UNIT 2: BIOENERGETICS, BIOSYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

MODULE 1: BIOENERGETICS

1. Photosynthesis and ATP Synthesis

1.1 describe the structure of a dicotyledonous Annotated diagrams required.

leaf, a palisade cell and a chloroplast relating
these structures to their roles in the process
of photosynthesis;

1.2 make drawings from prepared slides of a

transverse section of a dicotyledonous leaf,
and a palisade cell;

1.3 explain the process of Include ATP’s functions as the universal

photophosphorylation; energy “currency” in all living organisms.

Include the role of pigments, and electron

carriers in the process. The conversion of
light energy into chemical energy of ATP, the
reduction of NADP and the evolution of
oxygen as a by-product should be noted.
No biochemical detail is required.

1.4 outline the essential stages of the Calvin Knowledge of C4 plants not required.
cycle involving the light independent fixation Include the fixation of carbon dioxide by
of carbon dioxide; ribulose bisphosphate to yield
phosphoglyceric acid (glycerate-3-P) and the
subsequent conversion to triose phosphate
and other carbohydrates.
Emphasize the roles of ATP and NADP.

1.5 discuss the concept of limiting factors in

photosynthesis;

1.6 investigate the effect of limiting factors Light intensity and carbon dioxide
on the rate of photosynthesis; concentration.

1.7 discuss the extent to which

knowledge of limiting factors can
be used to improve plant
productivity.

2. Cellular Respiration and ATP Synthesis

2.1 outline the stepwise breakdown of glucose Names of enzymes not required.
in cellular respiration;
2.2 explain the sequence of steps in Include the initial phosphorylation of
glycolysis; glucose, lysis into two 3-carbon compounds
and the subsequent production of pyruvate,
a small yield of ATP and reduced NAD.
Recognition of simplified structural
formulae intermediate.

2.3 describe the structure of a Diagram required.

mitochondrion, relating its
structure to its function;

2.4 state the fate of pyruvate in the Pyruvate enters thematrix and is converted
cytosol when oxygen is available; to acetyl CoA via oxidative decarboxylation.

2.5 outline the Krebs cycle; Details of structures of intermediates not

required.
2.6 explain the significance of the Emphasise production of NADH and
Krebs cycle in ATP formation; FADH2; oxidation and decarboxylation.

2.7 explain the process of oxidative Include the roles of hydrogen and electron
phosphorylation with reference to the carriers; the synthesis of ATP and the role of
electron transport chain; oxygen. No details of the carriers are
required. A summary of ATP production
should be known.

2.8 investigate the rate of oxygen uptake Germinating seeds may be used. A control is
during respiration using a simple needed.
respirometer;
2.9 compare the fate of pyruvate in the Fermentation allows for the regeneration of
absence of oxygen in animals and yeast. NAD so that glycolysis can continue in the
absence of oxygen. Include the concept of
oxygen debt in
mammals; and note that lactate can be
converted back (oxidized) to pyruvate when
oxygen is again available. Include
commercial uses of yeast.

3. Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycling

3.1 distinguish among the terms ecosystem, Use examples.

habitat, ecological niche;

3.2 discuss the way in which energy flows in Food chains and food webs. Emphasise the
an ecosystem; advantages of the food web.

3.3 discuss the efficiency of energy transfer

between trophic levels;

3.4 discuss the concept of biological Include the limitations of the pyramids of
pyramids; numbers, biomass and energy.
3.5 describe how nitrogen is cycled within an
ecosystem; Include the role of microorganisms.
3.6 distinguish between energy flow and
nutrient cycling within an ecosystem;

3.7 explain how energy flow and nutrient

cycling are important for ecosystems to
remain self-sustaining units.

4. Ecological Systems, Biodiversity and Conservations

4.1 discuss how ecosystems function as Use a named example. Include interactions
dynamic systems; between biotic and abiotic factors.

4.2 explain the concept of biodiversity; Discuss genetic diversity, species diversity
and ecosystem diversity.

4.3 discuss the importance of the Intrinsic, direct and indirect values,
maintenance of biodiversity; including medicine, natural products,
tourism.

4.4 discuss how species diversity is related to

the stability of an ecosystem;

4.5 explain how in situ and ex situ Protected areas and or reserves, seed banks,
conservation methods are used to maintain botanic gardens, zoos, sperm banks, embryo
biodiversity. banks.

MODULE 2: BIOSYSTEMS MAINTENANCE

1. The Uptake and Transport of Water and Minerals

1.1 explain the uptake of ions by active Emphasise the role of the endodermis.
transport in roots;

1.2 describe the entry of water into plant roots

in terms of water potential;

1.3 relate the structure of xylem vessels to Include transport and support roles.
their function;

1.4 make drawings from prepared slides of

xylem vessels;

1.5 outline the ascent of water in plants; Root pressure, capillarity, cohesion,
adhesion and transpiration pull. Include the
role of stomata in transpiration.
1.6 investigate the impact of environmental Include light and air movements.
factors on the rate of transpiration.

2. Transport in the Phloem

2.1 relate the structure of sieve tubes and

companion cells to their function;

2.2 make drawings of sieve tubes and

companion cells from prepared microscope
slides;

2.3 label pertinent features in an electron

micrograph of a sieve tube and companion
cell;

2.4 explain how phloem loading in the leaves

occurs against a concentration gradient;

2.5 discuss mass (pressure) flow as a possible Experimental evidence for and against this
mechanism of translocation. hypothesis.

3. The Circulatory System of Mammals

3.1 describe the structure of arteries, veins

and capillaries, relating their structures to
their functions;

3.2 make drawings of arteries and

veins from prepared microscope
slides;

3.3 describe the structure of the heart; Annotated diagram of the heart and
associated major blood vessels.

3.4 make drawings of a longitudinal section Use fresh or preserved specimens to

of the heart; emphasize the 3-D structure.

3.5 explain the cardiac cycle and its initiation;

3.6 discuss the internal factors that control

heart action;
3.7 define the terms blood pressure and
pulse;
3.8 discuss factors affecting blood pressure;

3.9 make drawings of erythrocytes and

leucocytes from prepared slides;
3.10 explain the role of haemoglobin in Flow charts not required.
oxygen and carbon dioxide transport;
3.11 describe oxygen dissociation curves for Interpret data.
adult haemoglobin;

3.12 explain the significance of the effect of

carbon dioxide on oxygen dissociation curves
(Bohr Effect).

4. Homeostasis and Hormonal Action

4.1 discuss the concept homeostasis; Receptors, effectors, set point, feedback and
homeostatic equilibrium. Emphasize the
dynamics of feedback mechanisms.

4.2 outline the general principles of Include ductless glands in animals; target
hormonal action in animals; cells and receptors.

4.3 explain how insulin and glucagon

regulate blood glucose concentration;

4.4 explain the effect of the plant regular Mention the gaseous nature of ethylene and
molecule, ethylene (ethene), on fruit its effect on respiration. Types of fruits not
ripening; required.

4.5 discuss the commercial use made of

ethylene in supplying market-ready fruit.

5. The Kidney, Excretion and Osmoregulation

5.1 explain the need to remove nitrogenous Review the formation of urea.
and other excretory products from the body;

5.2 describe the gross structure of the kidney Annotated diagrams required.
and the detailed structure of the nephron and
associated blood vessels;

5.3 make drawings of sections of the kidney

from prepared sides;

5.4 explain the function of the kidney in Include the role of ADH.
terms of excretion and osmoregulation;

5.5 discuss the clinical significance of the

presence of glucose and protein in the urine.
 6. Nervous Co-ordination

6.1 describe the structure of motor and Annotated diagrams required.

sensory neurones;

6.2 explain the role of nerve cell membranes

in establishing and maintaining the resting
potential;

6.3 describe the conduction of an action Emphasise the value of myelinated neurons
potential along the nerve cell membrane; in increasing the speed of transmission.

6.4 explain synaptic transmission; Structure of cholinergic synapse.

Annotated diagrams required.

6.5 outline the role of synapses.

MODULE 3: APPLICATIONS OF BIOLOGY

1. Health and Disease

1.1 discuss the meaning of the term ‘health’; Focus on the physical, mental and social
aspects of health.

1.2 explain the categories of disease or Include physical, mental, social, chronic,
illness; infectious, degenerate, inherited, self-
inflicted,
deficiency, with an example of each. Diseases
will fit into more than one category.

1.3 discuss reasons for the regional AIDS: include the biology of the virus; length
distribution of Acquired Immune Deficiency of incubation period; roles of lifestyle, ease
Syndrome (AIDS), of travel, cost of drugs and lack of education
diabetes and cancer; on the spread of the virus.

Diabetes: include the effects of diet, obesity

and prenatal malnutrition.

Cancer: include roles of environmental

hazards, food additives, viruses, genetic
factors; implications of symptom awareness
and failure to seek treatment in
management of the disease.

1.4 analyze data involving incidence and Explain the meanings of incidence and
mortality rates of disease. mortality rates; students should interpret
and analyse data and draw conclusions and
 or make predictions.

2. Immunology

2.1 describe the mode of action of Review phagocytosis; include role of mast
phagocytes; cells and histamine production;
complement; phagocytes as
antigenpresenting cells.

2.2 define the term, “immune response”;

2.3 compare the origin and maturation of B- Include the types of T-cells and their function
and T- lymphocytes; (refer to HIV); B-cells and their function.

2.4 distinguish between the humoral and the Details required.

cell-mediated immune responses

2.5 explain the role of memory cells in long- T- and B- memory cells.
term immunity;

2.6 relate the molecular structure of a Labelled diagram of typical antibody

typical antibody molecule to its function; showing its ‘Y-shaped’ structure; include the
function of the various parts; specificity of
antibody to antigen.

2.7 distinguish between active and passive Include examples.

immunity, natural and artificial immunity;

2.8 explain the role of vaccination in

providing immunity;

2.9 state what is meant by a monoclonal

antibody;
2.10 describe the use of monoclonal The anticancer drug, MabThera; details
antibodies in diagnosis and treatment. required of the use of monoclonal
antibodies in pregnancy testing.

3. Social and PreventativeMedicine

3.1 discuss the causative relationship among Review the concept of a balanced diet; Body
diet, obesity and diabetes; Mass Index (BMI); Type 1 and Type 2
diabetes.

3.2 describe the effects of fats on the Atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease,
cardiovascular system; hypertension and stroke. Details of plaque
formation.
3.3 investigate the immediate effects of
exercise on the body;

3.4 discuss the consequences of exercise on Include long-term and short-term

the body and the benefits of maintaining a consequences; relate benefits to the
physically fit body; prevention of chronic diseases; refer to VO2
max and cardiac efficiency.

3.5 describe the mechanisms of infection for Include processes of infection; replication of
AIDS and dengue fever and their causitive the disease-causing organisms.
agents;
3.6 explain how AIDS and dengue fever are AIDS: mention lifestyle.
transmitted;
Dengue fever: the vector is Aedes aegypti.

3.7 assess the impacts of AIDS and dengue Include social and economic issues.
fever regionally;

3.8 discuss the roles of social, economic and

biological factors in the prevention and
control of
AIDS and dengue fever.

4. Substance Abuse

4.1 discuss the meaning of the term, “drug Legal and illegal drugs.
abuse”;
4.2 distinguish between psychological and
physical dependence;

4.3 describe the short-term and long-term Short-term - fatty liver, hepatitis; long-term
consequences of alcohol consumption on the - cirrhosis, cancer, impaired nervous
nervous system and the liver; transmission, demyelination, dehydration of
the brain cells.

4.4 discuss the social consequences of Drinking and driving, aggressive behaviour,
excessive alcohol use; intra-family violence, family breakdown
and petty crime; Include a definition of ‘a
unit of alcohol’; Daily Alcohol Limits (DAL)
– safe limits (that is, blood and breath
limits) for driving.

4.5 describe the effects of the components of Passive smoking; effects of nicotine, tar and
cigarette smoke on the respiratory and carbon monoxide on cilia, oxygen uptake,
cardiovascular systems. mucus secretion; development of
hyperplasia, emphysema, chronic bronchitis,
cancers including lung cancer;
vasoconstriction, increase in number of
erythrocytes, increase in blood viscosity,
formation of blood clots.