RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)

Contents

Chapter 1 introduction to Radio Frequency Identification

1.1. A brief history
1.2 .RFID infrastructure
1.2.1. Infrastructure elements
1.2.2. RFID Frequencies
1.2.3. RFID Standards:
1.3. RFID Interference
1.3.1 Common Interference Examples
1.3.2 Types of Carrier Interference

Chapter 2. RFID APPLICATIONS IN LIBRARIES

2.1 Introduction (General View)
2.2 RFID application

Chapter 3. THE FUTURE AND THE BIGGER PICTURE: TOWARDS AN

INTERNET OF THINGS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 From identification to Wireless Sensor Networks
3.3 Spatial identifiers – GPS
3.4 Miniaturization and motes
3.5 Technological implications – information overload
3.6. THE IMMEDIATE FUTURE: THE FIVE-CENT TAG

CONCLUSION
References
A new technology the Radio Frequency Identification, similar
to LAN, WLAN, SAN, MAN, the RFID has the capability to
exchange information with each other.
Our project is divided into three chapters; each chapter
explains a part of the RFID technology.
In chapter 1, we are giving a brief introduction of RFID
infrastructure and we will explain each infrastructure elements
and how they interact together to obtain a scalable and reliable
network , we’ll also talk about the protocols that manage the
RFID operations , RFID use specific protocols and standards
in the process of exchanching information to ensure that the
messages are received and understood, these protocols are
implemented in software and hardware that is loaded on each
network device and network path .
At the end of the first chapter we’ll talk about the RFID
interference and the problems that affect the message in its way
to the destination.
Chapter 2 explains the RFID application in libraries; this
chapter includes a general view of RFID application in
libraries, and a particular example of a library that uses 6
phases of identifications.
Finally the last chapter introduces the future and the biggest
picture toward an internet of things and shows how RFID
becomes a principle element in many future technologies.
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Radio Frequency Identification

1.1 A brief history

RFID was developed out of the radar experiments and development during
the Second World War. The actual date of invention is 1948 but this was
followed by decades of development and experimentation before commercial
applications were implemented.

In July 1963 a passive RFID transponder developed and patended by

Richardson ,the device could couple and rectify from an interrogator’s EM
field and transmit signals at a harmonic of the received frequency.

In January 1967 Vinding developed a simple and inexpensive interrogator-

transponder system based on inductive coupling, the transponder used
repetitive tuning or loading of its antenna circuit at a rate characteristic of
the particular under interrogation.
In august 1975 Koelle, DEpp and Freyman introduced the novel concept of
transponder antenna load modulation as a simple and effective way for
backscatter modulation .

In the late of 1960’s the first commercial application of RFID –Electronic

Article Surveillance ,was developed by companies such as Kongo,
sensormatic and check point.

In the 1980s and 1990s , RFID becomes commercial the united states
included transportation and personnel access ,while European countries
were interested in short range systems for tracking animals, industrial and
business applications.

In October 1987 in Alesund the first RFID based toll-collection system

became operational.

The increase in commercial use of RFID prompted a need for standards,

which led to many standardization activities in the 1990’s, the international
standards organization (ISO) developed the (ISO-11785) and the (ISO-
14443) standards for animal tracking.
In 1999 , the European Article Numbering International (EAN) and the
Uniform Code Council (UCC) of the united states adopted a UHF frequency
band for RFID and established the auto-ID center at the Massachusetts
Institute of technology.
These two organizations also developed the electronic product code (EPC).

1.2 RFID Infrastructure

RF technology is used in many different applications, such as television,

radio, cellular phones, radar, and automatic identification systems. The
term RFID (radio frequency identification) describes the use of radio
frequency signals to provide automatic identification of items.

RFID is a flexible technology that is convenient, easy to use, and well

suited for automatic operation. It combines advantages not available
with other identification technologies. RFID can be supplied as read-
only or read/write, does not require contact or line-of-sight to operate,
can function under a variety of environmental conditions, and provides a
high level of data integrity. In addition, because the technology is
difficult to counterfeit, RFID provides a high level of security.
Radio waves transfer data between an item to which an RFID device is
attached and an RFID reader. The device can contain data about the
item, such as what the item is, what time the device traveled through a
certain zone, perhaps even a parameter such as temperature. RFID
devices, such as a tag , can be attached to virtually anything – from a
vehicle to a pallet of merchandise.
 1.2.1 Infrastructure elements
The RFID infrastructure consists of the elements that mange the devices
and tag data.
The RFID infrastructure comprises tags, readers, RNC’s (reader network
controllers) and applications running for example, on enterprise servers.
In addition, other devices could also be in the network suck as RFID/bar
code readers, I/O devices (such as electric eyes, light stacks...).

Transponder/Tag

Historically, an RFID device that did not actively transmit to a reader was
known as a tag. An RFID device that actively transmitted to a reader was
known as a transponder (transmitter + responder). However, it has become
common within the industry to interchange the terminology and refer to
these devices as either tags or transponders. For the purposes of this
overview, an RFID device that actively transmits to a reader is termed an
“active” tag; an RFID device that only reflects or backscatters transmission
from a reader is termed “passive.”
The tags are programmed with data that identifies the item to which the
tag is attached. Tags can be either read-only, volatile read/write, or
write one/read many (WORM) and can be either active or passive.
RFID tags come in a variety of different types according to their
functionality, and these types have been defined in an RFID Class
Structure by the Auto-ID Center (and later through EPC Global)
(Engel’s and Sarma, 2005), which has been subsequently refined and
built on. The basic structure defines five classes in ascending order as
follows:

Passive tags
Passive RFID tags have no internal power supply. The minute electrical
current induced in the antenna by the incoming radio frequency signal
provides just enough power for the CMOS integrated circuit in the tag to
power up and transmit a response. Most passive tags signal by
backscattering the carrier wave from the reader. This means that the
antenna has to be designed both to collect power from the incoming
signal and also to transmit the out band backscatter signal. The
response of a passive RFID tag is not necessarily just an ID number; the
tag chip can contain non-volatile, possibly writable EEPROM for
storing data.
Passive tags have practical read distances ranging from about 10 cm.
(ISO 14443) up to a few meters (Electronic Product Code (EPC) and
ISO 18000-6), depending on the chosen radio frequency and antenna
design/size. But thanks to deep-space technology, that distance is now
600 feel. Due to their simplicity in design they are also suitable for
manufacture with a printing process for the antennas. The lack of an
onboard power supply means that the device can be quite small:
commercially available products exist that can be embedded in a sticker,
or under the skin in the case of low frequency (Low FID) RFID tags.
In 2007, the Danish Company RFIDsec developed a passive RFID with
privacy enhancing technologies built-in including built-in firewall
access controls, communication encryption and a silent mode ensuring
that the consumer at point of sales can get exclusive control of the key to
control the RFID. The RFID will not respond unless the consumer
authorizes it, the consumer can validate presence of a specific RFID
without leaking identifiers and therefore the consumer can make use of
the RFID without being track able or otherwise leak information that
represents a threat to consumer privacy.
In 2006, Hitachi, Ltd. developed a passive device called the µ-Chip
measuring 0.15×0.15 mm (not including the antenna), and thinner than
a sheet of paper (7.5 micrometers). Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI)
technology is used to achieve this level of integration. The Hitachi µ-
Chip can wirelessly transmit a 128-bit unique ID number which is hard
coded into the chip as part of the manufacturing process. The unique ID
in the chip cannot be altered, providing a high level of authenticity to the
chip and ultimately to the items the chip may be permanently attached or
embedded into. The Hitachi µ-Chip has a typical maximum read range
of 30 cm (1 foot). In February 2007 Hitachi unveiled an even smaller
RFID device measuring 0.05×0.05 mm, and thins enough to be
embedded in a sheet of paper.[9] The new chips can store as much data as
the older µ-chips, and the data contained on them can be extracted from
as far away as a few hundred meters. The ongoing problems with all
RFIDs are that they need an external antenna which is 80 times bigger
than the chip in the best version thus far developed. As silicon prices are
reduced and new more economic methods for manufacturing inlays and
tags are perfected in the industry, broader adoption and item level
tagging along with economies of scale production scenarios; it is
expected to make RFID both innocuous and commonplace much like
Barcodes are presently.
Non-silicon tags made from polymer semiconductors are currently being
developed by several companies globally. Simple laboratory printed
polymer tags operating at 13.56 MHz were demonstrated in 2005 by
both PolyIC (Germany) and Philips (The Netherlands). If successfully
commercialized, polymer tags will be roll-printable, like a magazine,
and much less expensive than silicon-based tags. The end game for most
item-level tagging over the next few decades may be that RFID tags will
be wholly printed – the same way a barcode is today – and be virtually
free, like a barcode. However, substantial technical and economic
hurdles must be surmounted to accomplish such an end: hundreds of
billions of dollars have been invested over the last three decades in
silicon processing, resulting in a per-feature cost which is actually less
than that of conventional printing.

Active tags
Unlike passive RFID tags, active RFID tags have their own internal
power source, which is used to power the integrated circuits and to
broadcast the response signal to the reader. Communications from active
tags to readers is typically much more reliable (i.e. fewer errors) than
from passive tags due to the ability for active tags to conduct a "session"
with a reader.
Active tags, due to their on board power supply, also may transmit at
higher power levels than passive tags, allowing them to be more robust
in "RF challenged" environment with humidity and spray or with
dampening targets (including humans/cattle, which contain mostly
water), reflective targets from metal (shipping containers, vehicles), or
at longer distances: Generating strong responses from weak reception is
a sound approach to success. In turn, active tags are generally bigger,
caused by battery volume, and more expensive to manufacture, caused
by battery price. However, their potential shelf life is comparable, as self
discharge of batteries competes with corrosion of aluminates printed
circuits.
Many active tags today have operational ranges of hundreds of meters,
and a battery life of up to 10 years. Active tags may include larger
memories than passive tags, and may include the ability to store
additional information received from the reader.
Special active RFID tags may include temperature sensors. Temperature
logging is used to monitor the temperature profile during transportation
and storage of perishable goods as fresh produce or certain
pharmaceutical products. Other sensor types are combined with active
RFID tags, including humidity, shock/vibration, light, radiation,
temperature, pressure and concentrations of gases like ethylene.
The United States Department of Defense (DOD) has successfully used
active tags to reduce search and loss in logistics and improve supply
chain visibility for more than 15 years.

Semi-passive tags
Semi-passive tags are similar to active tags in that they have their own
power source, but the battery only powers the microchip and does not
power the broadcasting of a signal. The response is usually powered by
means of backscattering the RF energy from the reader, where energy is
reflected back to the reader as with passive tags. An additional
application for the battery is to power data storage.
If energy from the reader is collected and stored to emit a response in the
future, the tag is operating active.
Whereas in passive tags the power level to power up the circuitry must
be 100 times stronger than with active or semi-active tags, also the time
consumption for collecting the energy is omitted and the response comes
with shorter latency time. The battery-assisted reception circuitry of
semi-passive tags leads to greater sensitivity than passive tags, typically
100 times more. The enhanced sensitivity can be leveraged as increased
range (by one magnitude) and/or as enhanced read reliability (by
reducing bit error rate at least one magnitude).
The enhanced sensitivity of semi-passive tags place higher demands on
the reader concerning separation in more dense population of tags.
Because an already weak signal is backscattered to the reader from a
larger number of tags and from longer distances, the separation requires
more sophisticated anti-collision concepts, better signal processing and
some more intelligent assessment which tag might be where. For passive
tags, the reader-to-tag link usually fails first. For semi-passive tags, the
reverse (tag-to-reader) link usually collides first.
Semi-passive tags have three main advantages:
1) Greater sensitivity than passive tags
2) Longer battery powered life cycle than active tags
3) Can perform active functions (such as temperature logging) under its
own power, even when no reader is present for powering the circuitry.
 Given below are the primary differences between a Passive and Active
RFID tags:

Passive RFID Active RFID

Power Source External (Reader provided) Internal (Battery)
Can provide signals
Only within the area covered
Tag over an extended
by the reader, typically up to 3
Readability range, typically up to
meters.
100 meters..
A passive tag is energized only An active tag is always
Energization
when there is a reader present. energized.
High, since the tag draws Low, since the tag
Magnetic power from the emits signals using
Field Strength electromagnetic field provided internal battery
by the reader. source.
Limited to about 5
Very high, ideally does not
Shelf Life years, the life of a
expire over a life time.
battery.
Limited data storage, typically Can store larger
Data storage
128 bytes. amounts of data.
Cost Cheap Expensive
Slightly bulky (due to
Size Smaller
battery)

RFID Readers
The reader is a handheld or fixed unit that can interrogate nearby RFID
tags and obtain their ID numbers using radio frequency (RF)
communication (i.e. the process does not require contact). When a
passive tag is within range of a reader, the tag’s antenna absorbs the
energy being emitted from the reader, directs the energy to ‘fire up’ the
integrated circuit on the tag, which then uses the energy to beam back
the ID number and any other associated information.
There are two main classes of RFID readers: read-only, an example
being those that operate with the purely passive EPC Class 1 tags, and
read/write, which can write new information back to a tag that has been
equipped with a read/write memory. The readers are becoming
increasingly sophisticated, acting as gateways into the network centric
communication systems of modern enterprises by supporting
communication protocols such as TCP/IP and network technologies
such as DHCP, UDP/IP and Ethernet or 802.11x (for wirelessly sending
data back to the enterprise). Many models of reader are handheld
devices and resemble the pricing guns or barcode scanners used in
supermarkets, but readers can also be fixed in place (e.g. in doorways or
at
Vehicle toll gateways) and even hidden, e.g. embedded into walls.
There are also readers that can be incorporated into handheld devices
such as PDAs and mobile phones (e.g. Nokia 5140, Nokia 3220) .

Readers Network Controller (RNC):

The reader network controller plays the role of the RFID infrastructure
layer. It resides logically above the reader layer as an extension of the
enterprise network. It transforms a collection of autonomous readers
and devices into a reliable and scalable network. RNC functionality
includes real time adaptive control and management of readers and
devices, location-aware tag and sensor data processing, and standards-
based data services for the applications using the RFID data. This
functionality could be implemented in standalone software running in an
enterprise server, as software integrated with enterprise middleware or
directly with RFID-enabled applications. The choice for deployment
would primarily depend on the complexity of device management
operations and control, the data load and processing requirement and
the application services requirement.

1.2.2 RFID Frequencies

Radio-frequency (RF) signals are typically sinusoidal or nearly so that
is, the voltage or field is a smooth, periodic function of time. The
number of times the signal repeats itself per second, the
frequency, varies widely in differing RFID systems. Frequency is
measured in Hertz (Hz): one Hertz is one cycle per second. KHz=
1000's of Hz; MHz = millions of Hz.

The figure below shows some of the common and less-common frequency
bands in which RFID systems operate. Also shown is the corresponding
wavelength - the distance between points at which the field has a fixed
value when the signal moves at the velocity of light.
Several issues are involved in choosing a frequency of operation. The
most fundamental, as indicated in the diagram, is whether inductive or
radiative coupling will be employed. The distinction is closely related to
the side of the antennas to be used relative to the wavelength. When the
antennas are very small compared to the wavelength, the effects of the
currents flowing in the antenna cancel when viewed from a great
distance, so there is no radiation. Only objects so close to the antenna
that one part of the antenna appears significantly closer than another
part can feel the presence of the current. Thus, these systems, which are
known as inductively-coupled systems, are limited to short ranges
comparable to the size of the antenna. In practice, inductive RFID
systems usually use antenna sizes from a few cm to a meter or so, and
frequencies of 125/134 KHz (LF) or 13.56 MHz (HF). Thus the
wavelength (respectively about 2000 or 20 meters) is much longer than
the antenna.

Radiative systems use antennas comparable in size to the wavelength.

The very common 900 MHz range has wavelengths around 33 cm.
Reader antennas vary in size from around 10 to >30 cm, and tags are
typically 10-18 cm long. These systems use radiative coupling, and are
not limited by reader antenna size but by signal propagation issues.

A second key issue in selection of frequency bands is the allocation of

frequencies by regulatory authorities. In essentially every country in the
world, the government either directly regulates the use of the radio
spectrum, or delegates that authority to related organizations. In the
United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
regulates the frequencies that radios are allowed to radiate, the power
levels they can use, and other more technical aspects of their operation.
For much of the history of radio in the US, every radio transmitter
needed a license from the FCC to operate the radio. However, in the
mid-1980's, the FCC began to allocate certain frequency bands in which
unlicensed operation would be allowed, subject to certain restrictions on
the equipment and usage. Many other nations in the world have
followed suit. This released a remarkable burst of innovation, including
unlicensed cordless phones, wireless local area networks, and other
devices. RFID systems are typically operated in unlicensed bands.

In the US, unlicensed operation is available in the Industrial, Scientific,

and Medical (ISM) band at 902-928 MHz, among others. The 900-MHz
ISM band is a very common frequency range for UHF RFID readers and
tags. It is important to note, however, that bands do not exist in
isolation; for example, the figure below shows the various uses to which
frequencies near the ISM band are put in the United States.

The practical consequence of this proximity is the possibility of

interference: for example, a nearby cell phone transmitting tower may
interfere with the operation of RFID readers, due to the finite ability of
the reader receiver to reject the powerful cell signal. (Cellular base
stations may sometimes use transmit powers of 10's to hundreds of
watts.) Other users of the ISM band may also interfere with RFID
readers, or encounter interference due to them: examples are cordless
phones and older wireless local area networks.

Finally, changes in operating frequency affect the propagation

characteristics of the resulting radiated fields. Lower frequencies
diffract more readily around obstacles, but couple less well to small
antennas. Radiated fields are absorbed by many common materials in
buildings and the environment, particularly those containing water. The
degree of absorption due to water increases gradually with increasing
frequency. Tags immersed in water-containing materials (i.e. injected
into or swallowed by animals or people) must use very low frequencies
to minimize absorption: this is a typical 125 KHz application. For
locating large objects or people outdoors, a relatively low frequency
(e.g. 433 MHz) may be desirable to avoid obstacle blockage; when a
clear line of sight from the antenna to the tag can be assured, a higher
frequency may be useful to reduce the size of the antennas.

Spectral allocations vary widely from one jurisdiction to another.

Members of the European Union are usually guided by the
recommendations of the European Radio Organization (ERO) and the
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Canada and
many other countries in the Americas often generally conform to the
recommendations of the US FCC. Nations in the Middle East and North
Africa often follow European standards. Asian countries differ widely.
A simplified summary of RFID allocations in the 900-MHz region
throughout the world is shown below.
1.2.3. RFID Standards:

The number and use of standards within RFID and its associated
industries is quite complex, involves a number of bodies and is in a
process of development. Standards have been produced to cover four key
areas of RFID application and use: air interface standards (for basic
tag-to-reader data communication), data content and encoding
(Numbering schemes), conformance (testing of RFID systems) and
interoperability between applications and RFID systems.
There are several standards bodies involved in the development and
definition of RFID technologies including:
• International Organization of Standardization (ISO)
• EPCglobal Inc
• European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
• Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

Air interface (frequency) standards

RFID frequencies are governed by the ISO 18000–RFID Air Interface

family of standards, and a complete set of standards was released in
September 2004:
ISO 18000-1 – Generic Parameters for the Air Interface for Globally
Accepted.
Frequencies
ISO 18000-2 – for frequencies below 135 kHz
ISO 18000-3 – for 13.56 MHz
ISO 18000-4 – for 2.45 GHz
ISO 18000-6 – for 860 to 960 MHz
ISO 18000-7 – for 433 MHz
There are also earlier standards relating to, for example, cattle tracking
systems (ISO 11785), tag-based payment “proximity” cards (ISO 14443)
and electronic toll collection “vicinity” cards (ISO 15693). ISO 14443
and ISO 15693 both operate at 13.56MHz (HF), but the first standard
has a read range of about 10cm whereas the later has a read range of 1
to 1.5 meters.
The situation regarding frequencies is somewhat confused by the
introduction, by EPC Global, of a separate air interface standard for
UHF frequencies (covered by ISO 18000-6) for their early class 0 and
class 1 tags. These tags are not interoperable with each other, nor are
they compatible with ISO’s air interface standards. EPC Global has
subsequently developed a second generation of protocols (GEN 2) that
merge the old Class 0 and Class 1 passive tags and should be more
closely aligned with the ISO, although disagreements remain between
the two organizations at the time of writing. Obviously, supply chain
managers and equipment vendors would like to see an agreed,
international standard.

Data content and encoding

As supply chains involve moving goods between large numbers of

disparate organizations and locations, there is a requirement for all
parties involved to use a standardized form for the identification of
products. The Auto-ID Center at MIT was responsible for much of the
development of recent RFID technology and standards work,
particularly around supply chain management. Some of this work has
now been transferred to the EPC Global8 organization (as the Auto-ID
Center closed in October 2003, although some of the more research-
based work is continued through a network of Auto-ID labs in
universities across the world9).
EPC Global has defined standards for a range of features of global
RFID systems EPCglobal describes itself as a neutral, consensus-based,
not-for-profit standards organization which is owned jointly by GS1 and
GS1 USA (two members-based organizations for the supply chain
industry) including unique identification system protocols (the
Electronic Product Code, or EPCTM) for tag to reader communication,
specification of middleware systems to handle EPC codes, a mark-up
language (Physical Mark Up Language) and the Object
Naming Service (ONS). These are described in detail below:

1- Electronic Product Code

A necessary component in the development of RFID was the introduction

of the Electronic Product Code (EPC™). In short, this is the unique
code number that is embedded into the RFID tag’s memory. It is a
 generic, universal numbering scheme for physical objects, similar in
scope to the barcode numbering scheme (UPC).
However, there is one fundamental difference between the EPC and the
UPC: the EPC has the capability to identify every single, individual
product item. Whereas the barcode will provide a codification for the
manufacturer and the product, it does not provide for identifying a
particular object. The Auto-ID Center’s numbering system provides
much greater scope for identification than barcodes, and consists of a
96-bit number, structured as follows:

01. 0000A89. 00016F. 000247D

Header EPC Manager Object Class Serial Number
8 bits 28 bits 24 bits 36 bits
The Header bits define which of several coding schemes is in operation
with the remaining bits providing the actual product code.
The scheme is designed, in part, to accommodate existing global
numbering systems such as the Global Trade Identification Number
(GTIN), Serial Shipping Container Code (SSCC), and the Global
Location Number (GLN). The Manager number identifies the company
involved in the production of the item (manufacturer) and the object
class defines the product itself. The Serial number is unique (within the
scope of the other numbers) for an individual product entity. The 96-bit
code can thus provide unique identifiers for 268 million companies .
Each manufacturer can have 16 million object classes and 68 billion
serial numbers in each class.

2-Alternatives to EPC: IPv6

Some researchers believe that the architecture of the Internet offers a clear
series of principles for developing the new communication capability for
individual physical items and devices.
IPv6 is a network layer standard that governs the addressing and
routing of data packets through a network. It is a numbering scheme
large enough to give 430 quintillion addresses for every square inch of
the world’s surface, in comparison to IPv4 (the current system), which
has the capacity to support 4 billion addresses.

It has been suggested that IPv6 could be used in conjunction with RFID,
leaving the EPC™ redundant, and the US Department of Defense has
already mandated that its battlefield network should use IPv6 by the end
of 2006 .
However, Daniel Engels of the Auto-ID Center (2002) believes that 'the
requirement to interpret an IPv6 identifier as an address for IP
communication prevents its use as a permanently assigned identifier on
mobile objects. In addition, due to the development of standards and the
fragmentation of the RFID market (in terms of both technologies and
applications) it is unlikely that IPv6 currently holds a direct threat to the
adoption of the EPC™.

ISO Testing and Conformance

Standards for testing the conformance of RFID equipment to the

operating standards and for measuring the performance of equipment
are covered by ISO 18047 and ISO 18046 respectively.

Interoperability between applications and RFID systems

The EPC Network Architecture

RFID tags and interrogators are rarely used in isolation; they form part
of a supply chain, or a logistics, library or other system. The key concept
is that the ID code embedded on an RFID tag can provide what
database designers call a 'primary key' into a database of products. All
additional data associated with that item can be stored in back-office
databases and systems. The Auto-ID Center has developed an
architectural overview and vision for the use of the EPCTM unique
identifier in supply chain systems, known as the EPC Network
Architecture. The architecture is layered, with tags and their associated
readers operating at the bottom of an integrated system that is linked to
database and manufacturers' back-office enterprise systems.
The exact operational details of this complex architecture are beyond the
scope of this report, however, we will note of some key components and
related standards. Those interested in a more detailed examination of the
network architecture, see Synthesis,
2004.
Savant
Savant is the middleware software system that links reader devices and
processes the information streams from tags. It acts as the gateway to
the enterprise systems and database applications, providing filtering,
aggregation and counting of tag-based data.
ONS
The Object Naming Service (ONS) is 'the 'glue' that links the EPC™
with the associated data file'. Working much like the current Domain
Naming Service of the World Wide Web it provides a look-up table for
translating a unique EPC code into a Uniform Reference Locator
(potentially a webpage) where additional information can be stored. The
ONS system is built on the same technology used in the Internet’s
Domain Name Service (DNS).

Physical Mark Up Language

The Physical Markup Language (PML) is an XML-based common
language designed to provide standardized vocabularies for describing
a) physical objects, b) observations made by sensors and RFID readers
about these objects and c) the observers (the sensors and readers)
themselves and exchanging this data between entities operating within
the EPC network architecture. PML uses the W3C XML Schema
language (XSD) for its definition.
The difficulty in describing physical objects is acknowledged by the
Auto-ID Center, but the intention of PML is to give a structure to agreed
object characteristics such as volume, mass, temperature, owner,
location etc.

1.3. RFID Interference

1.3.1. Common Interference Examples

a) Other wireless systems, including mobiles, radio systems and other
models of tags and readers have the potential to interfere with and
tag and readers operation.

b) Tag placement.
Depends on the product being tagged, e.g. metallic products compared
to liquid. Bear in mind impact potential!
Automatic tag placement ensures uniform positioning, hand placement is
too inaccurate. (Joe Jiner, The Kennedy Group)
Slap and Ship placement
May result in retailers charging back for the cost of unreadable tags.

c) Environmental issues, i.e. rain is known to interfere with the signal

transmission to active tags.

1.3.2 Types of Carrier Interference

Absorption

When a wave hits a solid object, the object may absorb some/all of the
wave’s energy. If the object is small, the wave may pass through but will
have less power

Reflection / Nulling
Where a signal wave collides with a reflected wave which is out of phase
(exactly opposite), the effect is a cancellation of both waves energy
Where a signal wave collides with a reflected wave which is in-phase
(exactly the same), the effect is a boost in wave energy.
Data encoded in the carrier may be affected by reflected data though.

Electrical Interference
Electrical interference can come from various sources such as vacuum
cleaners, starter motors, power cables (pylons) or other
domestic/industrial electrical equipment nearby.
It is more likely to cause problems with Low-Frequency RF equipment.

Skip Interference & Tropospheric Ducting

Some interference may arise from telemetric systems such as those used
to control satellites or track animals and aquatic life.
Signals are reflected due to temperature changes in the layers of the
atmosphere (in the Ionosphere)

CHAPTER 2 RFID APPLICATIONS IN LIBRARIES

2.1.General View

For many years, libraries have used a combination of technologies to

reduce the likelihood of theft, improve stocktaking, and speed up issue
and return procedures.

The advantage of using RFID is that it is capable of incorporating and

improving upon existing systems within one technology. For example an
RFID reader does not need a direct line of sight, which means that books
do not have to be tipped out or even pulled out completely as with
barcode scanners, so inventory checking is faster and can be done more
frequently. Also, RFID tags do not need to be read individually as
barcodes do as RFID scanners can read stacks of books at a time, saving
time. Other benefits of RFID include simplified and faster issuing of
books, self-return (the ‘ATM approach’ to returning books), and rapid
location checking of books.

There are two main types of system that can be used in libraries, both of
which involve each book being tagged with an RFID chip which either
contains bibliographic data (bibliographic method) or a simple
reference to detailed bibliographic information held off-chip in the
library databases ('name plate' or 'license plate' systems). At the
moment, the bibliographic system is not used very much in the UK,
although there are discussions taking place around possible data objects
for encoding selected bibliographic data within library tags.

These systems allow a self-checkout process when books are borrowed:

as the books pass a special RFID reader at the check-out desk the tag is
scanned and the item is recorded as borrowed by the identified student
or staff member. Apart from being faster, this system also frees up library
and information staff from carrying out more mundane checkout tasks.

So libraries have become early adopters of RFID and in the US more

than 300 public and college libraries have adopted RFID. In fact,
library implementations are important test for the technology. They have
discovered that the 'tuning' of the RFID interrogator's detection field can
be critical in a system's security as leaving tagged items in close
proximity to an issue/return station can result in them being discharged
or issued unintentionally; in some instances, incorrect tuning of the
detection field also meant that it was possible to evade the field
completely .
There is also a strong economic argument in favor of tagging valuable
items such as library books. To date, uptake of RFID in general has been
limited because even passive tags are still relatively expensive to
produce (around 27 pence or 50 American cents, although this is
continually reducing), so it makes no economic sense to tag inexpensive
items (such as individual tins of baked beans). Within libraries, where
individual books and journals can be worth hundreds of pounds, and
will be borrowed and returned hundreds of time, the one-off cost of a tag
is more than off-set by cost savings and efficiency gains.

2.2 RFID application

• Library RFID Management System

 1 Tagging

An RFID tag is the most important link in any RFID system. It has the
ability to store information relating to the specific item, to which they are
attached,
Rewrite again without any requirement for contact or line of sight. Data
within a tag may provide identification for an item, proof of ownership,
original storage location, loan status and history.
RFID tag consists of an integrated circuit and an antenna combined to form
a transponder.
RFID tags collect the energy to operate from a radio frequency field emitted
by a reader device; therefore they do not need a battery. When energized by
a radio signal from a fixed position reader or handheld scanner, the tags
returns the stored information in order that the item to which it is attached
can be easily located.
The chip also has a “multi-read” function, which means that several tags
can be read at once.
RFID tags have been specifically designed to be affixed into library media,
including books, CDs, DVDs and tapes.
It is thin, flexible and turns can be laminated between paper and plastic.
With special method to attach books, patron is totally unaware that the tag is
there.

KEY BENEFITS:
- No line of sight needed
- Allows to check-out and check-in several items simultaneously
- Information directly attached to product
- Performing both identification and antitheft in one single operation
- Different shape and sizes available
 - Able to tag almost anything
- Accelerate scanning and identifying

2. Counter Station

The LibestTM counter station is a staff assisted station on services such as

loan, return, tagging, sorting and etc. It is loaded with arming/disarming
module, tagging module and sorting module. Arming/Disarming module
allows EAS (Electronic Article Surveillance) bit inside the tag of the library
material to be set/reset so as to trigger/not trigger the alarm of the EAS
gate. Checking of EAS status of library material is easy. The staff puts the
item on the reader and click on the view to display the information stored
inside the tag and status of EAS. There are also feature of auto arming and
auto disarm. Auto Arm/Disarm will automatic arm/disarm library material
that is within the reader range.

Together with circulation module from library automation software, this

station is used for the following services:
1_ editing and updating of patron’s record
2_ add and deleting of patron’s record
3_ generate loan history for a particular patrons
4_ managing of fines incurred by the patron
5_ arm/disarm of EAS bit inside the library material
6_ program of new library material
7_ sort item in accordance to their branch and category number
The features of this station depend on the module loaded by the library
automation software.
Key benefits:
1_ provide value added customer service instead of manual daily routine
2_ perform media check-in/-out for those patrons who choose not to use the
self service system
3_ help patron that need assistance from the staff

3. Self check out- in

The patron self check-out station in basically a computer with a touch

screen and a built-in RFID reader, plus special software for personal
identification, book and other media handling and circulation. After
identifying the patron with a library id card, a barcode card, of his personal
id number (pin), the patron is asked to choose the next action (check-out of
one or several books ). After choosing check –out , the patron puts the
book(s) in front of the screen on the RFID reader and the display will show
the book title and its id number (other optimal information can be shown if
desired) which have been checked out.

The patron then confirms that he has finished the check-out process and a
receipt is printed, showing which books have been borrowed and the return
date. The RFID tag in the book is set on quiet as a result no alarm will go
off at the EAS gates.
It is also possible to use the station for check-in (return) of books. In this
case the patron identifies herself, chooses return and then puts one book or
a stack of books onto the reader. She will receive a receipt. If the books were
to be taken through the gate now, an alarm would sound.

One important point for library productivity is that the whole process is
significantly less time consuming than with barcode and magnetic strip
system; therefore long lines are avoided and fewer stations are needed for
the same process.

Key benefits:
to librarian:
_ speeds up book check-in /check-out
_frees staff to better service patrons
_better space planning
_increases membership rate

to patrons:
_ easy to use: books can be read in any orientation
_ reduces queuing time
_ provides patron privacy
_ encourages patrons to come back

4. Book-Drop (Return Station)

 The book drops can be located anywhere, within or outside the library.
Possible remote locations outside the library include MRT/train stations,
shopping centers, schools, etc. this offers unprecedented flexibility and
convenience of returning library items at anytime of the day, even when
the library is closed.

Patrons insert the library item into the slot. The reader captures the
electronic signature and sends to backend system for loan cancellation.
Patron is acknowledged by beeping sound and flashlight. Patron’s
record is updated immediately> this is possible due to the seamless link
between LibBest RFID management system and the host computer
system. As such, users who have reached their loan quota can start
browsing items once they have returned them through the Book Drop.

Key benefits

-The ability to return books during off hours.

-Loans for the returned items will be instantaneously cancelled so that
patron may immediately borrow again.
-Librarians are able to allocate more time to customer service, as they are
free from the labor-intensive loan cancellation activity associated with bar-
code system.
-Display the return status and printing receipt.
-The design of the Book Drops is such that items cannot be retrieved once
deposited.

Options
-Accept special design
-Able to integrate with auto-sorting system.
5 Shelf management

The LibBesttm Shelf Management Solution makes locating and identifying

items in the shelves an easy task for librarians. It comprises of a portable
scanner and a base station
The solution is designed to cover three main requirements:
- Search for individual books requested
- Inventory check of the whole library stock
- Search for books, which are miss-helved
All these functions are performed by sweeping the portable scanner across
the spines of the books on the shelves to gather their identities. In an
inventory check situation, the identities collected are compared with the
database and a discrepancy report could be generated
in situations when search functions is required, whether for a particular
item or an item category, the information is first entered into the portable
scanner from the base situation, and when a foreign item is found on the
shelves, a built-in beeper sound to alert the librarians.

Key benefits
- Change inventory process
- No more book handling: just pass the reader across shelved books to
perform an instant inventory.
- Accurancy: Book identification numbers are registered in the Shelf-
Management Reader. The data is then downloaded to the center database
The fastest inventory you have ever made: 20 books per second
 - Notifications: books to be pulled are up-loaded to the reader for quick
identification .

User friendly
- Light weight
- Wands allows easy reading from high and low shelves

Save time and resources

Implementers indicate a 75%reduction in human resources required for
self-management activities

6. Anti theft detection

RFID EAS Gate is the anti-theft part of the RFID Library Management
System using the RFID tags embedded in the library items. Each lane is able
to track items of 1 meter or more and would trigger the alarm system when
an un-borrowed item passed through them. The alarm will sound and lights
on the gate will flash as patron through with the library material

The EAS Anti-Theft Gate is used to detect RFID tag that is equipped with
EAS (Electronic Article Surveillance). it can detect the RFID within 1 meter
range without interference of magnetic items, upon detecting of armed RFID
tags, the alarm will sound the gate . it has option to trigger a camera to
record patrons who trigger the alarm to the surveillance station.
the detection is an integral feature of the chip within the tag. it is a stand-
alone technology, which operates independently of the library database.

FEATURES :
- detect EAS Armed RFID tags
- Multi-item detection
- Able to integrate camera with the gate (option)
- gale to integrate with surveillance station (option)

KEY BENEFITS :
- Single technology is required for both inventory and theft
management of the library.
- Library staff are alerted immediately when un-borrowed items passes
through the theft detection gates.
- Number of patrons passing through the gantry is captured by a
counter on the gates Alarm volume can be easily controlled.
CHAPTER 3. THE FUTURE AND THE BIGGER PICTURE:
TOWARDS AN INTERNET OF THINGS

3.1 Introduction

RFID systems are part of a bigger picture and are potentially a key
stepping-stone in the development towards the vision of ubiquitous
computing. In the ubiquitous or pervasive computer vision there will be
a multitude of computationally capable, small - sometimes invisible to
the human eye - devices that will be scattered throughout our
environments, operating silently and largely unseen as they go about
their individual tasks to support our daily activities. This will be a
device-centric future with highly distributed network control.
In a step-change that will be orders of magnitude greater when
compared to today’s computing power, a bewildering population of
heterogeneous sensors, computers and actuators will be operating.
A key concept in this development trajectory is the Internet of Things. A
term first coined by RFID developers in the Auto-ID Center in the late
1990s, it is also sometimes referred to as the Product Internet, T2T
(Thing to Thing) network, or the M2M (Machine to Machine) network.
In this vision, increasingly large numbers of our everyday objects will
have some kind of simple communication technology embedded into
them, allowing them to be connected to each other within local networks
and, ultimately, connected to the wider network of networks – the
Internet. In a sense this is a process of extending the Internet beyond
computational devices down to a lower layer in the hierarchy of
machines – to that of simpler devices and individual items.
In order to facilitate this process, three areas need to be developed.
Firstly, each of these items must be able to identify itself to other items
and to the network in general. This is provided for by the introduction
and development of RFID technology. Secondly, these items should
include some element of embedded computational power in order to act
with some level of ‘intelligence’. Thirdly, they will need to have some
sense of their physical environment and geographical location.
Continuing developments in computational science and electronics,
particularly work on miniaturization, tiny operating systems and
wireless communication will make this vision increasingly realistic. The
basic RFID system of transponder and interrogator is an important
starting point in the process.
3.1 From identification to Wireless Sensor Networks
At the lower (passive) end of RFID technology the systems simply
provide a tag that can remotely identify an object by returning an ID
when interrogated over short ranges. As RFID systems are introduced
and find acceptance in business and other environments the functionality
provided by these low cost tags will be increasingly seen as insufficient
as new applications are developed.
There is likely to be a natural progression for RFID that includes the
widespread incorporation of sensor functionality. Such devices will be
able to make measurements concerning their surroundings and physical
location about such variables as pressure, temperature, flow rate, speed,
vibrations etc.
They will be networked either through RF technologies or through other
wireless communications systems and these developments are often
referred to as sensor nets, integrated on-chip radios, or wireless
networked sensors (WNS).
These RFID-based sensors will need to communicate in order to
participate in the network of things. However, other computational
devices within the likely ubicomp will not necessarily be using radio
frequency for communication. Other protocols currently proposed or
developed include ZigBee, Near Field Communication Technologies
(NFC), Bluetooth and Wifi – all systems that offer local and personal
area networks (LANs and PANs). Zigbee is focused on individual devices
(such as smoke alarms, lamps and consumer electronics) that need a
robust, low bandwidth, low cost, low power, peer-to-peer
communication. NFC is designed for very short-range communication
(devices have to almost touch for the signalling systems to work). The
applications being developed for NFC to date revolve around situations
where it is intuitive for devices to touch in order to communicate e.g.
allowing mobile phones to act as electronic tickets or electronic cash
wallets when pressed against a suitable reader .
Some commentators see these developments as tending towards a form
of ubiquitous wireless communications network which encompasses low-
bandwidth systems such as RFID, computational and peripheral device
networking through ZigBee, NFC and Bluetooth (e.g. digital cameras
and printers), and higher bandwidth (telecommunication) devices
through 4G cellular and WiMax.
3.2 Spatial identifiers – GPS
Such networking is part of a wider technological development as fixed
networks move to wireless networks, ad hoc networks, and meshes .
In the latter, mobile communicating devices form ad hoc networks (in a
peer-to-peer fashion) with nearby devices to form meshes of
communication that have varying topologies. The development of these
kinds of networks will facilitate the increased use of spatial annotation
(e.g. leaving personal messages or information within a given space).
Most technological projects exploring spatial annotation use GPS
(Global Positioning System) and the use of RFID in conjunction with
GPS could allow for another layer of context-specific information.

3.3 Miniaturization and motes

In the longer term, RFID tags (with some on-board computation) and
wireless sensors might become so small as to be almost invisible,
constituting a kind of 'smart-dust' (Rheingold, 2005). Research is being
carried out into developing computational 'motes', which combine
sensors, some element of communication (RF or optical) and the ability
to float, even to fly. Such motes may be used in weather front analysis, or
as remote sensors from dangerous environments (e.g. outer space,
nuclear power plants, oceans etc.).
3.4 Technological implications – information overload
In an information-rich, digitally connected world, where much of the
knowledge and tools that we make use of are outside our heads ,there
will be a need to develop new communication 'senses' that allow us to
manage and make use of the enormous amount of information we will be
confronted by. This will lead to the development and adoption of new
and different types of human-computer interfaces and different ways of
communicating with technology.
Indeed, part of the ubicomp vision is of seamless interaction with
devices, where computers become adaptive and perceptual in their
interactions with users and the environment. In addition, communication
between people and devices will become implicit (taking place
incidentally, whilst the user is undertaking another task) and multi-
modal (using all five of our senses). In a ubiquitous computing
environment, then, the user has to be not only textually, and visually
literate, but also has to have 'corporal literacy', that is, an awareness of
working knowledge of all the senses.
3.5. THE IMMEDIATE FUTURE: THE FIVE-CENT TAG
The potential of RFID ubiquity through item level tagging has hinged
around some technical and economic challenges. For global RFID
adoption, systems will have to be interoperable (therefore reliant on
protocol standards) and economically viable. In 1995 Noel Eberhardt
(Motorola) and Neil Gershenfeld (MIT Media Lab) started collaborating
in order to achieve a cost effective design for an RF tag, where the goal
was to design the ‘penny tag’ (i.e. one American cent). Eleven years
later the industry is still struggling with the technical challenges this
problem presents. In recent years, the goal has been set a little lower –
the hunt for the 5¢ tag is on.
Whenever the 5¢ tag is achieved, it is important to understand the most
likely characteristics and functionalities of the tag. In short, the tag will
need to be passive (manufacturing and component costs means active
and semi-passive tags are unviable), with low memory (in the region of
64 bits - smaller memory means less silicon and therefore lower costs)
and no re-write functionality.
 CONCLUSION
RFID technology uses waves to automatically identify individual
items. After sixty years of development, plus the emergence of the Internet,
RFID is being used in many fields.

RFID used in libraries can save patrons' time and increase library
work efficiency; can lessen staff injures; and can do inventory
automatically. The greatest advantage of RFID tracking system is its ability
to scan books/items on the shelves without tipping them out or removing
them.

To date, between 300 and 350 RFID systems have been installed in
libraries around the world. More than 50 libraries in the U.S. and Canada
currently use RFID. Regarding the use of RFID, some of the libraries have
given detailed guidelines.

There are some hurdles needed to overcome before RFID technology

becomes widespread in the world. One major problem is the high costs, the
other is privacy issue.

In the long run, the RFID technology, when perfected, would

eventually be a big help to human.
 References
- web-sites
1-http://www.enigmatic-
consulting.com/Communications_articles/RFID/RFID_frequencies.html

2-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFID

3-http://www.slais.ubc.ca/COURSES/libr500/04-05-
wt1/www/L_Zhang/conclusion.htm

4-http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/207#Anchor-What-36

5-http://www.ncsl.org/programs/lis/privacy/idfall05.htm

6-http://www.rfid-library.com/images/rfid_e01.jpg

- Articles
1- IEEE magazine
Applications and practice RFID
paul Hartman, RF SAW inc.
Daniel W.engels , university of texas at Arlington
Tom kerr, vocollect,inc.

2- RFID standars,frequencies ,adoption ,and innovation

www.rfidconsultation.eu/docs/ficheiros/TSW0602.pdf

Matt ward
Department of design
University of London

Rob van kranenberg

Resonance design/virtueel platform