page 33 of 53
At resonance, the imaginary part of ZS is zero:
XC = X L
ZSr = R
ω r = (1 / LC)½ = 2π fr
The quality factor at resonance Qr is:
Qr = ω rL / R = (L / CR2)½ = (1 / R )(L / C)½ = 1 / ω rCR

Parallel resonance
A parallel circuit comprising an inductance L with a series resistance R,
connected in parallel with a capacitance C, has an admittance YP of:
YP = 1 / (R + jXL) + 1 / (- jXC) = (R / (R2 + XL2)) - j(XL / (R2 + XL2) - 1 / XC)
where XL = ω L and XC = 1 / ω C

At resonance, the imaginary part of YP is zero:

XC = (R2 + XL2) / XL = XL + R2 / XL = XL(1 + R2 / XL2)
ZPr = YPr-1 = (R2 + XL2) / R = XLXC / R = L / CR
ω r = (1 / LC - R2 / L2)½ = 2π fr
The quality factor at resonance Qr is:
Qr = ω rL / R = (L / CR2 - 1)½ = (1 / R )(L / C - R2)½

Note that for the same values of L, R and C, the parallel resonance frequency is
lower than the series resonance frequency, but if the ratio R / L is small then the
parallel resonance frequency is close to the series resonance frequency.

Reactive Loads and Power Factor

Resistance and Series Reactance
The impedance Z of a reactive load comprising resistance R and series
reactance X is:
Z = R + jX = |Z|∠ φ
Converting to the equivalent admittance Y:
Y = 1 / Z = 1 / (R + jX) = (R - jX) / (R2 + X2) = R / |Z|2 - jX / |Z|2

When a voltage V (taken as reference) is applied across the reactive load Z, the
current I is:
I = VY = V(R / |Z|2 - jX / |Z|2) = VR / |Z|2 - jVX / |Z|2 = IP - jIQ
The active current IP and the reactive current IQ are:
IP = VR / |Z|2 = |I|cosφ
IQ = VX / |Z|2 = |I|sinφ

The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are:

S = V|I| = V2 / |Z| = |I|2|Z|
P = VIP = IP2|Z|2 / R = V2R / |Z|2 = |I|2R
Q = VIQ = IQ2|Z|2 / X = V2X / |Z|2 = |I|2X

Page 34 of 53
The power factor cosφ and reactive factor sinφ are:
cosφ = IP / |I| = P / S = R / |Z|
sinφ = IQ / |I| = Q / S = X / |Z|

Resistance and Shunt Reactance

The impedance Z of a reactive load comprising resistance R and shunt reactance
X is found from:
1 / Z = 1 / R + 1 / jX
Converting to the equivalent admittance Y comprising conductance G and shunt
susceptance B:
Y = 1 / Z = 1 / R - j / X = G - jB = |Y|∠− φ

When a voltage V (taken as reference) is applied across the reactive load Y, the
current I is:
I = VY = V(G - jB) = VG - jVB = IP - jIQ
The active current IP and the reactive current IQ are:
IP = VG = V / R = |I|cosφ
IQ = VB = V / X = |I|sinφ

The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are:

S = V|I| = |I|2 / |Y| = V2|Y|
P = VIP = IP2 / G = |I|2G / |Y|2 = V2G
Q = VIQ = IQ2 / B = |I|2B / |Y|2 = V2B

The power factor cosφ and reactive factor sinφ are:

cosφ = IP / |I| = P / S = G / |Y|
sinφ = IQ / |I| = Q / S = B / |Y|

Complex Power
When a voltage V causes a current I to flow through a reactive load Z, the
complex power S is:
S = VI* where I* is the conjugate of the complex current I.

Inductive Load
Z = R + jXL
I = IP - jIQ
cosφ = R / |Z| (lagging)
I* = IP + jIQ
S = P + jQ
An inductive load is a sink of lagging VArs (a source of leading VArs).

Capacitive Load
Z = R - jXC
I = IP + jIQ

Page 35 of 53
cosφ = R / |Z| (leading)
I* = IP - jIQ
S = P - jQ
A capacitive load is a source of lagging VArs (a sink of leading VArs).

Three Phase Power

For a balanced star connected load with line voltage Vline and line current Iline:
Vstar = Vline / √3
Istar = Iline
Zstar = Vstar / Istar = Vline / √3Iline
Sstar = 3VstarIstar = √3VlineIline = Vline2 / Zstar = 3Iline2Zstar

For a balanced delta connected load with line voltage Vline and line current Iline:
Vdelta = Vline
Idelta = Iline / √3
Zdelta = Vdelta / Idelta = √3Vline / Iline
Sdelta = 3VdeltaIdelta = √3VlineIline = 3Vline2 / Zdelta = Iline2Zdelta

The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are related by:
S2 = P2 + Q2
P = Scosφ
Q = Ssinφ
where cosφ is the power factor and sinφ is the reactive factor

Note that for equivalence between balanced star and delta connected loads:
Zdelta = 3Zstar

Per-unit System
For each system parameter, per-unit value is equal to the actual value divided by
a base value:
Epu = E / Ebase
Ipu = I / Ibase
Zpu = Z / Zbase

Select rated values as base values, usually rated power in MVA and rated phase
voltage in kV:
Sbase = Srated = √3ElineIline
Ebase = Ephase = Eline/ √3

The base values for line current in kA and per-phase star impedance in
ohms/phase are:
Ibase = Sbase / 3Ebase ( = Sbase / √3Eline)
Zbase = Ebase / Ibase = 3Ebase2 / Sbase ( = Eline2 / Sbase)

Page 36 of 53
Note that selecting the base values for any two of Sbase, Ebase, Ibase or Zbase fixes
the base values of all four. Note also that Ohm's Law is satisfied by each of the
sets of actual, base and per-unit values for voltage, current and impedance.

Transformers
The primary and secondary MVA ratings of a transformer are equal, but the
voltages and currents in the primary (subscript 1) and the secondary (subscript 2)
are usually different:
√3E1lineI1line = S = √3E2lineI2line

Converting to base (per-phase star) values:

3E1baseI1base = Sbase = 3E2baseI2base
E1base / E2base = I2base / I1base
Z1base / Z2base = (E1base / E2base)2

The impedance Z21pu referred to the primary side, equivalent to an impedance

Z2pu on the secondary side, is:
Z21pu = Z2pu(E1base / E2base)2

The impedance Z12pu referred to the secondary side, equivalent to an impedance

Z1pu on the primary side, is:
Z12pu = Z1pu(E2base / E1base)2

Note that per-unit and percentage values are related by:

Zpu = Z% / 100

Symmetrical Components
In any three phase system, the line currents Ia, Ib and Ic may be expressed as the
phasor sum of:
- a set of balanced positive phase sequence currents Ia1, Ib1 and Ic1 (phase
sequence a-b-c),
- a set of balanced negative phase sequence currents Ia2, Ib2 and Ic2 (phase
sequence a-c-b),
- a set of identical zero phase sequence currents Ia0, Ib0 and Ic0 (cophasal, no
phase sequence).

The positive, negative and zero sequence currents are calculated from the line
currents using:
Ia1 = (Ia + hIb + h2Ic) / 3
Ia2 = (Ia + h2Ib + hIc) / 3
Ia0 = (Ia + Ib + Ic) / 3

The positive, negative and zero sequence currents are combined to give the line
currents using:
Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0

Page 37 of 53
Ib = Ib1 + Ib2 + Ib0 = h2Ia1 + hIa2 + Ia0
Ic = Ic1 + Ic2 + Ic0 = hIa1 + h2Ia2 + Ia0

The residual current Ir is equal to the total zero sequence current:

Ir = Ia0 + Ib0 + Ic0 = 3Ia0 = Ia + Ib + Ic = Ie
which is measured using three current transformers with parallel connected
secondaries.
Ie is the earth fault current of the system.

Similarly, for phase-to-earth voltages Vae, Vbe and Vce, the residual voltage Vr is
equal to the total zero sequence voltage:
Vr = Va0 + Vb0 + Vc0 = 3Va0 = Vae + Vbe + Vce = 3Vne
which is measured using an earthed-star / open-delta connected voltage
transformer.
Vne is the neutral displacement voltage of the system.

The h-operator
The h-operator (1∠ 120°) is the complex cube root of unity:
h = - 1 / 2 + j√3 / 2 = 1∠ 120° = 1∠ -240°
h2 = - 1 / 2 - j√3 / 2 = 1∠ 240° = 1∠ -120°

Some useful properties of h are:

1 + h + h2 = 0
h + h2 = - 1 = 1∠ 180°
h - h2 = j√3 = √3∠ 90°
h2 - h = - j√3 = √3∠ -90°

Fault Calculations
The different types of short-circuit fault which occur on a power system are:
- single phase to earth,
- double phase,
- double phase to earth,
- three phase,
- three phase to earth.

For each type of short-circuit fault occurring on an unloaded system:

- the first column states the phase voltage and line current conditions at the fault,
- the second column states the phase 'a' sequence current and voltage
conditions at the fault,
- the third column provides formulae for the phase 'a' sequence currents at the
fault,
- the fourth column provides formulae for the fault current and the resulting line
currents.
By convention, the faulted phases are selected for fault symmetry with respect to
reference phase 'a'.

Page 38 of 53
I f = fault current
Ie = earth fault current
Ea = normal phase voltage at the fault location
Z1 = positive phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Z2 = negative phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Z0 = zero phase sequence network impedance to the fault

Single phase to earth - fault from phase 'a' to earth:

Va = 0 Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = Ia / 3 Ia1 = Ea / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) I f = 3Ia0 = 3Ea / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) = Ie
Ib = Ic = 0 Va1 + Va2 + Va0 = 0 Ia2 = Ia1 Ia = I f = 3Ea / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)
I f = Ia = Ie Ia0 = Ia1

Double phase - fault from phase 'b' to phase 'c':

Vb = Vc Ia1 + Ia2 = 0 Ia1 = Ea / (Z1 + Z2) I f = - j√3Ia1 = - j√3Ea / (Z1 + Z2)

Ia = 0 Ia0 = 0 Ia2 = - Ia1 Ib = I f = - j√3Ea / (Z1 + Z2)
I f = Ib = - Ic Va1 = Va2 Ia0 = 0 Ic = - I f = j√3Ea / (Z1 + Z2)

Double phase to earth - fault from phase 'b' to phase 'c' to earth:

Vb = Vc = 0 Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 0 Ia1 = Ea / Znet I f = 3Ia0 = - 3EaZ2 / Σ zz = Ie

Ia = 0 Va1 = Va2 = Va0 Ia2 = - Ia1Z0 / (Z2 + Z0) Ib = I f / 2 - j√3Ea(Z2 / 2 + Z0) / Σ zz
I f = Ib + Ic = Ie Ia0 = - Ia1Z2 / (Z2 + Z0) Ic = I f / 2 + j√3Ea(Z2 / 2 + Z0) / Σ zz

Znet = Z1 + Z2Z0 / (Z2 + Z0) and Σ zz = Z1Z2 + Z2Z0 + Z0Z1 = (Z2 + Z0)Znet

Three phase (and three phase to earth) - fault from phase 'a' to phase 'b' to
phase 'c' (to earth):

Va = Vb = Vc (= 0) Va0 = Va (= 0) Ia1 = Ea / Z1 I f = Ia1 = Ea / Z1 = Ia

Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 (= Ie) Va1 = Va2 = 0 Ia2 = 0 I b = E b / Z1
I f = Ia = hIb = h2Ic Ia0 = 0 I c = E c / Z1

The values of Z1, Z2 and Z0 are each determined from the respective positive,
negative and zero sequence impedance networks by network reduction to a
single impedance.

Note that the single phase fault current is greater than the three phase fault
current if Z0 is less than (2Z1 - Z2).

Note also that if the system is earthed through an impedance Zn (carrying current
3I0) then an impedance 3Zn (carrying current I0) must be included in the zero
sequence impedance network.

Page 39 of 53
Three Phase Fault Level
The symmetrical three phase short-circuit current Isc of a power system with no-
load line and phase voltages Eline and Ephase and source impedance ZS per-phase
star is:
Isc = Ephase / ZS = Eline / √3ZS

The three phase fault level Ssc of the power system is:
Ssc = 3Isc2ZS = 3EphaseIsc = 3Ephase2 / ZS = Eline2 / ZS

Note that if the X / R ratio of the source impedance ZS (comprising resistance RS

and reactance XS) is sufficiently large, then ZS ≈ XS.

Transformers
If a transformer of rating ST (taken as base) and per-unit impedance ZTpu is fed
from a source with unlimited fault level (infinite busbars), then the per-unit
secondary short-circuit current I2pu and fault level S2pu are:
I2pu = E2pu / ZTpu = 1.0 / ZTpu
S2pu = I2pu = 1.0 / ZTpu

If the source fault level is limited to SS by per-unit source impedance ZSpu (to the
same base as ZTpu), then the secondary short-circuit current I2pu and fault level
S2pu are reduced to:
I2pu = E2pu / (ZTpu + ZSpu) = 1.0 / (ZTpu + ZSpu)
S2pu = I2pu = 1.0 / (ZTpu + ZSpu)
where ZSpu = ST / SS

Thermal Short-time Rating

If a conductor which is rated to carry full load current Iload continuously is rated to
carry a maximum fault current Ilimit for a time tlimit, then a lower fault current Ifault
can be carried for a longer time tfault according to:
( Ilimit - Iload )2 tlimit = ( Ifault - Iload )2 tfault

Rearranging for Ifault and tfault:

Ifault = ( Ilimit - Iload ) ( tlimit / tfault )½ + Iload
tfault = tlimit ( Ilimit - Iload )2 / ( Ifault - Iload )2

If Iload is small compared with Ilimit and Ifault, then:

Ilimit2 tlimit ≈ Ifault2 tfault
Ifault ≈ Ilimit ( tlimit / tfault )½
tfault ≈ tlimit ( Ilimit / Ifault )2

Page 40 of 53
Note that if the current Ifault is reduced by a factor of two, then the time tfault is
increased by a factor of four.

Instrument Transformers
Voltage Transformer
For a voltage transformer of voltampere rating S, rated primary voltage VP and
rated secondary voltage VS, the maximum secondary current ISmax, maximum
secondary burden conductance GBmax and maximum primary current IPmax are:
ISmax = S / VS
GBmax = ISmax / VS = S / VS2
IPmax = S / VP = ISmaxVS / VP

Current Transformer
For a measurement current transformer of voltampere rating S, rated primary
current IP and rated secondary current IS, the maximum secondary voltage VSmax,
maximum secondary burden resistance RBmax and maximum primary voltage
VPmax are:
VSmax = S / IS
RBmax = VSmax / IS = S / IS2
VPmax = S / IP = VSmaxIS / IP

For a protection current transformer of voltampere rating S, rated primary current

IP, rated secondary current IS and rated accuracy limit factor F, the rated
secondary reference voltage VSF, maximum secondary burden resistance RBmax
and equivalent primary reference voltage VPF are:
VSF = SF / IS
RBmax = VSF / ISF = S / IS2
VPF = SF / IP = VSFIS / IP

Impedance Measurement
If the primary voltage Vpri and the primary current Ipri are measured at a point in a
system, then the primary impedance Zpri at that point is:
Zpri = Vpri / Ipri

If the measured voltage is the secondary voltage Vsec of a voltage transformer of

primary/secondary ratio NV and the measured current is the secondary current
Isec of a current transformer of primary/secondary ratio NI, then the primary
impedance Zpri is related to the secondary impedance Zsec by:
Zpri = Vpri / Ipri = VsecNV / IsecNI = ZsecNV / NI = ZsecNZ
where NZ = NV / NI

If the no-load (source) voltage Epri is also measured at the point, then the source
impedance ZTpri to the point is:
ZTpri = (Epri - Vpri) / Ipri = (Esec - Vsec)NV / IsecNI = ZTsecNV / NI = ZTsecNZ

Page 41 of 53
Power Factor Correction
If an inductive load with an active power demand P has an uncorrected power
factor of cosφ 1 lagging, and is required to have a corrected power factor of
cosφ 2 lagging, the uncorrected and corrected reactive power demands, Q1 and
Q2, are:
Q1 = P tanφ 1
Q2 = P tanφ 2
where tanφ n = (1 / cos2φ n - 1)½

The leading (capacitive) reactive power demand QC which must be connected

across the load is:
QC = Q1 - Q2 = P (tanφ 1 - tanφ 2)

The uncorrected and corrected apparent power demands, S1 and S2, are related
by:
S1cosφ 1 = P = S2cosφ 2
Comparing corrected and uncorrected load currents and apparent power
demands:
I2 / I1 = S2 / S1 = cosφ 1 / cosφ 2

If the load is required to have a corrected power factor of unity, Q2 is zero and:
QC = Q1 = P tanφ 1
I2 / I1 = S2 / S1 = cosφ 1 = P / S1

Shunt Capacitors
For star-connected shunt capacitors each of capacitance Cstar on a three phase
system of line voltage Vline and frequency f, the leading reactive power demand
QCstar and the leading reactive line current Iline are:
QCstar = Vline2 / XCstar = 2π fCstarVline2
Iline = QCstar / √3Vline = Vline / √3XCstar
Cstar = QCstar / 2π fVline2

For delta-connected shunt capacitors each of capacitance Cdelta on a three phase

system of line voltage Vline and frequency f, the leading reactive power demand
QCdelta and the leading reactive line current Iline are:
QCdelta = 3Vline2 / XCdelta = 6π fCdeltaVline2
Iline = QCdelta / √3Vline = √3Vline / XCdelta
Cdelta = QCdelta / 6π fVline2

Note that for the same leading reactive power QC:

XCdelta = 3XCstar
Cdelta = Cstar / 3

Series Capacitors
For series line capacitors each of capacitance Cseries carrying line current Iline on a

Page 42 of 53
three phase system of frequency f, the voltage drop Vdrop across each line
capacitor and the total leading reactive power demand QCseries of the set of three
line capacitors are:
Vdrop = IlineXCseries = Iline / 2π fCseries
QCseries = 3Vdrop2 / XCseries = 3VdropIline = 3Iline2XCseries = 3Iline2 / 2π fCseries
Cseries = 3Iline2 / 2π fQCseries

Note that the apparent power rating Srating of the set of three series line capacitors
is based on the line voltage Vline and not the voltage drop Vdrop:
Srating = √3VlineIline

Reactors
Shunt Reactors
For star-connected shunt reactors each of inductance Lstar on a three phase
system of line voltage Vline and frequency f, the lagging reactive power demand
QLstar and the lagging reactive line current Iline are:
QLstar = Vline2 / XLstar = Vline2 / 2π fLstar
Iline = QLstar / √3Vline = Vline / √3XLstar
Lstar = Vline2 / 2π fQLstar

For delta-connected shunt reactors each of inductance Ldelta on a three phase

system of line voltage Vline and frequency f, the lagging reactive power demand
QLdelta and the lagging reactive line current Iline are:
QLdelta = 3Vline2 / XLdelta = 3Vline2 / 2π fLdelta
Iline = QLdelta / √3Vline = √3Vline / XLdelta
Ldelta = 3Vline2 / 2π fQLdelta

Note that for the same lagging reactive power QL:

XLdelta = 3XLstar
Ldelta = 3Lstar

Series Reactors
For series line reactors each of inductance Lseries carrying line current Iline on a
three phase system of frequency f, the voltage drop Vdrop across each line reactor
and the total lagging reactive power demand QLseries of the set of three line
reactors are:
Vdrop = IlineXLseries = 2π fLseriesIline
QLseries = 3Vdrop2 / XLseries = 3VdropIline = 3Iline2XLseries = 6π fLseriesIline2
Lseries = QLseries / 6π fIline2

Note that the apparent power rating Srating of the set of three series line reactors
is based on the line voltage Vline and not the voltage drop Vdrop:
Srating = √3VlineIline

Page 43 of 53
Harmonic Resonance
If a node in a power system operating at frequency f has a inductive source
reactance XL per phase and has power factor correction with a capacitive
reactance XC per phase, the source inductance L and the correction capacitance
C are:
L = XL / ω
C = 1 / ω XC
where ω = 2 π f

The series resonance angular frequency ω r of an inductance L with a

capacitance C is:
ω r = (1 / LC)½ = ω (XC / XL)½

The three phase fault level Ssc at the node for no-load phase voltage E and
source impedance Z per-phase star is:
Ssc = 3E2 / |Z| = 3E2 / |R + jXL|
If the ratio XL / R of the source impedance Z is sufficiently large, |Z| ≈ XL so that:
Ssc ≈ 3E2 / XL

The reactive power rating QC of the power factor correction capacitors for a
capacitive reactance XC per phase at phase voltage E is:
QC = 3E2 / XC

The harmonic number fr / f of the series resonance of XL with XC is:

fr / f = ω r / ω = (XC / XL)½ ≈ (Ssc / QC)½

Note that the ratio XL / XC which results in a harmonic number fr / f is:

XL / X C = 1 / ( f r / f ) 2
so for fr / f to be equal to the geometric mean of the third and fifth harmonics:
fr / f = √15 = 3.873
XL / XC = 1 / 15 = 0.067

Page 44 of 53
 Library - Electrical Machine Applications

Transformers
For an ideal two-winding transformer with primary voltage V1 applied across N1
primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V 2 = N 1 / N 2
The primary current I1 and secondary current I2 are related by:
I 1 / I 2 = N 2 / N 1 = V 2 / V1

For an ideal step-down auto-transformer with primary voltage V1 applied across

(N1 + N2) primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary
turns:
V1 / V2 = (N1 + N2) / N2
The primary (input) current I1 and secondary (output) current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / (N1 + N2) = V2 / V1
Note that the winding current is I1 through the N1 section and (I2 - I1) through the
N2 section.

For a single-phase transformer with rated primary voltage V1, rated primary
current I1, rated secondary voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the
voltampere rating S is:
S = V1I1 = V2I2

For a balanced m-phase transformer with rated primary phase voltage V1, rated
primary current I1, rated secondary phase voltage V2 and rated secondary current
I2, the voltampere rating S is:
S = mV1I1 = mV2I2

The primary circuit impedance Z1 referred to the secondary circuit for an ideal
transformer with N1 primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z12 = Z1(N2 / N1)2

The secondary circuit impedance Z2 referred to the primary circuit for an ideal
transformer with N1 primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z21 = Z2(N1 / N2)2

The voltage regulation ∆ V2 of a transformer is the rise in secondary voltage

which occurs when rated load is disconnected from the secondary with rated
voltage applied to the primary. For a transformer with a secondary voltage E2
unloaded and V2 at rated load, the per-unit voltage regulation ∆ V2pu is:
∆ V2pu = (E2 - V2) / V2
Note that the per-unit base voltage is usually V2 and not E2.

Open Circuit Test

If a transformer with its secondary open-circuited is energised at rated primary

Page 45 of 53
voltage, then the input power Poc represents the core loss (iron loss PFe) of the
transformer:
Poc = PFe

The per-phase star values of the shunt magnetising admittance Ym, conductance
Gm and susceptance Bm of an m-phase transformer are calculated from the
open-circuit test results for the per-phase primary voltage V1oc, per-phase primary
current I1oc and input power Poc using:
Ym = I1oc / V1oc
Gm = mV1oc2 / Poc
Bm = (Ym2 - Gm2)½

Short Circuit Test

If a transformer with its secondary short-circuited is energised at a reduced
primary voltage which causes rated secondary current to flow through the short-
circuit, then the input power Psc represents the load loss (primary copper loss
P1Cu, secondary copper loss P2Cu and stray loss Pstray) of the transformer:
Psc = P1Cu + P2Cu + Pstray
Note that the temperature rise should be allowed to stabilise because conductor
resistance varies with temperature.

If the resistance of each winding is determined by winding resistance tests

immediately after the short circuit test, then the load loss of an m-phase
transformer may be split into primary copper loss P1Cu, secondary copper loss
P2Cu and stray loss Pstray:
P1Cu = mI1sc2R1star
P2Cu = mI2sc2R2star
Pstray = Psc - P1Cu - P2Cu

If the stray loss is neglected, the per-phase star values referred to the primary of
the total series impedance Zs1, resistance Rs1 and reactance Xs1 of an m-phase
transformer are calculated from the short-circuit test results for the per-phase
primary voltage V1sc, per-phase primary current I1sc and input power Psc using:
Zs1 = V1sc / I1sc = Z1 + Z2(N12 / N22)
Rs1 = Psc / mI1sc2 = R1 + R2(N12 / N22)
Xs1 = (Zs12 - Rs12)½ = X1 + X2(N12 / N22)
where Z1, R1 and X1 are primary values and Z2, R2 and X2 are secondary values

Winding Resistance Test

The resistance of each winding is measured using a small direct current to avoid
thermal and inductive effects. If a voltage Vdc causes current Idc to flow, then the
resistance R is:
R = Vdc / Idc

If the winding under test is a fully connected balanced star or delta and the
resistance measured between any two phases is Rtest, then the equivalent

Page 46 of 53
winding resistances Rstar or Rdelta are:
Rstar = Rtest / 2
Rdelta = 3Rtest / 2

The per-phase star primary and secondary winding resistances R1star and R2star of
an m-phase transformer may be used to calculate the separate primary and
secondary copper losses P1Cu and P2Cu:
P1Cu = mI12R1star
P2Cu = mI22R2star
Note that if the primary and secondary copper losses are equal, then the primary
and secondary resistances R1star and R2star are related by:
R1star / R2star = I22 / I12 = N12 / N22

The primary and secondary winding resistances R1 and R2 may also be used to
check the effect of stray loss on the total series resistance referred to the
primary, Rs1, calculated from the short circuit test results:
Rs1 = R1 + R2(N12 / N22)

Induction Machines
The synchronous rotational speed ns and synchronous angular speed ω s of a
machine with p pole pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:
ns = 60fs / p
ω s = 2π fs / p = 2π ns / 60

The per-unit slip s of an induction machine of synchronous rotational speed ns

running at rotational speed nm is:
s = (ns - nm) / ns
Rearranging for rotational speed nm:
nm = (1 - s)ns
Using angular speed ω instead of rotational speed n:
ω m = (1 - s)ω s

The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:

TM = PM / ω m = 60PM / 2π nm

For an induction machine with Ns stator turns and Nr rotor turns running at slip s
on a supply of voltage Es and frequency fs, the rotor induced voltage and
frequency Er and fr are:
Er = sEsNr / Ns
fr = sfs
For a rotor current Ir, the equivalent stator current Irs is:
Irs = IrNr / Ns
Note that the rotor / stator ratios are Ns / Nr for current, sNr / Ns for voltage and s
for frequency.

Page 47 of 53
For an induction machine with rotor resistance Rr and locked rotor leakage
reactance Xr, the rotor impedance Zr at slip s is:
Zr = Rr + jsXr
The stator circuit equivalent impedance Zrf for a rotor / stator frequency ratio s is:
Zrf = Rrs / s + jXrs

For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed ω s running at angular

speed ω m and slip s, the airgap transfer power Pt, rotor copper loss Pr and gross
output power Pm for a gross output torque Tm are related by:
Pt = ω sTm = Pr / s = Pm / (1 - s)
Pr = sPt = sPm / (1 - s)
Pm = ω mTm = (1 - s)Pt
The power ratios are:
Pt : Pr : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency η m (neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:
η m = P m / Pt = 1 - s

An induction machine can be operated as a generator, a motor or a brake:

- for negative slip (speed above synchronous) the machine is a generator,
- for positive slip between 0 and 1 (speed below synchronous) the machine is a
motor,
- for positive slip greater than 1 (speed negative) the machine is a brake,
In all cases the magnetizing current (at lagging power factor) is provided by the
supply system.

No Load Test
If an induction machine with its rotor unloaded is energised at rated voltage, then
the input power represents the sum of the iron loss and mechanical loss of the
machine.

Locked Rotor Test

If an induction machine with its rotor locked is energised at a reduced voltage
which causes rated current input, then the input power represents the sum of the
full load copper loss and stray loss of the machine.

Stator Resistance Test

The resistance of the stator winding is measured using a small direct current.

Synchronous Machines
The synchronous rotational speed ns and synchronous angular speed ω s of a
machine with p pole pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:
ns = 60fs / p
ω s = 2π fs / p

Page 48 of 53
The output power Pm for a load torque Tm is:
Pm = ω sTm

The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:

TM = PM / ω s = PMp / 2π fs = 60PM / 2π ns

Synchronous Generator
For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and
synchronous impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Es - IsZs = Es - Is(Rs + jXs)
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance

Synchronous Motor
For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and
synchronous impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Es + IsZs = Es + Is(Rs + jXs)
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance

Note that the field excitation of a parallelled synchronous machine determines its
power factor:
- an under-excited machine operates with a leading power factor,
- an over-excited machine operates with a lagging power factor.
The field excitation of an isolated synchronous generator determines its output
voltage.

Direct Current Machines

Shunt Generator
For a shunt generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf

The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux Φ at angular
speed ω are:
Ea = k fΦ ω = kmω
T = k fΦ Ia = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.

Note that for a shunt generator:

- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.

Page 49 of 53
The airgap power Pe for a shunt generator is:
Pe = ω T = EaIa = kmω Ia

Shunt Motor
For a shunt motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and
armature resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf

The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux Φ at angular
speed ω are:
Ea = k fΦ ω = kmω
T = k fΦ Ia = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.

Note that for a shunt motor:

- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.

The airgap power Pe for a shunt motor is:

Pe = ω T = EaIa = kmω Ia

Series Motor
For a series motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia,
armature resistance Ra and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa + IaR f = Ea + Ia(Ra + R f)
The field current is equal to the armature current.

The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux Φ at angular
speed ω are:
Ea = k fΦ ω Ia = kmω Ia
T = k fΦ Ia2 = kmIa2
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.

Note that for a series motor:

- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant induced
voltage.

The airgap power Pe for a series motor is:

Pe = ω T = EaIa = kmω Ia2

Page 50 of 53
Efficiency
The per-unit efficiency η of an electrical machine with input power Pin, output
power Pout and power loss Ploss is:
η = Pout / Pin = Pout / (Pout + Ploss) = (Pin - Ploss) / Pin

Rearranging the efficiency equations:

Pin = Pout + Ploss = Pout / η = Ploss / (1 - η )
Pout = Pin - Ploss = η Pin = η Ploss / (1 - η )
Ploss = Pin - Pout = (1 - η )Pin = (1 - η )Pout / η

For an electrical machine with output power Pout (proportional to current) and
power loss Ploss comprising a fixed loss Pfix (independent of current) plus a
variable loss Pvar (proportional to square of current) the efficiency is a maximum
when Pvar is equal to Pfix.

For a transformer, Pfix is the iron loss and Pvar is the copper loss plus the stray
loss.

For an induction machine, Pfix is the iron loss plus the mechanical loss and Pvar is
the copper loss plus the stray loss.

Energy Conversion
Comparing megawatt-hours and gigajoules, 1 MWh is equivalent to 3.6 GJ. For
an energy conversion process with a per-unit efficiency η , 1 MWh of energy
output is obtained from (3.6 / η ) GJ of energy input.

Temperature Rise
The resistance of copper and aluminium windings increases with temperature,
and the relationship is quite linear over the normal range of operating
temperatures. For a linear relationship, if the winding resistance is R1 at
temperature θ 1 and R2 at temperature θ 2, then:
R1 / (θ 1 - θ 0) = R2 / (θ 2 - θ 0) = (R2 - R1) / (θ 2 - θ 1)
where θ 0 is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.

The ratio of resistances R2 and R1 is:

R2 / R1 = (θ 2 - θ 0) / (θ 1 - θ 0)

The average temperature rise ∆ θ of a winding under load may be estimated

from measured values of the cold winding resistance R1 at temperature θ 1
(usually ambient temperature) and the hot winding resistance R2 at temperature
θ 2, using:
∆ θ = θ 2 - θ 1 = (θ 1 - θ 0) (R2 - R1) / R1

Page 51 of 53
Rearranging for per-unit change in resistance ∆ Rpu relative to R1:
∆ Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = (θ 2 - θ 1) / (θ 1 - θ 0) = ∆ θ / (θ 1 - θ 0)

Note that the resistance values are measured using a small direct current to
avoid thermal and inductive effects.

Copper Windings
The value of θ 0 for copper is - 234.5 °C, so that:
∆ θ = θ 2 - θ 1 = (θ 1 + 234.5) (R2 - R1) / R1

If θ 1 is 20 °C and ∆ θ is 1 degC:
∆ Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = ∆ θ / (θ 1 - θ 0) = 1 / 254.5 = 0.00393
The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 20 °C is 0.00393 per
degC.

Aluminium Windings
The value of θ 0 for aluminium is - 228 °C, so that:
∆ θ = θ 2 - θ 1 = (θ 1 + 228) (R2 - R1) / R1

If θ 1 is 20 °C and ∆ θ is 1 degC:
∆ Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = ∆ θ / (θ 1 - θ 0) = 1 / 248 = 0.00403
The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 20 °C is 0.00403 per
degC.

Note that aluminium has 61% of the conductivity and 30% of the density of
copper, therefore for the same conductance (and same resistance) an aluminium
conductor has 164% of the cross-sectional area, 128% of the diameter and 49%
of the mass of a copper conductor.

Dielectric Dissipation Factor

If an alternating voltage V of frequency f is applied across an insulation system
comprising capacitance C and equivalent series loss resistance RS, then the
voltage VR across RS and the voltage VC across C due to the resulting current I
are:
VR = IRS
VC = IXC
V = (VR2 + VC2)½

The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the
dielectric loss angle δ between VC and V:
tanδ = VR / VC = RS / XC = 2π fCRS
RS = XCtanδ = tanδ / 2π fC
Note that an increase in the dielectric losses of a insulation system (from an

Page 52 of 53
increase in the series loss resistance RS) results in an increase in tanδ . Note
also that tanδ increases with frequency.

The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power QC by:
P = I2RS = I2XCtanδ = QCtanδ

The power factor of the insulation system is the cosine of the phase angle φ
between VR and V:
cosφ = VR / V
so that δ and φ are related by:
δ + φ = 90°

tanδ and cosφ are related by:

tanδ = 1 / tanφ = cosφ / sinφ = cosφ / (1 - cos2φ )½
so that when cosφ is close to zero, tanδ ≈ cosφ

Note that the series loss resistance RS is not related to the shunt leakage
resistance of the insulation system (which is measured using direct current).

Page 53 of 53