Teacher Handbook of Chemistry

First Edition, 2009
ISBN 978 93 80168 93 7
© All rights reserved.
Published by:
Global Media
1819, Bhagirath Palace,
Chandni Chowk, Delhi-110 006
Email: globalmedia@dkpd.com
Table of Contents
1. Place of Chemistry in Science
2. Programmed Teaching
3. The Background
4. Role of the Teacher
5. Methods of Teaching
6. Aims and Objects of Teaching
7. Teaching Aids
8. Role of Laboratory
Place of Chemistry in Science 1
One
PLACE OF CHEMISTRY IN
SCIENCE
Chemistry has a significant place in the discipline of science.

In many countries of the world, the primary school curriculum
bears little relation to that of fifty years or so ago. Then the
subjects were reading, writing and arithmetic. Now the
curriculum is achieved much more as a whole. The primary
school curriculum has to a considerable extent become
integrated and a large number of good primary school teachers
possess a broad background, which enables them to guide
their pupils’ learning on a variety of topics as often based as
the surroundings of the school. However secondary school
curriculum generally consists of a number of separate subjects
having little or no coordination between them. This may largely
be due to the training received by secondary school teachers
and to the public examination system which a strongly subject
bounded. An attempt has been made in recent years to bring
about an integrated curriculum which has helped to bring
various science subjects closer but no effort has been made to
consider other areas such as languages, mathematics and social
sciences.
2 Teacher’s Handbook of Chemistry
THE PERSPECTIVE
Science education forms an integral part of our school
curriculum upto the secondary level in the process of
Universalisation of Science Education. The National Policy on
Education (NPE)-1986 has laid considerable emphasis on
strengthening the science education in the school education
system. The current situation of teaching of school science
content is as Environmental Studies at the lower primary level
(classes I—V). Integrated approach of teaching science is
followed at the upper primary stage (classes VI—VIII) and
secondary stage (classes IX—X) by integrating all disciplines
of Science in a natural fashion. The NPE-86 envisages extension
through every effort of Science Education not only to those
who are in the formal school system but also to those who have
remained outside the system under non-formal and adult
education programmes.
The qualitative improvement in science education depends
on many vital components. The teacher is considered as a
crucial factor in the teaching-learning process, developing
positive attitudes in the learners for better achievement and
the formulation and implementation of science education
programmes. The teachers have to discard their traditional
methods and usual practices in relying entirely on textbooks.
The teaching has to be integrated with environment based on
real life situations using local experiences, expertise and
resources. The classroom territory has to be expanded over the
whole environment so that the activities become supplementary
to classroom teaching.
If such an approach is systematically implemented with
mobilisation of needed resources, it is very much likely that
there may be an improvement in our science education at the
school stage. Several attempts are being made to improve
science teaching in our country, both at the formal as well as
non-formal sectors of school education.
Some of the innovative experiences in science education at
the school level include Nehru Science Exhibition, Science
Museums and Mobile Science Vans, Vikram Sarabhai Science
Centre Ahmedabad, Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad and
Ekalavya Project etc. In such innovative experiences and science
activities, the learning is fitted to the abilities and interests of
learners as there exists an opportunity for individuals initiative,
independent or collective study and creativity. A large number
of such activities are organised in India. A few of the major
activities are listed and described briefly here.
PROFIT OF EXPOSURE
November 14 is the birth anniversary of Pandit Jawahar
Lal Nehru, our first Prime Minister. Children call him Chacha
Nehru, as he used to love them much. We celebrate Children’s
Day on November 14. On this occasion Science Exhibition is
also organised by the NCERT. This exhibition is Science
Exhibition. To start with, this exhibition used to be organised
at New Delhi where Pandit Nehru used to live, when he was
our Prime Minister. Now this exhibition is organised in different
states. Children from country, from all States and UTs
participate in this exhibition. Nehru Exhibition is organised at
the national level.
Every year NCERT announces a main theme and sub-
themes for Nehru Exhibition. Children make their exhibits on
these sub-themes.
Main Theme: Science in our Environment

(i) Agriculture, Horticulture, Farming and Animal
Husbandry.
(ii) Conservation of the Environment
(iii) Health
(iv) Energy Conservation and Needs
(v) Astronomy
(vi) Town and Village Planning
(vii) Machines in the Service of Rural Areas
(viii) Teaching Aids for Science and Mathematics
(ix) Innovations.
This information along with the last date of submitting the
entry with the dates of exhibition reaches every school of the
country, from States and UTs and from States and UTs to all
schools. On information children start working on their
projects—static or work in investigatory science projects under
the guidance and supervision of the teachers. If a school has
a Science Club, it becomes quite active after information under
the supervision and guidance of the Science Club.
ACCOUNTABILITY OF A GUIDE
Very often in Nehru Science Exhibition we see some static
work or some noble experiments demonstrated by the students
with lines and graphs. These are projects but not Investigatory
Science Projects. Students should be encouraged and motivated
to work on some of science projects, and bring them to Nehru
Science Exhibition.
A project may be any purposeful activity. It may be a
model working, or experiment.
A project which involves investigation, discovery and
finding out which was not known to the student before, is an
investigatory investigation is much more than the repetition
of a standard Experienced student is to decide what experiments
are necessary. He may have to design his own apparatus, if
that is not available in the laboratory. He has to search for the
appropriate principles, laws, formulae, apparatus and data,
and originate a solution to a problem. The student has to
behave like a scientist.
Working on an investigatory science project is the way a
student can learn science by project method which involves
some steps of scientific method like Problem, Hypotheses and
Experiment.
Every year more and more investigatory science projects
are being seen in Nehru Science Exhibition. It is very
encouraging. You should also encourage your students to work
on investigatory science projects under your guidance and
send it to Nehru Science Exhibition through District and State
Science Exhibitions and Fairs.
PROFITS FROM MUSEUMS

You must have seen science museums. They are very
effective and interesting sources of learning science. What
experiences do you get from a science museum?
Objectives of Science Museum: Main objectives in
establishing science museums are:
(i) to help young science learners in understanding
concepts of science by play way method.
(ii) to provide a glimpse of past as well as an insight into
the future.
(iii) to help schools in their class activities by providing
them with a number of equipments and specimens
which are otherwise difficult for a single school to
procure.
(iv) to arrange extension activities such as field trips,
lectures, film shows and exhibitions for the students as
well as public.
During the last decade or so, a couple of science museums
have been set up in the country including one at Delhi, the
Natural History Museum. In Delhi’s Pragati Maidan, National
Science Centre (National Council of Science Museums) has
also been set up few years back. It has several units. ‘FUN
GAMES’ and ‘ENERGY’ units are very interesting for students.
Delhi also has two Primary Science Museums:
(i) Municipal Corporation Children Resource Centre
(MCCRC) at R.K. Puram, Sector VI.
(ii) New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) Science Centre
at Lakshmibai Nagar.
There are good science museums in various parts of the
country—Mumbai (Bombay), Bangalore, Kolkata (Calcutta).
All these science museums are doing very good Job, carrying
out various innovative activities, in science for the improvement
of science education. Let us discuss some science museums a
little bit in detail.
Nehru Science Centre: The Nehru Science Centre (NSC) is
established in Mumbai (Bombay) by the National Council of
Science Museums.
The most important and attractive part of the NSC is a
‘Science Park’ for children. With green surroundings, the
Children’s Science Park has exhibited on time, motion, energy,
power and work. Also, there are models of railway engines,
tram cars, aeroplanes, steam lorries, a windmill and a sun dial.
There are birds, animals and fish to acquaint children with
nature. While children enjoy the Science Park the most, it also
helps them to understand ‘what’ ‘why’ and ‘how’ of the queries,
questions and problems haunting their minds.
Nehru Science Centre, Mumbai (Bombay) is basically multi-
disciplinary in character. Collection of antique exhibits of
historic value, presentation of the same through permanent
and temporary exhibitions on selected themes, extension
activities offering multiple avenues of learning, enjoyment and
training to the student community as well as the public, taking
science to rural areas through mobile science vans, aiming
towards interacting mode of presentation of themes are some
of the ways in which the NSC operates. The Science Centre
also offers a gallery on ‘light and sight’. It presents different
principles involved in file process of ‘seeing and the vision.’
A survey is made of vision, its defects, its importance, its
complexities and varieties. Nehru Science Centre also organises
extension activities such as science extension in rural areas,
film video shows, science seminars for schools, films, video
cassettes loan service, amateur weather station, amateur radio
classes for children, sky observation programme, astronomical
camps, popular science lectures, special science film festivals,
aeronautic modelling programmes and training camps for
under-privileged children.
Visweshwaraya Industrial and Technological Museums:
The Visweshwaraya Industrial and Technological Museum is
established in Mumbai (Bombay). It organises various activities
and programmes such as motive power gallery (science
museum), teacher training, hobby centre, student’s science
seminars, science quiz, science fair, temporary science
exhibitions, science demonstration lectures, mobile science
exhibitions, film shows, popular science lectures, etc. The
museum has also a regional science centre at Gulbarga.
If you have a science museum at the place where you
teach, plan a visit to that museum. If your students go to some
places, where there are science museums, ask them to visit
them with their parents or if you arrange a field trip to any
place, where there is a science museum, take your students
there, and see how much science they learn—the science which
is not there even in their science books.
Mobile Science Vans: Some science museums have mobile
science units, museums on wheel. They are usually sent to the
places, where there are no science museums. They are not as
big as a science museum. They do not have as many science
exhibits as a science museum has. But even this is a very
effective source of learning science for students at upper
primary level.
Natural History Museum, New Delhi, National Science
Centre, New Delhi and Nehru Science Centre, Mumbai
(Bombay) have Mobile Science Vans. You try to find out whether
there is some science museum, not very far from the place you
are teaching, and whether that science museum has the facility
of mobile science vans. You can ask such museums to send that
unit to your school. If you are successful to bring it, your
students may visit the science museum even in their school,
and can learn a lot of science.
DIFFERENT STRUCTURES
For improving the quality of science learning in non-formal
system of education, Vikram Sarabhai Community Centre was
established in Ahmedabad in 1963. The Centre is one of the
pioneer organisations in the country providing a variety of
out-of-school activities in science for students, teachers and
community. It has a team of highly skilled staff which acts as
a nucleus and catalyst for various programmes undertaken by
the Centre.
The Centre conducts research and innovative programmes
for improving education and community life. These
programmes include studies on science and mathematics,
environmental studies, integrated science and science learning
improvement programmes through enquiry approach,
mathematics laboratory, teacher orientation, designing and
development of teaching and learning material packages.
The Centre also organises programmes for rural as well as
urban community. These programmes are related to the
problems of pollution, health, security, population,
communication, settlement and values. The Centre is basically
a community centre where people come with their children
and learn science where interested teachers and scientists
experiment new ideas in teaching and learning.
The Centre organises science seminars, film video shows,
popular lectures, exhibitions, sky-gazing through a telescope,
etc. The Centre has a library, laboratories, science museum,
workshop, science playground, mass media and A.V. facilities
for the community. The Centre provides facilities in rocketry
and electronics hobbies to children. In science playground, the
children get a glimpse of science through play toys, colour
filter towards musical pipes, sand, pits, water pond and
evolution pillar.
The centre has also started some small extension centres
to the rural areas. A mobile van equipped with a laboratory
and A.V. materials tours different villages. Science club activities
are organised in rural areas based on emphasis on the
environmental awareness.
The Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) is a voluntary
organisation. It was established in 1963. KSSP has around
10,000 members comprising scientists, doctors, engineers, social
scientists, teachers, students, workers, peasants and technicians.
It has 600 units all over Kerala.
Objectives
1. To popularise science amongst society.
2. To generate science literacy amongst people.
3. To increase community involvement for developing
scientific temper in the society.
4. To develop rural technology in the field of energy.
5. To organise health camps, classes and audio-visual
campaigns on a wide scale.
Activities: The society has about eight major areas of
activities: (a) Publications, (b) Non-formal Education, (c) Formal
Education, (d) Environmental Bridge, (e) Research and
Development Wing, (f) Rural Science Forums, (g) Health
Brigade, (h) Art and Science.
The details of these activities are as follows.
Publications: KSSP prints a variety of scientific periodicals
and books meant for popularisation of science and generation
of science literacy amongst the people.
These include:
(i) Eureka—monthly magazine for primary classes.
(ii) Sastrakeralam—monthly magazine for secondary
School children.
(iii) Sastragathy—monthly magazine for adults.
(iv) Parishad Vartha—monthly bulletin for members.
Non-formal Education: These activities cover a wide
spectrum, the main ones being ‘Science Campaign’ and ‘Science
Centre.’
Formal Education: KSSP promotes a number of activities
aimed at improving science clubs, talent tests and promotion
of awareness about the education system amongst the public.
The talent tests are:
(i) Eureka Talent Tests—at elementary level.
(ii) Sastrakeralam Quiz—at high school level.
(iii) Sastragathi Talent Tests—at college level.
Environmental Bridge: KSSP was involved m Silent Valley
Campaign, Social Forestry Programmes and campaigns against
industrial pollution.
Research and Development Wing: Its responsibility is to
develop appropriate rural technology in the field of energy,
environment etc. A high efficiency Chulha (Stove), developed
by them has been widely propagated.
Rural Science Forums: KSSP has initiated these forums to
prompt villagers to think on their own about their problems
and solutions.
Health Brigade: KSSP organises health camps, classes and
audio-visual campaigns on a wide scale.
Art and Science: It organises Sastra Kala Gatha and Bharat
Kala Gatha.
Ekalavya Science Teaching Project (ESTP) started in 1972
in sixteen rural middle schools of district Hoshangabad in
Madhya Pradesh for teaching science through environment
based discovery approach. This project was started by Kishore
Bharati, in collaboration with Friends Rural Centre, Rasulia
with the support of the Department of Education, Government
of Madhya Pradesh. A large number of teachers and scientists
from various institutions and organisations such as the All
India Science Teachers Association, Physics Study Group;
Mumbai (Bombay) Municipal Corporation; Gandhi Vidyapeeth,
Vedehi, Surat District; Lok Bharti, in Gujarat; The Space
Application Centre, Ahmedabad; Universities of Delhi,
Rajasthan and Indore; The Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research, Mumbai (Bombay); Indian Institute of Technology,
Kanpur; NCERT, DAV College of Education, Abohar (Punjab)
etc. participated in the development of curriculum, workbooks,
science kit, other materials and training of teachers.
In 1978 this programme of science teaching was extended
to all the 206 middle schools of District Hoshangabad.
Objectives
1. Implementation of introducing innovations as
envisaged in Ekalavya Project within the given
framework of the Government school system.
2. Encouraging science teaching through discovery
approach in Indian schools.
3. Providing science education experiences through
environment.
4. Developing ability among students for applying
scientific methods in different situations.
5. Developing scientific attitude (scientific temper) among
the students.
Curriculum: Keeping in view the objectives of this Ekalavya
experiences the curriculum of science teaching has been on
process approach rather than product approach. The process
approach of learning science provides numerous opportunities
to children to explore scientific phenomena of their local
environment. Most of the curricular contents have been taken
from their environment.
Advanced scientific concepts, such as abstract chemical
symbols, theoretical concepts of atomic and molecular structure,
and human anatomy etc. have not been included in the
curriculum because these concepts are beyond the students
direct interaction with the environment.
The selection of curricular content is dependent upon:
(a) relatedness to environment, (b) relatedness to the needs,
interests and mental level of the students, and (c) possibility
of the application of discovery approach.
Through the above mentioned procedure the curricular
contents for classes sixth, seventh and eighth was developed.
Some of the examples of the curricular contents for various
classes are given below:
Class VI Kuchh Khel Khilwar
Samuh Banana Sikho
Hamari Phaslen aur Samuhikaran
Vidyut
Ganak Ke Khel
Jeev Jagad me Vividhata
Mini, Pathar aur Chattane
Class VII Ek Majedar Khel
Jar aur Patti
Keeron Ki Duniya
Phaslon Ke Dushman
Apni Haddi Pahachano
Aakash Ki Or
Taraju Ka Sidhant
Class VIII Jantuon Ka Jivan Chakkar
Phool aur Phal
Paudho me Prajanan
Vargikaran Ke Niyam
Jantuon ka Vargikaran
Gasen
Work Book and Science Kit Materials: In this programme,

the workbook is introduced in place of textbooks, which is
process based. Principles of science are discovered through
experiments. Science Kit is very conducive for discovery
approach to science teaching.
Teaching Method: Discovery approach of science teaching
is the main teaching method followed in this programme.
Students learn science through inquiry approach especially by
experimentation, discussion and field trips.
The whole class is divided into subgroups of four students
each known as a Toli. This Toli pattern is also followed in their
teacher training programmes. The students perform
experiments in their respective tolies, collect and analyse data
and draw conclusions on the basis of the guidelines given in
the workbook.
Examination: In this Eklavaya Experience the examination
is not based on rote memory or recall etc. Independent
observation, data collection, data analysis and drawing
conclusions have been given due weightage. It also seeks to
test the extent of a pupil’s readiness to innovate through
physical experimentation.
The examination is conducted to test three basic elements
of science teaching, namely, scientific skills, scientific attitude
(scientific temper) and understanding of scientific concepts
and principles.
THEORY AND PRACTICE COLLABORATION
There is a lot of correlation between chemistry and some
of the work experience subjects. It is due to this that in many
schools chemistry-teachers are assigned the duties which
require them to take some work experience subjects. A few
such subjects are:
(i) Candle making.
(ii) Itching.
(iii) Engraving.
(iv) Chalk making.
(v) Preparation of shoe polish and nail polish.
(vi) Preparation of soaps and detergents.
(vii) Preparation of antiseptics, cosmetics etc.
IMPORTANCE OF COLLABORATION
No subject can be taught in isolation and so is the case with
teaching of chemistry. For an effective learning full advantage
must be taken of various correlations and applications of
chemistry. In addition to correlation of chemistry with other
school subjects and daily life, a lot of correlation is possible
with other science subjects. Artificial division of science into
various branches is a matter of convenience and not of necessity.
Based upon this premise, many educators advocate the
implementation of curricula based upon the correlation between
various subjects. These kinds of curriculum give more meaning
to our class room instructions. Various inventions in chemistry
have contributed a lot to the social and physical advancement
of our society. Chemistry has contributed a lot to development
of some other subjects. In the following pages we will take up
the correlation of chemistry with other subjects.
LANGUAGE COLLABORATION
Chemistry in closely related to language in which it is
taught. This correlation arises because of the fact that language
provides not simply a way of communicating with others but
it is also the vehicle of thought. A student can not grapple with
a scientific problem without the use of words. This brings
about the importance of encouraging the student to master a
language both in its spoken and written forms.
Practical work in science provides a very good opportunity
for development of a language. It can be developed by
discussion between the student and the teacher and also by
discussion amongst students themselves. The written form of
the language can be developed by encouraging the students
to make their own record of practical work, may be in the form
of a diary, instead of copying it from the book or blackboard.
SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

Mathematics and chemistry are closely related to each
other. Actually speaking mathematics is considered as the
mother of all sciences. A thorough knowledge of some
fundamentals of mathematics is very useful in understanding
certain concepts of chemistry. A closer coordination between
the chemistry teacher and mathematics teacher makes the job
of teaching chemistry easier. In physical chemistry such topics
as thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, radioactivity etc. Can
only be properly understood by using certain mathematical
equations. For derivation of such equations the students must
be familiar with various sign used for representing certain
mathematical operations. Thus we conclude that there is a
close relationship and so there is a correlation between
chemistry and mathematics.
SCIENCE AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

Chemistry is a highly useful subject for the present day
society. Many an inventions in chemistry have a lot of social
implications and influences the social thinking of individuals.
Knowledge of chemistry is quite useful in dispelling
superstitions. The contribution of chemistry in development of
society is visible in all walks of our life. Many a luxuries which
have now become essential for comfortable living owe their
origin to knowledge of chemistry.
Teacher can refer to such contributions of chemistry while
teaching the social sciences. In history reference can be made
to various inventions in chemistry which were used to fight
or win wars. Geography depend highly on chemistry for some
of its aspects. The two subjects geography and chemistry
overlap in various areas particularly in areas of study of rocks,
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, minerals, rain etc. Present
day geography is considered as one of the science subjects.
COLLABORATION WITH PHYSICS

Chemistry and physics both are branches of science and
they have a large number of common concepts. Many a laws
of chemistry can be quite useful for explanation of certain
important concepts in physics. The illustration of common
topics in chemistry and physics is given by topics such as
nuclear physics, thermal physics, atomic physics etc. Many a
methods of chemistry are used for carrying out the experiments
in physics. This points to a scope of great cooperation between
chemistry and physics teachers.
COLLABORATION WITH BIOLOGY

The correlation between chemistry and biology is so large
that at present we came across such subjects a “biochemistry”.
There are many a topics in biology which are quite dependent
on knowledge of chemistry, e.g. biomolecules, working of
various human systems such as blood circulation, digestive
system etc. The knowledge of chemistry is helpful in understanding
various diseases and in helping to cure/prevent such diseases.
From the above we find a lot of correlation between
chemistry and biology. For a better teaching there should be
close cooperation between the chemistry teacher and biology
teacher.
SIGNIFICANCE OF CREATIVITY
Chemistry like physics is an experimental science and so
it has grown through inventions and discoveries. These require
a lot of creativity. It is possible to fulfil the creative urge of
students if chemistry is taught to them using the method
‘learning by doing’. For this the teacher is expected to impart
chemistry instructions in such a way that students are actively
involved in all activities and it places a good deal of
responsibility on chemistry teachers.
Creativity has been defined in various ways, however there
is one thing in common in all these i.e. creativity is a process
of change, of getting away from main track, of sensing gaps
or disturbing missing elements.
A definite correlation has been shown between creativity
and intelligence. A high intelligence does not mean high
creativity. According to Guilford, creativity represents patterns
of primary abilities, patterns which can vary with different
spheres of creative ability. It is generally believed that creativity
consists of about 120 abilities, the most important of these
being sensitivity to problems, fluency of ideas, originality and
redefining. Some of personality characteristics found in creative
persons are:
1. Curiosity
2. Ambition
3. Drive
4. Independence of Judgement
5. Self assertion
6. Imagination
7. Initiative
8. Concern for basic problems
9. Openness
10. High ego strength
11. Emotional stability
12. Less talkative
13. Abstract thinking
14. Non-conformist attitude
15. Capability to take risk.
It is possible to foster creativity, through chemistry, in
children if we make use of scientific methods in teaching of
chemistry. The important of such methods are problem solving
method, project method, laboratory method etc. We can say
that most chemists were creative because they relied on method
of discovering new knowledge. For fostering creativity in
children the chemistry teacher is expected the perform varied
roles. He is expected to perform the following roles:
(i) He should give due consideration to questions and
ideas of his students.
(ii) He should put provoking questions in class.
(iii) He must be able to recognise originality and should
value such an originality.
(iv) He must foster in his students an ability to elaborate
a given point.
(v) He should set more questions and problems for
experimentation.
(vi) He should help in developing creative ideas.
(vii) He should have guided and planned experiences.
(viii) He should emphasise for research of truth through
experimental research.
(ix) He should choose same investigatory projects in
chemistry which give his children an opportunity of
self-direction.
(x) He should encourage his students to improvise
chemistry apparatus and experiments.
Programmed Teaching 19
Two
PROGRAMMED TEACHING
Percentage of our science teachers (Physics, Chemistry

and Biology) have good background in their respective subjects,
and they take interest in teaching and trying out new science
programmes. Even in the schools which have enough science
equipment and the science labs are well equipped, the lecture-
demonstration method is the one most commonly used, as our
science teachers are heavily loaded and they get a very little
or sometime even no time for planning their lessons during
school hours.
Our schools have usually 8 periods of 30-40 minutes
duration. Regular teachers also work as substitute teachers
(where in America if a teacher is on leave, a substitute teacher
is invited from outside to teach his classes) during their planning
periods besides their teaching 6-7 (out of 8) periods daily, six
days a week (where in Western countries schools work five
days a week), and Sunday is the only holiday.
Our textbooks are written in a traditional way. If our
science teachers could have well sequenced programmed
materials, it would be a great help to them, as mentioned
above, they are heavily loaded. Also if the programmed
materials provided activities of 20-25 minutes duration, students
would have more opportunity to do the experiments themselves
even in smaller periods. So well sequenced programmed
materials would be more useful for teachers to teach and for
students to learn than the materials now available.
VARIOUS APPROACHES
Siddiqi developed an Adjunct Programme for PSSC physics.
It was student self-directed study guide m PSSC physics.
Here are the comments (unedited) of some of the students who
used it.
Strengths
1. “Students can do whenever they want to do. If we do
not understand anything now, we can do it some other
time.”
2. “When you learn on your own, you are more apt to
remember it.”
3. “Student learns more if he goes on his own rate. In
conventional classes superior students get frustrated.
They want to go ahead. Slow students don’t understand.
Teacher stops the whole class. With these materials
superior students also have an opportunity to go ahead.
Every student is able to go on his own rate, not waiting
for anybody, not trying to catch up with anybody.”
4. “Teacher gets more time, when he can go and help
other students. He goes to the student who has
problems, and not to the student who does not have
any problem; so he does not waste his time. Teacher’s
time can be put to better use. We do not need the
teacher all the time. We only use him when we need
him. Teacher can enrich the student more when he
talks individually.”
5. “PSSC text was easy to understand with these materials.
Text was too complicated, and the guide made it
simplified.”
6. “Guide has more hints to do labs than does the lab
manual.”
7. “Self-tests were good. When I missed something, I went
over it and it helped me very much to learn physics.”
Weaknesses
1. “These materials were unable to motivate those who
were not self-motivated to use these materials.”
2. “This approach did not work for lazy students. Some
students need a push and without a teacher always
available to keep them working they have a tendency
not to study. It’s hard for some people to pace. It
requires more discipline to work on your own.”
3. “This approach is good for those who want to learn
by this approach. If the student is the type who cannot
go on his own, this approach is not good; he should
(probably) be taught by the conventional method.”
4. “Sometimes a student is isolated by this approach—
text guide, problems, lab, text, guide; that’s all he has
to work with.”
5. “Physics is such a hard subject that you have more
teacher help.”
6. “I did not like it too much, because I am lazy by
nature.”
Teachers who taught the students using programmed
instruction materials also pointed out some strengths and some
weaknesses of mis-approach of teaching.
Strengths
1. “These materials are excellent for those who have
difficulty with PSSC physics.”
2. “These materials enabled some students to achieve
what they were unable to achieve without them.”
3. “These materials developed in students an attitude of
doing independent work, which they will need when
they will go to College and University.”
Weaknesses
1. “Only those students who feel responsibility learn more
by this approach.”
2. “These materials are not good for slow learners.”
3. “Some students go behind and behind not because
they were not capable to move but because they were
lazy. Some students can read but they don’t want to
read. There is a problem of keeping the student
motivated.”
4. “This approach is more time consuming. Some students
took more time to finish the same material.”
5. “When working on their own only half of the students
use their time effectively while others use their time
doing something else.”
The conclusion of a group of students regarding the auto-
instructional material was: “With auto-instructional materials,
the text, and a teacher to explain, the self-study would be most
practical and best for students.”
In general, most of the students and teachers liked the
programmed instructional materials and this approach of
instruction. They pointed out individualisation, independence,
self-pacing, self-evaluation, and better use of teacher’s time as
some of the major strengths of this type of instruction. More
than half of the students and teachers liked individualised
instruction. They reported that using this approach for
instruction, the teacher got more time to interact with individual
students. They pointed out that the PSSC Physics Students
Guide made PSSC Physics easier for the students. They also
pointed out that this approach of instruction was best suited
for superior students. More than half of the students liked the
idea of moving according to their own pace, but the teachers
did not like this idea very much, as it was hard for them to
cope with their students, when different students were doing
different things in the same period. Most of the students and
all the teachers pointed out that lack of self-motivation was the
main weakness of this type of instruction.
DIFFERENT UNITS
Some of you as a science teacher will like to use
programmed instruction materials in your science classes.
Usually programmes are not available in the market. Though
developing programmed instruction materials is a time
consuming job, yet some of you will like to develop some
programmed instruction units. It will be a good project for
your instruction.
Before developing programmed instruction units, it will be
nice if you learn how to develop them. One such programmed
unit “Structure of an Atom” is given here as a Sample.
Structure of an Atom (A Programme Unit)

Instructions to Students: This is not a test. This is a
Programme designed for you to learn the Structure of Atom.
In this Programme you will find numbered paragraphs.
These paragraphs are called Frames. Read each Frame
carefully and answer the questions given after each Frame.
Check your answers from the Answer key given at the end
of the programme.
Frame 1: Matter is made up of very small particles called
atoms. The smallest particle of matter is........ If answer is correct
go to Frame 2, otherwise Repeat Frame 1.
Frame 2: Atom is made of various particles called electrons,
protons and neutrons. Electrons are negatively charged
particles. Protons are positively charged particles. Neutrons
have no charge, that is, they are neutral.
Complete the following sentences:
(a) The positively charged particle of an atom is.....
(b) An electron has ...... charge.
(c) A neutral atomic particle is called.......
If answers are correct go to Frame 3 otherwise Repeat
Frame 2.
Frame 3: Check the statement below that is true. A proton
is:
(a) positively charged.
(b) negatively charged.
(c) neutral.
(d) sometimes positive, sometimes negative.
If answer is correct go to Frame 4, otherwise Repeat Frames
2 and 3.
Frame 4: Check the statement below that is true. A neutron
is:
(c) neutral.
2 and 4.
Frame 5: Check the statement below that is true. An electron
is:
(c) neutral.
2 and 5.
Frame 6: The weight of a proton is approximately equal
to the weight of a neutron, and the weight of an electron is
so small compared to the weight of a proton or a neutron that
it can be neglected.
Check the statement below that is true.
The weight of a proton is approximately equal to the weight
of:
(a) electron.
(b) neutron.
(c) each of them.
(d) none of them.
If answer is correct go to Frame 7, otherwise Repeat
Frame 6.
Frame 7: The charge of an electron is equal and opposite
to the charge of a proton. If the charge of an electron is -4 units,
then the charge of a proton should be:
(a) –4 units
(b) +4 units
(c) more than 4 units
(d) less than 4 units
Frame 7.
Frame 8: If the charge of a proton is +x units, the charge
of an electron should be.......
If answer is correct go to Frame 9, otherwise repeat Frames
7 and 8.
Frame 9: An atom can be assumed to be spherical in shape.
At its centre there is a very small space (compared to the atom
as a whole) containing protons and neutrons. This space is
called nucleus.
Check the statement below that is true. The nucleus of an
atom contains:
(a) protons only.
(b) neutrons only.
(c) protons and neutrons both.
(d) none of them.
Frame 9.
Frame 10: As the number of electrons is equal to the number
of protons and the charge of an electron is equal and opposite
to the charge of a proton the atom as a whole is neutral.
Example: Sodium atom has 11 electrons and 11 protons.
If charge of an electron is—x units, the charge of a proton will
be +x units.
Charge of 11 electrons = –11x units.
Charge of 11 protons = +11x units.
Therefore total charge of sodium atom is equal to –11x plus
+11x = 0.
Complete the following statements:
(a) A neutral atom has 40 electrons, then it should have
.......... protons.
(b) If an atom has 10 electrons but only 9 protons, then the
atom ......... neutral (will be, will not be).
If answers are correct go to Frame 11, otherwise Repeat
Frame 10.
Frame 11: Nucleus has protons and neutrons. Around the
nucleus there exist electrons in various spherical shells.
Complete the following statements:
(a) Electrons exist in the.........
(b) Protons exist in the..........
(c) Neutrons exist in the..........
Frame 11.
Frame 12: In a particular shell the electrons are assumed
to be moving in various circular orbits. The total number of
electrons in all the shells of an atom is equal to the number
of protons in its nucleus. This number, i.e. the number of
protons or electrons in an atom, is called atomic number.
(a) Sodium has 11 protons in the nucleus. The total number
of electrons in all the shells of sodium will be........
(b) The atomic number of sodium is.......
Frame 12.
Frame 13: The atomic number of oxygen is 8. What will
be the number of protons in the nucleus, and the number of
electrons in the shells?
(a) Number of protons is......
(b) Number of electrons is.......
Frames 12 and 13.
Frame 14: The sum of the number of neutrons and protons
is equal to the atomic weight of an atom.
Example: Oxygen has 8 protons and 8 neutrons. Thus the
atomic weight of oxygen is 8 + 8 = 16.
Sodium atom has 11 protons and 12 neutrons. Check the
statement below that is true. Atomic weight of sodium is:
(a) 11
(b) 12
(c) 23
(d) 1
Frame 14.
Frame 15: Nitrogen atom has 7 protons and 7 neutrons.
The atomic weight of nitrogen is.... .
Frame 16: The atomic weight of hydrogen is 1. It has 1
proton, then the number of neutrons in hydrogen atom is......
Frames 14,15 and 16.
Frame 17: The number of shells in an atom may vary from
1 to 7, that is the number of shells in an atom cannot exceed
7, though it can be less than 7, i.e. (6, 5,4,3, 2,1) depending upon
the total number of electrons in a particular atom.
The number of electrons present in each shell is governed
by 2 rules. Rule 1—The nth (n is the number of shell) shell
cannot have more than 2n2 n electrons.
Example
For the first shell n = 1, therefore 2n2 = 2. f = 2
It means 1st shell cannot have more than 2 electrons (if the
atom has more electrons they will be in the other shells),
though it can have less than 2 (if there are not enough electrons
in a particular atom).
For the 2nd shell n = 2, Therefore 2n2 = 2 x 22 = 2 x 4 = 8
It means 2nd shell cannot have more than 8 electrons
though it can have less than 8 (as explained above).
According to this rule, there should not be more than:
(a) ..... electrons in 3rd shell.
(b) ...... electrons in 4th shell.
(c) ..... electrons in 5th shell.
(d) ..... electrons in 6th shell.
(e) ..... electrons in 7th shell.
Frame 17.
Frame 18: Oxygen has 8 electrons. According to the above
mentioned rule write down the number of electrons in different
shells.
Shell 1.......
Shell 2.......
Shell 3.......
Frames 17 and 18.
Frame 19: The atomic number of chlorine is 17. Write down
the number of electrons in different shells.
Shell 1.......
Shell 2.......
Shell 3.......
Shell 4.......
Frames 17, 18 and 19.
Frame 20: Rule 2—Last shell cannot have more than 8
electrons in an atom, and the last but one shell cannot have
more than 18 electrons. Complete the following statements:
(a) An atom has 5 shells. The number of electrons in its
5th shell should not exceed......
(b) The number of electrons in its 4th shell should not
exceed ........
Frame 20.
Frame 21: The atomic number of sodium atom is 11 and
its atomic weight is 23. Write down the number of the following
items of a sodium atom.
(a) Electrons...........
(b) Protons.........
(c) Protons and neutrons........
(d) Neutrons..........
(e) Electrons in 1st shell........
(f) Electrons in 2nd shell..........
(g) Electrons in 3rd shell...........
(h) Electrons in 4th shell...........
Frames 12-21.
Frame 22: The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its atomic
weight is 12. Complete the carbon atom by putting at proper
places the number of electrons, protons and neutrons.
If answer is correct congratulations, you learned what we
wanted to teach you through this programme. If not please
repeat Frames 12-22.
ANSWERS
Frame 1
Atom
Frame 2
(a) proton
(b) negative
(c) neutron
Frame 3
(a) positively charged
Frame 4
(c) neutral
Frame 5
(b) negatively charged
Frame 6
(b) neutron
Frame 7
(b) +4 units
Frame 8
-X units
Frame 9
(c) protons and neutrons both
Frame 10
(a) 40 protons
(b) will not be
Frame 11
(a) shells
(b) nucleus
(c) nucleus
Frame 12
(a) 11
(b) 11
Frame 13
(a) 8 protons
(b) 8 electrons
Frame 14
(c) 23
Frame 15
14
Frame 16
0
Frame 17
(a) 18
(b) 32
(c) 50
(d) 72
(e) 98
Frame 18
shell 1=2, shell 2=6, shell 3=0
Frame 19
shell 1=2, shell 2=8,
shell 3=7, shell 4=0
Frame 20
(a) 8
(b) 18
Frame 21
(a) 11
(b) 11
(c) 23
(d) 12
(e) 2
(f) 8
(g) 1
(h) 0
In developing this unit the System Approach was used.
The System Approach has the following steps:
1. Identify problems and state terminal objectives.
2. Conduct task analysis.
3. Describe entry behaviours of students.
4. State sub-objectives in behavioural terms.
5. Develop evaluation instruments.
6. Determine instructional sequence.
7. Select appropriate media and instructional procedures.
8. Develop instructional materials.
9. Conduct formative and summative evaluation.
Given the atomic weight and atomic number of an element
the students will find out the number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus and the number of electrons in the various shells
of the atom.
Hierarchical methodology was chosen for the programme
Structure of an Atom. There is an ordered relationship between
sub-skills which ultimately help to learn the terminal objective.
The simple things are given first that makes the basis for more
complex concepts.
ISSUE OF THE MANNER

The assumed entry behaviours for this programme were
the following:
1. Knowledge of some common elements such as oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulphur, sodium, chlorine,
etc.
2. Simple addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.
3. Knowledge of positive and negative charges.
4. Basic skills of reading, writing, generalising, and
following directions.
Behavioural objectives were prepared in such a way that
they were consistent with each task in the task analysis.
All the behavioural objectives contain an observable
response, important condition under which the behaviour will
be evaluated, and the criterion for satisfactory performance.
INSTRUMENTS FOR TEST
The test was made to test all the eleven behavioural
objectives. It contained 16 test items. There were one or two
test items to test each behavioural objective. All the test items
are multiple choice tests and seems to be appropriate to test
the task required in the behavioural objectives. The language
used in writing test items was kept easy enough to be
understood by the students.
This test was used as a pre-test, in which the items are
sequenced in the same manner as they would appear in the
programme (in the Sequence of Tasks and Behavioural
Objectives). The same test can also be used as post-test (though
a separate post-test is preferred), whose items should be
scrambled, so that they are not in the same order as in the
programme. In the multiple choice questions the order of correct
responses was random.
The frames were constructed in the same sequence as
shown in the task analysis. The frames were sequenced in such
a way that by completing all the frames the terminal objective
might be achieved by the students.
INFLUENCING MEDIUM
The strategy of linear programming was chosen. The self-
learning unit was an instructional programme, having enough
practice frames.
TEXT PLAN
Formative Evaluation: After writing the programme and
the tests (pre-test and post-test) one IX class student was selected
for one-on-one evaluation. This student was of an average
ability. Two copies of the programme were prepared, one for
the student and other for the programmer. When the student
was using the programme, the programmer noted down his
reactions and suggestions, which seemed to be important in
revising the programme. The following feedback was received
from one-to-one evaluation.
1. There was smooth flow or material in the programme,
that is, the arrangement of the frames was logical.
2. At some places difficult language was used.
3. The programme needed more practice frames.
4. Frame No. 18 was not well explained, cue and prompt
were also needed in this frame.
The programme was revised according to the feedback
received from one-on-one evaluation. Then the programme
was tried out on a small group consisting of five IX class
students. Each student was given pre-test, the programme and
the post-test.
Before starting the programme the group was told about
the programme and the importance of the criticism. They were
also asked to write any suggestions if they have. They all took
40-55 minutes to complete the programme. Finally they were
interviewed by the programmer and were asked to give their
suggestions. The programme was further revised according to
the feedback received from small group evaluation.
Summative Evaluation: The revised programme was given
to the target population, (150 IX class students) after giving the
pre-test. There were few students who asked questions when
going through the programme, but when they were asked to
read the matter again they seemed to understand it. All of
them were able to complete the programme in time (about 2
periods of 30 minutes duration). Post-test was given the next
day.
The pre-test and post-test gain shows that 72 per cent of
the students achieved 80 per cent or more objectives. The
majority of the students used in the summative evaluation
programme showed enthusiasm in working with the
programme. Many of them said that they liked the new system
of instruction and wanted to have more programmes like this.
The vast pre-test to post-test gains exhibited by most of the
students generated a great deal of excitement and confidence.
This fact alone made the whole project a worthwhile experience
for the students.
Constructed Response Frame: As the word Constructed
implies, no choice are presented to the student in a Constructed
Response Frame. He does not select one response from many,
as in the Discrimination Frame. Instead, the student constructs
his own response each time. That is, he supplies the answer
from his own knowledge.
The response the student constructs can take many frames.
He may be asked to write or supply a word or statement, draw
a diagram, or perform any other type of over action requiring
a response from within his own repertory.
Examples: Frames No. 1, 2, 8,11,12,13,14,16,17,18,19,20, 21,22
and 23.
The Constructed Response frame is basically a two-part
structure, the set frame and at least one practice frame. It may
be desirable to have several practice frames with each set
frame.
Set Frame: Whenever the response asked for is found in
the data portion of the frame, it is known as a set frame. The
student may never have seen the desired response prior to
reaching this frame, but he is able to supply this response
simply by deducing it from the data within the frame itself.
Examples: Frames No. 1, 2,11,12,13,14,16,18 and 21.
Practice Frame: The set frame is followed by a practice
frame. The practice frame gives the student a chance to practise
what he has learned in the set frame.
Examples: Frames No. 8,19, 20, 22 and 23.
Discrimination Frame: As the name implies, this
construction technique is used to teach student to make
discrimination. A student who has been taught to make fine
discriminations through the use of Discrimination Frame
sequence will find that he can go beyond the programme
material and approach the subject matter from any direction.
For example, if taught a definition by Discrimination Frame
Sequence, he will be able to define it when given the term; if
given the definition, he will be able to name the item; if
physically possible, he will be able to illustrate it.
Examples: Frames No. 3,4,5,6, 7,9 and 15.
Baboon Frame: In this frame the student is asked to make
a choice from among four answers: Choice A, Choice B, both
A and B, or neither A nor B.
Examples: Frame No. 10.
Basically, the Baboon Frame Sequence consists of three
frames similar in purpose to those of the Constructed Response
Frame Sequence. The first frame is a set frame; it contains
enough information to enable the student to come up with the
correct response when asked to respond. This frame is followed
by a practice frame; here the student is asked to demonstrate,
with a little prompting. In the final frame, the minimum amount
of stimulus is presented to the student and a maximum response
is called for.
OTHER PLANS
Linear Programme: In linear programmes, all of the students
are normally required to take all of the frame.
Example: The self-learning unit, “Structure of an atom’’ is
a linear programme.
Linear Programme strategy was used in writing this
Programme due to the following reasons:
1. The topic was new for most of the students for whom
it was developed, and they were needed to be provided
with a lot of practice.
2. The topic of the programme was of such nature that
the subject matter involved ascending order of complex
skills to be learned/ therefore it was felt that all the
students should be required to take all frames.
3. The type of learning task necessitated mostly
constructed response answers.
Branching Programme: The word branching suggests any
deviation from the straight line. A Branching Programme allows
for greater differences in student abilities.
The Branching Frame Sequence Technique: This technique
presents the student with remedial information/ if necessary
and permits him to take steps that are as large as his capabilities
allow. A particularly adept student may go through a
programme in a minimum number of steps, whereas his less
able cohort may require twice that number to learn, the same
amount of material.
The Branching Programme offers the student alternate
paths from which to choose, and the path he takes depends
upon the response he makes in each frame.
Hence now you know how to develop a programmed
instructional unit. Identify some topics in your field, on which
you feel good programmes may be developed. Develop,
evaluate and revise programmed instructional units on these
topics, and share these self-learning units with your fellow
teachers.
THE DEFINITION
Let us look at some of the definitions of programmed
instruction.
(1) Cronbach describes a programme of instruction as
follows: A programme is a pre-arranged sequence of
explanations and questions. A programme whether for
a brief unit or for an entire course, is a carefully planned
progression of ideas, beginning with elementary notions
and working upto relatively complex theories or
applications.
(2) According to B.F. Skinner, a programmed instruction
is simply a matter of breaking the material to be learned
into easy steps, arranging steps in logical order with
no gaps, making sure the student understands one
step before moving to another and then incidently,
making sure that he is successful.
(3) According to Espich and Williams, a programmed
instruction may be defined as a planned sequence of
experiences, leading to the proficiency, in terms of
stimulus response relationships. By this definition a
programme is an educational device that causes a
student to progress through a series of experiences,
which lead to the students proficiency. The experience
here is student’s own experience in the learning process,
not just the teacher telling. Planned sequence
determines what experiences and in what order should
occur. What is the student supposed to be able to do
after completing the programme? How well? How
quickly? All such questions implied in leading to
proficiency in terms of stimulus-response relationships
refer to the basic behavioural science concepts on which
programmed instruction is based, and which are taken
into consideration when a programme is written.
MERITS OF PSYCHOLOGY
No one knows for certain how or why programmed
instruction works, but it is generally agreed that basic
behavioural psychology is somehow involved. At least the
originators of programmed instruction attributed its success
to some basic tenets of behavioural psychology.
The results of the change in behaviour called learning are
observable or measurable.
All behavioural changes of students as a result of learning
may be of three types: (1) Psychomotor; (2) Cognitive; and
(3) Affective. (1) and (2) are comparatively easier to measure
than (3).
In any teaching situation for effective learning the best
method is:
1. Present the stimulus to the student.
2. Help the student to make the desired response to the
stimulus by giving him clues, by leading him towards
it, or by telling him the response itself.
3. When the student makes the desired response to the
stimulus, immediately reinforces that response.
Programmed instruction takes advantage of the basic
human drive for success. The programmer guides the student
towards making the correct response. He then shows or tells
the student that he has given the desired response—that he has
been successful. Each time he makes the correct response, he
is positively reinforced by being told that he is correct, his
drive for success is satisfied. Each time his drive for success
is satisfied, the probability increases that he will make the
correct response to the given stimulus in future situations.
The Advantages
The programmed instruction does have a number of
advantages over conventional methods. It allows for individual
rates of learning and it gives immediate reinforcement of correct
responses. According to Burner, the technically most interesting
features of automatic devices are that they can take some of
the load of teaching of the teacher’s shoulders. For this time,
the teacher can be used by his students who need him and
whenever they need him.
According to James, this type of teaching is very frustrating
and tiring but extremely rewarding. When science teachers
have worked as long at individualised instruction as they have
to make grouped instruction workable, the rewards may be
proportionally increased.
In teaching science, a continuing area of concern to
educators has been the problem of integrating laboratory
experimentation with instruction in scientific theory. The need
to individualise course content for students is also recognised.
Programmed instruction may offer one solution to both of
these difficulties.
If the science curriculum can be programmed so that
individual rates could be dealt with more effectively, and if
laboratory material can be developed which enable students
to conduct experiments effectively on an independent basis,
laboratory experimentation may be integrated more
satisfactorily into the typical science course.
A summary of the subject area in which programmed
instruction has been used reveals that these areas which require
laboratory activities are rare. Cowan indicated that there were
no auto-instructional materials available in physics that
provided students with laboratory experiences. Cowan and
Siddiqi developed and used such materials in their research
studies.
Hundreds of good science textbooks are available in the
market They are not designed to teach but to convey
information to the student. In a programme, a programmer
determines for a student, what he should and what he should
not assimilate. In a programme, the student is guided along a
path and given those experiences that will cause him to learn
those things. No such guidance is given with a textbook.
Adjunct programming can be a link between programmed
instruction and a good textbook. It combines some of the
progressive features of programmed instruction with the
comprehensiveness of textbooks. The goal of adjunct
programming is to enable the student to learn as effectively as
possible from a good textbook.
An Adjunct Programme may be one of two types (1) The
text itself is kept intact and the programme is supplied as a
separate unit, or (2) sections of the textbook are extracted
vibration and used in the programme as the basic information.
The most popular procedure as used by Cowan and Siddiqi
is to leave the textbook intact. Their programmed materials
which they developed for the PSSC Physics Text, provide a
very good example of adjunct programming. They used these
materials in their research studies.
Students using the auto-instructional materials studied from
the same text, worked the same problems, viewed the same
films, and performed the same experiments as regular physics
students. Cowan did not use a qualified physics teacher in the
classroom to direct their studies. The use of auto-instructional
materials prepared for this study evidently provided a good
physics programme, as students using these materials were
able to demonstrate as well in achievement as those not using
these materials but taught by a qualified PSSC physics teacher.
In Siddiqis’ study students of experimental group used the
auto-instructional materials under the guidance of their physics
teacher, while, the students of the control group did not use
such materials, they were taught by their teacher in a
conventional way. The experimental group demonstrated
statistically higher mean level of achievement in PSSC physics.
The Background 43
Three
THE BACKGROUND
In our country Science is witnessed to be taught from very

early days. If we look at the development of science in India,
we find that very early in her civilization India developed a
great interest in mathematics and Ayurveda. During British
Empire introduction of modern science in India was extremely
slow, and the development of science in India was greatly
accelerated after independence
PREVIOUS EXPERIENCES
The Colonial Government adopted from the beginning a
policy of secrecy and exclusion of Indians from Government
scientific work. For technological jobs not considered of military
importance, restrictions against the employment of Indians
were relaxed as they could be employed very cheaply. As an
example of the low salaries to trained and qualified Indians/
the order of the Governor-General dated 28th January 1835,
establishing the Kolkata (Calcutta) Medical College, regulated
that “as inducement for pupils of a respectable class to enter
the Institution, the pay of the Native Doctors, who shall have
been educated at the College, and have received the certificates
of qualifications, shall be Rs. 30.00 p.m. rising to Rs. 50.00 p.m.
after 14 years of service, whereas an European Assistant to the
Superintendent of the college shall draw a staff salary of Rs.
600.00 p.m. in addition to his registered pay and allowances.”
Kolkata (Calcutta) Medical College established in 1835 under
a number of capable teachers, became an important institution,
for the study of anatomy, physiology and medicine (along
with surgery), as well as of chemistry, botany and natural
philosophy.
First Research Institutions: Indians asked for Western
Eduction in Science from the Government. The Colonial power
agreed to create facilities but with miserly financial provision
just sufficient to train a few clerks able to operate in English
in Government offices and European Commercial houses, and
not to enable the native people to pick up treasures from
European science. So the hard way of working for science
began. Mahendra Lal Sircar (born in 1833), an M.D. of the
Kolkata (Calcutta) Medical College, clearly saw that science
would never develop and strike deep roots in this country
under foreign tutelage and that Indians themselves must come
forward to raise funds and found institutions for the training
of scientists and organisation of research. In 1876 Dr. Sircar
himself founded India’s first research institution, “The Indian
Association for the Cultivation of Science,” completely under
Indian Management and control with finances derived from
private subscriptions. In the first half of the twentieth century
the association developed into an important centre for research
in the physical sciences - in optics, acoustics, scattering of light,
X-rays and magnetism; and C.V. Raman performed his Nobel
Prize Winning Experiments in its unassuming laboratories, i.e.
western India. Jamshedji Tata a businessman, prepared plans
for a similar institution for technical and scientific education
and research which finally took the shape of “The Institute of
Science” at Bangalore in the beginning of the twentieth century.
The Background 45
First College of Science: The Educational Despatch of 1854
paved the way for University education. In 1857 the three
Universities of Kolkata (Calcutta), Mumbai (Bombay) and
Chennai (Madras) came into existence, but they came out just
as examining bodies with powers to grant degrees. The actual
teaching and academic work were left to the colleges. Fortified
by the University Act of 1904, which empowered Universities
to appoint professors and lecturers, to hold and manage
educational endowments, and to erect, equip and maintain
libraries, laboratories and museums, Asutosh Mookerji, Vice
Chancellor of Kolkata (Calcutta) University took the initiative
in establishing the, first University College of Science.
Undaunted by the Government’s refusal to provide funds for
the creation of professorships and other facilities, Asutosh
obtained princely endowments from Sir Tarak Nath Palit and
Sir Rash Behary Ghosh, who had amassed enormous amounts
of money and property in the legal profession, and established
a number of chairs in Chemistry, Physics, Applied Mathematics
and Botany.
According to the terms of the endowment, professorships
could be filled only by Indians, a clause which further irritated
the Government firmly entrenched in the view that only
Europeans were suited for such high positions. This University
College of Science, although starved financially all through,
produced a group of physicists and chemists who received
international recognition for their scientific developments and
institutions staffed by high salaried Europeans and maintained
and patronised by Government funds cut a sorry figure.
NATIONAL SCIENCE PROGRAMME

The development of science in India was greatly accelerated
after independence (August 1947). In 1950 the Government of
India appointed a Planning Commission for preparing a
blueprint of all-round economic development.
In 1954 the Indian Parliament accepted socialism as a
political goal. Declaring these objectives, fullest emphasis was
laid on the development of science and technology on all
fronts. In 1957, the Government took one step further in
adopting a National Science Policy Resolution that envisaged
the cultivation of science and scientific research in all its aspects,
assured an adequate supply, within the country, of research
scientists of highest quality through an intensive programme
of training, promised the availability of conditions and an
atmosphere of academic freedom in which the creative talent
of men and women would find full scope in scientific activity.
The resolution thus reaffirmed the Government decision to
encourage science and develop a healthy scientific community
as a sound basis after a balanced economic development.
SCHOOLING
• In the beginning of twentieth century science was not
a school subject in our country. The Report of the
Secondary School Commission 1953, recommended the
teaching of General Science as a compulsory subject in
the high and higher secondary schools.
• The All India Seminar on the Teaching of Science in
Secondary Schools (1956) dealt with almost all the
problems facing the inclusion of General Science as a
Core Subject for the Higher Secondary Classes -
syllabus, apparatus, teaching aids, textbooks, science
clubs, science museums, examination techniques etc. It
suggested a uniform system of science teaching for the
entire country, suited to its needs and resources.
• Indian Parliamentary and Scientific Committee (1962)
studied the allied problems of science education in
schools like
— growth of school population,
— shortage of qualified science teachers,
— accelerated achievement in science,
The Background 47
— demand for increase in technically trained man-
power,
— growing importance of science in the affairs of
mankind, and
— changes in the processes and goals of science.
• UNESCO Planning Commission (1963-64) worked on
the problems of science education in India and
suggested ways to improve it. As a follow up
programme, Department of Science and Mathematics
Education of the NCERT took up the pilot project of
preparing new disciplinary science curricula at middle
(VI-VIII) level textbooks (Physics, Chemistry, Biology),
teachers’ guides, science kits, kit guides, teacher training
films and evaluation material. This Disciplined Science
Programme was changed to Integrated Science
Programme in mid-eighties.
• In 1970 under UNICEF Assisted Science Education
Programme (SEP) Primary “Science is Doing”
Programme was developed by NCERT, which was
used in primary schools throughout the country. This
Programme was a package of classes I and II Science
Syllabus, Class III-V Science Texts, Teachers Guides,
Primary Science Kit, Kit Guide, and Teacher Training
Films. This Programme was changed to EVS
Programme in mid-eighties.
• Kothari Commission (1964-66) recommendations were
implemented in 1975 when Science for All (SFA) was
introduced as a part of general education during the
first ten years of schooling. With this 10+2+3 education
scheme started with an additional year of schooling,
in the country. First Disciplined Science Course (Physics,
Chemistry, Biology) was introduced at secondary level
(IX-X). This was changed to Disciplined Science
A-Course (Physics, Chemistry, Biology) and Integrated
Science B-Course. Students had an option either to
take Science A-Course or to take Science B-Course.
This again changed to just one Integrated Science
Course for all. At +2, Senior Secondary level (XI-XII)
Disciplined Science Course (3 different science subjects
- Physics, Chemistry, Biology) started from the very
beginning of 10+2+3 education scheme.
• Then in 1986 the National Education Policy Document
(NPE-1986) came out. If some one asks, “What is new
in this new education policy (NPE-1986),
“Implementation” perhaps will be the right answer.
Much emphasis has been given to quality pre-service
and in-service teacher education in the policy document.
For this District Institutes of Education (DIETs) and
Institutes of Advance Studies in Education (LASEs)
were established throughout the country for Elementary
and Secondary Education respectively.
LATER CHANGES
India is now engaged in a broad spectrum of scientific
research, both fundamental and applied, in Government,
Universities and Private Research Establishments. In recent
years there has been extraordinary success in developing new
polymers, ceramics, composites, superconductors, nano-
materials, smart materials and biomaterials. Biotechnology,
Genetic Engineering and Biomedical Research are some other
fields in which India has started entering.
AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) poses a
threat to India as a large number of people are infected with
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). There are no drugs
today for AIDS. The problem which has dogged anti- HIV
drugs is that resistant mutant forms of virus are formed within
mere weeks. Lot of research work is to be done in search of
a vaccine against HIV.
The Background 49
Per capita consumption of energy in India is very low
compared to developed countries, and even that we are unable
to afford. In the years to come when we have already entered
twenty-first century, we will need much more energy. The
major effort in next decade would have to be through an
increase in the production of coal and a search of new reserves
of oil. We should also give due emphasis to new technologies
for solar energy and hydrogen energy.
India is also to expand its nuclear power programmes.
Nuclear energy could play an important role in meeting our
bulk energy requirement. Our expertise in the field of
nuclear power technology as well as related research areas, is
an asset for us.
For all this we need huge amounts of funds, as scientific
research has become costly. If we compare the funds available
for scientific research in India compared to some other
developing countries, India has a very gloomy picture. South
Korea had planned to increase its R&D spending to over 5 per
cent of its GDP by year 2000. China had planned to increase
its R&D investment from 0.5 per cent to 1.5 per cent of GDP
by the year 2000. Unfortunately India’s R&D expenditure has
come down to 0.89 per cent of GDP from 1.1 per cent earlier.
We need to realise that in order to be able to do competitive
scientific research and development we have to bring our R&D
expenditure to at least about 1.5 per cent of GDP and focus
our efforts on a few selected programmes and projects.
Our scientists want people to support them and understand
their needs, and they are to inform people about science, why
science is needed, what they are doing and why. They (our
scientists) are to build up partnership with public, industries,
politicians and bureaucrats. They need informed friends of
science at all places.
When changes which affect our future, are happening and
will happen at such a rapid rate, and are based on science and
technology, it is necessary that our scientists be more close to
decision making.
In the existing state of scientific advancement and
development of resources for research, the rate of scientific
growth of developed countries is likely to continue to be faster
than that of the developing countries like India. Science has
become deeply involved with defence and big industry, with
the result that big sciences like atomic energy, space, etc., has
been and probably will remain concentrated in super powers,
In nuclear, space, computer and few other sciences, developing
nations like India are already at the mercy of super powers.
To be self-sufficient we are to change our science curriculum
right from the school stage. We are not just to teach science
but also scientific method.
We are not just to teach science content but also science
processes, the ways in which scientists advance their knowledge
and solve problems. Science should be presented to students
as a way in which they can conduct an inquiry into the nature
of things as well as a body of information built up by other
people. The science processes are being neglected and the
school science has been concerned almost exclusively with the
content—the body of information. Science is not just content.
Science is content plus science processes. If we want to advance
in science like other developed countries, science processes
should be given due importance like science content in school
science curriculum, and students should be encouraged to
become personally involved in solving problems and in
discovering some science for themselves.
PRIMARY GROWTH
Before the rise of modern science in Europe, around the
17th century, the level of advancement in sciences (astronomy,
mathematics, medicine, biology, metaphysics, etc.) achieved
by ancient and medieval societies in the old world did not
The Background 51
differ appreciably from one cultural area to another. In India
the development of sciences is as old as her civilization itself.
Her peculiar geographical position enabled her to become the
natural meeting ground of many nations and cultures and, in
consequence, played an important role in the transmission and
diffusion of ideas very early in her civilization, India developed
medical and alchemical practices of the Ayurveda. In
mathematics, India developed a great interest and aptitude
and made notable contributions to the number theory, the
decimal place value, algorism, trigonometry and algebra.
IN NEW AGE
In the beginning of the nineteenth century people with
varying degrees of scientific background (medical men,
naturalists and engineers) started coming to India from Europe,
at first in search of services under local princes and chieftains
and later on to man the scientific surveys and establishments
set up by the government. These men framed in European
institutions and laboratories, spent the best part of their lives
in India and left an excellent record of their work in various
branches of science.
Despite such long contacts, introduction of modern science
in India was extremely slow. There were many causes of this
delayed reaction. The European scientific world in India was
limited to field sciences and not to basic sciences that depended
on mathematics and laboratory work. Indian fauna and flora
attracted the attention of European naturalists from the
seventeenth century. Modern zoological researchers in India
had their beginnings in random and scattered observations by
the naturalists on elephants, fishes, serpents, molluscs, birds
and mammals.
Four
ROLE OF THE TEACHER
“Teacher! I saw a satellite!” “Look! One baby mouse is

white!” “Can we attempt the experiment this way?” “I have
collected all the data—use of log tables and even slide rule is
too time consuming and out of date for calculations. May I use
a calculator? Please! Now we have computers.”
Everyday, they are different—but everyday greetings like
these begin the day for science teachers. One day it is satellite,
one day the moon, one day how the seesaw operates, one day
the why of earthquakes—or another question everyone is
asking. Science teachers as well as students; government as
well as commentators—everyone needs the answers to
questions in science.
It is a wonderful world when you look at it this way—and
science is like a key that opens doors everywhere—on the
bottom of the ocean—with the astronauts in space—with the
plants, animals, and man here on earth—with thousands of
conveniences of our daily lives. Learning about science—as
you already know—stretches your mind, but gives you a lot
in return. You always have something new to bring to your
classes. And you as a science teacher have many satisfactions
that come from working with young students.
You have been a practising science teacher and now you
are ready to be regular science teacher, teaching a class of
physics or chemistry, biology or integrated science, you will
surely like to be a good science teacher. This is the right time
to ask yourself some questions like these:
• What does it take to be a good science teacher?
• How can I use my teacher’s training to be a good
science teacher?
• Where can I get some more information about good
science teaching?
• What things should I do to begin with to be a good
science teacher?
• What should I do to be happy as a science teacher?
TEACHER’S RESPONSIBILITY
According to F. Diesterweg, “A bad teacher teaches the
truth; a good teacher teaches how to find it”. A good teacher
is a congenial and conscientious person who leads an ordinary
normal life. He is respected and intelligent person. He possesses
a sense of humour and also an aptitude for teaching.
Another requirement for a good teacher is that he should
have a high sense of principle and an aptitude for creative
work and scientific curiosity. In this chapter we will try to
make a distinction between a good teacher and a good chemistry
teacher we will also discuss the kind of training required to
produce a good chemistry teacher.
The training of a good chemistry teacher, to a large extent,
depends on the following factors:
(i) The careful selection of the candidates.
(ii) The educational process.
(iii) The efficacy of retraining programmes.
Role of the Teacher 55
SELECTION OF A CANDIDATE
The search for potential teachers should begin while future
candidates are at school. For such a selection very useful role
can be played by university and college teachers in taking part,
with school teachers and pupils, in chemistry competitions,
evening get-togethers, science clubs etc. It is essential because
only personal contacts and close acquaintance with potential
teacher-training candidates can ensure success in the search of
boys and girls who are sufficiently talented and gifted to became
good teachers.
This process of selection should continue through out the
academic career of the prospective candidate and should not
end even at the end of university education.
For any one who opts to become a teacher the basic
requirement is that he must be dedicated and sincerely
interested in communicating knowledge. He must also be
willing to undertake the arduous task of educating younger
generation.
While looking for potential teachers we must ensure that
only such boys and girls are selected, for being trained as
chemistry teachers, who are sufficiently talented and motivated
to become ‘good’ teachers the search for such ‘good’ teachers
should be carried out by teachers at all levels, among secondary
pupils, undergraduates and graduates. The number of teachers
depend directly on the number of young people choosing this
difficult career.
COUNSELLING OF TEACHER
The preparation of a secondary school chemistry teacher
involves three elements i.e.
(i) The academic study of chemistry,
(ii) Educational and professional studies and
(iii) School experience.
In most of the countries those who obtain their M.Sc. degree
in chemistry or subjects in which chemistry plays a major role
and who opt for teaching profession are trained for a year or
so in special institutions (e.g. College of education) and awarded
a degree in teaching (i.e. B.T., B.Ed. etc.).
It is a general belief that a thorough knowledge of chemistry
is first and foremost for becoming a good chemistry teacher.
It is also desirable for a chemistry teacher to become acquainted
with those aspects of physics, biology and other natural sciences
which chemists need and use.
Secondary school chemistry teachers are in short supply
in most countries and even developed countries also face
difficulties in recruiting specialised teachers. A serious shortage
of teachers inevitably entails additional concern about quality.
Not surprisingly, therefore, both these concerns, together with
the need to respond to innovation in school curricula, have
been important in promoting a reconsideration of the structure
and content of teacher training programme in many countries.
Teachers for primary classes are usually trained in colleges
of education, which may or may not be attached to the
university. Teachers for senior secondary classes have followed
a science course in a university.
These days there is an increasing number of university
courses devoted to chemistry and education and students have
to choose before going to university whether or not they wish
to teach. In Malaysia B.Sc. Ed. course was introduced in four
universities. Such a system with slight variations can be seen
in a wide range of developed and developing countries.
In some universities an inter-linked study scheme has been
introduced. e.g. In Yugoslavia. This type of structure is also
seen in U.K. At one university in U.K., a chemistry-with-
education course allows students to spend about 65 per cent
of their time working alongside chemistry undergraduates,
taking the same classes and examinations.
The remaining 35 per cent of the curriculum time is used
for educational studies but students still have to take a fourth-
year, post-graduate course of training for the teaching
profession.
In Sri Lanka some elements of chemical education have
been introduced into university chemistry courses. Chemical
education is also available as an optional study for a small
proportion of the chemistry undergraduates in united kingdom.
In the United States, 4-year courses of concurrent study of
chemistry and other sciences and of education is the common
pattern. This leads to courses of approximately 60 per cent
science, 20 per cent education and 20 per cent general education.
In 1980’s yet another approach of teacher education has
emerged. It is based on Schon’s notion of reflective practitioner’.
This approach is committed to analysing how ‘professionals
think in action’ and it seems to hold much promise for teacher
education in general.
Recently some initiatives have been taken in United
Kingdom to increase the role of schools in the teacher training
process. This is quite evident in the ‘articled teacher’ scheme,
which requires student teachers to spend most of a 2-year
training period working under supervision in a school that
shares responsibility for students’ professional development
with a training institution.
Thus we can see that the three elements of training described
earlier must be interrelated: the acquisition of knowledge in
the sciences; the foundation in education; and teaching methods
and practice. The relative importance attached to the three
parts and degree of integration between them varies from
country to country.
One aspect of moving the balance in favour of methodology
is the need to arrange as much teaching practice as possible.
Methodology courses include not only methods of teaching
but also a study and evaluation of curricula being studied at
schools. The content of the methodology part of the course
must also include an appreciation of assessment techniques
because these will be crucial part of their pupils work and
thorough training in setting questions and marking answers
is needed.
WORKING ENVIRONMENT
Appropriate working conditions for a good chemistry
teacher should include the following:
(i) Provision of graduates with certainty of employment.
(ii) Encouragement of society by giving them the esteem
they deserve.
(iii) Providing them the material conditions necessary for
their work, e.g. chemistry laboratory, library etc.
(iv) Providing them opportunities for strengthening the
education and training received by them in their pre-
service training.
Various ways in which school teachers can receive further
training are:
By Self Improvement: It requires reading books, pamphlets
and journals, consulting specialists etc. In this self improvement
process T.V. programmes can contribute a lot. For success of
self-improvement programme the teacher must have the time
and money to buy books and pay for subscription of journals.
However, secondary school teachers have seldom been found
interested to utilise this opportunity of self improvement.
Organisation of Refresher Courses: Refresher courses are
organised by universities for the improvement in the quality
of their teachers. Such refresher courses provide an opportunity
to secondary school teachers to establish working links with
scientific groups, obtain first hand knowledge and become
immersed in main stream of modern scientific thought.
Participation in Revision and Improvement: By such a
participation teachers get an opportunity to come in close
contact with each other and discuss their problems and elicit
their concrete suggestions for further training.
GROWTH OF CURRICULUM
The type and extend of educations that training institutions
can offer to their students depends on various factors. A need
is felt to identify the skill areas which the trainee teacher ought
to develop. A survey was conducted in ‘United Kingdom and
it revealed that the seven most important skills out of a list of
twenty-seven in which trainee science teachers should gain
competence are:
(i) Lesson planning and preparation.
(ii) Lesson presentation.
(iii) Practical work organisation.
(iv) Teacher demonstrations.
(v) Safety in the laboratory.
(vi) Discipline and class room.
(vii) Class-questioning skills.
These areas are concerned with the short-term aim of pre-
service training. Thus they aim to prepare and equip the student
for first few years of class room teaching. They ignore the long-
term aspects of the teacher’s job. They also assume that the
teacher has a mastery in his subject. For a long-term aim such
prospective teachers must be acquainted with the history,
philosophy, sociology and economics of educational system.
Various curriculum development projects in teacher
education have been started in different parts of the world.
The aims of such projects are:
(i) Identification of those aspects of science teaching
methods which must be covered in pre-service training.
(ii) Pooling up the experience and expertise of leading
teacher trainer and to share them with others.
At the university of Monash in Australia, the Australian
Science Teachers Project (1976) was coordinated with science
teacher educators across Australia participating. ASTEP
introduced forty-seven units of activities and experiences in
six sections.
1. Understanding Science (7 units)
2. Undestanding pupils (6 units)
3. Models of teaching (12 units)
4. Considering the curriculum (8 units)
5. The laboratory as a teaching resource (9 units)
6. The Australian context (5 units)
The Thai Science Teaching Project (Thai-STEP) is another
such projects which aims at improving the pre-service training
in all higher education institutions with teacher training
responsibility across Thailand.
In United kingdom, the Nuffield Foundation provided
funds for the Science Teacher Education Project (STEP). STEP
pooled the ideas of over fifty science tutors in training
institutions and developed and tested materials.
Such projects have been found useful even beyond their
countries of origin as they provide range of activities and
materials that be used selectively or modified and also provide
guide lines for curriculum development in teacher education.
STEP has devised many an activities in different areas such
as: aims and objectives; the nature of science and scientific
enquiry; the pupil’s thinking; language in science lessons;
teacher-pupil-interaction; methods and techniques; resources
for learning; adapting to the pupil; feedback to teacher and
pupil; curriculum design; safety; laboratory design and
management and the social context of science teaching.
We find that emphasis is laid on devising such activities
which not only cover the identified skill areas but also give due
consideration to what is likely to motivate the student teacher.
IN-JOB COUNSELLING
It is now universally accepted that in-service education is
a career-long necessity, although the means of carrying it out
arc not readily available. The in-service training is quite
expensive and be provided most economically.
In many countries, in-service training is a semi-voluntary
activity, often taking place during school holidays. Some times
such training is compulsory.
In Malaysia such a training was made compulsory when
the new integrated science curriculum was introduced. Similar
was the situation in Thailand when IPST chemistry was
introduced.
In the USSR, all teachers are required to attend refresher
courses every five years.
In Yugoslavia, in-service-training, of at least 3 days annually
is compulsory since 1972.
In United States, chemistry teachers are expected to earn
a Master’s degree or its equivalent with in their first 5 years
of teaching.
In India, NCERT (New Delhi) has conducted courses for
over 500 teachers to help them with new senior secondary
school curriculum.
In Japan there is a provision which allows groups of teachers
to study abroad for upto a month.
Similar arrangements can be found in many other countries.
Science teacher’s associations are also actively participating
in such in-service-training programmes. National chemical
societies also make some distinctive contribution to make to
the professional development of chemistry teachers. Institutions
of higher education and universities are also participating in
such programmes.
The following advantages accrue to the teacher by in-
service-training:
(i) He can reorient himself with the latest knowledge and
developments in chemistry.
(ii) He gets acquainted and acquires the latest strategies,
techniques and methodology of teaching chemistry.
(iii) He can develop proper scientific attitude, temper and
interests and learn scientific method for solving the
problems and discovering scientific facts.
(iv) He can acquire necessary competency in motivating
the students for learning chemistry and applying it to
their day to day life.
(v) He can acquire necessary skills to guide his students
in the form of educational, personal and vocational
guidance.
(vi) He can be in a position to take active part in
reconstruction and revision of curriculum, in
preparation and revision of textbooks, instructional
material, teaching aids, evaluation scheme etc.
RECREATIONAL METHOD
Chemistry is a compulsory subject in curriculum of
secondary schools in many a countries. It is a must for further
education required by many a socially attractive occupations
(medicines, engineering etc.). In view of this we should expect
no problem in motivation for chemistry learning but it has
been found by majority of chemistry teachers that their students
consider chemistry as hard, dull and boring. To change this
attitude teacher and curriculum developers made an attempt
by concentrating on the materials to be learnt. Changes in
curriculum occur slowly and to avoid any frustration due to
these slow changes teachers should find other ways to tackle
the problem.
To make chemistry learning more interesting there should
be a clear linkage between the affective and cognitive aspects
of learning on the concerned culture.
Johnstone proposed the model for the situation of a learner
confronted with the heavily conceptual content of chemistry.
If information content does not over-load the concept
understanding, perceived difficulty will be low and feeling
will be positive.
Information content
Perceived difficulty Perceived difficulty

(affective with (affective with some cognitive)
some cognitive) concept understanding
(Cognitive with some affective)
(growth of meaningful language
for storage, thinking and retrieval
in long-term memory)
Fig. A model for learning situation
confronting pupil in chemistry
For its success the teacher should explicitly explain

‘Chunking’ strategies. Teacher should use a consistent language
and should avoid providing any unessential information. The
effective use of chemistry laboratory and chemistry practicals
be made by the teacher to make chemistry learning more
interesting.
IMPORTANCE OF LABORATORY
There are various types of activities that could be taken up
in the chemistry laboratory. However in some countries we
lack laboratory facilities and in some others where such facilities
are available they have not been put to proper use.
Researches have proved beyond any doubts that the pupil’s
time in laboratories does contribute positively to their enjoyment
of the subject, thus any increase in the component of a course
should make it more interesting.
Karplus et al. developed a series of laboratory exercises for
teacher in-service education that are based on Piagetian research
and theory.
Gagne and White have developed a model of ways in
which memory can aid or inhibit learning. Two of these
postulates are more relevant for making effective use of
laboratories. The first are called images. They are figural
representation in memory of diagrams, pictures or scenes. This
type of memory can be built up by chemistry teacher in the
class room or laboratory.
The second are called episodes. There are representation in
memory of part events in which the individual was personally
involved.
Both images and episodes are useful aids for recall of
knowledge associated with them. Generally we have those
episodes which have less emotive associations but which
provide a stock of concrete experiences from which meaning
can be attached to new information.
Teacher should use opportunities to link the laboratory
experience of the students to the learning process. He should
choose images and episodes carefully and associate them with
key topics in the course of study. By such an association teacher
can give meaning to the abstractions of chemical knowledge.
SIGNIFICANCE
The duties and responsibilities of a chemistry teacher can
be summarised as under:
1. He should be fully acquainted with and should have
a full knowledge of school time table, the ideals of
school and the social environment of the school.
2. He should be very conscientious in performing his
duties of teaching chemistry to various classes assigned
to him.
3. He should take special interest in arranging and
performing demonstration relevant to chemistry
teaching in his classes.
4. He should help the students of his class to carry out
practical work in the laboratory.
5. He is responsible tor organisation of chemistry
laboratory, chemistry library etc.
6. He is also expected to organise various co-curricular
activities such as science fair, science exhibition, hobbies
etc.
7. He is expected to help and organise the evaluation of
students’ progress and their achievements specifically
in terms of realisation of aims and objectives of
chemistry education.
8. He is also required to help in preparation and
production of quality books in chemistry.
9. He is expected to select and recommend good textbooks
to his students.
10. He should provide active assistance in improving
chemistry curriculum.
11. He should assign appropriate and relevant home-work
and assignments to his students and to check such
assignments regularly.
12. He should keep a proper record of the progress of his
students. Such record would be quite useful for better
results.
13. He is expected to make proper use of various audio-
visual aids in teaching of chemistry.
14. He is expected to help in setting up of audio-visual
room in the school.
15. He is expected to help in preparation and collection of
audio-visual materials and improvised apparatus.
16. He must strive hard for his own personal growth and
keep himself acquainted with (i) the latest knowledge
and development in the subject and methodology of
teaching chemistry (ii) chemistry journals and
instructional material (iii) new trends and experiments
in teaching chemistry (iv) attending work-shops,
summer institutes etc. (v) joining chemistry teachers
association (vi) keeping himself in touch with schemes
and provisions for progress of students like science
scholarship, NTSE etc.
17. He should maintain a diary and make proper records
in it.
18. He is expected to help in school administration and in
carrying out the inspection of school specifically
concerned with chemistry department.
IMPORTANCE OF TEACHER
Everyone needs an education in science in order to
understand the world and to be a good citizen and good
worker. Scientists, leaders in government, industrialists, and
the public in general need to be able to understand scientific
problems and to make good judgements about them.
We need scientific literate and informed people to make
decisions about such things as major government projects in
space exploration and medical science; health problems,
environmental and population problems, such as air and water
pollution; diseases such as cancer or tuberculosis and epidemics;
or the possible effects of chemical pesticides upon us and our
environment.
More and more people will need science in their work, and
they must depend on teachers to help them get the knowledge
they will need. Each new “breakthrough” or the expanding
frontier of science and technology, and the public’s need to be
informed, require a never-ending supply of well-trained people
to fill the ranks. This is also true in engineering, medicine and
other fields related to science. The next generation of youngsters,
as it passes through school, must be as well-educated in and
about science as its talent will permit if we are to continue to
prosper in our democratic society.
Moreover, the ever-increasing scientific and technological
progress challenges man’s ingenuity to improve his methods
of processing, storing, retrieving and reporting all sorts of
scientific information. In a sense, we need “new breeds” of
people who can combine science with other talents, as for
example, the scientist, librarian and the science reporter.
Good science teaching is one of the most valuable ways to
meet this urgent need for science-educated citizens and workers.
Enthusiastic, intelligent, and well-educated science teachers
inspire and prepare students to investigate the great questions
of science and the questions raised by the scientific discoveries
which affect us and our society.
Mainly through the inspiration of devoted science teachers,
great number of students develop lifelong scientific interests
and learn to appreciate and understand the nature of science
and its usefulness to mankind.
The science teacher derives great satisfaction from this
special importance of his work. And added to it is the great
satisfaction that comes from mastering a field of scientific
study and from affording a special kind of service to others.
So, when you ask yourself: “What do science teachers do?”
You may answer:
“Everyone today needs to understand what science
is about. We need it because discoveries in science
affect many aspects of society. To be responsible
and useful citizens, we must be able to judge how
the discoveries of science may be best used for
ourselves and society. Many among us will make
a career of science, engineering, or technology. We
need a good foundation in science to become
competent in our chosen work. Therefore, we can
say in general that a science teacher, at whatever
level he is teaching, is laying the foundations for
an understanding of science.”
A science teacher is a teacher first and then a science
teacher. As a teacher he should be understanding, sympathetic.
Teachable and free of prejudices. Science teaching requires a
sound knowledge of the subject and a real interest and ability
in sharing this knowledge with others.
It also requires keeping up-to-date. The work is not easy,
but it is creative, and it can be extremely exciting and satisfying.
It takes thought, energy, and enthusiasm. Here is an example
of what one good school expects of its science teachers:
1. He plans his work for the whole year before school
starts its session.
2. He plans his lessons well in advance before he enters
the classroom for teaching science.
3. He knows the various practical skills needed in his
particular field.
4. He guides and assists his students in their laboratory
experiments, field trips and projects. He is also
responsible for the safety of the students and the
condition of the laboratory and its equipment. He
decides in what way each aspect of his subject can best
be taught. Some of the ideas and problems can be most
effectively presented by demonstration, others through
student investigation, field trips, or by films or lectures.
He also masters the finer art of asking the questions
that will stimulate his students to think for themselves
and to search for answers.
5. He organises class procedures, plans the use of the
laboratory, discusses with the class, and helps his
students learn how to find information outside the
classroom in school and city libraries, local industries,
or by consulting experts in the community.
6. He encourages his students to develop a lasting interest
in science, its changes, and its methods. He guides both
individual and group projects and help the students
participate in various programmes of awards and
recognition. He may sponsor a school science club and
with the help of other science teachers and students,
organises a science fair or plan field trips.
7. He keeps both himself and his students informed on
the most recent developments in his field. He draws
his students attention to the social, economic, political,
and other aspects of the relationship between society,
people and modern science. Thus he and his students
always see that science study is not limited to the
classroom.
8. He attends orientation courses in his field (seminars,
workshops, summer institutes), as well as science
conventions and science conferences for his academic
growth.
9. He participates in science curriculum development
programme conducted by various agencies like DIETs,
SCERTs, LASEs and NCERT etc.
10. He conducts action research in science education and
actively participates in innovative science programmes
for better science teaching.
11. He always efforts for quality science education to his
students. Now you can figure out yourself what should
be the competencies for a good science teacher (Physics/
Chemistry/Biology).
Checking the following questions may help you decide,
how good a science teacher you are going to be.
Yes No
1. Do you enjoy reading and studying in science
as well as in other academic areas? ..... .....
2. Have you been a good science teacher? ..... .....
3. Do you like working with students and ..... .....
other science teachers?
4. Do you like to help your students? ..... .....
5. Do your students and other science teachers ..... .....
like to work with you?
6. Could you enjoy and adopt to a career ..... .....
in which the subject is constantly and rapidly
changing because of new discoveries?
7. Do you/ on your own, sometimes do more .....
work than is required by teachers?
8. Have you developed science projects and .....
participated in science fairs?
9. Do you like to find answers to problems on .....
your own?
10. Do you have a sense of humour? ..... .....
11. Can you accept criticism and profit from it? ..... .....
12. Do you consider that preparing students ..... .....
for living in the World of the future is a
challenging job?
13. Are you developing the ability to read ..... .....
quickly and with comprehension and to
express yourself clearly and interestingly
in speaking and writing?
14. Are you in good health, both physically and ..... ...
mentally?
If you have checked thoughtfully YES for most of the
above questions, you very likely would enjoy teaching science
at any level, and you should read on to learn how you prepare
for this type of exciting career.
SKILLS OF TEACHER
After completing your teacher training programme,
this is the right time to ask yourself whether you possess the
basic intellectual and personal qualities necessary to be a good
science teacher.
Do you have the attributes, such as integrity, drive, and
a high sense of responsibility, which are valued in teaching
specially science teaching. Besides these, there are special
characteristics of successful and happy science teacher.
Five
METHODS OF TEACHING
By teaching chemistry we aim at bringing about a desirable

behavioural changes among pupils. Teaching is thus a most
difficult task and every body is not fit to be a teacher. Some
persons may have a ‘flair’ for teaching and such persons have
the ability to awaken interest and arrest the attention of the
students. Some others who are not so fortunate can improve
their teaching through practice if they are fully acquainted
with various methods of teaching. In order to make children
learn effectively, the teacher has to adopt the right method of
teaching. For choosing right method for a given situation the
teacher must be familiar with different methods of teaching.
CHOICE OF METHOD
A number of methods for teaching of science have been
discussed. Some of them have been recommended for use,
some have been disapproved and some have been
recommended for use with caution. Out of the methods
available a choice is not entirely left to the whims of the teacher
but has to be made by the teacher in the light of facilities
available and nature of work to be done. This does not mean
that a teacher may select any one method and then cling to
it lavishly throughout his service or even an entire academic
session. This is a great mistake because each method has its
own merits. Our preference for any one of the methods deprives
us of the merits of other method.
A good teacher should therefore try to imbibe the good
qualities of all methods instead of depending on any one
method. The teacher should keep himself on the right side of
every method. The best method of a teacher is his own
individualised and personalised method which is the result of
his varied and long experience in teaching.
Some of the points which a teacher should keep in mind
are as under:
(i) Heuristic approach be used to start a lesson. Thus the
lesson be introduced in a problematic way so that the
students feel that they are going to learn some thing
really useful and worth learning.
(ii) He should choose a pupil—dominated method in
preference to a teacher dominated method.
(iii) He should have a bright manner of presentation and
should illustrate his lesson with experiments, pictures,
charts, diagrams etc. specimens and models are
preferred for illustration.
(iv) Teaching should be made a cooperative enterprise.
Teacher should give maximum opportunity of
participation to the students so that they feel that their
active participation in quite important for the solution
of problem and successful growth of the subject.
(v) Teacher should made all possible efforts to properly
correlate the topic in hand with other subjects.
(vi) Teacher should avoid the use of difficult phrases,
scientific expressions and lengthy definitions.
Methods of Teaching 75
(vii) Through Heuristic approach dominates that the
historical method of teaching be utilized at places and
the lives and achievements of famous scientists be told
to the students. These are a source of inspiration to the
students.
(viii) Instructional method and plans must be flexible. In a
lesson if, in addition to planned illustrations and
experiments students want some more experimental
evidence then the teacher should make all possible
efforts to satisfy the students.
(ix) After a constant use of some method teacher can break
the monotony by using project method and laboratory
method.
Thus we conclude that no single method could be the best
method and a good teacher will have to evolve his own
individual method consisting of good points of all the methods.
He will never become a slave to any method and will remain
a true master of all of them.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
This method of teaching of chemistry is based upon the
process of finding out the results by attacking a problem in a
number of definite steps. It is possible to train the students in
scientific method. In this method student is involved in finding
out the answer to a given scientific problem and thus actually
it is a type of discovery method.
Fitzpatrick defines science as, “science is a cumulative and
endless series of empirical observations which result in the
formation of concepts and theories, with both concepts and
theories being subject to modification in the light of further
empirical observation. Science is both a body of knowledge
and the process of acquiring and refining knowledge”.
Considering this definition of science it becomes imperative
that the students be exposed to the scientific way of finding
out. Scientific method of teaching helps to develop the power
of reasoning, application of scientific knowledge, critical
thinking and positive attitude, in the learner.
This method proceeds in the following steps:
(i) Problem in identified.
(ii) Some hypothesis are framed and these are proposed
for testing.
(iii) Experiments are then devised to test the proposed
hypothesis.
(iv) Data is collected than observations and the collected
data is then interpreted.
(v) Finally conclusions are drawn to accept, reject or modify
the proposed hypothesis.
Scientific method is therefore a well sequenced and
structured method for finding the results through experiments.
Role of Teacher: For the success of scientific method the
role of teacher is very important. He should act as a co-
investigator along with students and must also find sufficient
time and have patience to attend to students’ problems.
Under the proper guidance of the teacher the science
laboratory should become the hub for implementations of this
method.
The Merits: Scientific method has following advantages:
(i) Students learn chemistry of their own and teacher works
only as a guide.
(ii) It helps students to become real scientists as they learn
to identify and formulate scientific problems.
(iii) It provides to students a training in techniques of
information processing
(iv) It develops a habit of logical thinking in the students
as they are required to interpret data and observations.
(v) It helps to develop intellectual honesty in students.
(vi) It helps the students to learn to see relationships and
pattern among things and variables.
(vii) It provides the students a training in the methods and
skills of discovering new knowledge in chemistry.
The Limitation: Some important limitations of the method
are as under:
(i) It is a long, drawn out and time consuming method.
(ii) It can never become a full fledged method of learning
chemistry.
(iii) Due to lack of exposure to this method most of the
chemistry teachers fail to implement it successfully.
(iv) This method is suitable only for very bright and creative
students.
ANSWER METHOD
In this method of teaching chemistry the student is required
to solve a problem by an experimental design making use of
his previous knowledge.
In chemistry problem solving has been presented by
Ashmore, Frazer and Casey. They define problem solving as
a result of the application of knowledge and procedure to a
problem situation and propose four stages:
(i) definition of the problem,
(ii) selection of the appropriate information,
(iii) putting together the separate pieces of information,
and
(iv) evaluation of the solution.
Many other authors in the field have taken up different
approaches and some have given even 20 to 30 steps in the
problem solving approach for teaching of chemistry.
Inspite of the enthusiasm for designing stages in problem
solving, there is hardly any impact an chemical education.
Difficulties in Problem Solving in Chemistry: There were
a many fold difficulties, some of these are:
(i) To formulate problem which will be real but still have
only one solution.
(ii) To select such problems which include relatively simple
chemistry.
(iii) To get teachers interested in research, which is
considered as the best method of developing problem—
solving skills.
(iv) To construct problems for chemistry teaching and
learning which will be of help not only at tertiary, but
also at secondary level.
To construct problems for teaching problem solving skills
the following procedure has been developed.
(i) Select a paper from research journal. (This paper should
not be easily available to students).
(ii) Take out the research data from the selected paper and
handed over to the students as a list of experimental
results.
(iii) Students are then asked to attempt to solve the problem
as well as to design their problem—solving network.
(iv) Students network are compared and analysed, to
identify the reasons for success or failure.
(v) This forms the basis of discussion on problem solving,
problem solving network and problem solving skills in
which teacher and students participate.
(vi) In some cases the problem is given to different groups
and results are compared for evaluation.
In well structured examples, in which students use more
or less the same network independently, efforts are made to
develop the similar problems for lower level. This is known
as ‘funnel approach’ (Fig.)
Tertiary Level
Secondary Level
Logical axis of Limits of

the topic topic
Fig. The Funnel Approach
To illustrate it the problem selected is from chemistry of

natural products.
Selection of Research Paper: The paper on “The structure
of viscumamide, a New Cyclic Peptide Isolated from Viscum
album Linn. Var. Coloratum Ohwi” was selected.
This paper was selected because
(a) of its high quality
(b) of its relevance to undergraduate course
(c) of its demanding relatively simple knowledge of
chemistry
(d) of its having a sufficient amount of experimental data.
Useful Data that was Available in the Paper was

(a) The unknown compound was isolated from the neutral
fraction of the methanol extract of Viscum album Linn.
Var. Coloratum Ohwi by column chromatography on
activated alumina.
(b) m.p. of crystalline substance is 622.7—624.2 K.
(c) The optical activity of the compound is given by [a]25D
= –49.1ºC = 0.199, ethanol)
(d) Elemental analysis etc. gives the formula as C30 H55 N5
O5.
(e) Molecular weight in 565.8.
(f) I.R. Spectra gives bands (absorption) at 3315, 3050,
1658, 1530 cm–1. No absorption bands are obtained
which may indicate the presence of free amino group
or a carboxyl group.
(g) Potentiometric titration of 0.01 m HCl with 0.1 m NaOH
gives the same curve as that of a blank titration.
(h) It gives no reaction with ninhydrin.
(i) It is sparingly soluble in most of the common solvents.
(j) Hydrolysis in 6 m HCl at 383.2 K for 120 hours gave
two products, 60.6 per cent of substance A and 39.4 per
cent of substance B.
(k) Both A and B have the molecular formula C6 H13 O2 N
and both are optically active.
[a]27D = +12.1º (for A) (C in 20 per cent HCl = 0.40) =
+ 34.8º (for B) (C in 20 per cent HCl = 0.39)
(l) Products of A and B form esters with butanol saturated
with HCl.
(m) Products A and B from amides with trifluoroacetic
anhydride in dichloromethane.
Problem: Try to hypothetize what the isolated substance
would be.
Design of Networks: Students were free to design their
network and it was observed that the networks of successful
students were almost similar.
Analysis
Ana lysis of Students’ Results: Various groups were involved
in solving the problem. Following generalisation were made.
(i) Since most of the groups were able to give good results,
this should be included in every curriculum to develop
problem-solving skills.
(ii) Some students were careless and they ‘lose’ pieces of
information.
(iii) A large number of students had no patience to build
up the network and got lost in speculation.
(iv) Most of the students forgot to check their solution by
comparing it with the given experimental data.
Development of a Similar Example for Secondary Level:
The following example was developed and tried out in
secondary schools:
Problem: Hydrolysis of proteins gives a solid compound
A which dissolves in water. In electrolysis it migrates towards
the cathode or anode—depending on pH. It is not optically
active. On heating it yield another solid B having a molecular
mass 114. What is A?
Students Results: In most cases students could reach only
second level. Coming to linear conclusions. 50 per cent of
students could reach the hypothesis that A may be glycine but
most of the students failed to check if substance B could be
cyclic peptide.
Conclusion
(i) Research papers are good source for construction of
problems for teaching chemistry through problem-
solving method.
(ii) Students be asked to solve the problem as also to design
the problem-solving network.
(iii) Instead of individuals, individualised groups be
encouraged for problem-solving. It gives more
confidence to the students.
(iv) Original network that leads to problem-solving should
be encouraged.
(v) Positive and negative results should be carefully
analysed and discussed with students.
(vi) A speculative approach should be discouraged.
(vii) Similar types of problems for different school levels be
designed.
Learning Chemistry by Pattern Recognition: This method
of chemistry learning is based on the following hypothesis. In
chemistry we find the existence of periodic system. It is a
recognised pattern of a number of facts about elements and
their relationships.
Similar pattern of compounds exists in matter. However
to reach a bigger pattern of compounds we should first aim
at subsystems.
The main idea of learning chemistry by pattern recognition
is to encourage the students to select a specific field of
compounds or reactions or properties to search for their
characteristics and to try to construct patterns and check them.
This is illustrated by taking example from the course of
secondary level.
Example 1: Organic Compounds of Oxygen

Students learn organic compounds only in fragments
however they may be presented as a chain of knowledge.
Hydrocarbons
Alcohols Ethers
Reduction –H2O
Aldehydes Ketones
Oxidation
Carbolic +RoH
Esters
Acids –H2O
This chain of knowledge is a pattern. It is repeated at a

higher level in chemistry of carbohydrates.
Considering only a fragment of carbohydrate molecule
(i.e. dioxycarbohydrates) we can find some analogy with
hydrocarbons. It helps the students in learning more about the
carbohydrates and their interrelationship with oxygen
compounds.
?
Polycols Glycosides
–H2O
Aldoses Ketoses
–ROH Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates Acids
Esters
–H2O
Example 2: The Chemistry of—OH group

The compounds containing -OH group can be classified as
acidic, neutral or basic.
Acidic Neutral Basic
Phenol Methanol Sodium hydroxide
C6H5–OH CH3-OH NaOH
A large number of compounds can be added to each group

and from this students can generalise that the nature of—OH
group is decided by the other part present in the molecule.
The Advantages
1. It makes use of different sources of data, their
comparison and critical analysis.
2. It motivates students for research and data organisation.
3. It helps organise learning towards higher cognitive
levels.
4. It develops the ability to organise the data, to find an
classify parameters, to search for regularities, systems
and patterns.
5. It provides support for prediction, design for checking
hypotheses.
6. It helps orientation towards curriculum design.
7. It provides design of research.
8. It provides a support for industrial decisions.
The Drawbacks
1. It is too vague.
2. In the absence of sufficient data students might end in
speculation.
3. It involves danger of over simplification and also of
‘model thinking’.
Summary: Pattern recognition can combine teaching and
learning situations with research design and is also helpful in
taking industrial decisions. It is one of the most efficient methods
in teaching of chemistry.
To avoid the drawbacks of the method the process of
pattern recognition should be considered more important than
the pattern produced. Critical evaluation of a pattern be taken
up carefully. Every pattern design has to be faced not only
with facts and their relationships, but in a dialectic approach,
in which the recognition of their changing nature is also
essential.
LECTURE APPROACH
Lecture method is the most commonly used method of
teaching chemistry. This method is most commonly followed
in colleges and in schools in big classes. This method is not
quite suitable to realise the real aim of teaching chemistry. In
lecture method only the teacher talks and students are passive
listeners. Since the students do not actively participate in this
method of teaching so this method is a teacher controlled and
information centred and in this method teacher works as a sole
resource in class room instructions.
Due to lack of participation students get bored and some
of them some times may go to sleep. In this method students
is provided with ready-made knowledge by the teacher and
due to this spoon feeding the students loses interest and his
powers of reasoning and observation get no stimulus.
In this method the teacher goes ahead with the subject
matter at his own speed. The teacher may make use of
blackboard at times and may also dictate notes. This teacher
oriented method in its extreme from does not expect any
question or response from the students.
Advantages: It has the following advantages:
(i) It is quite economical method. It is possible to handle
a large number of students at a time and no laboratory,
equipment, aids, materials are required.
(ii) Using this method the knowledge can be imparted to
the students quickly and the prescribed syllabus can
be covered in a short time.
(iii) It is quite attractive and easy to follow. Using this
method teacher feels secure and satisfied.
(iv) It simplifies the task of the teacher as he dominates the
lesson for 70-85 per cent of the lesson time and students
just listen to him.
(v) Using this method it is quite easy to impart factual
information and historical anecdotes.
(vi) By following this method teacher can develop his own
style of teaching and exposition.
(vii) In this method teacher can easily maintain the logical
sequence of the subject by planning his lectures in
advance. It minimises the chances of any gaps or over-
lappings.
(viii) Some good lectures delivered by the teacher may
motivate, investigate, inspire a student for some creative
thinking.
Disadvantages: The disadvantages of lecture method can
be as under:
(i) In this method the students participation is negligible
and students become passive recipients of information.
(ii) In this method we are never sure if the students are
concentrating and understanding the subject matter
being taught to them by the teacher.
(iii) In this method knowledge is imparted so rapidly that
weak students develop a hatred for learning.
(iv) It does not allow all the faculties of the student to
develop.
(v) In this method there is no place of ‘learning by doing’
and thus teaching by this method strikes at the very
root of chemistry.
(vi) It does not take into account the previous knowledge
of the student.
(vii) It does not provide for corrective feed back and remedial
help to slow learners.
(viii) It does not cater to the individual needs and differences
of students.
(ix) It does not help to inculcate scientific attitudes and
training in scientific method among the pupils.
(x) It is an undemocratic and authoritarian method in
which students depend only as the authority of the
teacher. They cannot challenge or question the verdict
of the teacher. This checks the development of power
of critical thinking and proper reasoning in the student.
Summary: After considering various merits and demerits
of method it may be concluded that this method may be suitable
for teaching in higher classes (XI, XII) where we aim to cover
the prescribed syllabus quickly. In these classes this method
can be used successfully for imparting factual knowledge,
introducing some new and difficult topics, make generalisation
from the facts already known to the students, revision of lessons
already learnt etc.
Teaching by this method these students of classes XI and
XII will also help those students who intend to join college so
that they can prepare themselves for college where lecture
method of teaching is a dominant method of imparting
instruction.
This method of teaching can be made more beneficial if the
teacher encourages his students to take notes during the lesson.
After the lesson teacher can give his students some time for
asking questions and answer their queries without any
hesitation. While delivering his lesson the teacher may see that
the lesson is delivered in good tone, loudly and clearly. He
should use only simple and understandable words for
delivering his lesson. If a teacher can introduce some humour
in his lesson it would keep students interested in his lesson.
PRESENTATION METHOD
This method of teaching is sometimes also referred to as
Lecture-cum Demonstration Method. This is considered to be a
superior method of teaching in comparison to lecture method.
In lecture method the teacher speaks and students listen so it
is a one way traffic of flow of ideas and students are only
passive listeners. This one sidedness is the major drawback of
lecture method. A teaching method is considered better if both
teacher and taught are active participants in the process of
teaching. This particular aspect is taken care of in demonstration
method.
This lecture-demonstration method is used by good
chemistry teachers for imparting chemistry education in class
room. By using this method it is possible to easily impart
concrete experiences to students during the course of a lesson
when the teacher wants to explain some abstract points. This
method combines the instructional strategy of ‘information
imparting’ and ‘showing how’. This method combines the
advantages of both the lecture method and the demonstration
method.
In this method of teaching the teacher performs experiment
before the class and simultaneously explains what he is doing.
He also asks relevant questions from the class and students are
compelled to observe carefully because they have to describe
each and every step of the experiment accurately and draw
inferences.
After thorough questioning and cross-questioning the
inferences drawn by the students are discussed in the class. In
this way the students remain active participants in the process
of teaching. The teacher also relates the outcomes of his
experiment to the content of the on-going lesson. Thus while
in lecture method teacher merely talks in demonstration method
he really teaches.
Principle: This method is based on the principle: Truth is
that which works.
Requirements for a Good Demonstration: For success of
any demonstration following points be always kept in mind:
(i) It should be planned and rehearsed by the teacher
before hand.
(ii) The apparatus used for demonstration should be big
enough to be seen by the whole class. It would be much
better if a large mirror is placed at a suitable angle
above the teacher’s table which will enable the pupils
to have a view of everything that the teacher is doing
while performing the experiment.
Alternately, if the class is well disciplined the teacher
may allow the students to sit on the stools placed on
the benches to enable them to have a better view.
(iii) Adequate lighting arrangements be made on
demonstration table and a proper back ground be
provided.
(iv) All the pieces of apparatus be placed in order before
starting the demonstration. The apparatus likely to be
used should be placed on the left hand side of the table
and it should be arranged in the same order in which
it is likely to be used. After an apparatus is used it
should be transferred to right hand side. Only things
relevant to the lesson be placed on demonstration table.
(v) Before actually starting the demonstration, a clear
statement about the purpose of demonstration be made
to the students.
(vi) The teacher must make sure that the demonstration-
cum-lecture method leads to active participation of the
students in the process of learning. This he can achieve
by putting well structured questions.
(vii) The demonstration should be quick and slick and should
not appear to linger on unnecessarily.
(viii) The demonstration should be interesting so that it
captures the attention of the students.
(ix) The teacher must be sure of success of the experiment
to be demonstrated and for this he should rehearse the
experiment under the conditions prevailing in the class
room. However even after all the necessary precaution
the experiment fails in the class room due to one reason
or the other, the teacher should not get nervous instead
he should make an effort to find the reasons for the
failure of the experiment. Sometimes in this process a
good teacher may draw very useful conclusions.
(x) No complaints about inadequate and faulty apparatus
he made by the teacher. In such a situation a good
teacher finds an opportunity to show his skill.
(xi) It would be much better if the teacher demonstrates
those experiments which are connected with common
things which are seen and handled by students in their
every day life.
(xii) There should be a correlation between the
demonstrations and the sequence of experiments
performed by the students in their practical classes.
(xiii) For active participation of students, the teacher may
call individual student, in turn, to help him in
demonstration work.
(xiv) During lecture-cum-demonstration session, teacher
must act like a ‘showman’ and a ‘performer’. He should
know different ways of arresting the attention of the
students.
(xv) He should write, a summary of the principles arrived
at because of demonstration, on the blackboard. The
blackboard can also be used for drawing necessary
diagrams.
Conducting Demonstration Lesson: We commonly find
chemistry teachers making use of demonstration method for
teaching of chemistry. The conduct of a demonstration lesson
is very difficult and here we will try to discuss some of the
essential steps that should be followed in a demonstration
lesson.
Planning and Preparation: A great care be taken by the
teacher while planning and preparing his demonstration lesson.
He should keep the following points in mind while preparing
his lesson:
(a) subject matter,
(b) questions to be asked;
(c) apparatus required for the experiment.
To achieve the above stated objective the teacher should
thoroughly go through the pages of the textbook, relevant to
the lesson. After this he should prepare his lesson plan in
which he should essentially include the principles to be
explained, a list of experiments to be demonstrated and the
type of questions to be asked from the students. These questions
be arranged in a systematic order that has to be followed in
the class. Before actually demonstrating the experiment be
rehearsed under the conditions prevailing in the class room.
Inspite of this, some thing may go wrong at the actual lesson,
so reserve apparatus is often useful. The apparatus should be
arranged in a systematic order on the demonstration table.
Thus for the success of demonstration method a teacher has
to prepare himself as thoroughly as a bride prepares herself
for the marriage.
Introduction of the Lesson: As in every other subject so
also in case of chemistry the lesson should start with proper
motivation of the students. It is always considered more useful
to introduce the lesson in a problematic way which would
make students realise the importance of the topic. The usual
ways in which a teachers could easily introduce his lesson is
by telling some personal experience or incident, a simple and
interesting experiment, a familiar anecdote or by telling a
story.
A good experiment when carefully demonstrated is likely
to leave an everlasting impression on the young mind of the
pupil and it would set his pupils talking in school and out of
it, about the interesting experiment that had been demonstrated
to them in the chemistry class. This should be kept in mind
not only to start the lesson but be used, on every suitable
occasion, during the lesson.
It is not possible to give an exhaustive list of such interesting
experiments but as an illustration we can consider the opening
of soda water bottle in the class room, by the teacher, following
by a direct question to his pupil, have they seen any gas
coming out of the bottle? At this stage the teacher can introduce
the topic of carbon dioxide.
Presentation: The method of presenting the subject matter
is very important. A good teacher should present his lesson
in an interesting manner and not in a boring way. To make
the lesson interesting the teacher may not be very rigid to
remain within the prescribed course rather he should make the
lesson as much broad based as is possible.
For widening of his lesson the teacher may think of various
useful applications of the principle taught by him. He is also
at liberty to take examples and illustrations from other allied
branches of science to make his lesson interesting. The life
history and some interesting facts from the life of the great
chemist whose name is associated with the topic under
discussion can also be cited to make the lesson interesting.
Thus every effort be made to present the matter in a lively and
interesting manner and a lesson should never be presented as
‘dry bones’ of an academic course.
Constant questions and answers should from part of every
demonstration lesson. Questions and cross questions are
essential for properly illuminating the principle being discussed.
Questions be arranged in such a way that their answers form
a complete teaching unit. Though an effort be made to
encourage the students to answer a large number of questions
but if students fail to answer some questions teacher should
provide the answers to such questions. It is unwise to expect
all the answers from the pupil and a teacher should feel satisfied
if he has been able to create a desire in a student to know what
he does not know.
The lesson be presented in a clear voice and the teacher
should speak slowly and with correct pronunciation. He should
avoid the use of any bombastic and ambiguous terms. The
continuous talk is likely to monotony and to avoid it
experiments be well spaced throughout the lesson.
Performance of Experiments: A good observer has been
described as a person who has learned to use his senses of
touch, sight, smell and hearing in an intelligent and alert
manner. We want children to observe what happens in
experiments and to have ample opportunities to state their
observations carefully. We also want them to try to explain
what happens in reference to their problem, but we want to
make certain.
There is separation between observations and
generalization and conclusions. We will be violating the true
spirit of chemistry if we allow children to generalise from one
experiment or observation.
The following steps are generally accepted as valuable in
developing and concluding chemistry experiments with the
children:
1. Write the problems to be solved in simple words so
that every one understands.
2. Make a list of activities that will be used to solve
problems.
3. Gather material for conducting experiments.
4. Work out a format of the steps in the order of procedure
so that every one knows what is to be done.
5. The teacher should always try the experiment himself
to become acquainted with the equipment and
procedure.
6. Record the findings in ways commensurate with the
maturity level and purposes of the student.
7. Assist students in making generalisations from
conclusions only after sufficient evidence and
experiences.
The demonstration experiment be presented by the teacher
in a model way. He should work in a tidy, clean and orderly
manner while demonstrating an experiment. Some of the
important points to be kept in mind while demonstrating an
experiment are as under:
(i) Experiments should be simple and speedy.
(ii) The experiments must work and their results should
be clear and their results should be clear and striking.
(iii) Experiments be properly spaced throughout the lesson.
(iv) Keep some reserve apparatus on the demonstration
table.
(v) Keep the demonstration apparatus intact till it has to
be used again.
Blackboard Summary: A summary of important results
and principles be written on the blackboard. Use of blackboard
should also be frequently made for drawing necessary sketches
and diagrams.
The blackboard summary should be written in neat, clean
and legible way. Since blackboard summary is an index to a
teacher’s ability he should keep the following points in mind
while writing on blackboard.
(i) Proper space be left between different letters and words.
(ii) Always start writing from left hand corner of the
blackboard.
(iii) Start a new live only when the first one has extended
across the blackboard.
(iv) Take care not to divide the words at the end of a line.
(v) Make all efforts to keep all the paragraphs and similar
signs in calculations under one another.
(vi) While drawing sketches and diagrams preferably use
‘single lined’ diagrams.
(vii) All the diagrams drawn on the board be properly
labelled.
Supervision: Students be asked to take the complete notes
of the blackboard summary including the sketches and
diagrams drawn. Such record will be quite helpful to the student
for learning his lesson. Such a summary will prove beneficial
only if it has been copied correctly from the blackboard and
to make sure that students are copying the blackboard summary
properly the teacher should check it by frequently going to the
seats of the students.
Common Errors: A summary of common errors committed
while delivering a demonstration lesson are given below:
(i) The apparatus may not be ready for use.
(ii) There may not be an apparent relation between the
demonstration experiment and the topic under
discussion.
(iii) Blackboard summary is not upto the mark.
(iv) Teacher may be in a hurry to arrive at generalisation
without allowing sufficient time to arrive at these
generalization from facts.
(v) Teacher may some times fail to ask right type of
questions.
(vi) Teacher some times may use a difficult language.
(vii) Teacher some times takes to talking more which may
mar the enthusiasm of the students.
(viii) Teacher may not have allowed sufficient time for
recording data etc.
(ix) Teacher has not given proper attention to supervision.
Merits: Following are the merits of this method:
(i) It is an economical method as compared to purely
student centred approaches.
(ii) It is a psychological method and students take active
interest in teaching learning process.
(iii) It leads students from concrete to abstract situations
and thus is more psychological.
(iv) It is a suitable method if the apparatus to be handled
is costly and sensitive. Such an apparatus is likely to
be damaged if handled by students.
(v) This method can be more safe if the experiments to be
demonstrated are dangerous.
(vi) In comparison to Heuristic method, project etc., it is
time saving but lecture method is too speedy.
(vii) It can be used successfully for all types of students.
(viii) In this method such experiments which are difficult for
students can be included.
(ix) This method can be used to impart manual and manipu-
lative skills to students.
Disadvantages: Some of the disadvantages of this method
are as under:
(i) It provides no scope for ‘learning by doing’ for students
as students just observe what the teacher is performing.
Thus students fail to relish the joys of direct personal
experience.
(ii) Since the teacher performs the experiment in his own
pace, many students cannot comprehend the concept
being clarified.
(iii) Since the method is not child centred so it makes no
provision for individual differences. All types of
students including slow learners and genius have to
proceed with the same speed.
(iv) It fails to develop laboratory skills in the students. It
cannot work as a substitute for laboratory work by
students in which they are required to handle the
apparatus themselves.
(v) It fails to impart training in scientific attitude.
(vi) In this method students many a times fail to observe
many finer details of the apparatus used because they
observe it from a distance.
Summary: It is thoroughly accepted that success is greater
with experiments in elementary schools if they start with a real
purpose, are simply done with uncomplicated apparatus, are
done by children under careful direction of the teacher, and
help the children think and draw valid, tentative conclusion.
This is considered as one of the best methods of teaching
chemistry to secondary classes. An effort be made to involve
a larger number of students by calling them in batches to the
demonstration table.
Chemistry teachers should encourage more direct
experimentation by children in order to help children broaden
their range of fact finding skills beyond three T’s-teacher,
textbook, television.
ELEMENT METHOD
It is one of the latest methods in the field of education. It
involves pupils more actively in learning process.
Different authors define unit in a different way. Hanna,
Hage-man, Potter define it as, “a unit is a purposeful learning
experience that is focused on some socially significant
understanding which will modify the behaviour of learner and
adjust him to adjust to a life situation more effectively”.
However all the definitions of unit imply that it possesses
the following characteristics:
(i) It is an organisation of activities around a purpose.
(ii) It has significant content.
(iii) It involves students in learning process.
(iv) It modifies the students behaviour to such an extent
that he can cope with new problem and situations
more competently.
Types of Units: Mainly the units may be classified as:
(i) Subject matter units.
(ii) Experience units.
(iii) Resource units.
The teaching of chemistry can be carried out in a better
way and it is better understood and appreciated by the students
if it is taught as units of immediate interest to the pupils. Such
units may be (i) life centred (ii) environment centred (iii) life
and environment centred.
For this The Tara Devi Seminar (1956) recommended the
following:
Life Centred Units

1. The air we breathe.
2. The water we use.
3. The food we eat.
4. The clothes we wear.
5. Our mineral resources.
6. The universe we live in.
Environment-centred Units
1. The atmosphere.
2. Water, a vital need of life.
3. The earth surface.
4. Civilization and the use of metals.
Environment of Life-centred Units

1. Using mineral resources for better living.
2. The weather and what we can do about it.
3. Chemistry for our homes.
Interesting lessons can be developed on ‘Air’, ‘Water’ etc.
These can be used for teaching of hydrogen, nitrogen, water,
carbon dioxide etc.
Essentials of a Good Unit

(i) It should deal with a sizeable topic.
(ii) It should emerge out of students past experiences and
should lead to broader interests.
(iii) It should be of appropriate difficulty in terms of child’s
understanding, interest.
(iv) It should provide scope for using a variety of materials
and activities like community resources, audiovisual
materials etc.
(v) It should allow use of sufficient amount of books and
other learning materials.
(vi) Units should be such as to draw materials from several
fields so that children may develop richer insight into
human relationships and processes.
(vii) It should be functional and should be in accordance
with the maturity level of the learner.
The Merits
This method of teaching has the following advantages:
(i) It brings about a closer integration between various
branches of science.
(ii) It makes subject matter more interesting and realistic.
(iii) It provides a better understanding of the environment
and life.
(iv) It focuses attention on significant facts and avoids
confusion.
(v) The unit because of its flexibility provides facility in
adopting instructions to individual’s differences.
The Limitations
(i) This method cannot be used if the teacher is required
to complete some prescribed course in a specified time.
(ii) There are only a few teachers who are so widely read
that they can introduce material and illustration from
various branches of science while keeping before their
students one central topic.
Unit method or topic method is a varied slightly in America.
In American schools the teacher announces one topic and the
students are asked to say what they already know about it.
Then the topic is discussed in a question and answer session
and those questions which no member of the class could answer
are noted down for investigation. From this list of questions,
such questions as are considered as too difficult for a particular
class are eliminated by the teacher and the remaining questions
are arranged in a planned manner for answers. These questions
are then dealt within the class according to the plan. The great
thing about such a course is that boys feel that it is their course
and not some thing thrust upon them by authority.
BIOGRAPHY METHOD
Some teachers prefer to develop a subject by following the
stages through which the subject has passed during its course
of development from its early beginnings. This type of teaching
has a fascination which appeals to pupils.
Various science subjects such as Chemistry, Bacteriology
etc. Which have an interesting historical background can be
taught successfully by such a technique. It is possible to develop
a topic starting from its early history and the various stages
through which it developed before attaining the modern shape.
Chemistry, has a very interesting history and the works of
Priestley, Lavoisier, Davy, Black and Dalton etc. can be given
this type of treatment. The gradual development of atomic
theory can be unfolded gradually by this method which will
be quite interesting.
Through such a treatment may not be possible for all the
topics but an occasional resort to such a treatment has its own
uses.
CONVERSATION METHOD
This method is found quite suitable for those topics in
chemistry which cannot be easily explained by demonstration
or other such techniques. The discussion may be about a certain
specimen or model or chart. In this method the topics for
discussion is announced to the students well in advance.
The teacher gives a brief introduction about the contents
of the topic and them suggests to his students various reference
books, textbooks and other books. Students are then required
to go through the relevant pages of these books and come
prepared for a discussion of the topic on a specified day.
During actual discussion period teachers poses a few problems
and thus provides the necessary motivation.
The students are then asked to answer the question one
by one and when ever thinks fit advises some students not to
go out of the scope of a particular question or topic under
consideration. This check is essential otherwise immature
students may go out of the scope of the topics.
Following points if kept in view will help make the
discussion successful:
(i) The topics for discussion should be of common interest
of students.
(ii) Teacher should establish a favourable atmosphere in
the class before starting the discussion.
(iii) Teacher should see that every one participates in the
discussion. The whole essence of discussion is
“Thinking together”.
(iv) The teacher should talk to the bare minimum and also
should not allow any one student to dominate the
whole discussion.
(v) It is for teacher to see that the discussion remains a
discussion and it does not change into a debate.
(vi) Teacher should keep a check on answers of the students
and should not allow a student to go beyond the scope
of a topic under discussion.
(vii) Teacher has to maintain discipline and he should see
that only one student speaks at a time.
It is a combination of two methods. To be able to understand
this combination it is necessary to understand them separately.
LOGICAL METHOD
In this method one is led from concrete to abstract, particular
to general and from complex to general rule. In this method
we prove a universal law by showing that if it is true in a
particular case it is also true in other similar cases. This method
has been found to be quite suitable for teaching of chemistry
because most of the principles of chemistry or the conclusions
are results of induction. This process of arriving at generalisation
can be illustrated as under:
Illustration: Take a piece of blue litmus paper and dip it
in a test tube containing hydrochloric acid, observe the change
in colour (it turns red). Take another piece of blue litmus paper
and dip it in a test-tube containing nitric acid. Observe the
change in colour (it turns red). Repeat the experiments with
other acids in different test tubes (e.g. oxalic acid, acetic acid
etc.). (In each case blue litmus turns red).
From the above experiments we can make a generalisation
that acids turn blue litmus red.
The Merits
(i) It helps understanding.
(ii) It is a scientific method.
(iii) It develops scientific attitude.
(iv) It is a logical method and develops critical thinking
and habit of keen observations.
(v) It is a psychological method and provides ample scope
for students activities.
(vi) It is based on actual observations, thinking and
experimentation.
(vii) It keeps alive the students interest because they move
from known to unknown.
(viii) It curbs the tendency to learn by rote and also reduces
home work.
(ix) It develops self-confidence.
(x) It develops the habit of intelligent hard work.
The Drawbacks
This method suffers from the following limitations:
(i) It is limited in range and cannot be used in solving and
understanding all the topics in chemistry.
(ii) The generalization obtained from a few observations
are not the complete study of the topics. To fix the
topic in the mind of the learner a lot of supplementary
work and practice is needed.
(iii) Inductive reasoning is not absolutely conclusive. The
generalization has been done from the study of a few
(three or four) cases. The process thus establishes certain
degree of probability which can be increased by
increasing the number of valid cases.
(iv) This method needs a lot of time and energy and thus
it is time consuming and laborious method.
(v) This method is not found to be suitable in higher classes
because some of the unnecessary details and
explanations may make teaching dull and boring.
(vi) The use of this method should be restricted and confined
to understanding the rules in the early stages.
(vii) This method may be considered complete and perfect
only if the generalization arrived at by induction can
be verified through deductive method.
Deductive method is opposite of inductive method. In this
method the learner proceeds from general to particular, from
abstract to concrete. Thus in this method facts are deduced or
analysed by the application of established formula or
experimentation. In this case the formula is accepted by the
learner as a duly established fact.
In this method teacher announces the topics of the day and
he also gives the relevant formula/rule/law/principle etc.
The law/ formula is also explained to the students with the
help of certain examples which are solved on the blackboard.
From these students get the idea of use or application of the
concerned law/principle/ formula. Then the problems are
given to the students who solve the problems following the
same method as explained to them earlier by the teacher.
Students also memorise the results for future application.
Following example illustrates the procedure:
Principle: Cooling is caused by evaporation.
Confirmation by Application: It can be confirmed by
numerous application, such as, by wearing wet clothes,
observing feeling after taking bath, by applying alcohol on
your hand etc.
The Merits
(i) It is short and time saving and so this method is liked
by authors and teachers.
(ii) It is quite a suitable method for lower classes.
(iii) It glorifies memory because students are required to
memorise a large number of laws, formulae etc.
(iv) For practice and revision of topic it is an adequate and
advantageous method.
(v) It supplements inductive method and thus completes
the process of inductive-deductive method.
(vi) It enhances speed and efficiency in solving problems.
The Limitations
(i) It is not a scientific method because the approach of
this method is confirmatory and not explanatory.
(ii) It encourages rote memory because pure deductive
work requires some law; principle formula for every
type of problem and it demands blind memorisation
of large number of such laws/formulae etc.
(iii) Being an unscientific method it does not impart any
training in scientific method.
(iv) It causes unnecessary and heavy burden on the brain
which may some times result in brain fag.
(v) In this method memory becomes more important than
understanding and intelligence which is educationally
not sound.
(vi) It is an unpsychological method because the facts and
principles are not found by the students themselves.
(vii) In this method students cannot become active learners.
(viii) It is not suitable for development of thinking, reasoning
and discovery.
Summary: A careful consideration of merits and limitations
of these two methods leads us to conclude that Inductive
Method is the fore-runner of Deductive Method. For effective
teaching of chemistry, both inductive and deductive approaches
should be used because no one is complete without the other.
Induction leaves the learner at a point where he cannot stop
and the after work has to be done and completed by deduction.
Deduction is a process that is particularly suitable for final
statement and induction is most suitable for exploration fields.
Induction gives the lead and deduction follows. In chemistry
if we want to teach about composition of water then its
composition is determined by a endiometer tube (inductive
process) and confirmed by the process of electrolysis of water
(deductive process).
TASK METHOD
The heuristic method is based exclusively on laboratory
work where as the lecture method and demonstration method
do not give any opportunity for laboratory work. For teaching
of chemistry, assignment method is best suited because it
involves a harmonious combination of training at the
demonstration table and individual laboratory work. In this
method of teaching chemistry, the given syllabus is split into
well planned assignments with a set of instructions about
solving the assignments. It is also possible to plan assignments
based on the individual needs of the students.
Procedure: The whole of the prescribed course is divided
into so many connected weekly portion or assignments. One
topic is taken and a set of instructions regarding the study is
drawn up. The printed page containing instructions or the
assignment is handed to the pupil a week in advance of their
practical work. They are then required to read the pages of the
textbook referred to in the assignment and write answers to
a few (generally not more than three or four) questions in a
note-book.
The students then hand over these answers to the teacher
a day before the practicals. The teacher corrects the answers.
If there are a lot of mistakes in the assignments then the teacher
sets the remedial and corrective assignments.
The second part of every assignment consists of laboratory
work. Full instructions about laboratory work i.e. fitting up of
apparatus, recording of results, precautions to be taken etc. On
the day of the practical work the students are returned their
note-books and those students whose preparatory work is
found satisfactory by the teacher are allowed to proceed with
the practical work.
Teaching by this method demands a lot of careful planning
by the teacher and generally two out of six periods allotted to
chemistry in time-table are reserved for demonstration work
and remaining four for practical work. During periods reserved
for demonstration work teacher gives a demonstration on a
topic that is considered to be a difficult one by the pupils.
These period can also be utilized by the teacher to clarify some
facts which are not very clear to the pupils. For the success of
assignment method the teacher should prepare a list of
experiments to be demonstrated by him and another list of
experiments which are to be done by the students. The success
of this method mainly depends on properly drawn assignments.
If the teacher keeps a progress chart he can easily distinguish
between a good and an average or dull student. He can then
prepare special assignments according to the needs of the
student. An assignment chart may be of the following type:
The Aims: Aims of assignment method are as follows:
(i) To provide a synthesis of various methods of learning.
(ii) To provide students a training in information
processing.
(iii) To develop a habit of self study among the students.
(iv) To develop scientific attitude and a habit of critical
thinking among students.
(v) To expose students to various resources of leaning.
To achieve these aims the following points be kept in mind
while drawing up an assignment.
(i) The assignment must be based on one textbook.
(ii) The assignment should clearly state what portion of
textbook are to be read.
(iii) It should draw attention to particular points and give
explanation of difficult points.
(iv) It should also indicate those portions of matter which
can be omitted by the students.
(v) Questions are an essential part of the assignment and
the questions be so designed that
(a) they test whether the student has read and
understood the portion assigned.
(b) their answers are short.
(c) their answers require diagrams to be drawn
(d) they ask for a list of apparatus for coming laboratory
work.
(vi) In each assignment the teacher should indicate portion
of book dealing with the same or allied topics.
(vii) The assignment should include detailed instructions
about the experiment. This portion of instructions
should include.
(a) the procedure of the experiment.
(b) the method of recording results.
(c) the precautions to be observed.
(d) a diagram illustrating the set up of the apparatus.
Features of a Good Assignment

(i) It should be related to subject matter under study.
(ii) It should be concise and balanced which can be finished
by student easily and quickly.
(iii) Its purpose should be clear and its objective be made
known to the students.
(iv) It should be so worded that it fosters thinking and
independent learning.
(v) It should be such so as to suit to the age, aptitudes and
interest of the student.
(vi) It should be able to combine various methods of teaching.
Teachers Role: The teacher has to do the following for the
success of assignment method of teaching.
(i) He should split up the prescribed course in chemistry
into successive and progressive assignments.
(ii) He should list down the objectives for each assignment
which students must achieve.
(iii) He should prepare a progress chart for each student.
(iv) He must prepare and provide a list of reference material
required for each assignment.
(v) To cover up the learning gaps he should prepare
remedial assignments.
(vi) He should also prepare activity sheets for laboratory
work and experiments.
Merits: This method of teaching has the following advantages:
Merits:
(i) It provides the students an opportunity for self study.
(ii) It synthesizes various methods of teaching of chemistry
and makes the learning process very effective.
(iii) It provides an opportunity to the student to learn at
his own pace and thus the progress of the brighter
students is not hindered by weaker students.
(iv) In this system teacher gets the central role of
contingency manager and facilitator of learning. The
teacher acts as a guide and interferes least in the
student’s work.
(v) It places more emphasis on practical work and provides
students a training in skill of information processing.
(vi) It provides a feel for the scientific methods to students.
(vii) In this process the learning process can be individualized
to a great extent by having differential assignment.
(viii) It provides for corrective feed back and remediation.
(ix) The progress chart with the teacher shows the progress
of each student at a glance which gives the teacher an
idea of a gifted and weaker students.
(x) In this process the student learns to work himself
because in laboratory he is not provided with any
laboratory attendant.
(xi) Habit of extra study is developed because a number
of books for extra study are recommended by the
teacher. Such a study helps in widening the outlook of
the pupil.
(xii) Since the burden of work lies on pupil so he learns to
take responsibility.
(xiii) Since the students perform experiments at their own
speed so owing to their different speeds they do not
perform the same experiment at the same time. Thus a
large quantity of same kind of apparatus is not required.
Disadvantages: Some of the disadvantages of assignment
methods are as follows:
(i) It burdens the teacher with a lot of planning and thus
increases his work load to a large extent. It requires the
teacher to prepare a well thought out scheme for the
year before starting the method.
(ii) No source material is available in the market for
assignments and preparation of assignments for
different students becomes an uphill task for the teacher.
(iii) The success of method depends on the availability of
rich library and laboratory facilities. It makes the
method very expensive.
(iv) Before starting with this method teacher must satisfy
himself that the apparatus and chemicals required for
practical work are available in the laboratory. He should
also satisfy himself about the availability of textbooks,
laboratory manual, note book etc. and see that each
student possesses them.
(v) Teacher should also be vigilant to see that weak students
do not get a chance to copy the answers from the note
books of brighter students.
(vi) Weaker students need a lot of help and guidance at
individual level and it becomes an unnecessary drain
on the teacher’s energies.
(vii) This method is suitable only for a small group of
students.
Summary: Though the method has some limitations but
can be used successfully if following points are given due
consideration:
(i) The teacher should prepare a well thought out plan for
the year.
(ii) He should find some good resource book and use the
same after necessary changes.
(iii) He should be very particular to check copying by
weaker students. As remedial measures the teacher
should clearly explain difficult topics and principles to
the students during demonstration class and set only
a limited number of questions in his assignment.
(iv) The availability of apparatus and chemicals needed for
experiment be confirmed before hand.
(v) Only those students who have textbook, laboratory
manual and note book whose preparatory work has
been found to be satisfactory be allowed to do the
practical work.
(vi) A new experiment be allowed to a student when he has
completed his previous experiment and has shown it
to the teacher.
(vii) Students be asked to record all their observations
directly in the fair note book. They should be asked to
complete their practical note book in the class itself.
(viii) Teacher can provide necessary help to needy students
and for this he should move from one table to another
when the students are performing the experiment.
CASE STUDY METHOD

This method was given by Dewey - the American
philosopher, psychologist and practical teacher. The project
method is a direct outcome of his philosophy. According to
Dr. Kilpatrick “A project is a unit of whole-hearted purposeful
activity carried on preferably, in its natural setting”. According
to Stevenson “A project is a problematic act carried to its
completion in its natural setting”. According to Ballard, “A
project is a bit of real life that has been incorporated into the
school”. The project method is not totally new. Project
equivalents are advocated for the adolescent period by
Rousseau in Emile (BK- III). A project plan is a modified form
of an old method called “concentration-of-studies”.
The main features of “concentration of studies plan” is that
some subject is taken as the core or centre and all other school
subjects as they arise are studied in connection with it.
Project method is based on the following principles:
(i) Learning by doing.
(ii) Learning by living.
(iii) Children learn better through association, cooperation
and activity.
What is an Educational Project?: Various definition of
project has already been considered. A modified definition of
project is given by Tomas and Long. They define it as “a
voluntary undertaking which involves constructive effort or
thought and eventuates into objective results”.
Considering various definitions of project we may consider
it as a kind of life experience which is an outcome of a craving
or desire of the pupils. This is a method of spontaneous and
incidental teaching. “Learning by living” may be a better
meaning of project method, because life is full of projects and
individuals carry out these projects in their every day life.
The projects may broadly be classified as:
(i) Individual projects, and
(ii) Social projects.
Individual projects are to be carried out by individuals
where as social projects are carried out by a group of individuals.
Steps in a Project: For completing a project we have five
stages in actual practice. These are:
(i) Providing a situation.
(ii) Choosing and proposing.
(iii) Planning of the project.
(iv) Executing the project.
(v) Judging the project.
Providing a Situation: A project should arise out of a need
felt by pupils and it should never be forced on them. It should
be purposeful and significant. It should look important and
must be interesting. For this the teacher should always be on
the look out to find situation that arise and discuss them with
students to discover their interests. Situations may be provided
by different methods. Some such methods may include talking
to students on the topics of common interest e.g. how did they
spend their holidays, what did they see in Delhi etc.
Choosing and Proposing: From various definition of an
educational project we get the same underlying ideas (a) school
tasks are to be as real and as purposeful as the tasks of wider
life beyond the school walks (b) they are of such a nature that
the pupil is genuinely eager to carry them out in order to
achieve a desirable and clearly realised aim.
According to Kilpatrick, “the part of the pupil and the part
of the teacher, in most of the school work, depends largely on
who does the proposing”. The teacher should refrain from
proposing any project otherwise the whole purpose of the
method would be defeated. Teacher should only tempt the
students for a particular project by providing a situation but
the proposal for the project should finally come from students.
The teacher must exercise guidance in selection of the project
and if the students make an unwise choice, the teacher should
tactfully guide them for a better project. The essentials of a
good project are:
(i) It should have evident worth for the individual or the
group that undertakes them.
(ii) The project must have a bearing on a great number of
subjects and the knowledge acquired through it may
be applicable in a variety of ways
(iii) The project should be timely
(iv) The project should be challenging.
(v) The project should be feasible.
It is for the teacher to see that the purpose of the project
is clearly defined and understood.
Planning: The students be encouraged by the teacher to
plan out the details of the project. In the process of planning
teacher has to act only as a guide and he should give suggestions
at times but actual planning be left to the students.
Execution: Once the project has been chosen and the details
of the project have been planned, the teacher should help the
students in executing the project according to the plan. Since
execution of a project is the longest step in the project method
so it need a lot of patience on the part of the students and the
teacher. During this step the teacher should carefully supervise
the pupils in manipulative skills to prevent waste of materials
and to guard accidents. The teacher should assign work to
different students in accordance with their tastes, interests,
aptitudes and capabilities. Teacher should see that every
member of the group gets a chance to do some thing. Teacher
should constantly check up the relation between the chalked
out plans and the developing project and as far as possible ‘at
the spot’ changes and modification be avoided. However if
such changes become unavoidable these should be noted and
reasons explained for future guidance.
Evaluation: The evaluation of the project should be done
both by the pupils and the teacher. The pupils should estimate
the qualities of what they have done before the teacher gives
his evaluation. The evaluation of the project has to be done in
the light of plans, difficulties in the execution and achieved
results. Let the students have self criticism and look through
their own failings and findings. This step is very useful because
as a result of the project, the pupils can know the values of
the information, interest, skills and attitudes that have been
modified by the project.
Record: A complete record of the project be kept by the
students. The record should include every thing about the
project. It should include the proposal, plan and its discussion,
duties allotted to different students and how far were they
carried out by them. It should also include the details of places
visited and surveyed, maps etc. drawn, guidance for future
and all other possible details.
Role of Teacher
(i) In project method of teaching the role of a teacher is
that of a guide, friend and philosopher.
(ii) He helps the students in solving their problems just
like an elder brother.
(iii) He encourages his students to work collectively,
amicably in the group.
(iv) He also helps his students to avoid mistakes.
(v) He makes it a point that each member of the group
contributes some thing to the completion of the project
and in this process helps the shy and Weaker students
to work along with their classmates.
(vi) If the students face failure during execution of some
steps of the project the teacher should not execute any
portion of the project but should only explain to his
students the reasons of their failure and should suggest
them some better methods or techniques that may be
used by them next time for the success of the project.
(vii) During the execution step teacher also learns something.
(viii) Teacher should always remain alert and active during
execution, step and see that the project goes to
completion successfully.
(ix) During execution of the project teacher should maintain
a democratic atmosphere.
(x) Teacher must be well read and well informed so that
he can help the students to the successful completion
of the project.
The Merits
(i) It is a method of teaching based on psychological laws
of learning. The education is related to child’s life and
he acquires it through meaningful activity.
(ii) It imbibes the spirit of cooperation as it is a cooperative
venture. Teacher and students join in the project.
(iii) It stimulates interest in natural as also man made
situations. Moreover the interest is spontaneous and
not under any compulsions.
(iv) The method provides opportunities for pupils of
different tastes and aptitudes within the frame work
of the same scheme.
(v) It upholds the dignity of labour.
(vi) It introduces democracy in education.
(vii) It brings about a close correlation between a particular
activity and various subjects.
(viii) It is a problem solving method and places very less
emphasis on cramming or memorising.
(ix) It helps to inculcate social discipline through joint
activities of the teacher and the taught.
(x) A project can be used to arouse interest in a particular
topic as it blends school life with outside world. It
provides situations in which the students come in direct
contact with their environment.
(xi) It develops self confidence and self discipline.
(xii) A project tends to illustrate the real nature of the subject.
(xiii) A project affords opportunity to develop keenness and
accuracy of observation and produces a spirit of enquiry.
(xiv) It puts a challenge to the student and thus stimulates
constructive and creative thinking.
(xv) It provides the students an opportunity for mutual
exchange of ideas.
(xvi) This method helps the children to organise their
knowledge.
The Drawbacks
(i) Projects require a lot of time and this method can be
used as a part of science work only.
(ii) Though the method provides the student superficial
knowledge of so many things it provides insufficient
knowledge of some fundamental principles.
(iii) In the project planning and execution of the project the
teacher is required to put in much more work in
comparison to other methods of teaching.
(iv) The teacher has been assumed as master of all subjects
which is practically not possible.
(v) Good textbooks on these lines have not yet been
produced.
(vi) It is an expensive method is it involves tours, excursions,
purchase of apparatus and equipment etc.
(vii) The method of organising instructions is
unsystematised and thus the regular time table of work
will be upset.
(viii) The method may fit those who cannot listen but it is
very questionable if it has the same value for those
who can listen.
(ix) The method leaves a gap in pupils knowledge.
(x) It under estimates man’s power of imagination which
enables him to savour the full experience of another
without the necessity of undergoing the experience
himself.
(xi) Some times the projects may be too ambitious and
beyond pupils capacity to accomplish.
(xii) Larger projects in hands of an unexperienced teacher
lead to boredom.
(xiii) The education given by projects is likely to emphasise
relationships in breadth than in depth.
Summary: The project method provides a practical
approach to learning of both theoretical and practical problems.
If it is difficult to follow this method of teaching it would be
better at least not to ignore the spirit of this method.
This method has been found to be more suitable for primary
and middle classes and is of restricted use for high and higher
secondary classes. This method may be tried alongwith formal
class room teaching without disturbing the school time-table.
With this in view some projects may be undertaken by the
students to be completed on certain fixed days of a week.
Alternately first half of the day may be devoted to class room
teaching and the project work be carried out in the remaining
half day.
To help solve the problem of fund’s shortage such projects
be choose which are self-supporting or the projects selected be
such that their final products can be sold to partially support
the funds. Some such projects are improvising chemistry
apparatus, etc. Costly projects should be avoided. As it is not
suitable for drill and continuous and systematic teaching, it is
not very desirable to use it freely.
COMMON CENTRE METHOD

This is a system of organising a course rather than a method
of teaching. It is therefore better to call it concentric system or
approach. It implies widening of knowledge just as concentric
circles go on extending and widening. It is a system of
arrangement of subject matter. In this method the study of the
topic is spread over a number of years. It is based on the
principle that subject cannot be given an exhaustive treatment
at the first stage. To begin with, a simple presentation of the
subject is given and further knowledge is imparted in following
years. Thus beginning from a nucleus the circles of knowledge
go on widening year after year and hence the name concentric
method.
The Procedure: A topic is divided into a number of portions
which are then allotted to different classes. The criterion for
allotment of a particular portion of the course to a particular
class are the difficulty of portion and power of comprehension
of students in that age group. Thus it is mainly concerned with
year to year teaching but its influence can also be exercised in
day-to-day teaching. Knowledge be given today should follow
from knowledge given yesterday and should lead to teaching
on following day.
The Merits
(i) This method of organisation of subject matter is superior
to that in which one topic is taken up in particular class
and an effort is made to deal with all aspects of the
topic in that particular class.
(ii) In provides a frame work from science course which
is of real value to students.
(iii) The system is most successful when the teaching is in
hands of one teacher because then he can preserve
continuity in the teaching and keeps his expanding
circle concentric.
(iv) It provides opportunity for revision of work already
covered in a previous class and carrying out new work.
(v) It enables the teacher to cover a portion according to
receptivity of learner.
(vi) Since the same topic is learnt over many years so its
impressions are more lasting.
(vii) It does not allow teaching to become dull because
every year a new interest can be given to the topic.
Every year there are new problem to solve and new
difficulties to overcome.
The Drawbacks: For the success of this approach we require
really capable teacher. If a teacher becomes over ambitious and
exhausts all the possible interesting illustrations in the
introductory year then the subject loses its power of freshness
and appeal and nothing is left to create interest in the topic
in subsequent years.
In case the topic is too short or too long then also the
method is not found to be useful. A too long portion makes
the topic dull and a two short portion fails to leave any
permanent and lasting impression on the mind of the pupil.
Summary: It is a good method for being adopted for
arranging the subject matter. It should be kept in mind, by the
organisers, while organising the subject matter that no portion
is too long or too short. It would also be much useful if the
same teacher teaches the same class year after year so that he
can reserve some illustrative examples for each year and thus
can maintain the interest of the students in the topic.
DISCOVERING APPROACH
Heuristic method is a pure discovery method of learning
chemistry independent of teacher. The writings and teachings
of H.E. Armstrong, Professor of Chemistry at the City and
Guilds Institute, London, have had much influence in promoting
chemistry teaching in schools. He was a strong advocate of a
special type of laboratory training—heuristic training
(‘heuristic’ is derived from the Greek word meaning ‘to
discover’). In Heuristic method, the student be put in the place
of an independent discoverer. Thus no help or guidance is
provided by the teacher in this method. In this method the
teacher sets a problem for the students and then stands aside
while they discover the answer.
In words of Professor Armstrong, “Heuristic methods of
teaching are methods which involve our placing students as
far as possible in the attitude of the discoverer—methods which
involve their finding out instead of being merely told about
things”.
The method requires the student to solve a number of
problems experimentally. To almost every one - especially
children-experiments and chemistry are synonymous. Once
an idea occurs to a chemist he immediately thinks in terms of
ways of trying out his ideas to see if he is correct. Trying to
confirm or disprove something, or simply to test an idea, is
the backbone of the experiment. Experiments start with
questions in order to find answers, solve problems, clarify
ideas or just to see what happens. Experimenting should be
part of the elementary school chemistry programme as an aid
to helping children find solutions to chemistry problems as
well as for helping them to develop appreciation for one of the
basic tools of chemistry.
Procedure of the Method: The method requires the students
to solve a number of problems experimentally. Each student
is required to discover everything for himself and is to be told
nothing. The students are led to discover facts with the help
of experiments, apparatus and books. In this method the child
behaves like a research scholar.
In the stage managed heuristic method, a problem sheet
with minimum instructions is given to the student and he is
required to perform the experiments concerning the problem
in hand. He must follow the instructions, and enter in his note-
book an account of what he has done and results arrived at.
He must also put down his conclusion as to the bearing which
the result has on the problem in hand. In this way he is led
to reason from observation.
Essentially therefore, the heuristic method is intended to
provide a training in method. Knowledge is a secondary
consideration altogether. The method is formative rather than
informational.
The procedures and skills in chemistry problem solving
can only be developed in class rooms where searching is
encouraged, creative thinking is respected, and where it is safe
to investigate, try out ideas, and even make mistakes.
Teachers Attitudes: One of the most important aspects of
the problem solving approach to children’s development is
scientific thinking in the teachers attitude. His approach should
be teaching science with a question mark instead of with an
exclamation point. The acceptance of and the quest for unique
solutions for the problem that the class is investigating should
be a guiding principle in the teacher’s approach to his
programme of chemistry. Teachers must develop sensitiveness
to children and to their behaviour. Teachers should be ready
to accept any suggestion for the solution of problem regardless
of how irrelevant it may seem to him, for this is really the true
spirit of scientific problem solving. By testing various ideas it
can be shown to the child that perhaps his suggestion was not
in accord with the information available. It can then be shown
that this failure gets us much closer to the correct solution by
eliminating one possibility from many offered by the problem.
In this method teacher should avoid the temptation to tell
the right answer to save time. The teacher should be convinced
that road to scientific thinking takes time. Children should
never be exposed to ridicule for their suggestions of possible
answers otherwise they will show a strong tendency to stop
suggestions.
For success of this method a teacher should act like a guide
and should provide only that much guidance as is rightly
needed by the student. He should be sympathetic and courteous
and should be capable enough to plan and devise problems
for investigation by pupils. He should be capable of good
supervision and be able to train the pupils in a way that he
himself becomes dispensable.
Merits: This method of teaching chemistry has the following
merits:
(i) It develops the habit of enquiry and investigation
among students.
(ii) It develops habit of self learning and self direction.
(iii) It develops scientific attitudes among students by
making them truthful and honest for they learn how
to arrive at decisions by actual experimentations.
(iv) It is psychologically sound system of learning as it is
based on the maxim, “learning by doing”.
(v) It develops in the student a habit of diligency.
(vi) In this method most of the work is done in school and
so the teacher has no worry to assign or check home task.
(vii) It provides scope for individual attention to be paid by
the teacher and for closer contacts. These contacts help
in establishing cordial relations between the teacher
and the taught.
Limitations: Main limitations of this method are as under:
(i) It is a long and time consuming method and so it becomes
difficult to cover the prescribed syllabus in time.
(ii) It pre-supposes a very small class and a gifted teacher
and the method is too technical and scientific to be
handled by an average teacher. The method expects of
the teacher a great efficiency and hard work, experience
and training.
(iii) There is a tendency on the part of the teacher to
emphasize those branches and parts of the subject which
lend themselves to heuristic treatment and to ignore
important branches of the subject which do not involve
measurement and quantitative work and are therefore
not so suitable.
(iv) It is not suitable for beginners. In the early stages, the
students needs enough guidance which if not given,
may greatly disappoint them and it is possible that the
child may develop a distaste for studies.
(v) In this method too much stress is placed on practical
work which may lead a student to form a wrong idea
of the nature of chemistry as a whole. They grow up
in the belief that chemistry is some thing to be done
in the laboratory, forgetting that laboratories were made
for chemistry and not chemistry for laboratories.
(vi) The gradation of problems is a difficult task which
requires sufficient skill and training. The succession of
exercises is rarely planned to fit into a general scheme
for building up the subject completely.
(vii) Some times experiments are performed merely for sake
of doing them.
(viii) Learning by this method, pupils leave school with little
or no scientific appreciation of their physical
environment. The romance of modern scientific
discovery and invention remains out of picture for
them and the humanizing influence of the subject has
been kept away from them.
(ix) Evaluation of learning through heuristic method can
be quite tedious.
(x) Presently enough teachers are not available for
implementing learning by heuristic method.
Summary: This method cannot be successfully applied in
primary classes but this method can be given a trial in secondary
classes particularly in higher secondary classes. However, in
the absence of gifted teachers, well equipped laboratories and
libraries and other limitations this method has not been given
a trial in our schools. Even if these limitations are removed this
method may not prove much useful under the existing
circumstances and prevailing rules and regulations. Though
not recommending the use of heuristic method for teaching of
chemistry it may be suggested that at least a heuristic approach
prevails for teaching of chemistry in our schools. By heuristic
approach we mean that students be not spoon fed or be given
a dictation rather they be given opportunities to investigate,
to think and work independently alongwith traditional way
of teaching.
Aims and Objects of Teaching 125
Six
AIMS AND OBJECTS OF

TEACHING
In order to accomplish the task of teaching chemistry, it

is essential for us to be very clear about the purpose of teaching
chemistry. If we have a clear idea of what is to be achieved
them it would be easier to implement any prescribed course
in chemistry. This clarity of purpose would also be quite helpful
in measuring the effectiveness of teaching chemistry. The
purpose of teaching chemistry is based on certain aims and
objectives to be achieved. Teacher may use different methods
of teaching to achieve the purpose. Many educational reform
committees have emphasised spelling out aims and objectives
of teaching a particular course of study.
The aim of teaching chemistry refers to the advantages
that can be drawn or purposes that can be served by the study
of chemistry. The important aims of teaching chemistry are as
follows:
Knowledge Aim: The teaching of chemistry should increase
the knowledge of the individual and such an increase in
knowledge should help him in understanding himself and his
environment. Thus this knowledge should help him in his
daily life.
Practical Aim: The knowledge gained should be of practical
use to an individual. The individual should not only know the
principles, and facts but should be able to use these principles
in understanding his environment. For this the knowledge
should be related to the materials, with which the pupil is
familiar and should not be based on obsolete devices and
ideas.
Development of Scientific Attitude: Chemistry being a
physical science it aims at the development of scientific attitude
among the learners. It should be helpful in removing the
superstitions, false beliefs, wrong notions spread in the society
and cultivate the habits of proper reasoning, observation and
experiment action. One of the major aims of chemistry like any
other science subject is to develop scientific attitude and science
related values amongst students. It should train the student
in the method of science and should help develop in scientific
temper.
Cultural Aim: Present day civilization owes much to the
development of chemistry and for any further development
we have to strive for progressive improvement in the study
of chemistry. For this the chemistry be taught in schools in
such a way as (i) to grasp the progress in the field of chemistry
(ii) apply it for enhancement of our cultural heritage and
development of civilization and (iii) appreciate the study of
chemistry in the progress and development of culture and
civilization.
Social Aim: The study of chemistry should help inculcate
social virtues among the students for leading a well adjusted
social life and contributing significantly towards welfare and
progress of society. It should imbibe in him essential social
qualities and virtues for becoming a responsible useful citizen.
Vocational Aim: The knowledge of chemistry in the present
day world is essential for almost all the professions, and
vocations. To achieve the vocational aim we must prepare our
students for the different occupations and vocational courses.
This knowledge should also provide them proper opportunity
for adoption of some chemistry hobby and engage themselves
in small scale industries and self employment projects.
Utilisation of Leisure Time: The knowledge of chemistry
should be useful to an individual to learn ways and means of
utilizing his leisure hours more fruitfully.
Psychological Aim: Teaching of chemistry provides to an
individual various opportunities for satisfying his varying
psychological needs and this help him grow and develop as
a well balanced individual.
Skill Aim: Like any other science subject, the teaching of
chemistry should aim to develop useful skills pertaining to
scientific observation, experimentation and practical use of
scientific facts and principles.
SYSTEMS OF LEARNING
It has already been pointed out that two basic aims of
teaching chemistry are (i) development of scientific attitude
and (ii) training in scientific methods.
A ‘scientific method’ is a method which is used for solving
a problem scientifically. It is also referred as ‘the method of
science’ on or ‘the method of a scientist. Sometimes it is called
as ‘problem solving method’. So far it has not been possible
to arrive at any commonly agreed definition of scientific
method.
The scientific method of teaching chemistry is based upon
the process of finding out results by attacking a problem in
definite steps, therefore there cannot be any one ‘particular
method’ but such methods have certain common characteristics.
According to Fitzpatrick, “Science is a cumulative and
endless series of empirical observations which result in the
formation of concepts and theories, with both concepts and
theories being subject to modification in the light for their
empirical observation.
Science is both the study of knowledge and the process of
acquiring and refining knowledge”. From this it becomes quite
clear that students of chemistry be exposed to the scientific
method of finding out. Scientific method helps to develop in
a student the power of reasoning, critical thinking and
application of scientific knowledge. It also helps in developing
positive attitudes amongst the pupils.
A list of such traits as given by Woodburn and Oburn is
as under:
(i) A scientist must have an unsatiable curiosity,
inquisitiveness and a spirit of adventure.
(ii) He should be capable of independent thinking and be
ready to abandon the disproved.
(iii) He should be knowledgeable, enlightened and
informed.
(iv) He should possess a power of sound judgement and
prudent foresight.
(v) He should possess a high degree of perseverance.
Steps of Scientific Method: Since we don’t have any single
well defined scientific method so we cannot have any well
defined fixed steps for a scientific method. However in general
the scientific method of teaching chemistry proceeds in the
following steps;
(i) Problem in an area of chemistry learning is identified
and well stated.
(ii) Relevant data is collected.
(iii) Certain hypothesis are proposed for testing.
(iv) Experiments are set and done to test the proposed
hypothesis.
(v) Prediction of other observable phenomenon are
deduced from the hypothesis.
(vi) Occurence or non-occurence of predicted phenomenon
is observed.
(vii) From observations, the conclusion are drawn to accept,
reject or modify the proposed hypothesis.
Thus the scientific method is a sequenced and structured
way of finding out the results through experiments. Various
steps of scientific method are discussed here.
Statement of the Problem: A student comes across so many
things which arouse his curiosity and he has a large number
of questions to ask. A good chemistry teacher always
encourages his students to ask questions and tries to answer
them in a simple and understandable manner.
However in answering a particular question the teacher
brings to the fore many new problems and it has rightly been
said that, “when we double the known, we quadruple the
unknown”.
Most of the question asked are about ‘what?’, ‘why?’ or
‘how?’ type and these can be conveniently classified as under:
(i) ‘what’ type of questions are predictive
(ii) ‘why’ type of questions are explanatory
(iii) ‘how’ type of questions are inventory
The most important thing in a scientific method is a simple
and well defined statement of the problem. The statement of
the problem be such that it clearly defines the scope of the
problem as also its limitations.
Data Collection: When the problem has been stated in
clear terms an effort be made to collect the data from as many
different source as is possible. Such data may be available in
books in chemistry, library which are an important source for
data collection. Data may be collected by use of certain
instruments etc. and observations. In data collection an effort
be made to minimise the errors that are likely to be caused due
to apparatus and instruments used (mechanical errors) and those
which are likely to be caused due to personal bias (personal errors).
Proposing a Hypothesis: On the basis of collected data a
tentative hypothesis is proposed for testing. A hypothesis is
in fact a certain tentative solution to the problem. The hypothesis
should be proposed only after an objective analysis of the
available data because any number of hypothesis can be
proposed for a problem. For an objective analysis the student
be given a training so that he is free from all his bias towards
the problem.
Conducting Experiments: After a hypothesis has been
proposed suitable experiments are designed to test the validity
of the hypothesis. From the observations of such experiments
the validity of the hypothesis is tested. The experiments will
show the occurrence or non-occurence of the expected
phenomenon and from this we will be able to accept or reject
or modify the hypothesis.
The Advantages
Some of the advantages of scientific methods are:
(i) Students learn chemistry by their own experiences and
the teacher is just a guide who provides them an
opportunity and proper environment for learning
chemistry.
(ii) It trains the students to identify and formulate scientific
problems.
(iii) It gives enough training to students in techniques of
information processing.
(iv) It develops in students the power of logical thinking
as he is required to interpret data in a logical way.
(v) It helps to develop an intellectual honesty in the student
because he is required to accept or reject the hypothesis
on the basis of evidences available.
(vi) It helps the students to learn to see relationships and
patterns amongst things and variables.
(vii) It provides the students a training in the methods and
skills of discovering new knowledge.
The Disadvantages
Some important disadvantages of scientific methods are as
under:
(i) It is a long drawn out and time consuming process.
(ii) It can never be a full fledged method of learning
chemistry.
(iii) Majority of chemistry teachers cannot implement it
successfully because of their back of exposure to such
a method.
(iv) It is not suitable for all students as it suits only bright
and creative students.
Summary: We summarise the aims and objectives of
teaching chemistry at various stages in India. These are taken
from the reports submitted by various commissions, committees
etc. which form the basis of chemistry curricula to be taught
at various stages of school education.
In 1950 a report was published by Ministry of Education,
Govt. of India which listed the aims of teaching of chemistry
(science) in schools as follows:
Upto Middle School Level

(a) To develop interest in nature and environment.
(b) To develop creativeness and inventiveness of students.
(c) To inculcate scientific methods.
(d) To develop ability to generalise facts.
(e) To make them understand various social implications
of chemistry.
(f) Development of some chemistry-based hobbies and
leisure time activities.
At Secondary Level
(a) To enable students to adjust to their environment after
understanding it.
(b) To help them to get a feel of scientific methods.
(c) To develop scientific attitude and scientific temper in
them.
The major objectives of the syllabus developed, for
secondary-schools in India by, National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT) are as under:
(i) To strengthen the concept developed at a secondary
level and further develop near concepts to provide a
sound back ground for higher studies.
(ii) To develop a competence in students to offer
professional courses like engineering, medicines etc. as
their future career.
(iii) To acquaint the students with different aspects of
chemistry used in daily life and enable them to recognise
that chemistry plays an important role in the service
of man.
(iv) To expose the students to different processes used in
industries and their technological applications.
(v) To provide relevant content materials useful for
vocational courses.
(vi) To develop an interest in students to study chemistry
as a discipline.
AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
In an introductory class of audio-visual education from B.Ed.
students it was asked some of their earliest school experiences.
Following were some of their answers:
(i) “The earliest school experience was when I made things
out of plasticine.”
(ii) “When in class 3rd we made a model of iglu out of
sugar cubes.”
(iii) “When I went to see a zoo in my 2nd grade.”
(iv) “When we did gardening in a small-comer of the school.”
(v) “When I played the role of little red riding hood in
kindergarten.”
(vi) “The puppet show I saw in the school.”
Dozens of similar experiences were reported by these
(college) students. All these are varied experiences but we see
one similarity, they could remember the experiences where
they are involved in doing something, when they were active,
when more senses were involved. These are some of the
experiences where effort was not made to memorise them, on
the other hand we do not always remember the facts or concepts
that we try hard to memorise. From this we can generalise that
learning becomes comparatively permanent when concreteness
is there in the experiences. The various experiences help in
developing concepts.
The process of building concepts operates naturally from
the time a child begins to draw certain conclusions from his
experiences and applies these conclusions to new situations.
It continues thereafter as he makes new generalisations from
new experiences and experiences in which new and old
experiences are combined. The overall activity of building
concepts, therefore is a realistic definition of Education. Now
we can say that two elements are involved in building concepts:
(1) Certain amount of concrete experiences, and (2) Combining
and recombining these concrete experiences in many ways.
When we apply this to classroom teaching, audio-visual aids
play a very important role in concept formation and therefore
in permanent learning.
Important Traits
If we see teaching of science in schools of our country by
and large we will find teachers lecturing or even reading out
from the books and explaining few things on the blackboard.
Some teachers use some demonstrations, charts and models
but not very frequently and many a times students memorise
things without understanding. Audio-visual aids if properly
used help in teaching learning process in many ways (as given
below) and can ensure quick and effective learning.
(i) The timely use of proper aids compels attention,
develops interest and motivates students.
(ii) They break the monotony of teacher’s talk, reduce
verbalism, save time (of long verbal explanations) and
give a better idea of the real things.
(iii) Audio-visual aids can make learning experiences far
more concrete; therefore clarification of concepts, better
understanding and long lasting learning are possible.
(iv) Great many teaching problems can be solved partly or
wholly by the proper use of rich experiences (through
audio-visual aids); therefore they offer great
opportunities for improved learning.
The Kinds
Variety of audio-visual aids can be used in science teaching.
They can be classified in various ways.
(a) One way of grouping them is as follows:
Visual Aids: charts, photographs, diagrams, static and
working models, etc.
Auditory Aids: radio, recordings on tapes, and cassettes.
Audio-visual Aids: films, T.V. etc.
(b) Another way of classifying can be:
Graphic Aids: diagrams, photographs, charts, play cards.
Three-Dimensional Aids: models, specimens, real objects,
apparatus, dioramas etc.
Projected Aids: slides, films, etc.
Aids Through Activity: excursions, projects setting and
maintenance of aquarium, vivarium, botanical garden etc.
Applicability
Some of these aids are more concrete in nature and some
of them are comparatively more abstract. Edger Dale has
arranged the various audio-visual aids in pictorial form which
he called “Cone of Experiences”.
Verbal symbols
¯
Visual symbols
¯
Radio Recordings
¯
Still pictures
¯
Motion pictures
¯
Exhibits
¯
Field trips
¯
Demonstrations
¯
Dramatic participation
¯
Contrived experiences
¯
Real Direct experiences
Fig. Edger Dale Cone of Experiences
This is a kind of visual aid to visualise and explain the

interrelationship of various types of audio-visual material as
well as their position in learning process.
At the top of the Cone are verbal symbols which are most
abstract and at the base are the direct purposeful experiences
which are most concrete form of experiences. This is only a
pictorial form where all sorts of aids and experiences are
arranged in a Cone. The various bands of the cone representing
various experiences and aids, should not be considered as
rigid divisions or watertight compartments. They overlap and
blend with each other.
For example you can be a viewer of an exhibit or a person
who made it, you can observe a demonstration or can
demonstrate it yourself. It is also not being suggested that the
various aids and materials are arranged in the form of their
effectiveness but they are arranged from most abstract to most
concrete. As a teacher we should also know that abstract ideas,
concepts, or generalisations are not possible without rich
meaningful concrete experiences. A science teacher has to pick
and choose the aids according to the maturity levels of the
students and the topic to be studied. We will discuss the
strengths and limitations of each in teaching sciences.
The base of the Cone of experiences represents “direct
purposeful experiences.” Here the word ‘purposeful’ is very
important. Every direct experience may not be very meaningful,
therefore, it may not be purposeful. We have to see the direct
experience in terms to learning outcome. In cases where the
real things are too small or too big to comprehend, direct
experiences are not very effective and therefore are not
purposeful. For example, “structure of atom,” “working of a
factory,” “water supply in a city” etc., can be understood better
by some indirect experiences like models, maps or charts, etc.
In teaching science many direct experiences can be given
to the students for effective comprehension. Some examples
are: observing real flowers, leaves, plants, insects; dissecting
animals; taking a walk through woods; going to the seashore
and observing marine animals; doing salt analysis in the lab;
setting and maintaining an aquarium, etc. In such cases learning
is by direct participation.
The science teacher has to decide what direct experiences
will be purposeful for his classes and then try to give them as
many experiences as possible because direct and concrete
experiences soon become associated with abstractions and help
in developing more difficult concepts.
What are Contrived Experiences?: Next in the hierarchy
towards abstraction are contrived experiences. Examples of
contrived experiences are static models, working models,
specimens, dioramas, etc. Contrived experiences may differ
from the original in size (big things are made smaller and
smaller things are made bigger) and complexity. It usually is
a simplified and edited version of the real thing, where the
unnecessary details can be removed to make the learning clear.
For example a petroleum refinery is difficult to comprehend
in a real situation but its model will be more meaningful. In
the same way models of places where it is difficult or impossible
to reach and see can give a clear idea, like models of globe,
volcano, parts and systems of the body, bottom of the ocean,
view of a forest, polar region, etc. Sometimes we imitate the
whole natural habitat in the form of dioramas and keep in
museums. Cutaway or half cut models are extremely useful
in teaching internal structure of eye, ear, stem, root and
automobile, etc.
There are some examples where nobody has seen the real
thing, the models are made on the basis of indirect evidences
like model of atom, DNA structure. Here the whole concept
is developed on the basis of these imaginary models.
While teaching through the models, teacher should give
the idea of the real thing, regarding their size and complexity.
All models are not correct reproduction of their originals, they
are only simplified versions.
Objects and Specimens: Objects and specimens are very
common in science laboratories. These are also examples of
contrived experiences. We collect rocks from various places.
Different kinds of plants and animals are collected; pressing,
preserving and sniffing are done for storing and study purposes.
The objects and specimens are taken from the real settings.
They are samples of real things minus real settings.
The specimens are collected and stored so that they are
readily available for study purposes. Another most important
advantage of objects and specimens which is not otherwise
possible in direct experience is that they can be arranged into
groups and classes.
Different Kinds
This has been placed on the 3rd band of Cone of experiences.
Dramatisation means substitute for real experience of
reconstruction of the original reality. There are many things
we cannot possibly experience at first hand. There is a great
value of dramatisation in education. Students can participate
in a dramatisation or watch some kind of dramatisation. Both
are valuable experiences but participation is much more
meaningful and closer to reality than only watching.
The question is “What is the scope of dramatisation in
science teaching?” Dramatic acts are quite popular in languages
and social sciences. In sciences also the scope is not limited.
The films made on the work of various scientists are only
possible because of dramatisation. Such films are quite effective
as such experiences are otherwise not possible.
Students of primary and middle classes participate in
scientific dramatised act in schools, such activities are also
brought to science fairs etc. Some very abstract and
uninteresting ideas are taken for dramatisations, for example,
different students act as various components of solar system
with proper costumes, dialogues, songs, music and dance, and
the abstract concepts become clear and leave a long lasting
impact on participants and viewers; students act as various
petroleum products and explain how they are formed and
utilised like coal, petrol, vaseline, synthetic rubber and plastic
etc. Functions of vitamins and other components of food can
also be taught through dramatisation.
It is also possible to use dramatisation in classroom teaching
where costumes are not necessarily required but different
students can remember their parts and act out in the classroom.
Interdependence of various components of an ecosystem
and balance of nature can also be explained interestingly
through dramatisation. An imaginative science teacher can
think of many such topics which can be taught more effectively
through such activities. Thus dramatisation can become an
effective teaching aid in teaching science.
Demonstrations: Demonstrations are quite familiar
activities in science class-rooms. Their merits and demerits
have been discussed at length in the Cone of experiences they
have been placed on the fourth band from the base because
it is essentially a process of observing. It differs from the first
three bands, which are essentially doing. Demonstrations are
used to show how something is done or not done. When
demonstration is followed by doing on the part of students,
it becomes very much meaningful.
Demonstrations are used to clarify ideas, and help to
develop skills, processes and attitudes. They are not limited
only to demonstrations through apparatus only. They can be
used to clarify abstract ideas on the chalkboard, through slides
or motion picture also.
Demonstrations can be improved to a great extent if certain
points are kept in mind while planning and doing a demonstration.
• Plan all steps of demonstration in advance.
• Rehearse the demonstration before going to the class-
room.
• Keep the demonstration simple as far as possible.
• Keep the students involved.
• Make it sure that all the students can see it.
• Outline various points on the board.
• Keep summarising various steps.
What is Field Trip or Excursion?: A field trip or excursion
is a planned visit to a point outside the regular classroom. It
may be in the school, out in the community or it could be a
long trip to far away places. Usually in field trips to places like
visits to a factory, observatory, agricultural institute, poultry
farms, museums etc., we often see other people doing things.
As spectators we are not involved but we directly watch it and
get a first hand knowledge. Therefore field trip is an excellent
bridge between the work of the classroom and the work of the
outside world.
The chief difference between a field trip and other
educational experiences is that the student get their experiences
in the field and not in the classroom. Because of its nature to
be mostly observation it is kept on the 5th band of the Cone
of experiences as less concrete than other experiences. But if
the field trips are planned and arranged in such a way that
they go beyond observation, for example of a sea-beach, on a
pond where they can also touch, feel and collect things, it
becomes a direct experience for them. Such a variation in the
field trip indicates again how the bands of the Cone interlap
and blend into one another.
Importance of the Field Trips: Excursions or Field Trips are
of great educational value especially in science subjects. The
classroom is a limited place, bounded normally by four walls
and meagrely equipped for the task or providing students
with worthwhile experiences. The environment outside the
classroom has no bounds; it has almost every conceivable
situation that a teacher might wish to utilise. In school corridor
students may study writing system for supply of electricity to
different rooms and laboratories, may determine the power (in
watts). On school grounds there may be various types of plants,
birds, insects, different kinds of soil, sun-shine and shadows,
building materials, bicycles, scooters and cars. And just beyond
the school boundaries lie the unlimited resources of community.
Contributions of an Excursion or Field Trip

(i) Field experiences are first hand experiences. They arise
from direct learning situations. Sometimes they play
the same role or even better in the learning of science
as do experiments and demonstrations.
(ii) Field experiences tend to be much more meaningful
and permit easier transfer of learning to solutions of
real life problems.
(iii) Fieldwork if properly organised awakens many
interests that classroom work cannot arouse. Fieldwork
is the study of actual objects which stimulate more
curiosity than to ideas. Out of almost any situation
encountered in the field can develop into some
challenging problems.
(iv) Fieldwork permits first-hand study of many things
that cannot be brought into the classroom because of
size and other inconvenience, e.g., it is only outside the
class that the students can be acquainted with the flora
and fauna of the area.
(v) Fieldwork permits a class to engage in activities that
are too noisy or too violent to be used in the classroom,
e.g., a model aeroplane, gasoline engine if demonstrated
in the classroom would disturb the other neighbouring
classes too.
(vi) Outdoors, students are able to work with large size
materials, e.g., an iron piece pipe makes a more impressive
lever than a routine stick and erosion is better
demonstrated from a garden hose than with a tiny
trickle from a yet drawn in a glass tube.
Some Special Experiences of Field Trips: Fieldwork brings
students in contact with many objects. The observation and
manipulation of objects in the environment are bound to arise
questions. Attempts to answer questions give rise to new
problems.
Field trips can be used for review and drill. Ideas learnt
in classroom can be better fixed in mind in actual situations,
e.g., by visiting factories the ideas of running a plant and the
products manufactured can be better fixed in students’ minds,
or visiting a zoological park or a botanical garden, more abstract
ideas about animal and plant life can be more clarified to
students.
Difficulties Experienced in Arranging Field Trips. Lack of
availability of good inventories regarding field experiences,
school policies, and transportation problems create hurdles in
arranging field trips. Therefore the teacher will have to take
a key role if he wants to arrange the trip.
Procedure to Arrange Field Trips

1. Survey of the place of excursion should be taken before
going to the field trip, so that the teacher knows before-
hand what their students are to see there; or what
relevant literature should be studied if places are far
away.
2. Objectives of the field trips should be very carefully
identified to make a field rip a success. If this is done
teacher knows what he is going to teach and the
students know what they are going to learn there.
3. Permission from the authorities and parents of students
should be taken well in advance.
4. Appropriate activities compatible to the identified
objectives should be listed and given as well as
discussed with the students beforehand.
5. If there is a need for transport and place to stay they
should be arranged in advance.
Preparation of Students/or Excursion
1. It is essential to brief students after arriving at the area.
This should be as minimum as possible. A long lecture
may deprive the students of an opportunity to explore
the place.
2. Students should be divided into small groups appointing
a group leader for each group. Group leaders may help
in running fieldwork smoothly and quickly.
3. You as a teacher should be aware of the fact that there
are slow as well as rapid learners. Activities and
responsibilities should be so divided among the students
as to be equally shared by both type of students without
any feeling that they are slow learners or rapid learners.
4. Students should be made aware that there may be some
difficulties like: (a) noise while visiting any working
plant in a factory, (b) listening to the guide due to
distance while standing around him, or (c) technical
language used in explaining particular process; and
they should try to solve such difficulties themselves as
far as possible.
5. Students may be advised to take notes and draw
diagrams, whenever they think it is necessary.
Teacher’s Role: The teacher’s role is very important for a
successful field trip. Some of them are listed below:
1. Watches students closely and gives specific help as
and when needed.
2. Recognises student’s achievement.
3. Avoids frequent interruption in student’s work but
occasionally if it is justified.
4. Does not lecture while in field?
5. Avoids loud voiced comments.
6. Acts as a guide, resource person or consultant.
7. Does the relevant follow-up activities of the trip?
Follow-up Activities: Follow-up activities are very
important in any kind of field trip, it may be a short trip just
outside the classroom or a long excursion to various far away
places.
Follow-up activities vary according to the nature of
excursion. If the field trip is taken just outside the classroom
in the school lawns to find the population densities of various
species of plants, the follow-up activity will include the pooling
up of data collected by each student or each group of students
and discussion on the result. If the field trip is an observational
trip to places like factories, mills, observatories or hospitals,
discussion about what they have learned is important.
Field trip can also be taken to study the fauna and flora
and collection of specimens from seashore, hill stations or any
other places. If such field trip is taken by the students follow-
up activities will include pressing of plants, preservation of
animals, drying of insects, classification and displaying of
material. If proper care has not been taken just after or during
the trip (in case of long trips) the materials collected cannot
be utilised properly and goes to waste. Sometimes the students
and teachers are quite enthusiastic while planning and taking
the field trip, but forget about the material after the big
excitement or do not do the follow-up activities properly,
therefore, the field trip is not as effective as it should be.
In short we can say that follow-up activities should be
planned according to the objectives of the field trip. Science
teachers should plan their objectives for the field trip well and
do the follow-up accordingly for better understanding.
Exhibits: There is a big variety of exhibits. Sometimes they
are three-dimensional working models, sometimes a series of
photographs or photographs mixed with charts, models and
real objects. But exhibits are essentially something one sees as
a spectator. Usually one is not involved in handling any thing
or working with the material. Science teachers take their
students to show the science fairs where different kinds of
exhibits can be seen. They are also of great educational value.
Sometimes they may also influence the attitudes.
When students are involved in making exhibits, it becomes
a direct experience for them. Investigatory science projects
done by students can be displayed as exhibits. Exhibits can
also be used by the science teachers to teach subject matter.
Museum: Museums are places where items and exhibits of
knowledge are assembled, protected and studied. In big cities
there are public museums of various kinds like art museums,
history museums, science museums, and natural history
museums etc. Here we are concerned with science and natural
history museums. In our country there are not very many
science and natural history museums. But if they are available
in your cities, advantage should be taken from them.
Mostly Science and Natural History Museums (Science
museum in Bangalore, Natural History Museum in Darjeeling
and New Delhi) have two functions: (i) presentation and display
of the materials, and (ii) to work with classroom teachers on
specific curriculum unit. If this facility is given by the public
museums, science teachers should take full advantage of such
arrangements.
The other kind of museums are college and school museums
for various subjects. Biology museums are quite common
museums established in some form or the other in many schools
and colleges. Museum should not be considered as a collection
of various items and objects. It is more than that, it must be
viewed with an idea, a process, and an objective. Therefore
science museums should not emphasise only on the product
of science but due importance should also be given to science
processes.
There is a big scope of displaying of specimens and objects
collected by students. Models and projects made by students
could also be displayed there. In fact development of museum
can be taken as one of the science club activities.
Motion Pictures and Television: Next on the cone towards
little more abstraction comes the TV and motion pictures
because we are only the viewers of these audio-visual aids.
First we will discuss the motion pictures.
Motion Pictures 16-mm Educational Films: It is not possible
to learn everything by doing or first-hand viewing. We have
to get some of our experiences indirectly, 16-mm films play a
very important role in giving this indirect experience. Motion
pictures present an abstracted version of the real events omitting
unnecessary and unimportant details, they can, sometimes
dramatised events so effectively filmed that we feel as though
we are present at the reality itself. No other medium has
brought so much information and scientific knowledge to the
classrooms as the educational sound motion pictures.
There are various kinds of motion pictures. Here we are
concerned with the educational films. Educational films include
documentary and instructional films. Though some documentary
films can be used in classroom teaching but they are especially
planned for classroom teaching purposes. On the other hand
instructional films are specially planned to achieve certain
educational objectives and are made in specific subject areas
tor teaching purposes. These films can be background films or
direct teaching films. They help to promote to achieve a skill,
an attitude or to convey certain facts, information, phenomenon
or theory. As a science teacher we will be mainly concerned
with the instructional films in our areas.
Though we are only spectators before a motion picture but
the learning outcomes are quite effective because of certain
specific values of motion pictures.
For 16-mm films, 16-mm movie projectors are needed.
Now video cassettes of 16-mm films are available, which can
be seen on TV. with V.C.P. or V.C.R.
Strengths of Motion Pictures
(a) Motion pictures motivate the students and compel
attention.
(b) Movement can very effectively be shown by motion
pictures which is not possible in any other aid except
direct experience.
(c) It is an edited version of reality, the editing involves
manipulation of time, space and by eliminating
distractions; it gives relationships of things, ideas and
events that might well be overlooked in real life. For
example, food web, food chain, etc., can be seen as
continuous processes which is not possible in reality.
(d) Time can be controlled in a motion picture with the
help of slow motion photography, “movements in
animals, insects, flight of birds” can be understood
very easily. With the help of time-lapse photography
it is possible to see the blooming of flowers, germination
of seeds, growths of plants, etc.
(e) Motion pictures can enlarge or reduce the actual size
of the objects for better compensation. By means of
microscopic lens attachments microscopic organisms
like algae, fungi, protozoas, and blood circulation in
capillaries etc. can easily be seen and understood by
students.
(f) By X-ray cine photography techniques movements of
internal organs of animals—action of arms, legs,
movement of the heel, swallowing of food, heart-
beating/ living movements, etc., can be shown.
(g) Motion pictures can bring past and distant present into
the classroom.
(h) With the help of animation techniques motion pictures
can show processes which cannot be seen by human
eye even with the help of microscope or telescope.
For example, behaviour of molecules in solids, liquids and
gases, phenomenon of nuclear fission and fusion, etc.
(i) Motion pictures can reproduce the record of events
like lunar and solar eclipses, etc. which are not always
possible to see. Complicated techniques can be filmed
and reproduced when required.
(j) Motion pictures promote understanding of abstract
relationship, offer a satisfying aesthetic experience,
influence and even change in attitudes.
With so many values, motion pictures not only expedite
the rate of learning but they also increase the scope of teaching.
This is an important consideration in the field of science where
mass of learning and the learning processes are expanding so
rapidly that it is to keep hand up with them. Motion pictures
enable the teacher to clarify the difficult concepts in less time
than with any other technique.
In order to get the most effective use of films or video
tapes, the following necessary information and skills should
be acquired:
(i) Where to obtain appropriate films or video tapes?
(ii) How to use such films and video tapes in your teaching?
(iii) How to operate the 16-mm film projector, V.C.R, V.C.R.?
School, college and university teachers have to spend some
time to find films or video cassettes which they can integrate
into their courses. It is possible to find suitable films or video
cassettes on various science subjects. Securing catalogues will
be important for this purpose.
For an effective use of films or video cassettes, preparation
and follow-up are two very important steps to be taken by a
teacher. Teacher should select the film or video cassette which
goes along with the topic. The film or video cassette should
be previewed and important points to be covered in the lesson
should be outlined.
It will be advisable to frame few short answer questions.
These questions can be given to the students before showing
the film or video. During the follow-up activity unanswered
questions and other important points should be discussed.
Such activities help in coordinating the film or video with the
topic. In the absence of such coordination sometimes the film
or video becomes a wastage of time and effort.
The next point is to learn to operate the 16-mm projector
and V.C.P./V.C.R. which is not very difficult to learn. Ordinarily
only a few hours instruction followed by a brief practice results
in satisfactory operation. Simple threading and operating
instructions are given somewhere on the projector, which
should be followed carefully. The possibilities of error should
not discourage the teacher but it should be taken as challenge.
The thrill of this educational device will compensate for minor
disappointments.
Caution to be Observed in Using Films or Videos: Motion
pictures may not necessarily be effective for teaching
everything. As a teacher you have to be cautious about certain
things.
• You have to think about the effectiveness of the film or
video. If other experiences like direct or contrived are
more meaningful, film or video should not be used.
• Sometimes the film or video gives a wrong idea about
the time notion and size notion. It should be clarified to
the students by comparing it with a known object or
by giving a familiar example.
• If inexpensive devices are available with the same
effectiveness as motion pictures, then less expensive
devices should be used.
• Teacher should see that the film or video is adequate
for the comprehension of his/her students.
School T.V. Programmes: Television has all the potentialities
of motion picture with a little more concreteness because of
the “on the spot coverage” and the nature of the TV
programmes, as most of them are specially produced for a
particular audience. This is more so for educational TV
programmes. In many countries educational TV programmes
include series of science programmes.
Educational TV in India: Experimental TV Service was
inaugurated on September 15th, 1959. This programme was
planned for educational and cultural values of community and
designed for community viewing. In the meantime Ford
Foundation in India was approached to assist in the
development of educational TV. Ford Foundation team of TV
experts visited India in February 1960. In 1961 Television was
started in India as an educational TV project. The project was
launched in close collaboration with the Delhi Directorate of
Education and with the financial assistance of the Ford
Foundation in 1961.
The educational TV programmes were integrated with the
school syllabus based on the principle of direct teaching. Direct
teaching implied that the TV programmes were directly related
with the school syllabus. They were proposed to help in
classroom teaching by bringing into classroom additional
resources through the medium of TV. The students were
benefited from talented teachers, best and expensive equipment
and other audio-visual aids which were not usually available
in schools. In the project the teachers were also fully involved
from the planning to evaluation. This arrangement of
instructional TV was working well in Delhi schools because
there was a set prescribed syllabus. In some other advanced
countries there is not any set syllabus for all but they have
different syllabi chosen by teachers and students. Their
educational TV programmes are not strictly integrated with
the syllabi.
In Delhi the educational programmes started in General
Science, Social Studies, Physics and Chemistry. Later Biology
Maths and Geography were also included.
For proper functioning of educational TV and better
coordination between Doordarshan and Schools a Television
Branch was set up in 1967 in Delhi Directorate of Education.
The TV branch used to divide the syllabus term-wise and
week-wise, and select lessons for TV teaching. To ensure close
relationship between TV and classroom teaching, a package of
a uniform time-table, set examination days and working hours,
and a uniform weekly syllabus in the form of a TV booklet was
to be distributed to all viewing schools in the beginning of the
school session. Such TV booklets used to be prepared for each
subject taught on TV. But now we do not have such school TV
programmes in Delhi or elsewhere in the country.
This kind of educational TV programme if started again
can solve several problems of science teaching in our schools.
Merits
1. It solves the problem of unequipped laboratories to
certain extent. Students are able to see effective
demonstrations and expensive apparatus which is
otherwise not possible for them to see.
2. TV teachers prepare and rehearse a lesson, spend
enough time to collect relevant material and up-to-
date information.
3. It has all advantages of films plus being a live
presentation seems more natural. Only relevant
portions of films are shown, along with teacher’s
explanation and other visual material.
Demerits
1. It is a one way process and students are passive viewers.
2. There is no opportunity for an active participation of
the learner during TV lesson.
Better Utilisation of Educational TV: The disadvantages
can be removed if some preparation is done and precautions
are taken by the classroom teacher.
For effective use of any mass media three things are
important: proper reception, proper seating arrangement,
carefully planned preparation and follow-up.
Good reception is one of the basic important things for
effective viewing. The television branch in Delhi had the
responsibility of installing and maintenance of TV sets. The
coordination had to be done by the teachers and administration
of the school. Classroom teacher was also be familiar with
proper handling and minor adjustments of a TV set.
Next important thing is the proper seating arrangements.
If a big crowd is sitting on the floor (without any discipline)
in an auditorium or classroom, not sure of proper viewing, this
kind of arrangement will be a waste of time. The classroom
teacher was to see that there was proper seating arrangement.
TV presentation is only one part of the learning procedure.
Preparation for the TV lesson or the pre-telecast activities and
the follow-up or post-telecast activities by the classroom teacher
are equally important without which the TV lesson may not
be very much meaningful.
Pre-telecast activities included the preparation by the subject
teacher. Preparation varied with class to class and also
depended on the topic, the classroom teacher could see the
topic of the TV lesson in advance from the TV booklet. During
pre-telecast activities his job was to make the students ready
to receive the TV instructions. He could ask motivational
questions. If some background knowledge was needed it was
to be given at this time. The time-table was arranged in such
a way that there were about 10 minutes before and after the
actual telecast, usually the presentation was of 20 minutes
duration, and class periods varied from 35-40 minutes.
After the TV presentation follow-up activities included
clarification of points of doubts raised by students.
Recapitulation questions could also be asked to see how much
they have grasped. With little encouragement by the classroom
teacher many activities could be followed by students as
continuation of the TV presentation for better understanding.
The TV branch of Delhi also tried to evaluate the lessons.
They used to send a printed pad of evaluation check sheets
to each school for the constant feedback of TV lessons. If
various people connected with educational TV production do
their jobs consciously the E.T.V. programmes can be quite
effective. You as a science teacher has to play an important
role. During your practice teaching you can observe some
science lessons on video tapes, evaluate them according to the
evaluation check sheet developed by you and give suggestions
for further improvement.
Radio Recordings and Still Pictures: Next stage on the
cone of experiences after motion pictures is the number of
those devices which can be called as one-dimensional aids. We
will take the scope of each in teaching science one by one.
Kinds of Still Pictures: Various kinds of still pictures can
be used in teaching science. They include photographs,
illustrations and slides. These visual materials are of great
importance in teaching learning situations. Photographs and
illustrations can be used without projection, slides can be
projected on the screen with slide projectors. Therefore pictures
can be divided into two kinds: (i) unprojected, and (ii) projected.
Unprojected Pictures: Photographs, illustrations and
clippings of photographs from magazines and newspapers
can be collected for teaching purposes. Pictures give a correct
impression of the object or situation and motivate and enrich
teaching. It is good to have relevant pictures on the walls of
science rooms—pictures of great scientists and some of their
apparatus, etc. Pictures can also be used in teaching for
motivation, introduction, presentation or recapitulation as the
need may be.
Pictures and illustrations with some theme can be displayed
on a bulletin board.
Bulletin Board: It is a place for posting “bulletins”, as the
name suggests. Bulletin boards can be used in many different
ways and as an effective “teaching device”. Bulletin boards
inside and outside the science rooms and laboratories can be
used for putting visual materials (pictures, illustrations) with
relevant heading and some labelling for supplementing the
teaching. It should be of scientific interest and importance.
With proper teacher guidance and motivation bulletin boards
can provide opportunity of developing creativity, responsibility
and interest among the students. Other than displaying the
photographs and illustrations, bulletin boards can also be used
for displaying reports of science projects done by students,
science news and cuttings from science magazines, collected
and presented by them.
Projected Pictures: Projection of visuals have certain
advantages. For example, projection magnifies the material,
therefore, a bigger group can easily see it. It is somehow
motivating, therefore, compels attention. Different kinds of
projectors aroused in classrooms for projecting still pictures.
They all are very easy to use, with little planning on the part
of the teacher, teaching can be quite effective.
Opaque Projector of Episcope: The opaque projector
projects and simultaneously enlarges material directly from
original books, magazines, etc. All kinds of written, printed or
pictorial matter in any sequence can be projected for teaching
purpose. It can also project opaque thin objects like leaves,
shells, sample of fabrics, butterflies, moths, etc. Designs for
posters, maps, pictures for displaying on bulletin boards etc.,
can be projected in the desired enlarged forms and then traced.
The opaque projector though has many unexplored possibilities
but is not being used much because of its bulk, weight and
requirement of a very dark room.
Slide Projector: Such projectors usually project 35 mm
slides. It is essentially a simple machine, easy to operate,
inexpensive and light weight. It has most of the points of
practical importance.
Slides can be shown individually in any desired order.
(i) Slides are of great value in visual teaching situation,
when motion is of little or no importance, for example,
in teaching structural details.
(ii) Great variety of visual material such as pictures, charts,
graphs, diagrams, maps, tables, anything that can be
photographed can be put on a slide.
(iii) Slides are available in black and white and coloured
forms on many science subjects covering a wide range
of topics and levels.
(iv) Slides are comparatively inexpensive.
(v) Slides require only a slight darkening of the room.
(vi) In some little more expensive projectors the slides can
be moved automatically either from a master control
or from a synchronising device on a sound track. This
arrangement of slide-tape programme is an effective
device as the well prepared commentary makes it more
meaningful.
The use of this visual aid will be more meaningful if
following points are considered while using them:
(i) The science teacher has to explore if suitable slides are
available on the particular topics.
(ii) Second step is the careful preview. The preview helps
in deciding on how to use the material to the best
advantage. Is it stimulating enough for introduction on
the whole lesson could be developed with it or only
suited for summarising the lesson.
(iii) Teacher has to think about the purpose also. If showing
of motion is necessary for understanding, then slide is
not the best medium.
(iv) If teaching involves a series of step by step development,
one leading to the next logical sequence the slides are
well suited.
Showing slides is only one part of the process. Good
discussion and further activities could be developed from it.
The Micro Projector: One of the more specialised types of
projection equipment is the micro projector. As its name
indicates it shows enlarged images of stained sections of
microscopic slides or other biological material mounted on
microscopic slides so that the bigger group can see it.
The advantages of micro projector are that:
(i) It presents an enlarged picture of the object on the slide
for common view.
(ii) It assures the teacher that his students are seeing
precisely what he wants them to see.
Some manufacturers make low power projection
attachments for slide projectors. Some are simple extensions
of a microscope using a more powerful illumination system
with a small view screen. This can be easily shown in small
groups. But the full scale micro-projectors are quite expensive.
Projectors of any kind are a boon to classroom teachers. These
technological tools, if coordinated wisely make the classroom
teaching quite effective, because of the novelty of presentation,
students become motivated and interested.
Radio and Recordings

Language and Voice Modulation: These are primarily
auditory aids. If the speaker on radio or recordings uses simple
everyday language with meaningful associations with familiar
examples the listening can become quite concrete. On the other
hand if the language is difficult without any associations, it
could be an abstract thing for listeners. Being only an auditory
aid language and voice modulation etc., play a very important
role in the effectiveness of these programmes
Values of Radio: Immediately we are able to get the news
of important events from all over the world, which is not
possible from any other media except vedio or TV. Many
events are of great importance for science classes, some of
which are mentioned below:
(i) Radio brings reality to the classroom The spectator
who describes the events with his tone and description
can brings sense of participation amongst listeners.
(ii) Radio programmes if well rehearsed and well presented
in the form of stories bring the personal feeling of the
actor, different sound effects and voices make them
more realistic and meaningful.
(iii) It brings variety to the classroom and helps in teaching
(iv) Though in a well prepared programme enough
expenses may be involved but radio being a mass media
technology, on the whole it is inexpensive.
Limitations
(i) It is still a one way communication
(ii) Availability and maintenance of radio set may be a
problem.
(iii) Radio broadcast timings always do not coincide with
the class timings. Provision of radio broadcasts in the
school time table is made only in a very few schools.
Educational Radio Programmes in Our Country:
Educational broadcasts for schools in the AIR were regular
features from the last few decades. These programmes included
science lessons for students and teachers at various levels.
Teachers’ programmes were on content as well as on
methodology. Before the board examinations revision lessons
on various science subjects were quite popular. These were
used to be given by experienced science teachers and educators
The school broadcast was a separate unit of AIR in New
Delhi. The unit tried to coordinate between various agencies
to improve the effectiveness of the broadcasts. Meetings were
held where people were invited from Directorate of Education
Delhi, Municipal Corporation Delhi, New Delhi Municipal
Council and Delhi University to plan future programmes and
give suggestions for their improvement
Radio broadcast schedule in the form of a chart was printed
and sent to the schools in the beginning of the year. Teachers
could utilise the relevant broadcast in their classes. Radios and
transistors were or could be easily available in the schools. If
the teachers are conscious of the radio programmes students
can be benefited Pre- and post-broadcast activities improved
the effectiveness of the programmes as discussed in TV
programmes.
Recordings: All the values of radio can be applied to
recordings also. But the disadvantages can be eliminated like
timing, administration and one way communication problems.
Recordings from many sources can be utilised in the classrooms,
like spool-tape records and cassette records.
Advantages of Recordings
(i) Recordings can become two way communication as it
can be stopped, discussed and replayed wherever it is
necessary, it can be controlled by us.
(ii) Recordings on cassette or spool-tape-recorder can be
made in the school also. A commentary can be written
and recorded on the available slides in your subject in
the school for effective use and re-use.
(iii) Good radio programmes can be recorded and replayed
in class whenever needed.
(iv) Scientific talks by eminent personalities can be taped
and reproduced in the class.
Practical Symbols
Kinds of Visual Symbols: They include the abstract
representation of real pictures. Various kinds of visual symbols
used in communication are drawings, sketches, diagrams,
graphs, cartoons, flat maps, etc. They all can be projected on
screen, and can also be shown on the blackboard or on the
overhead projector.
Diagrams and charts etc., are part of everyday work for
most of the science teachers. Almost all the science teachers
use blackboard to show in the structure and happenings of
various things in their subjects.
Commercially made charts are available in various subjects.
Charts and other graphic aids are also made by various
Governmental agencies. Central Institute of Educational
Technology (CIET) of NCERT New Delhi develops various
kinds of graphic aids for school purposes. Charts are also
made in schools by teachers and students and can be utilised
in teaching science quite effectively.
Chalkboard: Blackboard now is usually called a chalkboard
because of variations in colours. It is one of the very important
but quite neglected aid of the classrooms. If it is properly used
can become a valuable aid in teaching science. It should not
be taken for granted that you already know the use of chalk
board, but the techniques should be learned and practised
especially as a trainee teacher.
Importance of Chalkboard
(i) This aid is used with all other aids for better clarification,
for example, the main points of a demonstration
planning and summarising of a field trip, questions for
a motion picture and so on can be written on the board.
(ii) It gives a concrete form to abstract and vague statements
and ideas.
(iii) It helps in developing the skill of drawing a particular
diagram.
(iv) It is less time consuming and comparatively cheaper.
(v) It can be used for some students activities like quizes,
competitions and discussions, etc.
(vi) Some chalkboards can be used for permanent outlines
of maps, graphs, tables and other special materials
where some filling up can serve the purpose.
(vii) If properly used chalkboard becomes an attractive point
and holds students attention.
Effective Use of Chalkboard
(i) Clean the board properly before using it.
(ii) Try to write neat and bold so that it is legible.
(iii) Do not write too much on the board. Start writing from
top left hand. Give headings and sub-headings in the
written summary.
(iv) If diagrams are used for referring or introduction, they
can be made beforehand. If you want the students to
draw the diagrams then it should be drawn in front of
them and they should be asked to draw side by side.
In the same way a complicated process should not be
drawn beforehand, but it should be developed before
them for clarification and better understanding.
(v) If necessary, some tools can be used to draw on the
board.
(vi) Coloured chalks should be used for making complex
diagrams.
Overhead Projector: Any thing which is written or drawn
on a chalkboard can also be projected by an overhead projector
with some additional advantages. An overhead projector
projects material overhead or over shoulder the teacher using
it on to a screen behind and above him. They generally have
25 cm x 25 cm writing area which is big enough for writing.
What is required to be shown on the screen is written on a
glass plate covered with sheet or roll of transparent plastic.
Variety of fabrics tipped pens or china marking pencils are
used for writing and drawing. Wet cloth can be used for
erasing and re-using the sheets.
Advantages of Overhead Projector

(i) It is very simple and convenient to use the machine.
(ii) This projector unlike any other projectors is operated
from the front of the room and the teacher faces class as
he or she writes or points on already made transparencies.
(iii) Plastic roll attachment is quite useful. Diagrams, points
of the lesson, assignments, tests and similar material
can be effectively presented gradually with a minimum
of time and effort.
(iv) An important feature of overhead projector is the
provision of “overlays” or ‘build ups,” which have
successive layers of transparencies in black and white
coloured or both showing cumulative stages of
development, sequences and sectional views, which is quite
effective in many scientific processes and phenomenon.
Limitations
(i) Though it is not very heavy but a voluminous projector.
(ii) It is quite expensive and needs some planning.
This is the most abstract and one of the most important
forms of experience we get and give to our students. Our job
as a teacher is to make sure that the various terms, ideas,
words, principles and other abstractions used should be
meaningful for students.
The ideas and concepts which can be translated into verbal
symbols come by getting other concrete experiences. Rich
experiences gained by students help them to understand the
verbal symbols meaningfully and therefore they can read and
understand the textbooks also. Ability to speak or read the
word does not mean that one also understands the object,
process or phenomenon. If from the very beginning science is
taught by reading books or abstraction only, students usually
acquire the habit of memorising and accepting verbal
formulation given by others. This is no way of teaching science.
Various kind of experiences discussed on the core of
experience from direct purposeful experience to visual symbols,
all help in the development of verbal symbols meaningfully.
Then reading is not only the process of reproduction of verbal
symbols but also involves a thinking process, which includes
meaning of words.
Textbooks and other reference books provide the most to
the students, because all teaching is not possible by any one
particular aid or experience. But the textbooks should be written
in understandable vocabulary of that level.
Sometimes in primary classes the language of science
textbooks is much more difficult than the language in the
language textbooks of that particular class. Another important
aspect is also the style of writing and format. In writing and
specially in teaching if references and examples are given from
their environment and known things learning will be more
meaningful.
Influencing Use
A variety of teaching aids has been discussed in this chapter
with some details. It is difficult to select few aids and to say
that they are more important than others, or mis should be
used more often than others etc. The value of an aid does not
depend wholly on its quality itself but it also greatly depends
upon the way it is used and the particular time it is used.
No matter how perfect the aid may be, if it is irrelevant
to the occasion of its use then it is of little value and an
ordinary aid with not too many qualities becomes indispensable
if it is used relevantly at the right time. For example, there is
film which shows the animals under the sea or life in a desert
in relation to their ecology. Neither the materials nor this
relationship could be shown in a class by any other media or
field trip as effectively as the film could. But always it should
not be used as a substitute for other materials of the classroom.
EFFECTIVE ZONE
Probably the most common educational objective is
acquisition of knowledge. Knowledge, as defined here, involves
the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and
processes or the recall of a pattern, structure or setting.
The cognitive domain can be summarised as under:
Classes Instructional Coverage
Knowledge Recall and recognition of facts

information, principles, laws and
theories of chemistry.
(i) Knowledge of specifics The recall of specific and isolable

bits of information.
(ii) Knowledge of termi- Knowledge of referents for specific

nology symbols (verbal and non-verbal)
e.g. to define technical terms.
(iii) Knowledge of specific Knowledge of dates, events

facts persons, places, etc.
(iv) Knowledge of ways and Knowledge of the ways of

means of dealing organising, studying,
and with specifics judging, critisising.
(v) Knowledge of conven- Familiarity with the forms and

tions conventions of scientific papers.
(vi) Knowledge of trends Knowledge of the process

and sequences directions and movements of
phenomenon with respect to
time.
(vii) Knowledge of Classi- To recognise the are encompassed
fication and categories by various kinds of problems and
arguments.
(viii) Knowledge of criteria Knowledge of a criteria by which

facts, principles opinions and
conduct are tested or judged.
(ix) Knowledge of metho- Knowledge of scientific methods
dology of evaluation.
(x) Knowledge of principles Knowledge of important
and generalisations principles.
Contd...
Comprehension It represents the lowest level of

understanding.
(i) Translation The ability to understand non-
literal statements.
(ii) Interpretation The ability to grasp the thought
of the work as a whole at any
desired level of generality.
(iii) Extrapolation The ability to deal with the
conclusions of a work in terms of
the immediate inference made
from the explicit statements.
Application Application to phenomenon
discussed in one paper of the
scientific terms or concepts used
in other papers.
Analysis The breakdown of a
communication into its
constituent elements or parts
such that the relative hierarchy of
ideas in made clear and/or the
relation between the ideas
expressed are made explicit.
(i) Analysis of elements The ability to recognise unstated
assumptions, skills in
distinguishing facts from
hypothesis.
(ii) Analysis of relationships Ability to check the consistency

of hypothesis with given
information and assumptions.
(iii) Analysis of organisa- The organisation, systematic
tional principles arrangement and structure which
hold the communication together.
Contd...
Synthesis The putting together of elements

and parts so as to form a whole.
(i) Production of a unique Skill in writing, using an excellent
communication organisation of ideas and
statements. Ability to tell a
personal experience effectively.
(ii) Production of a Plan Ability to propose ways of testing
hypothesis.
(iii) Derivation of set of Ability to formulate appropriate
abstract relations hypothesis based upon an
analysis of factors involved and
to modify such hypothesis on
the basis of new factors and
considerations.
Evaluation Judgement about the value of
material and methods for given
purposes.
(i) Judgement in terms of The ability to indicate logical
internal evidence fallacies in arguments.
(ii) Judgements in terms Judging by external standards,
of external evidence criteria ability to compare a work
with the highest known standard
in its field.
(iii) Psychomotor Development of skills such as of
handling pieces of apparatus,
their assemblies, drawing
diagrams and circuits, repair of
apparatus and appliances.
The Knowledge
To impart knowledge in the basic aim of education and so
it naturally is the basic aim of teaching of any subject including
science.
By imparting knowledge of science to the student it is
expected that he acquires the knowledge of:
(i) Natural phenomenon.
(ii) Scientific terminology.
(iii) Scientific concepts and formula.
(iv) Modern inventions of science.
(v) Importance of animal life and plant life to man.
(vi) Manipulation of nature by man.
(vii) Correlation and interdependence of various branches
of science.
(viii) Environment.
Knowledge objective is considered to have been achieved
if the student is able to recall and recognise terms, facts, symbols,
concepts etc.
The Understanding
This objective considered to have been achieved if the
student is able to:
(i) Interpret charts, graphs, data, concept etc., correctly.
(ii) Illustrate scientific terms, concepts, facts, phenomenon’s.
(iii) Explain facts, concepts, principles etc.
(iv) Discriminate between different facts, concepts etc. that
are closely related to each other.
(v) Identify relationships between various facts, concepts,
phenomenon etc.
(vi) Change tables, symbols, terms etc. from any given
form to some other desired form.
(vii) Find faults, if any, in statements concepts etc.
The Applications
This objective seems to be the most neglected one in our
educational system. The common observation that supports it
is that a science graduate fails to insert even a fuse wire in the
electric circuit of his house. This objective is considered to have
been achieved to a great extent if the pupil can:
(i) Analyse a given data.
(ii) Explain giving reasons various scientific phenomenon.
(iii) Formulate hypothesis from his observations.
(iv) Confirm or reject a hypothesis.
(v) Correctly infer the observed facts.
(vi) Find cause and effect relationship.
(vii) Give new illustrations
(viii) Predict new happenings.
(ix) Find relationships that exist between various facts,
concepts, phenomenon learnt by him.
The Skills
This objective can be considered to have been achieved if
a pupil learns (i) handling piece of apparatus, (ii) assembling
pieces of apparatus for experiment (iii) drawing diagrams and
illustrations, (iv) constructing things, and (v) carrying our
repairs of apparatus and appliances.
Thus here we aim to develop three types of skill in the
pupil. These are (a) drawing skill (b) manipulative skill and
(c) observational and recording skill.
The drawing skill is considered to have been achieved if
pupil is able to draw labelled sketches and diagrams quickly.
The manipulative skill is considered to have been achieved
if pupil is able to
(i) Keep and handle the apparatus properly,
(ii) Improvise models and experiments,
(iii) Observe various precautions while handling apparatus
and doing experiments.
The observational and recording skill is considered to have
been achieved if the pupil can
(i) Read correctly the instrument or apparatus,
(ii) Record observations faithfully,
(iii) Make calculations correctly and
(iv) Draw inferences correctly.
The Interests
To achieve this objective the pupil is provided with scientific
hobbies and other leisure time activities. By providing such
activities our aim is to inculcate, among pupils, a living and
subsisting interest in environment in which he lives.
The aim is considered to have been achieved if the pupil
becomes curious and develops such an interest in science that
he is always eager and is on look out to:
(i) Take to some interesting scientific hobby.
(ii) Visit places of scientific interest.
(iii) Undertake some chemistry projects.
(iv) Meet and interact some reputed person in the field of
chemistry.
(v) Read scientific literature.
(vi) Collect scientific photographs, scientific biographies
etc.
(vii) Participate in science fair, science exhibition, science
club etc.
(viii) Actively participate in scientific debates, declamation
contents, quiz etc.
The Attitudes
Development of scientific attitude is one of the major
objectives of teaching chemistry. The development of scientific
attitude makes pupil open minded, helps him to make critical
observations, develops in time intellectual honesty, curiosity,
unbiased and impartial thinking etc.
This objective is considered to have been achieved if a
pupil
(i) becomes free of superstitions and prejudices.
(ii) depends for his judgement only on verified facts and
not on opinion.
(iii) is readily willing to reconsider his own judgement
when some more facts are brought to his notice.
(iv) has an objective approach.
(v) is honest in recording and collecting scientific data.
The Abilities
By the teaching of chemistry we expect to develop the
following abilities in the pupil.
(i) Ability to use scientific method.
(ii) Ability to use problem solving method.
(iii) Ability to process information.
(iv) Ability to report things in a technical language.
(v) Ability to collect scientific data from suitable source
and to interpret it correctly.
(vi) Ability to organise science fair, science exhibition,
science club etc.
The Appreciation
To achieve this objective the teaching of chemistry has to
be done in an evolutionary way. For this the curriculum should
include such topics where it is possible to reveal stirring
biographical anecdotes, some scientific stories having some
incidents of adventure, charm and romance. It is possible to
achieve this objective by teaching history of chemistry including
life stories of some chemists. This objectives can also be achieved
by telling the impact of modern chemistry on life.
This objective of teaching chemistry may be considered to
have been achieved if the pupil:
(i) Appreciates the contribution of various chemists to
human progress.
(ii) Appreciates the history of development of chemistry.
(iii) Realises the importance of chemistry in modern
civilization.
(iv) Takes pleasure in understanding the progress made by
science.
Providing Vocational Career

In the modern world majority of Career Courses depend
to a large extent on the basic knowledge of chemistry. Some
Vocational Courses can be taken up only by students of science.
e.g. Engineering, medicines, Agriculture etc. For various courses
offered by I.T.I’s the knowledge of chemistry is the basic
requirement. Thus chemistry opens a vast field of opportunities
for taking up any vocational course and choose a career. Not
only this the knowledge of chemistry develops in a pupil the
manipulative skills and he can easily improvise apparatus and
experiments and can use his knowledge and skill to make
many a common things like ink, soap, candle, chalk, cosmetics,
boot polish, nail polish etc. All these provide the pupil with
a profitable leisure time work.
BEHAVIOURAL ATTITUDE
One of the major aims of teaching chemistry is the
development of scientific attitude in the pupil. Following are
some of the various aspects included in the scientific attitude:
(i) Making pupils open minded.
(ii) Helping pupils open minded.
(iii) Developing intellectual honesty among pupils.
(iv) Developing curiosity among pupils.
(v) Developing unbiased and impartial thinking.
(vi) Developing reflective thinking.
NSSE (National Society of the Study of Education) has
defined scientific attitudes “open mindedness, a desire for
accurate knowledge, confidence in procedures for seeking
knowledge and the expectation that the solution of the problem
will come through the use of verified knowledge”.
The views regarding scientific attitude expressed at a work
shop conducted by the National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT) at Chandigarh in 1971 can be
summarised as follows. A pupil who has developed scientific
attitude:
(i) is clear and precise in his activities and makes clear and
precise statements.
(ii) always bases his judgement on verified facts and not
on opinion.
(iii) prefers to suspend his judgement if sufficient data is
not available.
(iv) is objective in his approach and behaviour.
(v) is free from superstitions.
(vi) is honest and truthful in recording and collecting
scientific data.
(vii) after finishing his work takes care to arrange the
apparatus, equipments etc. at their proper places.
(viii) shows a favourable reactions towards efforts of using
science for human welfare.
The term ‘scientific attitude’s by developing scientific attitude
in a person certain mind-sets are created in a particular
direction. Such mind-sets may be developed either by direct
teaching in schools or by out of school experiences gained by
the pupil. Though out of school experiences contribute to a
large extent yet according to Curtis direct teaching does modify
the attitude of young pupil.
Tyler also made some suggestions for planning learning
experiences in order to inculcate scientific attitude in the pupil.
These are summarised below:
(i) The increase in the degree of consistency of the
environment helps in developing and inculcating
scientific attitude in the pupil.
(ii) The scientific attitude can be inculcated in a pupil by
providing him more opportunities for making satisfying
adjustments to attitude situations.
(iii) The scientific attitude can also be developed in the
pupil by providing him opportunity for the analysis of
problem or situation so that a pupil may understand
and then rest intellectually in desirable attitude.
ACCOUNTABILITY OF A GUIDE
The major role can be played by the chemistry teacher in
developing scientific attitudes among his students and this he
can do by manipulating various situations that infuse among
the pupils certain characteristics of scientific attitudes. He can
also help in developing a scientific attitude among his students
if he possesses and practices various elements of these attitudes.
The practical examples given by the teacher leaves an indelible
mark on the personality of his students. Teacher can use one
or more of the ways for developing scientific attitude among
his pupils.
Making use of Planned Exercises: A large number of
exercises for development of certain scientific attitudes are
reported by various journals and magazines. Teacher can
frequently use such exercises for developing certain scientific
attitudes among the pupils. He can also make use of cuttings
from newspapers and science magazines and can display such
materials on bulletin board so that it is used again and again
for direct teaching. Exercises which are always included in
good textbooks can also be used by the teacher for developing
scientific attitude among his pupils.
Wide Reading: On the basis of a study conducted by him,
Curtis reported, that those pupil who engage themselves in
wide reading in science, develop scientific attitudes more than
those who study only one textbook. Thus a teacher should
encourage his students to read library books and supplementary
books on chemistry. For this it is essential that each school at
least has a science corner in its library.
The teacher himself must be in habit of making proper use
of science library so that his students get encouragement for
use of science library. The teacher himself be familiar with the
latest new titles in his subject and be willing to share his joys
of new readings with his pupils. He should refer some suitable
books to his students.
Writing about teachers, Rabindra Nath Tagore has
observed, “A teacher can never truly teach unless he is still
learning himself. A lamp can never light another unless it
continues to burn its own flame. The teacher who has come
to the end of his subject, who has no living traffic with his
knowledge, but merely repeats his lessons to his students, can
only load their minds. He cannot quicken them”.
Proper use of Practicals Period: A student of chemistry
gets many an opportunities for learning scientific attitudes
during his practical periods. It is for the teacher to properly
use such opportunities for developing scientific attitudes
amongst his pupils. Teacher should take extra care to state the
problem of the experiment and should present hypotheses on
solution. He should practice the proper method of testing the
hypotheses. He should actively participate in discussion and
interpretation of results after the experiment. He must inculcate
in his students the habit to postpone judgements in the absence
of sufficient evidence to support a hypotheses.
Personal Example of the Teacher: Personal example of the
teacher is perhaps the single greatest force that is helpful in
inculcating the scientific attitudes amongst his pupils.
Psychologist have found a great tendency amongst the students
to copy their teachers. In this regard some have stated, “As is
the teacher, so is the student”. It is therefore essential that
chemistry teacher is free from bias and prejudices while dealing
with his pupils. He should have an open mind and be critical
in thought and action in his everyday dealings. He should be
totally free from superstitions and unfounded beliefs and should
be objective and impartial in his approach to his everyday
problems. He should be truthful and should have faith in cause
and effect relationship.
Study of Superstitions: There are different types of
superstitions that still prevail in Indian society. Simply taking
of these superstitions and calling them bad and out of date,
will not leave a lasting impression on the minds of the pupils.
It will be more useful if the teacher can encourage at least a
few of his students to carry out practicals on some popular
superstitions such as that the presence of a broken mirror in
any home leads to disharmony in that home or that if a cat
crosses your way when you are going out for some work, then
your work will not be done on that day etc.
Such beliefs can easily be discarded by a student if he
keeps a broken mirror at his home and finds to his satisfaction
that it has not created any type of disharmony in his home.
Similarly, other superstitions and misbeliefs can be tested and
easily discarded by a student of chemistry. Various researches
carried out in the field have drawn the same conclusion i.e, by
practical survey and study of such common beliefs, students
have developed permanent mind-sets or attitudes towards
such superstitions.
Co-curriculum Activities in Chemistry: Various co-
curricular activities such as organising science club, hobbies
club, chemistry society, organising scientific tours and
excursions etc. can be taken up by chemistry teacher. Such
activities should be properly organised by chemistry teacher
under his direct supervision but students be given enough
freedom to plan their activities. It will help inculcate in students
some desirable scientific attitudes. Co-curricular activities may
include making of chemistry charts and models, making of
improvised chemistry apparatus etc.
Atmosphere of the Class: A proper atmosphere in the class
room provided a desirable atmosphere for inculcating of certain
scientific attitudes in the pupils. By a proper class atmosphere
we mean that the room is properly arranged and suitably
decorated in such a manner that it provides for incentive to
the pupil to inculcate the habit of cleanliness and orderliness.
In addition to such a congenial physical atmosphere of the
class room, the teacher’s behaviour also contributes to the
development of proper class room atmosphere. For inculcating
the scientific attitudes amongst his pupils teacher should
encourage them in their various activities. He should also take
care to see that his lessons content are such as to encourage
the students to ask a large number of intelligent question. He
should feel pleasure in answering and explaining such questions
and must not snub his pupils for asking so many questions.
SPECIFIC GOALS
Thurber and Collette have proposed the following criteria
for selection of aims.
(i) Usefulness: The knowledge gained should be useful to
the students in their lives.
(ii) Timliness: The knowledge given should be concerned
with materials/objects with which student is familiar.
(iii) Fitness: The knowledge should fit into sequence that
leads him to broad objectives.
(iv) Appropriateness: The learning should be appropriate
for maturity and background of the students.
(v) Practicability: It means that experience required for
development of learning should be possible.
The chemistry team of the institute for the Promotion of
Teaching Science and Technology (IPST) in Thailand formulated
the following broad aims which they felt valid for any science
course.
1. To develop an understanding of the basic principles
and theories of science.
2. To develop an understanding of the nature, scope and
limitations of science.
3. To develop a scientific attitude.
4. To develop skills important for scientific investigation.
5. To develop an understanding of the consequences of
science on man and his physical and biological
environment.
Aims of chemistry curriculum should be as follows:
(i) To make students interested in chemistry.
(ii) To familiarise the students with the important role
played by chemistry in their life.
(iii) To develop in students a scientific culture.
(iv) To provide a training to students in methods of science.
(v) To emphasise upon students the role of chemistry on
social behaviour.
(vi) To prepare students for those vocations which require
a sound knowledge of chemistry.
(vii) To increase students understanding to such a level that
he can understand various concepts and theories which
unify various branches of chemistry.
THE DIFFERENCES
Though the two terms ‘aims’ and ‘objectives’ are considered
as synonyms and used interchangeably yet in a deep sense
there is a lot of difference between ‘aim’ and ‘objective’.
Values and aims are quite inter related and interdependent.
We aim at a thing because we value it. The values or advantages
that we can draw by achieving a thing become our purposes
or aims. These may be taken as the broader purposes or goals
or targets that can be anticipated through the teaching of
chemistry.
To achieve these aims we have to proceed systematically.
For achieving these aims, these are usually divided into some
definite, functional and workable units named as objectives.
Objectives are, therefore, the ways and means of achieving the
aims in a more practical and definite way.
Objectives are the specific and precise behavioural outcome
of teaching a particular topic in chemistry. The objective of a
topic in chemistry help in realising some general aim of teaching
chemistry. The characteristics of a good objective are as under:
(i) It should be specific and precise.
(ii) It should be attainable.
Probably the most common educational objective in the
acquisition of knowledge. By knowledge, we mean that the student
can give evidence that he remembers either by recalling or by
recognising, some idea or phenomenon which he has had
experience in the educational process. Knowledge may involve
more complex processes of relating and judging.
Another important objective is development of intellectual
abilities and skills. This has been labelled as ‘critical thinking’
by some, ‘problem solving’ by others.
Arts or skills + knowledge = ability ‘Arts and skills’ refer
to modes of operation and generalised technique for dealing
with problem. The arts and skill emphasise the mental processes
of organising and recognising material to achieve a particular
purpose. Intellectual abilities refer to situations in which the
individual in expected to bring specific technical information
to bear on a new problem
Objectives are the specific and precise behavioural outcomes
of teaching a particular topic or lesson of chemistry. Objectives
actually control other factors of chemistry teaching to a great
extent, therefore more emphasis be laid on writing objectives
in behavioural terms for each unit of class room instructions
in chemistry.
“Classification especially of animals and plants according
to their natural relationships”.
Taxonomy of educational objectives is intended to provide
for classification of the goals of our educational system. It is
expected to help in the discussion of curricular and evaluation
problems with greater precision. It is expected to facilitate the
exchange of information about curricular developments and
evaluation devices.
Bloom’s taxonomy is a classification of instructional
objectives in a hierarchy. It is found quite useful in
communicating the objectives of a chemistry lesson as also a
criterion for evaluation of chemistry teaching. Under this
scheme the specific objectives are classified as falling into the
following three domains.
1. Cognitive domain objectives.
2. Affective domain objectives.
3. Psychomotor domain objectives.
Teaching Aids 179
Seven
TEACHING AIDS
The teaching aids are required by a chemistry teacher, like

teachers of other subjects, for effective teaching of subject and
to realise various objectives of teaching chemistry. Teaching
aids help the teacher to communicate with his students in
more desirable and effective way.
Some barriers of communication can be overcome by using
special aids appealing to the senses of the receiver alongwith
managing the communication along certain principles. Class
room instructions or teaching a curriculum transaction is also
a special kind of communication and it is helpful in achieving
the instructional goals of a course of study. Effective
communication requires a mastery of managerial skills of
handling various teaching aids like audio-visual aids, visual
aids, audio aids, activity aids etc.
SELECTION PROCESS
Following principles be kept in mind while making a
selection of teaching aids for use in teaching a particular topic:
(i) The aid should have a relevance to the topic to be taught.
(ii) The aid must be such so as to suit the topic and helps
to make the study of the topic interesting.
(iii) Any teaching aid used should not only be interesting and
motivating but it also have some specific educational value.
(iv) The aid to be used should be a beat possible substitute
in terms of reality, accuracy and truthful representation
of object or the first hand experiences.
(v) The aid should be simple.
(vi) The aid should suit the physical, social and cultural
environment of the pupils.
(vii) The teaching aid be easily available.
(viii) The teaching aid must help in proper realization of
stipulated learning or instructional objectives of topics
in hand.
THE USE
Teaching aids should be used properly to make teaching
more effective. Teaching can because more effective if such
aids are used widely but the use of such aids cannot provide
a guarantee of good teaching. Following points are important
for a proper use of teaching aids:
(i) Teaching aids should be woven with class-room teaching
and these aids should be used only to supplement the
oral and written work being done in the class.
(ii) While making use of any teaching aid an effort be
made that the teaching aids being used in any class are
in conformity with the intellectual level of the students
and is in accordance with the previous experience of
the students.
(iii) Only such aids the preferred which provide a stimulus
to the students for greater thinking and activity.
(iv) If possible actual specimens be preferred to a
photograph or a slide of a specimen.
Teaching Aids 181
(v) The teaching aid used should be exact, accurate and
real as far as practicable.
(vi) The Teacher should use a teaching aid only when he
is quite sure about handling a specific teaching aid. For
handling some aids (e.g. operating a projector etc.)
training is provided by various authorities. For this
purpose more information can be obtained from local
SCERT or directly from NCERT, New Delhi.
(vii) Teaching aids used be such as are closely related to
pupils experiences.
(viii) The teacher should use a teaching aid only after a
proper planning so that the aid is used exactly at the
point; in the process of teaching, where it best fits in
the process of teaching.
(ix) Teacher should see that a follow up programme follows
the lesson wherein a teaching aid has been used.
(x) Teacher should carry out occasional evaluation about
the use, function and effect of a teaching aid on the
learning process.
VARIOUS KINDS
For convenience of discussion the teaching aids may be
grouped as under:
(i) Visual aids
(ii) Aural aids
(iii) Audio-visual aids
(iv) Activity aids and
(v) Memory aids
HELP FOR DIFFERENT TYPES

Under this head we will take of following types of teaching aids:
(a) Displayboards such as Chalkboards or Blackboards,
Flannelboards, Bulletinboards, Magneticboards etc.
(b) Charts, pictures and models.
Visual aids are those which can be appreciated and
understood by seeing them only.
Displayboards: It is any flat surface that can be used to
white information to be communicated. At present for this
purpose the use is made of blackboard or chalkboard, bulletinboard,
flannelboard, magnetic-board etc.
Though material for display on such a board can be collected
from any source even from a textbook but for being effective
the material should be displayed in such a way that it is eye
catching, colourful and purposeful.
Blackboard or Chalkboard: It is one of the most common
visual aids in use. It is a slightly abrasive writing surface made
of wood, ply, hardboard, cement, ground glass asbestos, state,
plastic etc. with black, green or bluish green paint on it. Details
of various types of chalkboards and their arrangement for a
science laboratory have been given in the lessons dealing with
these topics. A chalkboard is generally installed facing the
class which is either built into the wall or fixed and framed
on the wall and provided with a ledge to keep the chalk sticks
and duster. Portable chalkboards are also available these days.
Such chalk boards can be placed on a stand with adjustable
height. Generally white chalk sticks are used for writing on the
blackboard or chalkboard but some times coloured chalk sticks
are also used. The coloured chalk sticks are used for better
illustration.
Characteristics of a Good Chalkboard: Some of the
characteristics of a good chalkboard are as follows:
(i) Its surface should be rough enough so that it is capable
of holding the writing on the board.
(ii) Its surface should be dull so that it can eliminate glare.
(iii) Its surface should be such that the writing on the board
can be easily removed by making use of a cloth or a
foam duster.
Teaching Aids 183
(iv) Its height should be so adjusted that it is within the
easy reach of the teacher and is easily visible to the
students.
Effective Use of Chalkboard: We find that chalkboard is
the most common teaching aid used by the teacher for writing
important points, drawing illustrations, solving problems etc.
The chemistry teacher should keep the following points in
mind to use the chalkboard effectively.
(i) Write in a clear and legible handwriting the important
points on the chalkboard but avoid over crowding of
information on the chalkboard.
(ii) The size of the words written on blackboard should be
such that they can be seen even by the back-benchers.
The letters should not be less than one inch in height.
The recommended height of letters on a chalkboard in
between 6 cm to 8 cm. For this the teacher should
frequently inspect his own chalkboard writing from
the view point of the back-bench on a corner seat.
(iii) There should be proper arrangement of light in the
class room so that the chalkboard remains glare free.
(iv) To emphasise some points or parts of a sketch or a
diagram coloured chalks be used.
(v) Rub off the information already discussed in the class
and noted down by the students.
(vi) Draw a difficult illustration before hand to save the
class time.
(vii) Stand on one side of the chalkboard while explaining
some points to the students.
(viii) Make use of a pointer for drawing attention to the
written material on the chalkboard.
(ix) Students may be allowed to express their ideas on
chalkboard, or to make alterations or corrections. Some
times teacher may intentionally draw some incorrect
diagram and ask the students to make necessary
correction, alteration etc.
(x) For maintenance of proper discipline in the class the
teacher should always keep an eye on his class while
writing on the blackboard.
(xi) For proper writing on chalkboard the chalk stick be
broken into two pieces and the broken end of the piece
be used to start writing.
(xii) While writing on a chalkboard keep your fingers and
wrist stiff and move your arm freely.
Advantages of Chalkboard: Some of the advantages of
chalkboard over other visual aids are as follows:
(i) It is a very convenient teaching aid for group teaching.
(ii) It is quite economical and can be used again and again.
(iii) Its use is accompanied by the appropriate actions on
the part of the teacher. The illustrations drawn on the
blackboard captures students attention.
(iv) It is one of the most valuable supplementary teaching
aid.
(v) It can be used as a good visual aid for drill and revision.
(vi) These boards cart be used for drawing enlarged
illustrations from the textbooks.
(vii) It is a convenient aid for giving lesson notes to the
students.
Limitations of the Chalkboard: Some of the important
limitations of a chalkboard are as under:
(i) The use of chalkboard makes students very much
dependent on the teacher.
(ii) It makes the lesson teacher paced.
(iii) It makes the lesson dull and of routine nature.
(iv) It gives no attention to the individual needs of the
students.
Teaching Aids 185
(v) Due to constant use chalkboards become smooth and
start glaring.
(vi) While using chalk-sticks to write on chalkboard the
teacher spreads a lot of chalk powder which is inhaled
by teacher and students and it may affect their health.
Bulletinboards: It is a display board on which learning
material on some scientific topic is displayed. It is generally
of the size of a blackboard but some times even bigger
depending on the wall space available. It is generally in the
form of a framed softboard or strawboard or corkboard or
rubber sheets.
Such bulletin boards can be specified for individual branches
of chemistry or even for some specified chemistry topics e.g.
chemistry puzzles, chemistry news, chemistry cartoons etc.
such a board can also be used for displaying the best work of
students. However for a all purpose bulletinboard the following
type of display material in recommended:
(i) Interesting science news.
(ii) Book Jackets of recently published chemistry books.
(iii) Brochures.
(iv) Cartoons.
(v) Poems.
(vi) Sketches.
(vii) Pictures.
(viii) Photographs.
(ix) Thoughts.
(x) Announcements etc.
An effort be made to change the material on bulletinboard
as frequently as in practicable. Whenever the teacher starts a
new topic he may ask the students to display the concerned
material on the bulletinboard and the teacher should specifically
mention to the students the display material on the
bulletinboard while teaching a topic to the class. Students be
asked to take the charge of bulletin-board by rotation’.
How to Use a Bulletinboard: To make use of bulletinboard
as a useful teaching aid the bulletin board be used for creating
interest amongst students an specific topics. For effective use
of bulletinboard as a teaching aid following points be kept in
mind:
(i) Effort be made jointly by the teacher and the students
to procure material from various sources on a given
subject or topic.
(ii) Before displaying the material on the board sort out
the material relevant to a specific subject or topic.
(iii) Make best use of your aesthetic sense to display the
material on the bulletinboard.
(iv) Do fix a title for the specific subject/topic of display
material on the top centre of the bulletinboard.
(v) It is desirable if a brief description about the specific
subject or topic is fixed below to title.
(vi) The height of bulletinboard from ground level be about
1 m.
(vii) The bulletin board be fixed in an area where enough
lighting can be provided.
(viii) The material displayed should be large enough and
should be provided with suitable headings.
(ix) Over crowding of material on bulletinboard be avoided.
Advantages of Bulletinboards: Some of the advantages of
bulletinboard as a teaching aid are as follows:
(i) It is a good supplement to class room teaching.
(ii) It helps in arousing the interest of students in a specific
subject/topic.
(iii) It can be effectively used as a follow up of chalkboard.
(iv) Such boards add colour and liveliness and thus also
Teaching Aids 187
have decorative value in addition to their educational
value.
(v) Such boards can be conveniently used for introducing
a topic and for its review as well.
Limitations of Bulletinboard: Some limitations in the use
of bulletinboards as teaching aids are as follows:
(i) They cannot be used for all inclusive teaching.
(ii) They can be used only as supplementary aids to some
other teaching aid.
(iii) At times it becomes very difficult to make proper
selection of the display material for certain topic.
Flannelboard: It is also some times referred to as flannel
graph or felt board. It is made of wood, cardboard or strawboard
covered with coloured flannel or woollen cloth. It is one of the
latest devices effectively used for science teaching. Display
materials like cut-outs, pictures, drawings and light objects
backed with rough surfaces like sand paper strips, flannel
strips etc. will stick to flannel-board temporarily.
For display purposes a flannelboard of 1.5 x 1.5 m is
generally used. It can be fixed next to the blackboard or can
be placed on a stand about one metre above the ground.
How to use a Flannelboard: Following points be kept in
mind for effective use of flannel board as a teaching aid:
(i) The teacher should collect a large number of pictures
or wall cut diagrams etc. and back them with sand
paper pieces. He may then make use of these by
displaying there on the board one by one, after proper
selection.
(ii) Display the material on the flannel board in a sequence
to develop the lesson.
(iii) Make proper use of flannel board for creating proper
scenes and designs relevant to the lesson.
(iv) Change the display material on the board as frequently
as required.
(v) Flannel board can be used quite effectively for showing
relationship between different parts or steps of a process.
Advantages of Flannelboard: Some of the advantages of
using flannelboard as a teaching aid are as follows:
(i) It is quite economical and easy to handle and operate.
(ii) The pictures or cuttings can be easily fixed and removed
when required, without spoiling the material. Thus
same material can be used for display many a times.
(iii) Any display material on the board holds the interest
of students and arrests their attention.
(iv) Such boards enable a teacher to talk along with
changing illustrations to develop a lesson.
Magnetic Chalkboard: It is a framed iron sheet having
porcelain coating in black or green colour. Such a board can
be used either to write with chalk sticks, glass marking pencils
and crayons or to display pictures, cut-outs and light objects
with disc magnets or magnetic holders.
Thus such a board functions both as a chalkboard and as
a flannelboard. We can display visual learning material on
such a board while writing key points on it. Such a board
provides the flexibility of movement of visual material. It is
possible to display even a three dimensional object on such a
board using magnetic holders.
Since the magnetic chalk-board functions both as a
chalkboard and as a flannelboard so various points discussed
for the effective use of these boards be kept in mind while
using magnetic chalkboard as an effective teaching aid.
Advantages of Magnetic Chalkboard: Some of the
advantages of magnetic chalkboard are as follows:
(i) It is a versatile teaching aid that combines the
advantages of both a chalkboard and a flannelboard.
Teaching Aids 189
(ii) It is possible to move visual material by sliding it along
the surface of the board such a movement is not possible
on a flannelboard.
(iii) It is very light and can be easily taken from one place
to another.
(iv) Such a board can be easily got prepared in the school
from an iron sheet and painting with some good paint.
Charts, Pictures and Models: Charts, pictures and models
also are an important teaching aids.
Charts: Some times charts are needed by the teacher to
supplement his actual teaching. There are certain charts where
in the interior of some thing is depicted e.g. various systems
of human body, internal combustion engine, motor car etc.
Following points be kept in view while using charts as
teaching aids:
(i) An effort be made to use charts prepared by students
under the guidance of the teacher, however some charts
may be purchased.
(ii) Duly such charts be purchased which have bold lines
and in which such colours are used as could be seen
and distinguished even by the back-benchers.
(iii) Charts should give only the essential details.
(iv) Charts should be properly and clearly labelled in block
letters.
Sources for Procurement of Charts

(i) Charts can be prepared by students and teacher.
(ii) Charts can be purchased.
(iii) Charts can be procured on a very normal cost from the
following sources:
(a) Ministry of Education, Govt. of India, Delhi.
(b) NCERT, New Delhi.
(c) Director, Extension Service of College of Education
in the State.
(d) SCERT of the state.
(e) District Public Relation Officer.
Advantages of Charts
(i) They can be made quickly.
(ii) They have a better appeal.
(iii) Only bare essentials can be shown in the chart and
unnecessary details can be avoided.
(iv) Charts are available from various sources.
Pictures: Pictures of gas-works, steamships, and
locomotives and portraits of great men of chemistry—chemists
will be of great help in teaching of chemistry provided a
reference in made to them. Portraits of great scientists if
displayed in chemistry room give it the proper scientific
atmosphere.
These pictures, portraits etc. can be used as teaching aids
and they are quite useful in a demonstration lesson. Everything
a child learns can be presented graphically with the aid of
pictures and brightly coloured diagrams which will excite his
interest.
Following points be given due consideration while using
pictures as teaching aids:
(i) Pictures should be bold, direct and sufficiently large.
(ii) Pictures should not be over loaded with information
rather they should stick to the maxim, one picture, one
idea.
Models: In teaching of science models are very frequently
used. Various costly models are available and some of these
may be available and in school laboratory. However the cost
of such models should not be any hindrance to the use of
models as teaching aid because a science teacher can prepare
Teaching Aids 191
almost all types of models by making use of ingenuity. It is
also possible to take some very costly models on loan or such
models can even be hired. Models are very helpful in making
the subject clear to the students and they also give the student
an idea of the actual shape/size etc. of the article under
discussion.
In using charts, pictures and models as teaching aids the
teacher should be careful to plan their proper display. These
should be displayed in such a way and at such a height that
each student can have a detailed view of it.
Following is the list of some firms from whom scientific
charts and models can be procured:
1. M/s Scientific Instruments Stores, J-355, New Rajinder
Nagar, New Delhi.
2. M/s Educational Aids and Charts, 20, I Block, Kumara
Park, West Extension, Bangalore-20.
3. M/s Variety Teaching Aids, Bagalkot, Distt. Bijapur.
4. M/s Educational Emporium, 15-A, Chittranjan Avenue,
Kolkata (Calcutta)-7.
5. M/s Oxford University Press, Appollo Bunder, Mumbai
(Bombay).
6. M/s School Aids Manufacturing Co., 12-Gun Boat
Street, Fort, Mumbai (Bombay)-1.
7. The Director, Survey of India, Hathi Barkala Road,
Dehra Dun.
8. M/s Hobby Centre, Mount Road, Chennai (Madras)-
2.
Aural Aids: In this type the following aids are considered:
(i) Broadcast talks,
(ii) Gramophone lectures, and
(iii) Tape recordings.
Broadcast Talks: All India Radio has in its regular feature
some programmes meant for school children. In such a
programme generally talks on educational matters or on
scientific topics are broadcasted. Such a talk in quite useful for
students as also for chemistry teacher. The topic, date and time
of broadcast of such talks are given an advance by All India
Radio. A school can take benefit of such talks only if it possesses
a good radio set and a period is provided in the school time-
table for listening such talks. Such an arrangement can be
worked out by the school authorities and then teacher can
refer to such talks while teaching his class. It is also possible
to synchronise the broad cast talk an some topic with the
actual teaching of that topic in a class.
Some handicaps of such broadcast task are listed here:
(i) Sometimes when the receiving set is not working
satisfactorily there prevails a sense of strain in the class
room.
(ii) Some students are poor listeners and may not be
benefited by such talks although they benefit by normal
teaching through questions, demonstrations and reading.
For the maximum utility of such talks following points be
kept in view:
(i) The students with bad hearing be seated on front seats.
(ii) To keep students interest alive in such talks teacher
should tell his students in advance a few questions
which they have to answer after the talk.
(iii) Only short duration talks be arranged.
Such talks cannot be a substitute to the actual teaching and
such a talk is only to help in teaching.
Gramophone Lectures and Tape Recordings: Another
teaching aid available to a science teacher is records of short
talks an interesting scientific topics by eminent scientists,
doctors etc. Magnetic tapes of such recorded talks are now
available and the talk can be easily reproduced in the class
Teaching Aids 193
room. These talks provide an inspiration to the students and
such a talk once recorded can be used again and again. Such
recording can either be used to introduce a topic or to develop
a topic.
Audio-Visual Aids: In this category those teaching aids are
included which involve the use of two of our senses i.e. hearing
and seeing. These are classified as (i) optical aids and (ii)
Television.
Need for A.V. in Teaching

Audio-visual aids are very important in teaching of
chemistry because of the following reasons:
(i) Sensory experience is the foundation of intellectual
activity. Verbal symbol, which is meaningless becomes
meaningful when it is associated with visual symbols.
For example meaning of precipitate is understood only
when it is seen in test-tube.
(ii) A.V. aids are needed to stress facts and concepts in
chemistry teaching.
(iii) Mental growth is the outcome of two antithetical
processes i.e. differentiation and integration.
Differentiation develops out of integration. Audio-
visual aids are more useful in process of differentiation.
(iv) Generalisation attains a meaning and it becomes
concrete experience only with the help of A. V. Aids.
(v) A. V. aids also help in increasing the vocabulary of
pupils.
Optical Aids: Some such aids are discussed here.
Magic Lantern (or Glass slide projector)

Psychologists have now confirmed that a child grasps
abstract facts slowly and can only remember a name which
recalls some definite reality. Thus he should be confronted
with visual teaching aids to broaden his experience.
A magic lantern is a simple device used to project pictures
from a glass slide on a screen or wall. Teacher can make use
of this device when he intends to show some small figure or
illustration to whole class.
Many a schools have a magic lantern in their laboratories
as it is not very costly slides are readily available in the market
on various chemistry topics. These can also be got prepared
on demand and the cost of such a slide is quite reasonable.
Such slides can even be prepared by science teacher himself
after some practical training which can be provided by extension
service department of training colleges.
Epidiascope
Epidiascope is a more costly instrument but it can project
opaque objects as well as transparent objects. The pictures
projected by epidiascope are much brighten and need, a less
powerful light so that room need not be absolutely dark.
Epidiascope can be used to project any picture, map, diagram,
photograph or small object. No slide is needed for projection
with an epidiascope.
The name epidiascope is given to this machine because of
the tact that it works, as an episcope when it is used to know
the image of an opaque object. This machine can be used to
project slides and this is possible just by moving a lower
provided for the purpose. When it is used to project a slide
then at serves as a diascope. Thus epidiascope is a combination
of these two i.e. episcope and diascope.
Advantages of Epidiascope: In comparison to other
projection machines epidiascope has some advantages. Some of
these are as follows:
(i) It can be operated in a room which may not be
absolutely dark.
(ii) With the help of this machine original colours of the
picture or photograph can be projected.
Teaching Aids 195
(iii) The projection on the screen can be kept for some time
during which teacher can explain and discuss it in the
class.
(iv) It provides teacher an option to handle the lesson
according to himself.
Following points provide useful hints for the proper
handling of an epidiascope:
(i) The apparatus works well in a dark room.
(ii) While projecting with an epidiascope an effort be made
to keep exposed to the head of the lamp for minimum
time delicate pictures, photographs or other such objects.
(iii) The person handling the apparatus must be given some
practical training before he is allowed to handle the
machine.
Film Projector, Micro-Projector, Film-Strip Projector

There are further improvements on the teaching aids
discussed so far. These have brought about a revolution in
teaching of science. Science films are shown to the students to
illustrate various applications and uses of science as also to
supplement the class room teaching. Both type of films have
some basic objectives to serve.
Film Strip-Projector
It is an improvement on magic lantern and this machine
can be used to project many a topics on a single strip. One such
strip generally consists of 40-100 separate pictures and such
film strips are available on loan from Central Film Library,
NCERT, New Delhi. On such a film strip pictures concerning
one topic are arranged in a definite order.
This machine can be easily handled by the chemistry
teacher. The machine is operated by hand and thus can be
stopped at the discretion of the teacher whenever he wants to
explain some aspect of a topic being shown on machine.
Micro-Projector
This is less commonly used in chemistry teaching. This
projector is generally operated in a dark room. The projection
can be taken on vertical screen if whole class is expected to see
it. However such a film cannot be distinctly seen by a student
if he is sitting at a distance more than 12 feet from the screen.
Film Projector
This machine is used for showing chemistry films. Some
good science films on various topics are available and there
can be had an loan some times even free of charge from the
source, given below:
(i) Central Film Library, NCERT, New Delhi.
(ii) U.S. Information Service, New Delhi.
(iii) British High Commission Office, New Delhi.
(iv) Some Other Embassies, New Delhi.
For projecting this films in school generally 16 mm projector
(‘RCA’, ‘Bell and Havell’) are used. These 16 mm projectors are less
costly and easier to transport as compared to a 35 mm projector.
Advantages of Motion Pictures: There are some definite
advantages of motion pictures to be used as teaching aids,
some of these are as follows:
(i) They draw attention of the students.
(ii) They help to bring past to the class-room.
(iii) It is possible to reduce or enlarge the size of the object
by using the machine.
(iv) They can be used to show a process which a naked
human eye cannot see without its aid.
(v) They can be used to show a record of an event.
(vi) They can serve a large class at a time.
(vii) They provide a good aesthetic experience.
(viii) They help in understanding relationship between
things, ideas and events.
Teaching Aids 197
Precautions: The teacher should take the following
precautions whenever he wants to use a film projection as a
teaching aid:
(i) He should satisfy himself about the lighting
management and seating arrangement in the room
where such a film show is to be given.
(ii) He should himself see the film before hand.
(iii) He should give a complete background of the film to
the students before the actual screening of the film.
(iv) He should see that complete calm and peace is
maintained during the screening of the film.
(v) Immediately after the film show, he should invite
comments, questions etc. from the students and try to
answer all the quarries of the students.
(vi) He should encourage some of his students to write
articles etc. based on the film show and such articles
etc., may be shown on well magazine, may be printed
in school magazine.
Television: The role of television in the present day world
is becoming more and more important and it is one of the most
important teaching aids. It combines the advantages of a radio
(broadcast) and of a film. This can be used for mass education
and now U.G.C. programmes are a regular feature on “Door
Darshan”. The topics of discussion are announced in advance
and lesson from well qualified reasons and specialists in their
fields are shown on TV. Teacher can easily plan his work
accordingly and in this way he can make use of TV as a
teaching aid.
Limitations: The use of A.V. aids in teaching of chemistry
has the following limitations:
(i) The use of A.V. aids is not a guarantee of successful
teaching.
(ii) A.V. aids are not a clear substitute for oral or written
methods of gaining knowledge.
(iii) Visual instructions are sometimes confused with
entertainment.
(iv) Visual aids vary in their effectiveness in direct
proportion of their degree of reality.
THE CLASSIFICATION
Teaching aids are classified, for convenience of study, into
the following categories:
(i) Audio aids (ii) Visual aids (iii) Audio-visual aids
(iv) Acti-vity aids.
Examples of various types of teaching aids generally used
to make class room teaching of chemistry more effective are
given below:
Audio Aids: In this type of aids fall the teaching aids like
radio, tape recorder etc. This type of aids help the process of
learning as they help the learner to acquire knowledge through
his auditory senses.
Visual Aids: This type of aids are very common e.g. charts,
pictures, models, film strips etc. These aids the learner to
acquire the learning experiences through his visual senses.
Audio-visual Aids: These are sensory aids which help to
make teaching concrete, effective and interesting. Examples of
this type of aids are television, motion picture, video films,
living objects etc. By use of these aids we provide the learner
an opportunity to utilise both his auditory and visual senses
for gaining the desired learning experiences.
Activity Aids: In this type of aids we include all those
teaching aids in which the learner is required to be engaged
in some useful activity, e.g.
(a) Excusions and visits.
(b) Exhibitions and fairs.
(c) Experimentation in the laboratory and work-shop.
Teaching Aids 199
THE IMPORTANCE
Teaching aids make the teaching-learning process
interesting and more meaningful as we are required to make
use of our senses. While commenting on the desirability of
making use of ones senses the Indian Education Commission
has remarked, “for acquiring right and proper knowledge and
experiences regarding the objects and processes must be gained
through one’s senses”. The importance of teaching aids can be
summarised as under:
(i) Teacher can win the interest and attention of the pupils
by making use of teaching aids.
(ii) They are effective motivating agents.
(iii) They help to bring clarity to the subject matter.
(iv) They same time and energy of the students and teachers
and make learning more effective and durable. A fact,
principle or phenomenon that cannot be understood
properly with verbal explanation or experience can be
easily comprehended by use of teaching aids. In this
way the time and energy of both the students and
teacher is saved.
(v) Proper use of teaching aids helps to develop in the
pupils scientific attitudes and provide them with a
training in scientific method.
(vi) They provide the pupils with the first hand experience
by looking at concrete things and actual demonstrations.
(vii) They provide a solution to a number of educational
and administrative problems.
(viii) They provide permanent and effective learning.
The importance of teaching aids can be summarised as
under in the words of Edgar Dale—“Because audio-visual
materials supply of concrete basis for conceptual thinking,
they give rise to meaningful concepts—the words enriched by
meaningful associations. Hence they offer the best anti-dote
available for disease of verbalism”.
Eight
ROLE OF LABORATORY
Chemistry is essentially a practical-oriented subject. No

course in chemistry can be considered as complete without
including some practical work in it. For proper understanding
of chemistry, it should be taught using a large number of
demonstration experiments.
For carrying out demonstration experiments and for the
performance of practicals by the students, a chemistry
laboratory is a must for every school offering chemistry as a
subject. Like any other science subject a chemistry laboratory
is justified on the following grounds:
(i) In chemistry laboratory the required apparatus and
other apparatus etc. can be safely stored.
(ii) As in other science subjects so also in case of chemistry
laboratories are helpful in creating and promoting
scientific attitude in the pupils.
(iii) Laboratory provides a proper and congenial place for
performing experiments and is helpful in developing
a sense of cooperation and spirit of healthy competition
among the students.
VARIOUS INSTRUMENTS
The UNESCO source book for Science Teaching contains
a number of suggestions for simple teacher-made equipment
in addition to a wide variety of experiments. One chapter has
been specially devoted, in UNESCO Handbook for Science
Teachers, to facilities, equipment and materials. The Guidebook
to Constructing. Inexpensive Science Teaching Equipment,
which have been produced at the university of Maryland
(United States).
A pamphlet has been produced by the Junior Engineers/
Technicians/Scientists (JETS) based in the school of Engineering,
University of Zambia. It is intended to help schools produce
equipments such as wooden racks and stands for pipettes,
burettes and test-tubes, and metal clamps, clamp holders and
retort stands. In India similar work has been undertaken by
the National Council for Educational Research and Training
(NCERT). Details for a mobile laboratory unit has been
published in India.
The Manual de quimica experimental, produced in Bolivia
contains a number of experiments which illustrate most of
junior secondary level chemistry course. e.g. preparation and
properties of common gases; acids, bases and salts; laws of
chemical composition. In this manual instructions are written
for teachers with little or no workshop experience, on how to
make simple balances, various supports, an alcohol burner
and some items of electrochemical equipment. It also provides
a list of chemical that can be procured locally from market or
pharmacy.
The production of equipments by teachers in their own
schools is an important factor. However many a teachers find
it burdensome because of the fact that they are faced with day-
to-day difficulties of teaching. Really speaking it is too much
to expect teachers to be the sole providers of equipment. From
their efforts we can develop local production units and the
Role of Laboratory 203
teachers can then be expected to maintain the equipment
supplied to them. Warren and Lowe’s. The Production of School
Science Equipment provides an insight into developments in
various countries. A summary of experience in Bangla Desh,
Fizi, Pakistan, India, Hong Kong, Japan, Indonesia, Philippines,
Singapore, Vietnam and Republic of Korea has also been published.
There are some large-scale projects, in developing countries,
for production of locally based equipments. The concept of
centres is not new, a prototype being set up in chile in 1964.
Other production centres are NCERT (New Delhi), IPTST
(Bangkok), the Science Education Production Unit (SEPU) in
Kenya and the National Educational Equipment Centre (NEEC)
in Pakistan. NCERT (New Delhi) makes batches of 1500 lots
for primary and middle schools and is under contract to
UNICEF for 50,000 kits.
SEPU produces teaching aids (e.g. Slides and Photographs)
and chemistry, biology and physics kits for secondary schools
which are designed to meet all the practical requirements
associated with East African Certificate of Education. Kits are
accompanied by manuals for teachers and students. The
emphasis is on pupil participation and small-scale experiments
thus the kits are not suitable for demonstration work.
Some of the most essential points that must be kept in
mind while establishing production centres for low-cost
equipment are summarised below:
(i) The centre must have expertise in design, in management
and distribution.
(ii) To overcome the shortage of technicians, the training of
management staff and training of technicians is of vital
importance. The committee on the Teaching of Science
of International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU-
CTS) in conjunction with UNESCO, is endeavouring to
discover the extent of the shortages and find ways of
alleviating them.
(iii) Realistic Budgeting: The production centre must work
to realistic budgeting. To lower the cost of production
the production centre must be cost-conscious. Making
as large a range of apparatus as possible from a given
item of equipment will help to lower production costs.
(iv) Effective Marketing and Distribution: For effective
marketing and distribution it is essential to make an
infrastructure between the production centre and the
educational establishments. In small countries
production centres may be set up to serve both the
schools and the institution of higher studies.
(v) Cooperation with Teachers and Curriculum Designers: The
production centres should design the equipment, to be
produced, in conjunction with teachers and curriculum
designers and only such equipment as needed in view
of the requirements of prevailing textbooks be only
produced.
(vi) Quality Control: Before supplying the equipment to
schools it must be checked for the quality including
reliability. Only good quality equipment be marketed.
(vii) Facility for Repairs and Maintenance: The production
centre must have an efficient system for repairs and
maintenance.
THE ELEMENTS
It is possible to reduce the cost of teaching a laboratory-
based chemistry curriculum by using small scale techniques.
It is also important to consider how much and what chemicals
are to be used. Small-scale techniques are generally more safe
and they also help to improve the manipulative skills of the
students. Texts indicating how small-scale work can be used
through out a school course have been published in many a
countries.
To further reduce the cost of materials it is desirable that
locally available chemicals are put to maximum use e.g.
geochemical minerals, disused dry cells, scrap metal, vegetable
oils, orange peel, root extracts, soap and baking powder.
In Thailand, IPTST has produced a detailed list of chemicals
readily available in local markets. The production of similar
lists by institutions in other countries would be of much use.
IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTERS
We find that in new programmes in chemistry teaching the
computers are used increasingly. Many articles that have
appeared in literature also point to the increased use of
computers in teaching of chemistry. The applications of micro-
computers in school chemistry can be classified as under:
Direct Teaching: In this type are included the use of
computers for simulations, instructional games, revision
questions and exercises.
Data Handling: This includes word processing, data base
management and data collation and display in the laboratory.
Computer Assisted Learning: From the survey of literature
we can easily find that most commonly the micro-computers
are used in teaching of chemistry are used for handling of
experimental data, e.g. interfacing with a gas chromatograph,
monitoring and controlling clock reactions and the calculations
of numerical constants.
Though micro-computers are quite expensive yet their
education potential is considerable and they offer chemistry
teachers an opportunity to experiment with imaginative and
innovative ways of teaching chemistry.
DIFFERENT SCHEMES
Charts, diagrams, pictures etc. if displayed in the laboratory
provides right scientific atmosphere to the place.
Charts: An all out effort be made to avoid display of
printed charts available in the market because these charts are
quite costly and are not fully representative. Such charts are
also sacrifice simplicity and directness to details.
Following type of charts be preferred for display in
chemistry room:
(i) Charts showing diagrammatic sketches of different
pieces of apparatus generally used by students in their
practical work. e.g. beaker, flask, gas-jar, retort, spirit
lamp etc.
(ii) Charts depicting diagrammatic sketches of different
important experiments from various branches of
chemistry e.g. chart showing the preparation of oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon dioxide etc. Such a chart should be
fully labelled and should be drawn in lead pencil.
(iii) Some charts for use in demonstration lessons.
(iv) A progress chart depicting the progress of each student
be prominently displayed. Such a chart should show
the complete record of work of the student.
(v) Some important do’s and don’ts be also displayed on
a chart placed at some prominent place in the
laboratory.
(vi) A chart of common accidents and first aid be also
depicted in the laboratory.
In addition to various types of charts given above, the
following types of pictures and illustrations are quite useful if
depicted in the laboratory:
(i) Portraits of great Indian and world chemists.
(ii) Pictures of scientific interest e.g. pictures of Nangal
Fertilizer Project.
(iii) Pictures showing progress of chemistry, e.g. pictures
of atomic power stations.
(iv) Maps indicating sources of ores of metals and chemical
products.
(v) Weather charts, maps and graphs prepared by students
after observing and collecting data from weather
reports.
(vi) Various types of demonstration models preferably
prepared by students.
Each laboratory is expected to have at least three boards
to be used as bulletin boards. These are to be used as under:
(i) One of the boards is reserved for display of newspaper
cuttings, sciences news and pictorial illustrations of
scientific interest.
(ii) One of the boards is reserved for putting up notices
about science club activities.
(iii) One of the boards may be used for indicating the
assignments.
For teaching of chemistry availability of good apparatus
and well equipped laboratories is a must. However it should
lead us to a wrong conception that teaching of science cannot
be carried out in the absence of expensive apparatus. One of
the reports by NCERT observes that from among various factors
that stand in the way of science education in our country one
is lack of adequate resources for laboratory building, purchase
of good and adequate apparatus and equipment. This lack of
funds and resources makes improvisation of apparatus almost
a necessity in India.
Need for Improvisation: India is a poor country and so we
have only limited financial resources. For imparting effective
and efficient science education, due to this financial constraint
we require the production of improvised and inexpensive
learning aids. A teacher with some ingenuity and manual skill
can make a number of valuable and serviceable articles from
discarded things all around him. For this purpose every science
room should be equipped with a work bench and a kit of tools
that may be used by students and teacher in making and
improvising equipment for chemistry teaching.
Definition of Improvisation: Some of the definitions of
improvisations are given below:
It refers to a make shift arrangement for
accomplishing the intended learning task.
It refers to contrived situation that is created from
reading available material for sake of convenience.
It refers to a stimulating situation for demonstrating
and imparting learning is respect of controls and
operations making use of low cost materials.
It refers to those learning aids which are prepared
from simple and readily available cheap material
by students and teacher.
Significance of Improvisation: Improvisation is quite
significant and has many values as the process of improvisation
needs resourcefulness and ingenuity on the part of the chemistry
teacher. It is based on the concept of solving some problem by
a make shift or alternate arrangement given below are some
significant values attached with the process of improvisation:
(i) It splashes the cost of apparatus and is quite helpful
in making the school self-reliant.
(ii) It has instructional value as well. When we are carrying
out any improvisation we do get a proper feeling for
the scientific process and designing. Thus we learn by
doing.
(iii) It help develop the dignity of labour and also satisfies
the urge of creative production.
(iv) It helps to develop the habit of cooperation and
coordination.
(v) It provides training in thinking skills through the
process of looking for low-cost substitutes or
alternatives.
Process of Improvisation: It refers to a systematic way of
constructing a piece of apparatus or designing an experiment.
It involves the following steps:
(i) Making a careful study of the conventional apparatus
or experiment.
(ii) Thinking of some low cost substitute that may be
available in the market.
(iii) Designing the improvised apparatus or experiment.
(iv) Putting the improvised apparatus or experiment to
test.
(v) Making further improvements in the improvised
apparatus keeping the test results in mind.
(vi) Making use of the improvised apparatus in the
laboratory for demonstration or practical work.
Examples of Improvised Apparatus: Some examples of
improvised apparatus are given below.
Simple Tripod Stand: To make a simple tripod stand we
have only to cut away A or n shaped piece from the sides of
a discarded tin can. We can remove the lid and bottom of the
tin can completely or we can simply make holes in the bottom.
If holes are made it also serves the purpose or wire gauze.
Beehive Shell: An improvised beehive shelf can be obtained
from empty tin can. The tin can to be used for the purpose
should be rust free and its inner and outer surfaces are either
galvanised or varnished. To make a beehive shelf drill a hole
of 1/2” diameter in the centre of the bottom of tin can and cut
a V-shaped notch on one side of it. This can now be used as
a beehive shelf.
In this boiling water from a kettle is allowed to condense
in a jam jar which is immersed in a pan containing ice cold
water. A simple glass tube fitted with a rubber tubing can be
fitted to the mouth of the kettle and another glass tube is fitted
to serve as outlet for condensed steam.
There are many more such items which can be easily
obtained. Some such items are:
(i) Spring balance.
(ii) Spirit lamp.
(iii) Water voltameter.
(iv) Fire extinguisher.
Advantages of Improvised Apparatus: Some of the
advantages of improvised apparatus are:
(i) These are quite cheap and economical.
(ii) They have great educational value. While devising
such apparatus students gains more familiarity with
the underlying principles of the apparatus.
(iii) It helps to develop the creative and constructive
instructs of the child.
(iv) It inspires young students to explore and invent new
things.
(v) It develops the lower of initiative and resourcefulness
in the student.
(vi) It helps to develop power of scientific thinking.
(vii) It helps to inculcate the habit of diligency in the students.
(viii) It galvanises dignity of labour.
(ix) It solves problem of leisure time.
PARTICULAR ITEMS
A chemistry kit is a container or box in which are stored
some special apparatus/material and so these are readily
available for experimentation and demonstration work.
The central science work shop, a wing of NCERT, New
Delhi, has prepared kits for teaching of chemistry to various
classes along-with manuals and detailed guidance for the use
of these kits by the teacher and the students.
The material stored in these kits is easily available in market
and some of the items of these kits can be improvised or made
in work shop by carpenters or black smiths. These kits are of
three types:
(i) Kits which are helpful for demonstration of certain
specific facts and principles.
(ii) Kits which help the students in performing experiments
and draw inferences so as to study facts and principles.
(iii) Kits which are useful for both teachers and students.
The demonstration kit devised for chemistry by NCERT can
serve the purpose of demonstration kit for classes VII and VIII.
It contains chemicals, glass apparatus etc. required for
demonstration of various experiments. In it there is a total of
63 items of apparatus, 67 chemicals and it contains 12 types
of containers. Apparatus stored in the kit is mostly improvised
apparatus and the containers are bottles and ink phials. All the
items of the kit are arranged in a suitable manner and are
packed in a box made of wood. Such a box can be easily
transported. This kit contains no liquid chemicals and these
have to be arranged locally whenever the need arises.
Chemistry pupil’s kit is meant for use of students in their
practicals and it can serve as a ‘mini laboratory’ for village
schools. The front covers of the kit can be hinged to serve as
a table. It contains 37 different items, 40 chemicals and 10 types
of containers for chemicals. It is also provided with two test
tube stands, one on each side of the box. These can also be used
as handles for lifting the box.
The Advantages: Some of the important advantages of the
science kits are summarised below:
Low Cost: These kits are very economical and a primary
science kit costs only around rupees one hundred. All the kits for
a middle school are not likely to cost more than Rs. 3000/-.
Use of Indigenous Resources: Majority of items stored in
chemistry kits are indigenous and no import or foreign
collaboration is required.
Ea sy Replacement of Items: Various items stored in chemistry
Easy
kit can be easily replaced in case of loss or breakage etc.
Easily Portable: The kits are easily portable and can be
easily used for demonstration in classes being met in open or
under trees.
Economy of Time: Being planned in a very systematic way,
minimum time is needed for setting up an experiment by using
such kits.
Consolidated Material: All the essential items of apparatus,
equipments, chemicals etc. are arranged in such a way that any
item can be put to multipurpose use. In this way material is
consolidated in a chemistry kit. Moreover all the material
needed for an experiment is consolidated in the kit.
Economy in consumption: In a science kit the items stored
are in mini size and so the consumable items such as chemicals
etc. are consumed in small amounts.
Teacher’s Innovation: The science kits can serve to motivate
and inspire an innovative chemistry teacher to work out new
ideas and he can encourage his students to improvise new
apparatus and experiments.
Students Involvement: Since the various items stored in
science kits are quite simple so they can be easily handled by
the students. It encourages the students and they become active
participants in the teaching-learning process.
IMPORTANCE OF TEXTBOOKS
In the present educational set up the role of textbook is of
prime importance. However we find that little attention is paid
to this important aspect of education. Most of the textbooks
in chemistry are not of good standard. They follow the
prescribed syllabus too rigidly and no attention is paid to
develop the topics according to the need and interest of students.
A good textbook is one which is a source of knowledge arranged
systematically and it enables the reader to acquire the needed
information quickly. It inspires the student to invent, to discover
and to inculcate scientific methods. However teacher should
not depend solely even on the best of the textbooks because
even such a textbook omits many details which teacher wants
to tell to his students.
The use of a textbook is made by the students for completing
the preparatory part of an assignment. They also use their
textbook for doing revision of course. Some students also consult
and use their textbooks to study at home, the demonstration
lesson given to them by their teacher in school. In this way
textbooks are used to supplement the class work. Textbooks
also provide a help to students in correct understanding of
basic concepts and principles of science.
Generally a number of books are prescribed by board or
university to be used as textbooks. NCERT prepared textbooks
are available upto class XII. While recommending a textbook
to his students the teacher should consider the following points
to assess the worth of the book:
(i) Correctness of matter.
(ii) Purity of languages.
(iii) Simplicity of diagrams.
(iv) Quality of printing and binding.
Correctness of Matter: In this correction the standing of
the author and the reputation of publishers should be
considered. The books written by well known author having
a long teaching expe-rience of teaching the subject and
possessing requisite qualifications be recommended. It would
be much appreciated if certain minimum qualifications and
experience for authors is laid down by authorities.
Purity of Language: A textbook that presents the subject
matter in a simple, clear and lucid language should be preferred.
For textbook in a regional language, the scientific terminology
should also be given in English with in brackets. In such books
only standard terminology evolved by the Central Ministry of
Education and State Governments should be used.
Simplicity of Diagrams: Only simple and well labelled
diagrams be given in textbooks. Such diagrams are self
explanatory and help the student in properly-understanding
the subject matter.
Quality of Printing and Binding: It is desirable that a
textbook makes use of a good quality paper and the quality
of printing, and type of letters in fine. It should be so bound
that its binding is appealing to the student.
In addition to the above a good textbook is expected to
select and arrange the subject-matter in a psychological
sequence. The book should follow the aims of teaching
chemistry and should serve as a guide for demonstration lesson
as also for individual experiments. Each chapter should start
with a brief introduction and a summary of the subject matter
be given at the end of the chapter.
Some assignments should also be given at the end of each
chapter and the assignments should cover such areas as
applications to life situations, numerical questions, suggestions
for experimental work and projects, objective type tests etc.
Heading and sub-headings be given in bold type. A table of
contents be provided at the beginning and a subject-index be
provided at the end. Glossary of some important scientific
terms be given at the end of the book.
In most of the school still the traditional school chemistry
textbooks are in use. Such books are used for reading, revision,
to follow instructions for some laboratory exercise etc. However
traditional chemistry textbooks have been abandoned in those
countries in which ‘process’ has become a significant feature
of school chemistry courses.
In such countries generally well illustrated work-books
that contain exercises for fostering the development of such
‘process skills’ as observing, hypothetising and inferring. These
are accompanied by data books and books of questions for
pupils and teacher’s guides.
Textbooks also communicate to pupils various assumptions
about the nature and purpose of scientific activity.
THE INSTRUMENTS
In the area meant for lecture room a wall blackboard 10' ´ 4'
is provided. About 3' away from this blackboard is the teachers
table which is about 6' long and 2.5 feet high. Such a table can
be conveniently used both as a writing table as also a
demonstration table and causes no disturbance or in
convenience to the students in watching the demonstration or
observing the blackboard.
For seating dual table and chairs are most economical.
Thus by providing twenty tables and forty chairs sufficient
seating arrangement could be made. Dual tables should be of
the size 3.5' ´ 1.5' ´ 2'. They may be provided with shelf. The
top of these tables should be flat and plain having grooves for
pen/pencils. The chairs are 1.5' high in the seat, which in case
of an iron chair, may be covered with a small mat. The area
necessary for a dual table and two chairs is a square of 3.5'.
Passages of 1.5' are sufficient for single file and 2.5' to 3.5' at
the sides.
A sink is provided for use of the teacher. The size of the
sink generally used is 18'’ ´ 12" ´ 6".
The advantages of table and chair system are as under:
(i) They are quite economical.
(ii) They provide quite natural seats.
(iii) They allow enough space for easy passage of the
students.
(iv) They can be easily moved while cleaning the room.
(v) They can be used for other purposes such as
accommodating guests at various school functions.
Laboratory: In the laboratory part of the room are provided
six laboratory tables which are made of wood and are perfectly
plain. A blackboard is also provided on this side of the room.
The laboratory tables are of the size 6' ´ 3.5' and are provided
with a shelf on the working side just below the top. Four
students can work on each table.
The whole of each table except top should be stained dark.
The top should be treated with wax ironed with a hot flat iron
in order to fill the pores of the wood and to prevent the easy
penetration of the liquids. The space between 3' and 4' and
passage-way at the end of the tables is 2' wide. At school level
the laboratory tables are not provided with any sink. Some of
the reasons for not providing the sinks are as follows:
Economy: A large economy is observed because much
plumbing and a network of drains is avoided. Cost of sinks
is also saved. For most of the experiments at school level a
trough can serve the purpose.
Usefulness: The table is quite useful for both physics and
chemistry. In absence of sinks more space is available for use
as working space. Such a table can also be used for other
purposes.
Appearance and cleanliness: The floor of the room is not
broken for providing drains etc. It gives a better look.
Tidiness: The tables if provided with sink would make the
room untidy because such tables invariably allow splashing of
water which is likely to interfere with experiments and is likely
to create problems.
As shown in the plan there are only three sinks, one for
the teacher and two for the students. Of the two sinks for
students one is placed in the window recess and the other in
recess in the wall. Each of the sinks is provided with a drawing
board having grooves arranged to drip over the suits. It is used
for placing beakers, flasks, etc. for drying.
For placing balances, recess in walls may be used. They
may be about a foot wide at a height of about 3' 3". Such recess
has the following advantages over wooden or stone shelf:
(i) It is very economical because only very small masonry
is needed.
(ii) It is more substantial as compared to a bracket shelf.
(iii) It does not project into the room and so space economy
can be made.
For providing ample accommodation for balances a length
of 7' to 7.5' is sufficient.
In the plan provision has also been make for the storage
of apparatus, equipments etc. For this purpose there is a
provision of eight almirahs (each with 7' x 5' dimensions). Each
almirahs provided with shelves 1.5' deep, of this 1' is recessed
in the wall and only 6" projects out. These almirahs provided
sufficient space for the storage of not only the apparatus,
equipment etc. but can also serve the purpose of storage of
science library.
Reagent shelves can be very conveniently placed on either
side of the recesses for balances space can also be found, for
placing notice boards for assignments of work, results of tests,
etc., on the wall between the windows or just inside the doors.
The Advantages
The combined lecture room-cum-laboratory has the
following advantages:
(i) It is very economical.
(ii) It is compact and provides enough space for seating,
working, storage etc.
(iii) It can be furnished easily and with meagre resources.
(iv) It provides enough and comfortable seating space for
the students.
(v) In this room science atmosphere prevails.
(vi) It provides an opportunity for better control. For a
better control following points be kept in view by a
teacher:
(a) Every student has his assigned place which is
indicated by his name written on a card placed in
a brass card holder fixed on the leg of the table.
(b) The four boys working on any table be allotted
number 1, 2, 3, 4 and number 1 of each table be
asked to collect four sets of articles required for
each table. Number 2 be asked to remove the dirty
apparatus, after the period, to drain board and
number 3 will remove clean apparatus. Number 4
will wipe down the table with a duster.
(c) Class monitors be named for cleaning dirty
apparatus after school hours or during recess
period.
(d) Students be made responsible for the correct
alignment of their tables. For this black and white
lines be pointed on the floor.
ELEMENTS OF USE
Burns: Burns by Dry Heat (i.e. by flame, hot objects etc.).
For slight burns apply Burnol and Sarson oil.
In case of blisters caused by burns apply Burnol at once and
rush to dispensary.
Caution: Heat bums should never be washed.
Acid Burns: Wash with water and then with a saturated
solution of sodium bicarbonate and finally with water.
Even after this if burning persists, wipe the skin dry with
cotton wool and apply Sarson oil and Burnol.
Caution: In case of conc, sulphuric acid, wipe it from the
skin before giving the above treatment.
Alkali Burns: Wash with water and then with 1 per cent
acetic acid and finally with water. Dry the skin and apply
Burnol.
Cuts: In case of a minor cut allow it to bleed for a few
seconds and remove the glass piece if any. Apply a little
methylated spirit or Dettol on the skin and cover with a piece
of leucoplast.
For serious cuts call the Doctor at once. In the mean while
try to stop bleeding by applying pressure above the cut. The
pressure should not be continued for more than five minutes.
Note: Minor bleeding can be stopped easily be applying
concentrated ferric chloride solution or alum.
Eye Accidents
Acid in Eye: At once wash the eye with water a number
of times. Then wash it with 1 per cent sodium carbonate solution
by means of an eye-glass.
Alkali in Eye: At once wash with water and then with 1
per cent boric acid solution by means of an eye-glass.
Foreign Particles in Eye: Do not rub the eye. Wash it by
sprinkly water into the eye. Open the eye and remove the
particle by means of a clean handkerchief or cotton wool.
Again wash freely with water.
Poisons: It a solid or liquid goes to the mouth, but is not
swallowed, spit it at once and repeatedly rinse with water. If
the mouth is scalded, apply olive oil or ghee.
Acids: Dilute by drinking much water or preferably milk
of magnesia.
Caustic Alkalies: Dilute by drinking water and then drink
a glass of lemon or orange juice.
Arsenic of Mercury Compounds: Immediately give an
emetic e.g. one table spoon full of salt or zinc sulphate is a
tumbler of warm water.
Inhalation of Gases: Pungent gases like chlorine, sulphur
dioxide, bromine vapours etc. When inhaled in large quantities
often choke the throat and cause suffocation.
In such a case remove the victim to the open air and loosen
the clothing at the neck. The patient should inhale dilute vapours
of ammonia or gargle with sodium bicarbonate solution.
Fire
Burning Clothing: It clothes have caught fire then lay the
victim on the floor and wrap a fire-proof blanket tightly around
him. The fire in the burning clothes will thus be extinguished.
Never throw water on the person as it will cause serious boils on
his body.
Burning Reagents: In case of fire on the working table at
once turn out the gas taps and remove all things which are
likely to ignite. Following methods be used to extinguish the
fire:
(i) If any liquid in a beaker or flask has caught fire, cover
the mouth of the vessel with a clean clamp cloth or
duster.
(ii) Most of the fire on the working table can be extinguished
by throwing sand on them.
(iii) If any wooden structure has caught fire it is put up by
throwing water on it.
(iv) Never throw water on burning oil or spirit. Since it will
only spread the fire. Throwing of a mixture of sand
and sodium bicarbonate on the fire is most effective.
A first aid box should be provided in every laboratory. It

should contain the following materials.
Bandages (3-4 rolls of different sizes), gauze, lint, cotton
wool, leucoplast.
A pair of forceps, a pair of scissors, safety pins. Glass
dropper, two eye-glasses.
Vaseline, boric acid powder, sodium bicarbonate powder,
a tube of Burnol.
Sarson oil, olive oil, glycerine.
Picric acid solution, Tannic acid solution 1 per cent acetic
acid, 1 per cent boric acid, 1 per cent sodium bicarbonate,
saturated solution of sodium carbonate.
Methylated spirit, rectified spirit. Dettol.
THE PROGRAMMING
In a senior secondary school the arrangements are made
to provide education in chemistry as elective subjects in addition
to teaching of general science.
In senior secondary school a provision has to be made for
a chemistry laboratory. The laboratory in senior secondary
schools is almost the same as in colleges. Each laboratory is
provided with a preparation-cum-store room attached to it.
The size of the laboratory will depend on the number of
students likely to work in it at a time. About 30 sq. feet. If space
be provided for each student. The structural details are generally
provided by the architects but the following points be kept in
mind.
Planning: It would be better if chemistry teacher is consulted
and for this there should be frequent conferences between the
chemistry teacher and the architect. Various points be
thoroughly discussed.
Some of the points of consideration are as under:
(i) Laboratories and class rooms should not be mixed on
the same corridor.
(ii) Laboratories be situated, as far as possible, away from
crafts room, music room, play fields, main gate etc.
(iii) The consideration be given to proximity of stores,
preparation room, balance room, green houses etc.
Following points be given due consideration while planning
individual laboratories:
(i) Each student is easily accessible to the teacher.
(ii) There is minimum of movement.
(iii) Each student has a cupboard, bottles, heating point
and a sink near him.
(iv) Teacher can easily watch each student.
(v) Blackboard is visible to each student.
(vi) Each student can easily see the demonstration.
(vii) There is enough space between two laboratory tables.
(viii) Master switches be provided to control electricity, gas,
water etc. in each laboratory.
Lighting: Proper lighting arrangements be made for
laboratory tables and class rooms. Special attention be given
to the lighting of demonstration table and blackboard. It would
be preferred if a provision could be made for electrical lights
over tables through pulleys so that their height may be varied
from 2 to 8 ft.
Two way switches be provided for controlling the main
lighting from doors and preparation rooms. Dark blinds or
curtain must be provided for each laboratory.
Ventilation: It possible each laboratory should be
surrounded by a 6' verandah on all sides to keep away the
direct heat of the sun. Ventilators be provided as usual. In case
of chemistry laboratory ceiling should be high and exhaust
fans must be provided.
For laboratory ventilation full height windows are desirable.
To avoid direct draughts even when the windows are open
windows should be designed in Fig.
C
R R
P Q
A B
P Q
Fig. Design of a window to avoid draughts.
Fig. A ‘no-door” Dark Room
Windows A and B are side lung or pivoted along the axis

PP and QQ. Window C is pivoted along RR. If this plan is used
them windows can open in different ways depending on the
wind direction. In dark room the ventilation can be provided
by deflecting incoming and outgoing air by opaque partition.
A no door arrangement as shown in Fig. may made.
Double
Walled Tank
Slow Pipe
Water Pumped Up
To Water Taps
To Water Taps
Electric Motor
Fig.
Water Supply: Provision of water supply must be made

in every laboratory. Water supply is most essential item and
for this purpose proper arrangement of water laps and sinks
is a must in every laboratory. In case of non-availability of
adequate water supply from municipal/local sources alternate
arrangements have to be made. For making alternate
arrangements suggestion given below be considered. A water
storage tank having a capacity of 1000 to 5000 litres be
constructed with concrete and cement or a ready-made tank
of synthetic material be purchased and such a tank be then
placed at the roof of the room. Water be then lifted using
electric pump for filling this tank. The water supply is then
provided from this storage tank to the laboratories. A tentative
scheme for storage and supply of water is shown in Fig.
60 cm
Table Top
15 cm
30 cm
Drain
Pipe
Sinks: Provision of sinks in each laboratory is one of the
essential requirements. For a laboratory of ordinary size
generally four sinks of 15" ´ 12" ´ 8" or 20" ´ 15" ´ 10" are
sufficient. These sinks be fitted on side walls. These sinks are
in addition to the one provided with the demonstration table.
Waste water from these sinks is carried to the drains with the
helps of the lead pipes fitted with the sinks. In laboratories
kitchen type sinks are preferred to wash basis type. Fig gives
a sketch of sinks and drainage for water.
Waste Disposal: In laboratories two types of wastes (i.e.
liquid and solid) are often encountered. Arrangements have
to be made for disposal of these wastes. For disposal of liquid
wastes use of lead pipes or earthen ware pipes is considered
most suitable. However care be taken to avoid the flow of
solids like pieces of filter paper, cork, broken glass pieces etc.
through these pipes, otherwise these pipes get chocked. For
disposal of such solid wastes metal boxes or wooden boxes be
provided. Such boxes be placed in the corners of the laboratory
and students be asked to put all solid wastes in these boxes.
Such waste boxes can even be placed under the sinks as shown
in Fig.
Sink
Waste Box
Removal Pancle
Fig. A space saving position of a disposal box

Pipe Lines: Installation of water pipes and gas pipes is
another important aspect for furnishing a science laboratory.
While installing pipes some of the points that be given due
consideration are given as follows:
(i) Not more than 4 or 5 half inches pipes be led from any
pipe for purpose of supply of water or drainage of water.
(ii) In case of physics laboratory all efforts be made to
avoid iron pipes.
(iii) Pipes should never be placed on the laboratory tables.
(iv) It is convenient if the pipe fittings are not underground.
Gas Supply: For adequate supply of fuel gas to the laboratory
generally any one of the following arrangements is made:
(i) Kerosene oil gas plant is installed.
(ii) Coal gas plant is installed.
(iii) Petrol gas plant is installed.
(iv) Gobar gas plant is installed.
The petrol gas plant is preferred as such a plant is
economical and such plants are available in various capacities.
A moderate capacity plant can feed 10-20 gas taps. Petrol gas
plants are readily available and such plants are also
manufactured at Ambala (Punjab). These plants can be easily
operated.
For housing a petrol gas plant we need only a small room.
The gas can be distributed to the practical tables using a 2"
main gas pipe with further distributaries of 1/2" pipe. Each
practical table is provided with gas taps and these taps should
be of the rigid nozzle type and be fitted towards the back of
the table. The gas tables be fitted in such a way that the point
upwards and are at an angle of 45º from each other. If double
benches are provided them taps should be fitted along the
centre line of each bench. In most of the laboratories iron pipes
are used but it would be preferable, in case of physics laboratory,
if we use brass pipes. For controlling the supply of gas in
addition to main control valve provision be made to control
the supply of gas to each group of tables. These controls should
be easily accessible to teacher and should not be easily accessible
to students.
Laboratory Tables: The provision of laboratory tables as
a must for each laboratory. The taps of laboratory tables be
preferably made to teak wood. However other hard wood
such as sheesham or deodar can also be used for making tops
of laboratory tables. These tops are generally 1" thick. Other
parts of the table i.e. legs, drawers etc. may be made of any
other type of locally available wood. Plywood or hardboard
can also be used for drawers. In chemistry laboratory such
drawers are provided with the laboratory tables.
In addition to these provision for boards be made in the
laboratories. For this either wall blackboards be provided or
movable wooden blackboards with stands can be used.
The organisation of laboratories in secondary schools was
also discussed at a seminar (All India) on the teaching of
science in secondary schools. This seminar was held at Tara
Devi (Simla) and it made some recommendations. Its
recommendations are given below:
Layout
(a) Provision be made for one laboratory for chemistry in
every higher secondary school.
(b) A floor space of 30 sq ft per student be provided in
each laboratory.
(c) Adjacent store room be provided with each laboratory.
(d) A part of store room may be earmarked for use as a
preparation room.
(e) In science wing, some suitable place for work benches
with tools, be provided.
(f) A minimum of two class rooms provided with galleried
seats be provided in each school.
The equipment for chemistry laboratory as recommended
at the Tara Devi (Simla) Seminar is as under:
(i) Almirahs (wooden and steel).
(ii) Wallboard or blackboard.
(iii) Demonstration table (8' ´ 4') with cupboards, water and
gas points.
(iv) Working tables with cupboards, shelves, water and
gas points.
(v) Balance room should be attached to the laboratory.
(vi) Sinks on each working table or at least two large sinks
at the corners of the laboratory.
(vii) A fume cupboard.
(viii) A wooden box half filled with sand for use as waste
material box.
(ix) Acid proof drainage system.
(x) Shelves for reagent bottle on each working table and
wall shelves for storage of reagent bottles.
THE COUNSELLING
Instructions to Pupils: When a group comes to laboratory
for practical work it should be given a guidance for the
experiment to be performed.
Such guidance can be given by (i) Laboratory instructions
(ii) Laboratory manuals or (iii) Instruction cards.
Laboratory Instructions: Laboratory instructions should
be given in a clear and simple language. It should give a
precise but systematic method of performing the experiment.
Special emphasis be given on how the record is to be kept and
number of observations to be taken. Calculations be clearly
explained and precautions to be observed be specifically
emphasised.
Laboratory Manuals: Any good laboratory manual should
contain the following:
(a) It should contain full and complete directions about
the experiment. Such directions should clearly give the
procedure to be followed and the precautions to be
observed.
(b) It should give the method of recording of observations.
Tables if needed for recording observations be clearly
given.
(c) It should give clear directions about the writing and
completing of practical note book. Important equations,
diagrams etc., be given in it.
Instruction Card: In some laboratories instruction cards
are used for providing guidance for laboratory work. Each
student is given a card containing instructions about the
experiment he has to perform.
The use of cards saves time as also wrong of the teacher.
By this system different students can perform different
experiments but the system is stereo typed and makes no
allowance for individuals.
Usually cards of 6" ´ 4" are used.
RECORD OF APPLICATION
For keeping a true and faithful record of practical work
done by him each pupil is required to have a practical note-
book. An effort be made to avoid printed note-books and plain
note-books be encouraged. By using plain note-books teacher
can make his students to follow any suitable method of keeping
record of the experiment.
As a general practice description is given on the right hand
page and observations are recorded on the left hand page. In
case assignment method is used them the left hand page is
reserved for preparatory work and laboratory record is kept
on right hand page which contains description as also the
observations.
The record of the method should be brief and in the first
person singular. A three column system be used for keeping
a record of experiments about the properties of gases etc. The
three column be headed Experiment, Observation and Inference.
The precautions that have been observed while performing
the experiment be recorded at the end in the first person
singular (past tense). All records in practical note-book be
made with lead-pencil. The diagrams should be simple and
will labelled.
ROOM FOR CHEMICALS

In storage of chemicals the following methods are normally
adopted:
(i) Grouping the chemicals in a systematic way.
(ii) Arranging the elements in alphabetic order.
(iii) Arranging the elements and their components in which
they occur in periodic table.
(iv) Grouping all elements and their similar components
together.
(v) Numbering each bottle and jar and keeping and index
book.
(vi) Keeping reagent bottles in definite places on the bench
and the cupboard.
(vii) Storing similar types of solutions at one place.
(viii) Using coloured bottles or bottles with spots of coloured
paint.
(ix) Using same type of bottles for a particular type of
reagent.
(x) Always store large bottles on floor and not on shelves.
(xi) While storing Winchester bottles of concentrated acids,
they be kept in brackets with sand.
(xii) Bottles containing inflammable liquids be stored in a
cool place outside the laboratory.
(xiii) White phosphorus be stored under water and sodium
be stored under kerosene oil.
(xiv) Hydrogen peroxide be stored in an air light tin.
FUNCTIONS OF AN ASSISTANT
Each laboratory be provided with a laboratory to perform
the following duties:
(i) Keeping benches and laboratory clean.
(ii) Oiling benches with linseed oil.
(iii) To draft orders for chemicals and apparatus.
(iv) To receive the supplies of chemicals and apparatus
after proper checking.
(v) To prepare solutions for volumetric analysis.
(vi) To prepare the solution for reagents shelf and to keep
the reagent bottles full.
(viii) To set up apparatus for demonstration and experiments.
(viii) To maintain apparatus (burette, pipette etc.) in proper
working conditions.
(ix) Keeping reagent bottles and chemicals at proper places.
(x) Periodic cleaning of iron stands, balances etc.
(xi) Keeping the first aid box replenished.
(xii) For repair of apparatus and glassware.
(xiii) Periodic checking of chemistry books in library and
reference books in the laboratory.
IMPORTANCE OF APPLICATION
No course in chemistry can be considered as complete
without including some practical work in it. The practical
work is to be carried out by individual in a chemistry laboratory.
Most of the achievements of modern chemistry are due to the
application of the experimental method. At school stage
practical work is even more important because of the fact that
we ‘learn by doing’ scientific principles and applications are
thus rendered more meaningful.
It is a well known fact that an object handled impresses
itself more firmly on the mind than an object merely seen from
a distance or in an illustrations. Centuries of purely deductive
work did not produce the same utilitarian results as a few
decades of experimental work. Practical class room experiments
help in broadening pupil’s experience and develop initiative,
resourcefulness and cooperation.
PRACTICAL WORK
Out of the various teaching methods, the Assignment method
is the only method that combines theory and practice in a
harmonious manner and can be easily practised in our schools.
The Heuristic method is predominantly a laboratory method.
However from this it should not be concluded that practical
work in laboratory is impossible if the teacher makes use of
any other teaching method.
Thus irrespective of the method adopted by the teacher for
teaching of chemistry in the class, practical work in laboratory
must be attempted. The following guide lines will help the
chemistry teacher to make his practical work effective.
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS
For smooth working in the laboratory teacher should give
due consideration to the following points:
(i) If teacher follows the demonstration method to teach
theory, he should remember the most important
principle that practical work should go hand in hand
with the theoretical work. Thus if a class is doing
theoretical work in chemistry it should also do practical
work in chemistry during the practical periods.
(ii) An attempt be made to arrange the practical work in
such a way that each student is able to do his practical
individually. Thus for practical work individual working
be preferred in comparison to working in groups.
(iii) In case of a large class, it is convenient to divide the
class in a suitable number of smaller groups, for
practical work. A practical group in no case should
have more than 20 students. The limit on practical
group is essential otherwise teacher will not be able to
devote individual attention to the students.
(iv) To save time on delivering a lecture about do’s and
don’ts in laboratory, card system is used. This card
which contains certain amount of guidance printed on
it is given to each pupil. In some laboratories where
card system exists each student is given a card containing
instructions about the experiment that he has to perform.
This card also contains the details of the apparatus
required. Student can complete his practical work
according to instructions given in the card.
(v) The apparatus provided should be good so that students
get an accurate result particularly in those experiments
in which the student is likely to compare the numerical
value of his result with some standard. However, every
chemistry teacher should guard against ‘Cooking’ of
results by his pupil. If this bad habit of cooking is not
checked in the beginning it persists through out the
students career.
(vi) A true and faithful record of each and every experiment
be kept by pupils. The record should be complete in
all respects.
(vii) To check the habit of ‘cooking’ teacher should see that
students enter all their observations directly in their
practical notebook. The teacher should insist that the
pupils do not go to the balance room without first
entering the data in their notebooks.
(viii) Students should not be allowed to erase any figures.
To change any wrong entry the same be crossed and
correct figure entered only with the permission of the
teacher.
(ix) Students should not be allowed to calculate results or
write data on scrap papers.
(x) In practical notebook the right hand page be reserved
for record while the left hand page be left for diagram
and calculations. This practice be followed for
Assignment method. For any other method the
laboratory work be done on left hand page of practical
note book and procedure etc. on right hand page of
practical note book.
(xi) Teacher should see that students complete their
practical note book in all respects and get it signed
before they are allowed to leave the laboratory.
Incomplete practical note books be kept in the
laboratory and students be asked to complete it in their
spare time.
(xii) Teacher should thoroughly check and critically examine
the account written by students.
(xiii) Whenever a student is required to make use of a piece
of apparatus for the first time it is the duty of the
teacher to explain to his students the working of the
apparatus. He should also explains reasons for
necessary care and accuracy.
(xiv) Teacher should see that students find no difficulty
to get apparatus and chemicals needed by them.
In the absence of provision for laboratory assistants it
is for the teacher that he arranges the apparatus in
such a way that things frequently needed by students
are easily accessible to them. Teacher should also
emphasise proper and economical use of apparatus
and chemicals.
(xv) While working with larger groups and with limited
apparatus teacher can act as under:
(a) He may use assignment method.
(b) He may allow students to work in groups.
(c) He may devise alternate simple experiments and
work with improvised apparatus.
(d) He may allow use of home made apparatus.
(xvi) Whenever the teacher is required to draw up suitable
laboratory directions or instructions for practical work
by pupils, be should keep the following points in mind:
(a) Beginner be given detailed directions.
(b) He should not tell the students what is actually
going to happen.
(c) The main aim of the experiment should be made
clear.
(xvii) During a practical class teacher should observe all
children from his desk otherwise chances of accidents
are there.
Even when teacher has to move from his desk his power
of control over the class should be such that students continue
their work satisfactorily.
Combined Lecture room-cum-Laboratory: Laboratory is a
spacious room where in a group of students carry out their
practicals. The work of designing and building a science room
(laboratory and lecture room) is that of the architect but science
master should collaborate with the architect in planning for
what is best from the educational point of view.
The plan of a combined lecture room and laboratory for
use in schools upto matriculation standard, devised by
Dr. R.H. Whitehouse, formerly principal of the Central Training
College, Lahore, has been adopted as the official standard plan
by Punjab Education Department.
The plan combines laboratory and class room for science
teaching. The suggested size of the room is 45' ´ 25' and it is
meant for a class of 40 students which is sub-divided in two
groups of 20 each for practical work.
The size of the room is most economical. Though the length
of the room is 45' but it should not be considered as
disadvantageous because the teacher is expected to address a
class of 40 students who will be occupying only about half the
room.
For constructing such a room walls are to be of 1' 6" thick
keeping Indian conditions in view, use of distemper be preferred
to white wash for the walls. A perfectly smooth floor is
preferable to one exhibiting any roughness. Such a floor is
easier to clean of the two doors, one is used for lecture room
and the other is reserved for laboratory part. To provide side
lighting three large windows (6' ´ 8') are provided. One of these
is provided near practical benches and two near seating
accommodation. Doors as also windows sills may be used as
shelves for carrying out experiments. To avoid flies wire gauze
screens be provided to the windows. If necessary, in such a
case, the windows be constructed with an upper and a lower
half. The lower half is fixed so that the inner sills of windows
could still be used as shelves.
THE LAWS
Maintaining discipline in laboratory is more difficult as
compared to maintaining discipline in the class room. This is
so because, pupils doing the same work wish to talk and
discuss with others. Modest talking is inevitable in the
laboratory. Yet talking and walking in the laboratory may
cause accidents. Following rules will help to avoid any such
accidents:
1. Admission to the laboratory in the absence of teacher
should be avoided.
2. Teacher should not be late unduly.
3. Students should silently go to their places after entering
the laboratory.
4. Before beginning his lesson teacher should wait for
silence.
5. The teacher should address the whole class.
6. Teacher should see that a complete silence is observed
during his talk.
7. Teacher should change his pitch at times to add interest
to his talk.
8. Teacher should make adequate preparation to keep
class busy.
9. The teacher should for see and remove all possible
causes of trouble.
10. Adequate apparatus be made available.
11. The teacher should try not to produce rigid discipline.
Following rules should be observed by students working
in a chemistry laboratory:
1. Nothing should be taken out of the laboratory without
the permission of the teacher.
2. Apparatus and chemicals be used only for specific
purposes.
3. Any mistake be brought to the notice of the teacher,
immediately.
4. Breakages be reported to the teacher.
5. Before returning the apparatus to its original place it
should be thoroughly cleaned.
6. Wastage of water, petrol gas etc. be avoided.
7. Make economical use of chemical reagents and
chemicals.
8. All doubts be cleared with the help of the teacher.
Following rules if observed will help to avoid accidents:
1. Never use concentrated acids unless specifically
instructed.
2. Do not mix chemicals aimlessly.
3. Do not taste chemicals without permission.
4. Pour liquids only down the sink.
RICH LABORATORY
Laboratory work is an essential component of chemical
education. However, schools in most developing countries are
ill equipped for practical work, and even where laboratories
have been built the problems of servicing the laboratory as
well as equipment are more acute. The basic problem is of
funding the purchase of consumables and equipment, together
with the associated maintenance cost.
In one area at least, in the provision of equipment, solutions
are possible. Hakansson has pointed out, if the selection of
equipment for school science is based upon ‘principles’ rather
than upon obtaining accurate results, very simple and quite
in expensive equipment can be used.
Teacher should be very careful while planning the purchase
of equipment for the laboratory. He should carefully weigh
each item to be purchased with its educational worth. He may
classify his requirements as under:
(i) Apparatus required for laboratory work.
(ii) Apparatus required for demonstration purposes.
(iii) Apparatus required for general use.
While determining the quantity of apparatus to be
purchased, he should keep the following points in mind.
(i) Financial resources at his disposal.
(ii) Demonstration and laboratory work that has to be
done during the year.
(iii) Scheme of work including the method of teaching to
be used.
(iv) Storage facilities available.
Before making actual purchases a list be prepared of
experiments to be informed by students and principles to be
demonstrated by the teacher. For demonstration only one set
will do but for experiments to be carried out by the students
the number of sets required will be equal to the member of
students working at a time. Some additional sets be purchased
to cover up for the breakages etc. only such articles which are
really required should be purchased.
If only limited funds are available then the purchases of
beakers, flaskes, funnels, files etc. should be accorded first
priority. These are the articles which are required by students
while doing experiments. When ample store of such articles
has been made then only the apparatus needed for
demonstration be purchased. Another important point which
must be considered is that there is enough accommodation for
the proper storage of articles likely to be purchased. While
ordering for purchases scheme of teaching, method of teaching
and knowledge and ability of teacher must also be given due
consideration.
The teacher should prepare a list of articles to be purchased.
While selecting apparatus teacher must not be tempted by
attractive descriptions given in catalogue. While preparing an
indent the teacher should give full specifications of the article
required. In the absence of such specifications it is just possible
that you make purchase of items which you never intended
to purchase. For selecting a good firm the list of apparatus
with complete specification be sent to some competing and
reputed firms and they be asked to quote their lowest rates.
A specimen for inviting quotation in shown below.
After receiving quotations a reliable firm quoting the lowest
rate be asked to make the supplies.
The UNESCO designed apparatus for tropical schools is
very satisfactory. The government of India is considering an
arrangement for the manufacture of such instruments and
making supplies of these to schools in lieu of cash grants.
S. No. Articles Quality Size Quantity
1. R.B. Flasks Pyrex glass 250ml 10 doz.

2. Titration flasks Pyrex glass 100ml 10 doz.
3. Troughs Pneumatic glass 12"dia 2 doz.
4. Nitric acid Commercial 51
5. Sulphuric acid B.D.H. 11
Chemistry teacher should carefully check the items received

and then arrange them properly after making entries in the
stock register.
ADVANTAGES OF EQUIPMENT
After preparing the list of items to be purchased the
chemistry teacher should make purchase from the firms
approved by the controller of stores or from some other
approved source. However if no such source is available then
he should send a list of his requirements to reputed firms for
quotations. After receiving quotations, the teacher can select
the dealers and firms for placing orders—the criterion being
lower price and better quality.
It is desirable to patronise local and neighbouring firms.
This provides the teacher a chance to select personally the
items required and get them packed in his presence. Many a
times it is better to go to a firm of repute and make the selection
and purchase, and have the apparatus packed in one’s presence.
It is always wise to get insured against breakage and loss of
the fragile apparatus ordered from out station firms.
On receiving the apparatus it should be carefully unpacked
and after proper checking all the items of the purchase be
catalogued and recorded in stock register then the goods
received be properly stocked.
THE ADMINISTRATION
The apparatus received be arranged in almirahs provided
with glass fronts and preferably be fitted with mortise locks
to avoid dust getting in. Apparatus should be arranged in such
a way that each and every item could be easily located. Items
which are frequently required be stored at such places that
they are readily available. The apparatus should be arranged
one deep of shelf; several rows of same articles may be placed
on one shelf. The apparatus may be arranged either subject
wise or alphabetically. If we arrange the apparatus subject-
wise we find that some articles fall under more than one
heading and if we arrange them alphabetically we find that
glass and metal articles are coming together in which there is
more likely hood of breakage. Thus it is always better to
reserve a few almirahs for apparatus required for individual
practical work in which the apparatus be arranged
alphabetically. The chemicals can also be stored alphabetically.
A list be pasted on the almirahs showing the names of
articles stored in it. The apparatus needed only for
demonstration purposes may be stored in separate almirahs
subject-wise.
Chemicals can be stored even on open shelves. For this
purpose two open shelves can be provided on either side of
the recess for balances. However dangerous and costly
chemicals like phosphorus or sodium or salts of mercury,
bismuth or cadmium be stored separately in an almirah. The
containers or bottles containing chemicals should be neatly
labelled. To effect economy in space some items of common
use such as stands, holders, clamps etc. many be stored outside
almirahs. Two possible arrangements for storage of iron stands.
HOW TO MAINTAIN?
Care of equipment and apparatus is one of the important
functions of the chemistry teacher. For this the apparatus kept
in almirahs must be checked at regular intervals.
During this checking operation the apparatus should not
only be inspected but it should also be dusted, cleaned and
polished if necessary. If proper care is taken the life of the
apparatus will increase. For proper upkeep and maintenance
the following points be kept in mind.
(i) After use the apparatus should be properly cleaned
before it is returned to its proper place. Never return
dirty apparatus to its proper place. This is specially
applicable in case of glass apparatus used in chemistry
laboratory. For proper cleaning of glass articles we can
make use of soap, pumice stone, hot alkali solution,
acidified potassium dichromate solution etc.
(ii) For cleaning items made of brass we can use Brasso.
Brasso be applied to the article with finger covered
with a piece of muslin, allowed to dry and then rubbed
off with a clean duster.
(iii) Iron articles are generally polished. For polishing such
articles use Black Japan thinned with a little turpentine
or kerosene oil. Aluminium paint can also be used. If
the article to be painted has any rust it should be
removed, by rubbing with an emery paper, before
painting the article. Use of kerosene oil can also be
made for removal of rust. Take care to apply vaseline
on screws and hinges of iron articles during rainy
season.
(iv) Wooden articles be left in the sun after being polished
with spirit polish. Spirit polish can be made by
dissolving shellac in methylated spirit. One or two
coatings of it are then applied on the article.
(v) The top of each laboratory table is unpolished but it
should be waxed (specially in case of chemistry
laboratory) to avoid the action of acids. For waxing
either paraffin wax or candles can be used. Wax is
coated over the table with the help of painters brush
and is then spread over and smoothened using the hot
iron of washerman. It is then allowed to dry and any
excess of wax is scarped off with a blunt knife. It is then
polished with a coarse duster.
(vi) Special attention be paid to keep sinks clean. For
cleaning sinks use vein powder or some other cleaning
powder. Use special chemicals for removal of stains if
they persist.
(vii) In chemistry laboratory special attention be paid to the
fact that stoppers of bottles are not lost or get changed.
For this they should be tagged to the bottle either using
a copper wire or a rubber band.
(viii) The apparatus which is frequently used by students
may go out of its proper adjustment and a good
chemistry teacher must find time for its proper
adjustment and must also be able to carry out minor
repairs. For this the chemistry laboratory must be
equipped with a tool kit containing usual hammer,
wrenches, pliers, screw drivers, forceps etc.
(ix) Glass panes of almirahs should also be cleaned
occasionally. For cleaning glass panes use monkey
brand soap. Rub a wet sponge over the soap and then
over the pane and clean off with a duster. Pumice stone
dipped in water is in methylated spirit and rubbed
over the panes will remove all dirt.
(x) For cleaning of glass apparatus in general and burette
and pipette in particular, use a solution of potassium
dichromate acidified with dilute sulphuric acid.
ANALYTICAL ACCOUNTS
Maintenance of a proper record of the apparatus, material
etc. in the laboratory is one of the important duties of the
science master. For this after receipt of articles they should be
thoroughly checked and then they be entered in the stock
register.
Separate stock register be maintained for consumable and
non-consumable items, permanent articles, glass articles etc.
Following stock registers are generally maintained in schools:
(i) Stock register for non-breakable articles.
(ii) Stock register for breakable articles.
(iii) Stock register for consumable articles.
(iv) Stock register for permanent articles.
In addition to various stock registers following registers
should also be maintained.
Order Register: This Register is meant for orders sent for
the purchase of new apparatus. Entries in this register should
indicate the serial number and date of the order, name of the
firm to whom the order has been placed, details of articles
ordered, articles received, cost of articles received. For
convenience a copy of the order be posted on the left hand
page of this register and a copy of supply under be pasted on
the right hand page.
Requirement Register: This register if maintained makes
the task of placing orders easier. Teacher will enter in this
register the items whose absence is felt by the teacher at the
time of demonstration of an experiment or during the practical
class. If such entries are not made them there is every likelihood
that some of the items needed by the teacher may be left out
while placing the order for purchase of material and equipment.
The requirement register should invariably be consulted by
the teacher whenever be places orders for the purchase of
materials or other requirements of the laboratory.
Specimen Page from Page.............
Stock Register
Stock Register of.....................................Department
Name of the article...............................
Month Particulars Receipt Consumed/ Balance Initials of

& (Name of the written of Tr. incharge
Date Firm, Bill No.
and Date) Qty. Rate Amt. Qty. Amt. Qty. Amt.
Stock
Register for Science Club: Organising science clubs is quite
useful in creating a scientific atmosphere and each secondary
school is expected to have a science club. For organising various
activities of science club the teacher needs different types of
apparatus, equipment and materials. It is desirable to maintain
a separate stock register for the science club. In this register
all the apparatus meant for science club be entered. Entries of
models, charts and collections made by students should also
be made in this register.
Maintenance of Stock Registers: Following points should
be given done consideration while maintaining any stock
register:
(i) The outer cover of the stock register should indicate
the name of the register, name of the school, date of
opening and closing of the register, etc.
(ii) A certificate be given on the first page of the register
indicating the total number of pages in the register. All
the pages be numbered serially and the above certificate
be countersigned by the head of the institution.
(iii) Either separate stock registers be maintained or the
same stock register be divided into a number of portions
under various heads such as Mechanics, Heat, Light,
Sound, Electricity, Magnetism etc.
(iv) An effort be made to make entries alphabetically.
(v) An Index be given at the beginning of the stock register.
(vi) Each receipt entry should be entered with date of receipt
and the items consumed or broken be shown in the
columns meant for this purpose. All these entries be
initialled by chemistry teacher and countersigned by
head of institution.
It is expected that science teacher is capable of devising
and making apparatus for some simple experiments, modify
apparatus and carry out simple repairs. The apparatus devised
and made in school work shop or laboratory by the teacher
or student is known as home-made apparatus. A science teacher
with a little thought and ingenuity can make a number of
valuable and serviceable models making use of cheap materials
such as Jam-Jars, bits of wire, corks, motor parts etc. Some of
the advantages of using home-made apparatus are as under:
(i) Such an apparatus is economical.
(ii) Use of such an apparatus makes more obvious the
application of science to life and things around us.
(iii) It provides an encouragement to the student to make
such an apparatus and adopt it as a hobby.
(iv) It helps to correlate science with manual training.
(v) It creates extra interest in the subject.
(vi) It provides training in manual skill, resourcefulness
and ingenuity. These qualities are quite useful for life.
A word of caution for teacher in using house-made apparatus
is that he must not sacrifice efficiency just for his over
enthusiasm for using house-made apparatus.
Such equipment can be made by individual teachers for
their own use in schools or made available from a production
centre. This type of equipment can serve the needs of the
teacher, the student and the curriculum more effectively. As
already pointed out such an equipment can be produced by
individual teachers or can be procured from production centres.
BOOKS FOR ADVICE

Books containing following type of details be kept in the
chemistry laboratory as reference books:
(i) Books containing physical constants of common
substances.
(ii) Books which give the details of preparation of solutions
for reagent bottles as also for volumetric analysis.
(iii) Recipes for cleaning glass ware and metals, removing
stains, freeing glass stoppers, fire proofing etc.

Teacher Handbook of Chemistry

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First Edition, 2009

ISBN 978 93 80168 93 7

© All rights reserved.

1. Place of Chemistry in Science

4. Role of the Teacher

6. Aims and Objects of Teaching

Chemistry has a significant place in the discipline of science.

Main Theme: Science in our Environment

PROFITS FROM MUSEUMS

Work Book and Science Kit Materials: In this programme,

SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

SCIENCE AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COLLABORATION WITH PHYSICS

COLLABORATION WITH BIOLOGY

Percentage of our science teachers (Physics, Chemistry

Structure of an Atom (A Programme Unit)

ISSUE OF THE MANNER

In our country Science is witnessed to be taught from very

NATIONAL SCIENCE PROGRAMME

ROLE OF THE TEACHER

“Teacher! I saw a satellite!” “Look! One baby mouse is

Perceived difficulty Perceived difficulty

For its success the teacher should explicitly explain

By teaching chemistry we aim at bringing about a desirable

Logical axis of Limits of

Fig. The Funnel Approach

To illustrate it the problem selected is from chemistry of

Useful Data that was Available in the Paper was

Example 1: Organic Compounds of Oxygen

This chain of knowledge is a pattern. It is repeated at a

Example 2: The Chemistry of—OH group

A large number of compounds can be added to each group

Life Centred Units

Environment of Life-centred Units

Essentials of a Good Unit

Features of a Good Assignment

CASE STUDY METHOD

COMMON CENTRE METHOD

AIMS AND OBJECTS OF

In order to accomplish the task of teaching chemistry, it

Upto Middle School Level

Fig. Edger Dale Cone of Experiences

This is a kind of visual aid to visualise and explain the

Contributions of an Excursion or Field Trip

Procedure to Arrange Field Trips

Radio and Recordings

Advantages of Overhead Projector

Knowledge Recall and recognition of facts

(i) Knowledge of specifics The recall of specific and isolable

(ii) Knowledge of termi- Knowledge of referents for specific

(iii) Knowledge of specific Knowledge of dates, events

(iv) Knowledge of ways and Knowledge of the ways of

(v) Knowledge of conven- Familiarity with the forms and

(vi) Knowledge of trends Knowledge of the process

(viii) Knowledge of criteria Knowledge of a criteria by which