Poh-imkv{Xw

1 2

3 4

tizX-c‡
- mWp a\p-jy-ic
- ocw HIV a‰p-tcm-Km-Wp-°ƒ

a\p-jyicocØn¬ \S-°p∂ Hcp t]mcm´Øns‚ {]Xo-Im-flI Nn{Xo-I-

c-W-amWv Im¿´q-Wn-ep-≈-Xv. Im¿´q¨ hni-I-e\w sNbvXv AXn-eqsS
cq]-s∏-Sp-Øm≥ Ign-bp∂ Bi-b-߃ Ipdn-°q.
..........................................................................................................................................................
tcmK-ßfp-≠m-°m≥ Ign-bp∂ [mcmfw kq£va-Po-hn-Iƒ°p \Sp-hn-emWv
\mw Pohn-°p-∂-sX-¶nepw \ap-s°-t∏mgpw tcmK-_m[-bp≠m-Im-Ø-sX-¥p-
sIm-≠mWv?
tcmKm- W p- ° ƒ D≈n- t e°p {]th- i n- ° p- ∂ Xp XS- b m≥ H´- \ - h [n
kwhn-[m-\-߃ a\p-jy-i-co-c-Øn-ep-≠v. Fs¥m-s°-bmWv B kwhn-[m-
\-߃? X∂n-´p≈ Nn{Xhpw (6.1) H∏-ap≈ kqN-\-Ifpw ]cn-tim-[n°q.

77
 Poh-imkv{Xw

Hmtcm kqN-\bpw GX-h-b-h-Øn-\mWv G‰hpw A\p-tbm-Py-am-Ip-∂sX-∂p Is≠Øn Ah-b-h-

߃°p t\sc \¬In-bn-cn-°p∂ t_mIvkp-I-fn¬ kqN-\-bpsS \º¿ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq.

Nn{Xw ˛ 6.1.
ico-cØ
- nse kpc£mkwhn-[m\߃

kqN-\-Iƒ 5. Cu Ah- b - h sØ \\bv - ° p- I bpw CS-

1. Chn- s S- ° m- W p∂ sagp- I p- t ]m- e p≈ bv°nsS Igp-Ip-Ibpw sNøp∂ {Zmh-IØ- n¬
]Zm¿YØn\v AWp-\mi-I-ti-jn-bp-≠v. ssetkmsskw F∂ Hcp AWp-\m-in-\n-
AS-ßn-bn-´p-≠v.
2. Chn- s S- sslt{Um- t ¢m- d n°mkn- U ns‚
km∂n≤yap≈-Xn-\m¬ `£-W-Øn-eq-sS- 6. Cu Bh-c-W-w Ffp∏w t`Zn-°p-hm≥ tcmKm-
bpw sh≈-Øn-eq-sSbpsa-Øp∂ tcmKm-Wp- Wp- ° ƒ°v Ign- b n- √ . sh≈w ]nSn- ° m-
°ƒ \in-°p- -∂p. ØXpw FÆ-a-b-ap≈Xp-am-I-bm¬ ChnsS
tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ°v hf-cm\mIn-√.
3. Cu Ah-b-h-Øns‚ DƒkvXcw t«jvaw
F∂ {Zh-Øm¬ Ft∏mgpw \\-™n-cn-°p- tcmKm-Wp-°sf XS-bm-\p≈ Cu kwhn-[m-\-
∂p. Hgp-Ip∂ t«jva-Øn-eqsS tcmKm-Wp- ß-fn¬ G‰hpw henb Ah-bh - a
- m-Wt√m Xz°v.
°ƒ ]pd-¥-≈-s∏-Sp-∂p. \¬In-bn-´p≈ Nn{Xhpw H∏-ap≈ hnh-c-Whpw
4. Chn-sS-bp≈ {KŸn-Iƒ D¬]m-Zn-∏n-°p∂ hni-Ie
- \w sNbvXv tcmKm-Wp-°sf sNdp-°m≥
Zl-\-k-lm-bn-bmb {Zmh-I-Øns‚ £mc- Xz°n-ep≈ kwhn-[m-\-ß-sf-∏‰n Hcp Ipdn∏v
kz-`m-hhpw AWp-\m-i-I-ti-jnbpw tcmKm- Xbm-dm-°q.
Wp-°sf XS-bp-∂p. .........................................................................................

78
 Poh-imkv{Xw

tIm´-bpsS IcpØv sIcm-‰n≥

]mfn
tcmaw F∏n-U¿ankv

Xz°n¬ ]e \nc-I-fn-em-bn- hyXy-kvX-bn\w

Ie-Iƒ ImW-s∏Sp∂p≠v. G‰hpw ]pd-sa-
bp≈ ]mfn-bmb sIcm-‰n≥ AWp-°fpsS
{]th- i \w XS- b p- ∂ p. hnb¿∏v , sk_w
(sebum) XpS-ßn-b- {kh-ßfpw- AWp-\m-i-I-
ti-jn-bp-≈-h-bm-Wv. sk_-Øn\v FÆ-a-b- U¿ankv
ap-≈-Xn-\m¬ Xz°n¬ sh≈w ]‰n-∏n-Sn-°p-
∂n√. tcma-ßfpsS Bh-cWw NqSn¬ \n∂pw
XWp-∏n¬ \n∂pw ico-csØ kwc-£n-°p-
∂-tXm-sSm∏w A\y-h-kvXp-°-sf XS-bp-Ibpw
sNøp∂p. sNhn, IÆv, aq°v, hmbv, aq{X-
\mfw XpS- ß nb `mK- ß - f n¬ I´n- b p≈
Xz°n\p ]Icw t\¿Ø Hcp t«jva- skt_-jykv
tkzZ-{KŸn
kvXcamWp-≈X - v. Cu Bh-cW - Ø
- n¬ tcmKm- c‡-°p-g-ep-Iƒ {KŸn
Wp-°sf XS-bm-\p≈ k÷o-I-c-W-ßfp≠v. Nn{Xw ˛ 6.2. Xz°v

GsX-¶nepw Xc-Øn¬ Xz°n\v £Xap-≠m-

bm¬ AXp-hgn tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ°v ico-c-Øn\p
≈nte°v IS-°m\mIpw. AXn-\p≈ At\Iw Un{Kn
km[y-X-Iƒ \nß-fpsS \nXy-Pohn-X-Ønse sk¬jykv
A\p-`-h-ß-fn¬ \n∂v Ipdn-°q. 100

.........................................................................................
75
Kpcp-X-c-amb s]m≈te¬°p-∂-h¿°v Ffp∏w
AWp-_m-[-bp-≠m-Ip-∂-Xns‚ ImcWw Duln-
62
s®gp-Xq.
.........................................................................................
A\p-Iq-e-amb kml-N-cy-߃ e`n-®m¬ 37
tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ°p hfsc thKw s]cp-Im≥
Ign-bp-sa∂v \n߃°-dn-bmw. ico-c-Øn-\p-
≈nse CØcw A\p-Iq-e-amb kml-N-cy- 15
߃ GsXm-s°-bm-Wv?
......................................................................................... 7

Xm]-\n-e-bn¬ D≠m-Ip∂ hyXymkw _mIvSo- 0 _mIvSo-cnb

cn- b - t ]m- e p≈ tcmKm- W p- ° - f psS s]cp- I ¬
tijnsb Fßs\ _m[n-°p∂psh∂v hni-Z-
am-°p∂ Nn{Xo-I-cWw {i≤n-°q.
a\p-jys‚ km[m-cW ico-tcm-jvamhv tcmKm-
Wp-°-fpsS h¿[\-hn\v F{X-am{Xw A\p-tbm-
Py-amWv? \nß-fpsS \nK-a\w Ipdn-°q.
Nn{Xo-I-cWw ˛ 6.1
.........................................................................................

79
 Poh-imkv{Xw

ico-tcm-jvamhv IqSp-∂Xv tcmKm-Wp-°-fpsS Ign-bp-sa-¶nepw D≈n-se-Øn-b- tcmKm-Wp-°sf

h¿[-\-hns\ Fßs\ _m[n-°p-∂p.? \in-∏n-®m¬ am{Xta tcmK-ap-≠m-Ip∂Xv XS-
......................................................................................... bm-\mIq. tizX-c-‡m-Wp-°-fpsS hyXykvX
tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ D≈n-¬ {]th-in-®m¬ Ah-bpsS coXn- b n- e p≈ {]h¿Ø- \ - ß - f mWv CXn\p
h¿[-\hpw hym]-\hpw XS-bm≥ -]e {]h¿Ø- klm-bn-°p-∂-Xv. tizX-c-‡m-Wp-°ƒ ]e-X-c-
\-ßfpw ico-c-Øn¬ \S-°p-∂p-≠v. apdn-hp-Ifpw ap-s≠∂v \mw a\- n-em-°n-bn-´p-≠-t√m. Ah-
a‰pw hoßn-∏-gp-°p-tºmgpw tSm¨knsse-‰nkv bpsS t]cp-Iƒ Ipdn-°q.
tcmK-_m[ D≠m-Ip-tºm-gp-sams° Nne-t∏mƒ .........................................................................................
]\n A\p-`-h-s∏-Sm-dp-≠-t√m. CØcw kml-N- \yqt{Sm-^n¬, tamtWm-ssk‰v XpS-ßnb tizX-
cy-ß-fn¬ icotcm-jvamhv Db-cp-∂-Xp-sIm≠v c-‡m-Wp-°ƒ°v tcmKm-Wp-°sf hngpßn \in-
ico-c-Øn\v KpW-amtWm tZmj-amtWm D≈Xv? ∏n-°m≥ Ignbpw. Cu {]h¿Ø\w ^mtKm-ssk-
F¶n¬ ]\n Hcp tcmK- a mtWm? \nK- a \w t‰mknkv (phagocytosis) F∂mWv Adn-b-s∏-Sp-
Ipdn°q. ∂-Xv. \¬In-bn-´p≈ Nn{Xw 6.3. \nco-£n®v
......................................................................................... ^mtKm- s sk- t ‰m- k nkv Fßs\ \S-
ico-c-Xm-]-\ne Db¿Ønbpw a‰pw tcmKm-Wp- °p∂psh∂v Is≠Øn t_mIvkp- I ƒ
°-fpsS s]cp-I¬ \nb-{¥n-°m≥ ico-c-Øn\v ]qcn∏n°q.
\yqt{Sm-^n¬

.......
_mIvSo-cnb
A B C D
ssetkmtkmw a¿Ωw
Nn{Xw-˛6.3. ^mtKm-ssk-t‰m-knkv
\yqt{Sm-^n¬
_mIvSo-cn-bbv°v kao]w ................................... ................................... ...................................

ssIbntem Imentem apdn-hp-≠m-Ip-tºmƒ B -`mKw hoßn-h-cp-∂Xp \n߃ I≠n-´p-≠m-Ipw.

F¥n-\m-bn-cn°mw B `mKw Cßs\ hoßp-∂Xv? tcmKm-Wp-°ƒs°-Xn-sc icocw \S-Øp∂
as‰mcp c£m-\-S-]-Sn-bm-Wn-Xv. CXp-hgn Fß-s\-bmWv tcmKm-Wp-°sf XS-bm≥ Ign-bp-I? ho߬
{]Xn-I-cWw (inflammation) F∂v hnfn-°-s∏-Sp∂ Cu {]h¿Ø\w Fßs\ \S-°p∂p F∂v
hni-Z-am-°p∂ Hcp Nn{Xo-I-c-W-amWv NphsS tN¿Øn-´p-≈-Xv. kqN-I-ß-fpsS klm-b-Øm¬
AXp hni-I-e\w sNbvXv Cu {]h¿Ø\w ico-c-Øn\v Fßs\ KpW-I-c-am-Ip∂p F∂-Xn-s\-
∏‰n Hcp Ipdn∏v Xbmdm-°q.
..................................................................................................................................................................................
apdnhv ^mtKm-ssk-t‰m-knkv
tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ

apdnhv

c‡-tem-anI
AcpWc‡m-Wp-
tizXc‡m-Wp-

Nn{-XoI-cWw ˛6.2. ho߬{]Xn-I-cWw

80
 Poh-imkv{Xw

kqN-Iß
- ƒ \n¬°p-∂-Xp-sams° \n߃°p ]cn-Nn-X-a-t√.
¬ temanIm`nØn-bn¬ F¥p am‰amWv ImWp- AanXambn c‡w hm¿∂v A]-ISap≠m-Im-Xn-
∂Xv? AXp-sIm-≠p≈ {]tbm-P\sa¥v? cn-°m≥ ico-c-Øn¬ \S-°p∂ Hcp c£m\S-]-
Sn-bmWv Cu c‡w I´-]n-Sn-°¬ (blood clotting).
¬ IqSp-X¬ c‡w Hgp-In-h-cp-∂-Xp-sIm-≠p≈
CsX-ß-s\-bmWv km[y-am-Ip-∂-Xv? NphsS
ta∑ F¥mWv?
tN¿Øn-´p≈ Nn{Xo-I-c-Whpw (6.3.) H∏-ap≈
c‡w-I-´-]n-Sn-°epw Hcp {]Xn-tcm-[- hnh-c-Whpw hni-I-e\w sNbvXv c‡-°´ cq]-
{]-h¿Ø\w s∏-Sp-∂sXß-s\-sb∂pw AXphgn c‡-{]-
icocØn¬ apdn-hp-≠m-Iptºmƒ AXn-eqsS hmlw \nb-{¥n-°-s∏-Sp-∂sXß-s\-sb-∂pw a\-
c‡w Hgp-Ip-∂Xpw apdnhv sNdp-Xm-sW-¶n¬  n-em°n kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ Hcp Ipdn∏v
Ipd®v ka-bØ
- n-\p-≈n¬ c‡samgp°v X\nsb Xbm-dm-°q.

apdn-th-‰-`m-KsØ tImi-ß-fn¬ \n∂pw tπ‰vse-‰p-I-fn¬ \n∂pw Nne

cmk-h-kvXp-°ƒ D¬]m-Zn-∏n-°-s∏-Sp-∂p. Ch t{]mt{Xmw-_n≥ F∂
]Zm¿-YØn¬ \n∂pw t{Xmw_n≥ F∂ F≥sskw D≠m-°p∂p.

t{]mt{Xmw-_n≥ Ca2+ t{Xmw-_n≥

F≥sskw

c‡-Øn-ep≈ ss^{_nt\mP≥ ss^{_n≥ ss^{_n≥ X¥p-°ƒ

t\cnb he-°-Æn-Iƒ
RBC cq]-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂p.
tπ‰vse- AcpWc‡m-Wp-°fpw
‰p-Iƒ tπ‰vse‰pIfpw Cu he-
°-Æn-I-fn¬ IpSpßn
c‡-°´ cq]-s∏-Sp-∂p.
c‡-°´
Nn{Xo-I-cWw ˛ 6.3. c‡w I´-]n-Sn-°¬
kqN-Iß
- ƒ
¬ c‡°´ cq]-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂-Xn¬ tπ‰vse-‰p-I-fpsS ]¶v F¥v?
¬ Acp-W-c-‡m-Wp-°ƒ°v Xmc-X-tay\ hep-∏w IqSp-X-ep-≈Xv c‡-°-´- cq]o-I-c-W-Øn\v
Fßs\ klm-b-I-am-Ip∂p?
¬ apdn-th-‰- `m-KØv sNdnb _ew A\p-`-h-s∏-Sp-tºmƒt∏mepw ho≠pw c‡w Hgp-Im≥ ImcWw?
Nne tizX-c-‡m-Wp-°ƒ tcmKm-Wp-°sf hngp-ßn-\-in-∏n-°p-∂p-sh∂v \mw a\- n-em-°n-b-t√m.
F∂m¬ ^mtKm-ssk-t‰m-kn-kns\ AXn-Pohn®v Ht´sd tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ ico-c-ØnseØmw. Ah
hfsc thKw s]cp-IpIbpw IqSp-X¬ hym]n-°p-Ibpw sNøpw. Cu kml-N-cy-Øn-¬ tcmKm-Wp-
°sf t\cn-Sm≥ khn-ti-j-amb Nne {]Xn-tcm[ {]h¿Ø\߃ icoc-Øn¬ \S-°p-∂p. enwt^m-
ssk-‰p-IfmWv Cu {]h¿Ø\߃°p t\XrXzw \¬Ip-∂-Xv.
enwt^m-ssk-‰p-Iƒ Fß-s\-bmWv tcmKm-Wp-°sf t\cn-Sp-∂-Xv? \¬In-bn-´p≈ hnh-c-Ww hni-
I-e\w sNbvXv Ah \S-Øp∂ -{]-Xn-tcm[{]h¿Ø-\-sØ-∏‰n Ipdn∏v Xbmdm-°q.
..........................................................................................................................................................................

81
 Poh-imkv{Xw

enwt^m-ssk-‰p-Ifpw {]Xn-tcm-[hpw
ico-c-ØnseØp∂ GsXmcp A\y-h-kvXp-hn-s\bpw B‚n-P≥ F∂p hnfn-°mw. tcmKm-Wp-°-
fmWv Ch-bn¬ {][m\s∏´h. tcmKm-Wp-°-fpsS {]tXy-IX Xncn-®-dn™v Hmtcm tcmKm-Wp-hn-
\p-sa-Xnsc khn-ti-j-amb coXn-bn¬ {]h¿Øn-°m≥ enwt^m-ssk-‰p-Iƒ F∂ tizX-c-‡m-
Wp-°-ƒ°p Ign-bpw. enwt^m-ssk-‰p-Iƒ c≠p-X-c-Ønep≠v. B˛-en-wt^m-ssk-‰p-I-fpw T˛-enw-t^m-
ssk-‰p-I-fpw. {]h¿Ø-\-co-Xn-bn¬ hyXym-k-ß-fp-s≠-¶nepw Ch-bpsS kl-I-cn-®p≈ {]h¿Ø-
\w hgn-bmWv icocØn¬ tcmK-{]-Xn-tcm[w km[y-am-hp-∂-Xv. enwt^m-ssk-‰p-Iƒ t\cn´pw
B‚n-t_m-Un-Iƒ aptJ-\bpw tcmK-Im-cn-Isf \in-∏n-°p-∂p. B‚n-P-\p-Iƒs°-Xnsc {]h¿Øn®v
Ahsb \in-∏n-°m≥ Ign-bp∂ amwky X∑m-{X-I-fmWv B‚n-t_m-Un-Iƒ (antibodies).
tcmKm-Wp-°sf {]Xn-tcm-[n-°m-\mbn \S-°p∂ Xnsc {]Xn-I-cn-°m≥ Ign-™m¬ am{Xta tcmK-
{]h¿Ø- \ - ß - s f√mw tcmKm- W p- ° ƒ ico- c - ap-≠m-ImsX ico-csØ c£n-°m-\m-Iq. CØ-
Øn\p≈nseØnbtijw kzm`m- h n- I - a mbn c-Øn¬ {]Xn-I-cn-°m≥ ico-csØ Fß-s\-
kw`-hn-°p-∂-h-bmWv. AXn-\m¬ Ch-sb√mw bmWv k÷-am-°pI? Cu At\z-j-W-amWv
kzm`m-hnI {]Xn-tcm-[-kw-hn-[m-\-ßfmsW∂p hmIvkn-\p-I-ƒ F∂ Bi-bØn-te°p a\p-
]d-bmw. F∂m¬ CØcw {]Xn-I-cW߃ cq]- jys\ \bn®Xv. kq£va-amb \nco-£-W-]m-S-
s∏-Sm-s\-Sp-°p∂ kabØn\n-S-bn¬Øs∂ hf- hhpw hyXy- k v X - c o- X n- b n¬ Nn¥n- ° m- \ p≈
sc°q-Sp-X¬ s]cp-Im\pw hym]n-°m\pw Nne tijn-bp-amWv CXn\v Cu imkv{X-⁄sc
tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ°p Ign-bpw. At∏mƒ icocw klm-bn-®-Xv. Cu alm-{]-Xn-`-Isf ]cn-N-b-
tcmKm-Xp-c-am-Ip-∂p. tcmKm-Wp-°fpsS t\cnb s∏Sq. Ch- s c- ∏ ‰n IqSp- X ¬ hnh- c - ß ƒ
B{I-aWw D≠m-Ip-tºmƒØs∂ Ahbv-s°- At\zjn°q.
Ir{Xna {]Xn-tcm-[-am¿K-߃ tXSn...
Cw•-≠nse Hcp {KmaoW {]mNo\ kaq-lØ - n¬ tcmK-
tUmIvS-dm-bn-cp∂ FtUz ß-fp-≠m-Ip-∂-Xn-s\-°p-dn®v
¿Uv P∂-dmWv BZy-ambn [mcmfw A‘- h n- i zm- k -
hmIvkn-t\-j≥ ]co£n®- ߃ \ne- \ n- ∂ n- c p- ∂ p.
Xv. ISpØ hkq-cn-tcm-K- F∂m¬ kq£va-Po-hn-Iƒ
Øns‚ ImeØv Bcp- aqe-amWv tcmK-߃ D≠m-
FtUz¿Uv P∂-¿ sSbpw {i≤-]Xn-bm-Xn-cp∂ Ip-∂sX∂v hkvXp-\n-jvT -
Hcp \nco-£-W-amWv Cu I≠p-]n-Sp-Ø-Øn- ambn sXfn-bn-°m≥ {^©v eqbn-]m-kvN¿
te°v At±-lsØ \bn-®-Xv. \K-c-ß-fn-ep≈ imkv{X-PvR\- mb eqbn ]mkvN¿°p Ign-™p.
hf-sc-b-[n-I-w B-fp-Iƒ hkqcn _m[-tb‰p tcmKm-Wp-kn≤m¥w (germ theory) F∂ Cu
acn-°p-tºmgpw I∂p-Im-en-h-f¿Ø-ep-ambn Ign- Bibw sshZy-imkv{X taJ-e-bn¬ henb
bp∂ {Kmao-W-I¿j-I¿°v Cu tcmKw A[n- hnπ-hß- ƒ°v XpS°w Ipdn-®p. ]m¬, ho™v
Iw- _m-[n-°p∂n-s√∂v At±lw \nco-£n-®p. XpS-ßn-bh tISm-Ip-∂Xv _mIvSo-cn-b-I-fpsS
Cu {Kmao-W-sc√mw Xs∂ tKmh-kqcn F∂ {]h¿Ø\w aqe- a m- s W∂v Is≠- Ø nb
tcmK-_m-[-bp-≠mbn kpJ-s∏-´-h-cm-sW∂pw Ct±lw ]mkvN-ssd-tk-j≥ (pasteurisation)
At±lw a\- n-em-°n. hkqcn tcmKm-Wp-°- F∂ {]{In-bb - n-eqsS Ah tISm-ImsX kq£n-
sf- \in-∏n-°m≥ tKmhkqcn tcmKm-Wp-°sf °m-sa∂pw Is≠-Øn. I∂p-Im-en-I-fnepw a\p-
D]-tbm-K-s∏-Sp-Øm≥ Ign-bp-sa∂vv At±lw jy-cnepw D≠m-Ip∂ B{¥mIvkv tcmK-Øns\-
Nn¥n- ® p. XpS¿∂v At±lw \S- Ø nb Xnsc ^e-{]-Z-amb hmIvkn≥ \n¿an-®Xv Ct±-
At\Iw ]co- £ - W - ß fneqsS BZysØ l-am-Wv. t]hn-j-_m-[-bvs°-Xnsc {]h¿Øn-
hmIvkn≥ cq]-s∏-´p. CXp-hgn hkq-cn-tcm- °p∂ dm_nkv hmIvkn-\p-IfpsS I-≠p-]n-Sp-
KsØ `qan-bn¬ \n∂v XpS-®p-am-‰m≥ Ct∏mƒ Øhpw ]mkvNdpsS {][m\ t\´amWv.
Ign-™n-´p-≠v.

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hnhn-[ -X-c-Øn-ep≈ hmIvkn-\p-I-sf-∏-‰n \n߃ tI´n-´p-≠m-Ipw. \n߃°v ]cn-Nn-X-am-b-h-

bpsS t]cp-Iƒ Ipdn-°q.
..........................................................................................................................................................
F¥mWv hmIvkn-\p-Iƒ? Ah D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂-Xp-hgn Fß-s\-bmWv tcmK-ßsf {]Xn-tcm-[n-
°m≥ IgnbpI? NphsS sImSp-Øn-´p≈ hnhcWw kqN-I-ß-fpsS ASn-ÿm-\Øn¬ hni-I-e\w
sNbvXv hmIvkn-\p-I-ƒ hgn-bp≈ tcmK{]Xn-tcm-[-sØ-∏‰n \nK-a\w cq]-s∏-Sp-Øq.
hmIvkn-\p-Iƒ (Vaccines)
tcmKm-Wp-°sf \in-∏n-°m≥ tcmKm-Wp-°-sf-Øs∂ D]-tbm-Kn-°pI F∂-XmWv hmIvkn-t\-
js‚ XXzw. tcmKm-Wp-°ƒs°-Xnsc {]h¿Øn-°m≥ tizX-c-‡m-Wp-°sf t\csØ k÷-
am-°p-I-bmWv hmIvkn-t\-j-\n¬ \mw sNøp-∂-Xv. B‚n-P\pI-fpsS km∂n[yw a\- n-em°n
Ah-bvs°-Xnsc DtØ-Pn-X-am-Ip-hm≥ enwt^m-ssk-‰p-Iƒ°v Ign-hp≠v. Poh-\p-≈-hbpw C-√m-
Ø-hbpamb tcmKmWp-°sf hmIvkn-\p-I-fmbn D]-tbm-K-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂p-≠v. t]∏´n hnj-_m-[-
bvs°-Xn-sc-bp≈ dm_okv hmIvkn-\p-Iƒ, t]mfn-tbm-tcm-K-Øn-s\-Xn-sc-bp≈ km¬°v
hmIvkn≥ (salk vaccine) F∂nhbn¬ arX-ßf - mb AWp-°sfbmWv D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂X - v. £btcmK-
Øn-s\-Xn-sc-bp≈ _n.-kn.-Pn. IpØn-h-bv]n\v Poh-\p-≈Xpw \n¿ho-cy-am-°-s∏-´-Xp-amb tcmKm-
Wp-°sf D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p. hkqcn tcmK_m-[-bvs°-Xnsc kPo-h-amb tKmh-kqcn tcmKm-Wp-
°-sf-bmWv hmIvkn-\p-I-fmbn D]-tbm-Kn-®ncp∂Xv. Nne hmIvkn-\p-I-fn¬ tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ D¬]m-
Zn-∏n-°p∂ tSmIvkn-\p-Iƒ \n¿ho-cy-am°nbmWv D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂-Xv. DZm: T T (tetanus toxoid)
hmIvkn≥.

kqN-Iß
- ƒ tcmKw hmIvkn≥
¬ arX-ß-fmb tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ°pw \n¿ho-cy- £bw
am°s∏´ tSmIv k n- \ p- I - ƒ °psaXnsc t]mfntbm
enwt^m-ssk-‰p-Iƒ°v {]h¿Øn-°m≥ Ign- Ic-ƒho°w
bp-∂-sX-ßs\?
ap≠n-\ocv
¬ hmIvkn-\p-I-fmbn Poh-\p-≈- tcmKm-Wp- sS‰-\kv
°sf D]- t bm- K n- ° p- t ºmƒ Ahsb
{]tXyIw ]cp-h-s∏-Sp-tØ≠-Xns‚ Bh- Un^vXo-cnb
iy-sa¥v? hn√≥Npa
\n߃ P\n®v A[nIw sshIm- s X- X s∂ bYm- k abw {]Xn- t cm[ IpØn- h - b v ] p- I ƒ
FSpØ Hcp IpØn-h-bv]ns‚ AS-bmfw \nß- \StØ≠-Xns‚ {]m[m-\y-sØ-∏‰n C∂p \mw
fpsS ssIbn¬ tXmƒ`m-K-Ømbn ImWp-∂p- t_m[-hm-∑m-cm-Wv. C¥y-bn¬ k¿h-km-[m-c-
≠m-hpw. Cu IpØn-h-bv]ns‚ t]sc-¥mWv? W-amb Nne tcmK-ßsf {]Xn-tcm-[n-°m≥ apgp-
GXp tcmK- Ø n- s \- X n- s c- b p≈ hmIv k n\m- h≥ P\-߃°pw {]Xn-tcm[ IpØn-h-bv]p-Iƒ
\¬Im-\p≈ ]cn-{i-a-߃ \ΩpsS cmPyØv
WnXv?
hym]-I-ambn \S-∏m-°n-hcp∂p≠v. CXn-\mbn
.........................................................................................
Hcp {]Xn-tcm-[-h¬°-cW ]´nI Xs∂ tZio-
at‰- s X√mw hmIv k n\p- I - f mWv \n߃°p b-X-e-Øn¬ cq]-s∏-Sp-Øn-bn-´p-≠v. {]mY-an-Im-
\¬Inbn-´p-≈-Xv? ho´n¬ At\z-jn®v hnhcw tcm- K y tI{µ- ß - f n¬hsc CXp e`- y - a mWv .
tiJ-cn-°q. Hcp Btcm-Ky-tI{µw kµ¿int®m tZiob {]Xn-tcm[h¬°-cW ]´nI (National
at‰-sX-¶nepw hn[-Øn¬ hnhcw tiJ-cnt®m Immunisation Schedule) ]cn-tim-[n®v NphsS
\¬In-bn-´p≈ ]´nI ]q¿Øn-bm-°q. \¬In-bn-cn-°p∂ ]´nI ]qcn-∏n°q.

83
 Poh-imkv{Xw

{]Xn-tcm-[-h-¬°-cWw
{]mbw hmIvkn-≥ tcmKw
$ ........................................ $ ........................................................... $ ...........................................................
$ ........................................ $ ........................................................... $ ...........................................................
$ $ $

hmIvkn-t\-j≥sIm≠v ]e tcmK-ß-sfbpw F∂m¬ Nne-cpsS icocw Cu LS-I-߃s°-

AXn-Po-hn-°m≥ \ap°p Ign-™n-´p≠v. F∂m¬ Xnsc Aan-X-ambn {]Xn-I-cn-°p-Ibpw AXp-aqew
Ht´sd tcmK-߃s°Xnsc C\nbpw hmIvkn- Ah¿°v [mcmfw Akz-ÿ-X-I-fp-≠m-IpIbpw
\p-Iƒ hnI-kn-∏n-t°-≠-nbncn-°p∂p. ]e tcmK- sNøpw. BkvXva, Ae¿Pn XpS-ßn-bh - s- bms°
-ßfpw ]pXp-Xmbn {]Xy-£-s∏-Sp∂p F∂Xpw CØcw Akz-ÿ-XIƒ°v DZm-l-c-W-am-Wv.
{it≤-ba- m-Wv. {]IrXn kml-Nc - y-ßf
- nepw Pohn- CØcw tcmKm-hÿ - I
- ƒ°v Imc-Wa - m-Ip∂ LS-
X-ssi-en-bnep-ap-≠mb am‰-߃ aqew \ΩpsS I-߃ ]´n-I-s∏-SpØq.
kzm-`mhnI {]Xn-tcm-[-tijnbn¬ Ipdhp≠mIp-
$ s]mSn-]-S-e-߃
∂Xpw tcmKm-Wp-°-fpsS AXn-Po-h-\-tijn
h¿[n-°p-∂-Xp-sams° ]pXnb tcmK-ß-fp-≠m- $ ]cm-K-tc-Wp-°-ƒ
Im≥ Imc- W amWv . \ΩpsS kzm`m- h nI $ `£y-h-kvXp-°ƒ
{]Xntcm- [ - t ijn h¿[n- ∏ n- ° m≥ \ap- ° v $
Fs¥ms°-sN-øm-\mIpw? ¢mkn¬ Hcp N¿®
BkvXvabpsS e£-Wß - ƒ, NnIn-’m-co-Xn-Iƒ
kwL-Sn-∏n°q.
F∂nh-sb-∏‰n N¿®-\-SØn Ipdn∏v Xbmdm°q.
{]Xn-tcm[ sshI-ey-߃ .........................................................................................
kz¥w ico-c-tIm-i-ßsf Xncn-®-dn-bm≥ khn-
ti-j-amb Ign-hp≈ tImi-ß-fmWv enwt^m-
Ah-b-hw am‰n-h-bv°epw {]Xn-tcm-[hpw
ssk-‰p-Iƒ. F∂m¬ Nne Bfp-I-fn¬ kz¥w XI-cm-dn-emb Ah-b-h-߃°p-]-I-c-ambn ]pXn-
icocØnse tImi-ß-sf-Øs∂ B‚n-P-\p-I- bh h®p-]n-Sn-∏n-°p∂ kmt¶-XnIhnZy-Is
- f-∏‰n
fm-bn-°≠v Ah-bvs°-Xnsc enwt^m-ssk-‰p-Iƒ \n߃ tI´n-´p-≠m-Ip-at√m?
{]h¿Øn- ° p∂ Ah- ÿ - D≠m- I m- d p- ≠ v . Cu ]c-kyw {i≤n-°q.
CØcw Ah-ÿsb kzbw{]Xn-tcm-[-ssh-I- hr° Bh-i-y-ap≠v
ey-߃ (autoimmune disorders) F∂mWv ]d- c≠p-hr-°-Ifpw XI-cm-dn-embn Kpcp-X-cm-h-
bp-∂-Xv. hmX∏\n (rheumatic fever) CXn-s\m-cp- ÿ-bn¬ Ign-bp∂ 30 hb-kpImc\v O s\K-
Zm-l-c-W-am-Wv. ‰ohv c‡-{Kq-∏p-≈ A\p-tbm-Py-amb hr°
Bhiyap≠v
{]Xn-tcm-[w- AanX-ambm¬ GsX√mw Ah-b-h-ßfmWv Cßs\ am‰n-h-
{]Xn- t cm- [ - k w- h n- [ m- \ - ß ƒ A[n- I - a mbn bv°m-≥ Ign-bp-∂Xv? \n߃°-dn-bm-hp-∂h
{]h¿Øn-°p-∂XpsIm≠v ico-c-Øn\v IqSp- Ipdn-°q.
Xses¥-¶nepw KpW-ap-≠m-Iptam? \ap°p
.........................................................................................
Np‰pw km[m-c-W-bmbn ImWp∂ ]e -L-S-I-
ßfpw ico-c-Øn¬ B‚n-P-\p-I-fmbn {]h¿Øn- Ah-b-h-߃ am‰n-shbv-°p∂-Xn-s\-∏‰n IqSp-
°p∂-hb - mWv. an°-bm-fp-If - nepw Ch Imcy-amb X¬ hnh-c-߃ tiJ-cn°q.
{]Xn- - t cm[ {]h¿Ø- \ - ß - f p- ≠ m- ° p∂n- √ .

84
 Poh-imkv{Xw

Ah- b - h - a m‰w \S- Ø p- t ºmƒ ]pXp- X mbn \mIq. kΩ- X - ] {Xw H∏n´p \¬Ip- t ºmƒ
tN¿Øp-h-bv°p∂ Ah-bhw ico-c-sØ kw_- km£n-I-fmbn c≠p-t]¿ D≠m-I-Ww. IÆp-
‘n-®n-S-tØmfw Hc-\y-h-kvXp-hm-Wv. tN¿Øp Iƒ Zm\w- s N- ø m≥ Xocp- a m- \ n- ® - hn- h cw
hbv°p∂ Ah-b-h-Øns\-Xnsc icocw {]XnI- t\csØ _‘p- ° - t fmSpw kplr- Ø p- ° -
cW -{]-h¿Ø-\-߃ \S-Øn-tb-°mw. F¥m- tfmSpw ]d- ™ n- c p- ∂ m¬ Ah¿°v acW
bn-cn°pw CXn\p Imc-Ww? CØcw ikv{X- hnhcw _‘-s∏-´-hsc Adn-bn-°m≥ Ffp-∏-
{InbIƒ \S- Ø p- t ºmƒ {]Xn- t cm- [ - t ijn am-Ipw. Adn-bn-∏v e-`n-®m¬ DS≥ tUmIvS¿am¿
Aa¿Øp∂Xn\p≈ acp-∂p-Iƒ D]-tbm-Kn-t°- FØn IÆp- I ƒ FSpØv B ÿm\Øv
≠-Xns‚ Bh-iy-I-X-sb-¥v? Cu Ah-ÿ- ]Icw Ir{Xna°Æp-Iƒ h®p-]n-Sn-∏n°pw.
bnse ]cn-N-c-W-Øn¬ {]tXy-I -{i≤ Bh- AXp- s Im≠v arX- i - c o- c - Ø n¬ bmsXmcp
iy-am-Ip-∂-sX-¥p-sIm≠v? N¿®-bn-eqsS \nK-a- sshcq-]yhpw D≠m-Ip-∂n-√.
\- ß ƒ cq]- s ∏- S pØn kb≥kv
Ub-dn-bn¬ Ipdn°q.

Ah-b-h-Zm\w Poh-Zm\w
Ip‰-a‰ Ah-b-h-߃ as‰m-cmƒ°v
\¬Im≥ Bsc-¶nep-w Xbm- -dm-bm¬
am{Xta Ah- b - h ߃ - a m‰n
hbv°pIhgn as‰m-cm-fpsS Poh≥
c£n-°m≥ Ign-bq. Nne Ah-b-
h߃ Pohn- ® n- c n- ° p- t ºmƒ
Xs∂bpw a‰pNneXv ac- W - t i-
jhpw Zm\w sNøm≥ Ignbpw. Ah-
b-h-Zm-\-sØ∏‰n th≠{X Adn-hn-
√m- Ø p- a q- e - a mWv ]ecpw CXn\v
Xbmdm-Im-Ø-Xv. \ΩpsS ac-W-ti-
jhpw \ΩpsS Ah-b-h-߃ as‰m-
cm-fn-eqsS Pohn-°p-∂Xv al-Ømb
Imcy-at√? Ah-b-h-Zm-\-Øns‚ -am-
lm-fly-sØ∏‰n IqSp-X¬ hnh-c-
߃ tiJ-cn-°q. t\{X-Zm-\-Øns‚
hni- Z mw- i - ß ƒ amXr- I - b mbn
\¬In-bn-´p-≈Xv {i≤n-°q.

t\{X-Zm\w almZm\w
Hcm-fpsS ac-W-tijw Bdv aWn-
°q¿ kabw hsc Abm- f psS
IÆp-Ifnse tIm¿Wnb Zm\-Øn-
\mbn {]tbm- P - \ - s ∏- S p- Ø mw.
Abmƒ t\{X-Zm\ kΩ-X-]{Xw
\¬In- b n- ´ p- s ≠- ¶ n¬ am{Xta
Cßs\ IÆp- I ƒ tiJ- c n- ° m-

85
 Poh-imkv{Xw

{]Xn-tcm-[-tijn \in-®mtem? C{Xbpw i‡-amb {]Xn-tcm[ kwhn-[m-\-߃

]e- kwhn-[m-\-ß-fpsS Iq´mb {]h¿Ø-\-Øn- ico-cØnep-s≠-¶nepw tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ°v Ah-
eq-sS-bmWv icocw tcmKm-Wp-°-fn¬ \n∂v c£- sb√mw AXn-Po-hn®v D≈n-se-Øm\pw ico-
t\-Sp-∂-sX∂pw enwt^m-ssk-‰p-I-fmWv Cu csØ tcmKm-Xp-c-am-°m\pw Ign-bp∂ Nne
t]mcm-´-Ønse apJy-]-S-bm-fn-I-sf∂pw \mw a\- A\p-Iqe kml-Nc- y- ß
- f
- p-≠m-tb-°mw. AØcw
 n-em-°n. F∂m¬ Nne tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ°v kml-N-c-y-߃ ]´n-I-s∏-SpØq.
enwt^m-ssk-‰p-I-sf-Øs∂ \in-∏n°m-\p≈ $ tcmKm-Wp-°-fpsS B[n-I-yw.
Ign-hp-≠v. CØcw tcmKm-Wp-°f - psS B{I-aWw $ ico-c-{]-h¿Ø-\-ß-fn-se XI-cm-dp-Iƒ.
ico- c sØ Fß- s \- b m- b n- c n°pw _m[n-
°p∂Xv? $ Xm]-\n-e-bnse hy-X-ym-kw.

......................................................................................... $ A¥-co£Ønse Cu¿∏w.

$
FbvUvkv sshd-kp-Iƒ ico-c-Øn¬ Fßs\
{]h¿Øn-°p∂p F∂v {]Xo-Im-fl-I-ambn hni- tcmKw _m[n®p Ign-™m¬ ico-csØ c£n-
Zo-I-cn-°p∂ Nn{Xo-I-cWw ]mTm-cw-`-Øn¬ \mw °m≥ \msa¥mWp sNtø≠Xv?
{i≤n-®t√m. B Nn{Xo-Ic - W
- hpw NphsS \¬In- NnIn’ Ah-km-\sØ {]Xn-tcm[w
bn- ´ p≈ kqN- \ - I fpw hni- I - e \w sNbv X v
FbvUvkv tcmK-sØ-∏‰n Hcp Ipdn∏v Xbmdm°q. Hmtcm \m´n-tebpw kml-N-cy-߃°\p-k-cn®v
Ht´sd NnIn-’m-]-≤-Xn-Iƒ cq]-saSpØn-´p-≠v.
........................................................................................
\ΩpsS \m´n¬ IqSp-X¬ {]Nm-ca- p≈ NnIn’m
tcmK-Imcn coXnIƒ ]´n-I-s∏-SpØq.
HIV (lyqa≥ CayqtWm sU^n- j y≥kn
.........................................................................................
sshd-kv)
]I-cp-∂-coXn Ch-bn¬ `mc-X-Øn¬ P∑-sa-SpØ NnIn’m
ico- c - { Z- h - ß - f n- e q- s S- ˛ - k pc- £ n- X - a - √ mØ coXnIƒ GsXms° F∂v Ipdn°q.
ssew-Kn-I-_‘w, AWp-hn-ap-‡-am-°mØ
.........................................................................................
kqNnIƒ, c‡\nthi\w F∂nh- hgn.
sshd-kns‚ {]h¿Ø\w Bbp¿thZw
HIV bpsS B{I-aWw enwt^m-ssk-‰p-I-sf
-]p-cm-W-Imew apX¬ `mc-X-Øn¬ {]Nm-c-Øn-
\in-∏n-°p-∂p. Ah-bpsS D¬]m-Z\w KWy-
ep≠m-bn-cp∂ Hcp NnIn-’m-co-Xn-bmWnXv.
ambn Ipd-bm≥ CS-bm-°p-∂p.
e£W߃ GsX-¶nepw tcmK-߃s°-Xn-sc s - ]s´∂p≈
tcmK- m Wp_m- [ - b p- ≠ mbn \mfp- I - t fmfw Hcp NnIn-’m-\S]Sn F∂-Xn-\-∏pdw ico-
{]tXyI e£Wßsfm∂pwXs∂ {]Xy-£- csØ kpk-÷-ambn ]cn-]m-en-°m-\p≈ Hcp
s∏-Sp-∂n√. F∂m¬ enwt^m-ssk-‰p-Iƒ Pohn-X-Ncy F∂ \ne-bn-emWv Bbp¿thZw
\in-∏n-°-s∏-Sp∂Xp-aqew {]Xn-tcm-[-tijn IqSp-X¬ kzoIm-cy-am-Ip-∂-Xv.
{ItaW Ipd-bp-∂p. \n m-c-amb tcmK߃ Cu NnIn-’m-co-Xn-bpsS D¤-hw, hnIm-kw,
t]mepw Kpcp-X-camIp∂p. CXv ac-W-Øn- NnIn-’m-{Ia-߃, ta∑-Iƒ, ]cn-an-Xn-Iƒ Ch-
te°v \bn-°p-∂p. sb- ASn-ÿm-\-s∏-SpØn tPmfnbpw Iq´pImcpw
a‰p tcmK-ßsf At]-£n®v IrXy-amb ap≥I- Xbm-dm°nb "{]Ir-Xn-]mTw' F∂ imkv{X-∏-
cp-X-ep-Iƒ sIm≠v ]q¿W-ambpw Hgn-hm-°m-≥ Xn-∏nse Nne- kqN-\I-fmWv NphsS sImSp-
Ign-bp∂ Hcp tcmK-amWv FbvUvkv F∂Xv Øn-´p-≈-Xv. Ah {]tbm-P-\-s∏-Sp-Ønbpw IqSp-
Cu tcmK-Øns‚ {]tXy-I-X-bm-Wv. FbvUvkn- X¬ hnh-c-ti-J-cWw \S-Ønbpw imkv{X-∏-
s\-Xnsc kzoI-cn-t°≠ ap≥I-cp-X-ep-I-sf-∏-‰n Xn∏v Xbmdm-°q.
N¿® \SØq.

86
 Poh-imkv{Xw

Hcp tlmantbm tUmIvS-dp-ambn A`n-apJw \S-

Øntbm at‰-sX-¶nepw t{kmX- -kp-Iƒ {]tbm-
w
{]Ir-Xn-]mT P-\-s∏-Sp-Øntbm tlman-tbm- NnIn’-sb-∏‰n
IqSp-X¬ hnh-c-߃ tiJ-cn-°q.
t]Pv Atem-∏-Xnbpw B[p-\nI
C\w
5 sshZy-im-kv{Xhpw
thZw 9
B b p- ns‚ `mh- \ temI-sa-ºmSpw hym]-I-
$ psS kw 12
j a
n- m c \w
$ al - ¿ S kwXp-e ambn D]- t bm- K n- ° - s ∏-
- ß - -
f ps 15
mj
$ {XntZ b coXn-
Iƒ˛ Sp∂ NnIn’m ]≤-Xn-bm-
-
\ n¿ W v\w Wn- X v . lnt∏m- { Im- ‰ kv
$ tcmK v] ¿ i- w, {]i
\
Z¿i\ - w, k F∂ {Ko°p sshZy-im-
-y-߃-˛
H u j [ kk kv{X-⁄-\n-eqsS Bcw
$
mc- o-Xn-Iƒ `w Ipdn® Cu sshZy-im-
NnIn-’ y t imjW
w
lnt∏m-{Im-‰kv
-ssh - h n[ kv { X- i m- J - b n¬ tcmK-
$ ssPh
\n¿W- b w, tcmK- N n- I n- ’ , acp- ∂ p- I ƒ
Chbvs°ms°- h-enb ]¶m-Wp-≈X - v. \ΩpsS
\m´n-ep≈ IqSp-X¬ Bip-]-{Xn-Ifpw B[p-
\nI sshZy-imkv{Xw ASn-ÿm-\a - m-°n-bmWv
{]h¿Øn-°p-∂-Xv.
Cu al-Ømb NnIn’m ]≤Xn IqSp-X¬ {]N-
cn-∏n-°-s∏-tS-≠-X-t√? CXn-te°v Fs¥√mw B[p- \ nI sshZy- i m- k v{X- Ø nse Nne
\S-]-Sn-Iƒ kzo-I-cn-°m-\m-Ipw. N¿®sNøq. kvs]jy-sse-tk-j-\p-I-fpw Ah GXp taJ-
e-bp-ambn _‘-s∏-´n-cn-°p-∂p-sh∂Xpw kqNn-
kn≤-ssh-Zyw, ]©I¿Ω XpSßn Bbp¿th-
ZsØ ASn-ÿm-\am°nbp≈ NnIn-’m-coXn- ∏n-°p∂ ]´n-I-bmWv NphsS tN¿Øn-´p-≈-Xv.
Ifpw bq\m\n, {]Ir-Xn-Nn-In’ XpS-ßn-b-hbpw ]´n-I-bn¬ hn´p-t]m-bn-´p≈h ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.
hym]-I-ambn {]tbm-P-\-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂p-≠v. Ch- IqSp-X¬ taJ-e-Iƒ Is≠-Øq.
sb-∏‰nbpw IqSp-X¬ hnhctiJ-cWw \S-Øq. kvs]jysse-tk-j≥ _‘-s∏´ taJe

tlman-tbm-∏Xn ]oUn-bm-{SnIvkv inip-tcmK NnIn’

P¿Ω-\n-bnse Hcp tUmIvS-dmbncp∂ kmap- lrZ-b-Nn-In’

h¬ l\n-am≥ cq]w \¬Inb Hcp NnIn-’m- sPdn-bm-{SnIvkv
coXn-bm-Wn-Xv. tcmK-Øn-\√ tcmKn-°mWv
NnIn’ F∂-Xp-sIm≠v HmtcmcpØ-cn-ep- Hmt¶m-fPn
ap≈ tcmK-e-£-W-߃°v tlman-tbm-∏Xn
t\{X-Nn-In’
henb {]m[m-\y-amWv \¬Ip-∂-Xv. tcmK-
Øn\p Imc-W-am-Ip∂ hkvXp-hn\pXs∂ \yqtdm-fPn
tcmK-i-a\ap≠m°m-\p-w Ignbpw F∂-XmWv
bqtdm-fPn
tlman-tbm-∏-Xn-bnse {][m-\-XXzw. Huj-[-
߃ t\¿∏n-°pw-tXmdpw Ah-bpsS hocyw kv{XotcmK NnIn’
h¿[n-°p-∂p-sh-∂Xpw Cu NnIn’m-]-≤-Xn-
tdUn-tbm-fPn
bpsS khn-ti-j-amb Hcp {]am-W-am-Wv.
C.-F≥.‰n (ENT)

87
 Poh-imkv{Xw

tcmK\n¿W-tbm-]m-[n-Iƒ
Nn{X-Øn¬°mWp∂ Cu D]-I-c-W-߃ \n߃°p ]cn-Nn-X-a-t√. Ch Hmtcm∂ns‚bpw t]cpw
D]-tbm-Khpw Ipdn-°q.
............................................................................................................................................................

Nn{Xw ˛ 6.4. tcmK-\n¿W-tbm-]m-[n-Iƒ

H∂p c≠p Zi-I-߃°p apºp-hsc tcmK-\n¿W-b-Øn-\mbn tUmIvS¿am¿ D]-tbm-K-s∏-Sp-Øn-
bn-cp∂ {][m\ kt¶-X-߃ Cu D]-I-c-W-߃ am{X-am-bn-cp-∂p. F∂m-¬ ico-c-Øn-\p-≈n-
ep≈ kq£-vam-h-b-h-ß-fpsS t]mepw Nn{X-ß-sf-Sp-°m\pw Ah-bpsS {]h¿Ø\w X¬k-abw
\nco-£n-°m-\p-ap≈ kwhn-[m-\-߃ Ct∏mƒ \ne-hn-ep-≠v. \¬In-bn-´p≈ kqN-\-Iƒ {]tbm-P-
\-s∏-Sp-Ønbpw IqSp-X¬ hnh-c-ti-J-cWw \S-Ønbpw tcmK-\n¿W-b-Øn-\pw NnIn-’bv°pw D]-
tbm-Kn-°p∂ \qX\ kt¶-X-ß-sf-∏‰n Hcp eLp-]-Xn∏v Xbmdm-°q.
kqN-\-Iƒ
$ Fw.B¿.-sF.kvIm≥ $ FIvkvtd $ kn.-‰n.-kvIm≥
$ t]kvta-°¿ $ ECG $ EEG
$ B≥Pn-tbm{Kmw $ Ir{Xn-a-hm¬hp-Iƒ $ ss_∏mkv k¿Pdn
$ sSen-sa-Un-kn≥ $ \mt\m-sS-Ivt\m-fPn $ F≥tUm-kvtIm∏n
$ P\n-‰nIv F©n-\o-b-dnwKv $ Po≥sX-dm∏n
Huj-[ß
- ƒ °ƒ Cu taJ-e-bn¬ B[n-]-X-y-ap-d-∏n-®p. Huj-
[-ßf- psS ]mbv°‰
- p-If
- n¬ CØcw cmk-hk - vXp-
Huj-[m-h-i-y-߃°mbn ]≠pImew apX¬
°-fpsS t]cp-Iƒ Fgp-Xn-bn-´p-≠m-Ipw. Ah ]cn-
kk- y - ß - s f- b mWv a\p- j - y ≥ {][m\- a mbpw
tim-[n®v Huj-[-ß-fpsS t]cpw Ah-bn¬ AS-
B{i-bn-®n-cp-∂-Xv. ]n∂oSv ]co-£-W-im-e-I-
ßn-bn-´p≈ cmk-L-S-I-ßfpw ImWn-°p∂ Hcp
fn¬ Ir{Xn-a-ambn Xbmdm°p∂ cmk-h-kvXp-
]´nI Xbmdm°q.

Huj-[ß
- ƒ kq£vaPo-hn-If
- n¬ \n∂pw
BI-kvan-I-ambn kw`-hn-°m-hp∂ ]cm-P-b-ßsf krjvSn-]-c-amb ImgvN-∏m-
Sp-If
- n-eqsS t\´-ßf
- m-°n-am-‰p-∂Xn¬ imkv{X-⁄∑ - m¿ hnP-bn-®n-´p-≠v. CXn\v
anI® DZm-l-c-W-amWv BZysØ B‚n-_-tbm-´nIv Huj-[-amb s]\nkn-
ens‚ I≠p-]n-SpØw. _mIvSo-cn-bI - sf∏‰n ]T\w \S-Øn-bn-cp∂ Hcp imkv{X-
⁄-\m-bn-cp∂p Ae-Ivkm-≠¿ ^vsfan-wKv. ]co-£-W-im-e-bn¬ D]-tbm-Kn- Ae-Ivkm-≠¿
°p∂ D]-I-c-W-ßfpw a‰pw hrØn-bm°n hbv°p-∂-Xn¬ At±-l-Øn\p ^vsfanwKv

88
 Poh-imkv{Xw

hogvN-]‰pI ]Xn-hm-bn-cp-∂p. ]co-£-Wm-h-iy-߃°mbn sÃ^-tem-tIm-°kv (staphylococus)

C\-Øn¬s∏´ _mIvSo-cn-b-Isf hf¿Øn-bncp∂ s]{Sn-Un-jp-Iƒ th≠{X `{Z-ambn aqSn-h-
bv°msX Hcp Ah-[n-°m-e-bm-{X°pt]mbn. XncnsI em_n-se-Ønb At±lw Hcp s]{Sn-Un-
jn¬ Xm≥ hf¿Øn-bn-cp∂ _mIvSo-cn-b-If{Xbpw ]q∏¬ _m[-tb‰v \in-®n-cn-°p∂ ImgvN-
bmWv I≠-Xv. BZyw hfsc hnj-a-amWp tXm∂n-b-sX-¶nepw ]q∏epIƒ°v (fungus) _mIvSocn-
b-Isf \in-∏n-°m≥ Ign-hp≈ ]Zm¿Y-߃ D¬]m-Zn-∏n-°m-\m-Ip-sa∂ Nn¥ At±-l-Øns‚
a\- n¬ {]Xo-£-bpsS \mf-ap-W¿Øn. s]\n-kn-enbw F∂ ^wKkv D¬]m-Zn-∏n-°p∂ _mIvSo-
cnbbvs°-Xnsc {]h¿Øn°p∂ ]Zm¿YsØ ^vsfanwKv s]\n-kn-en≥ (penicillin) F∂p hnfn-®p.
BZysØ B‚n-_-tbm-´nIv Huj-[-amb s]\n-knens‚ I≠p-]n-SnØw Btcm-Ky-cw-KØv alm-
hn-π-h-Øn\p hnØp-]m-In. Ccp]Xmw \q‰m-≠nse am{¥n-I-a-cp∂pIƒ F∂p hnti-jn-∏n-°-s∏´
B‚n-_-tbm-´n-°p-Iƒ C∂v sshhn[yw sIm≠pw ^e-kn≤n sIm≠pw sshZy-im-kv{X-cw-
KsØ A\n-hm-cy-X-bmbn \ne-\n-¬°p∂p.

\n߃°p ]cn-N-b-ap≈ B‚n_tbm-´n-°p-I-fpsS t]cp-Ifpw Ah GtXXv kq£vaPohn-Iƒs°-

Xn-sc- {]tbm-Kn-°p-∂p F∂pw hni-Z-am-°p∂ Hcp ]´nI Xbmdm-°q.
B‚n_tbm-´n-°p-Iƒ hfsc D]-Im-cn-I-fm-sW-¶nepw Ah-bpsS D-]-tbmKw aqew ]e- ]m¿i-z-^-
e-ß-fp-ap-≠m-Im-\n-S-bp-≠v. \¬In-bn-´p≈ kqN-\-Iƒ {i≤n-°q.
$ \nc-¥c-amb D]-tbmKw Ch-bvs°-Xnsc _mIvSo-cn-b-I-fn¬ AXn-Po-h-\-tijn (resistance)
D≠m-Im≥ CS-bm-°p-∂p.
$ ico-c-Ønse D]-Im-cn-I-fm-bn-´p≈ _mIvSo-cn-b-Isf \in-∏n-°p-∂p.
$ ico-c-Øn¬ Nne hn‰m-an-\pIfpsS Afhv Ipdbv°p∂p.
Xe-th-Z-\bpw ]\nbpsams° D≠m-Ip-tºmƒ Nne¿ tUmIvS-dpsS klmbw tXSmsX saUn-
°¬ tjm∏p-I-fn¬ \n∂pw a‰pw Kpfn-I-Ifpw acp-∂p-Ifpw hmßn D]-tbm-Kn-°m-dp-≠v. Cu {]h-
WX icn-bmtWm? F¥p-sIm≠v? ¢mkn¬ Hcp N¿® kwL-Sn-∏n®v \nK-a\w cq]-s∏-Sp-Øq.
..........................................................................................................................................................
Nn{Xo-I-cWw 6.4. {i≤n-°q.

Nn{Xo-I-cWw ˛ 6.4.

89
 Poh-imkv{Xw

CØcw A]-I-S-ßfp≠m-Im\p≈ Imc-W-߃ $ {]Y- a - i p{iq- j - s b- ∏ ‰n th≠{X Adn- h n-

Fs¥m-s°-bmWv? √mbva.
.......................................................................................... $ \nb-a-°p-cp-°p-Iƒ.
tdmU]-I-S-߃ Ipd-bv°m≥ \ap-s°-¥p-sN-øm- $
\mIpw? CtX-∏‰n ¢mkn¬ Hcp N¿® kwL-Sn- {]Yaip{iq-j-sb-∏‰n {]mY-an-I-amb [mc-W-
∏n®v {]mtbm-KnI \n¿tZi-߃ cq]-s∏-Sp-Øq. Ifpw AXp \n¿h-ln-°m-\p≈ {]tbm-KnI ]cn-
tdmUv kpc£m¢_p-ambn kl-I-cn®v tdmUv io- e - \ hpw t\Sn- b n- ´ p- s ≠- ¶ n¬ AX- y m- h - i y
\nb-a-ß-sf-∏‰n t_m[-h¬°-cW, {]N-cW kml-N-c-y-ß-fn¬ \ap°pw a‰p-≈-hsc klm-
]cn-]m-Sn-Iƒ kwL-Sn- -∏n-°q. bn-°m≥ Ign-bpw. \¬In-bn-´p≈ Nn{X-߃ (6.4.
A]-I-S-ßfpw a‰pw D≠m-Ip∂ L´-ß-fn¬ A, B, C) \nco-£n®v Hmtcm∂pw GtXXpL-´-
ASnb-¥nc sshZy-k-lmbw sshIp∂-Xv A]- ßfn¬ \¬Ip∂ ip{iq-jb - m-sW∂v Is≠-Øn
ISØns‚ Kpcp- X - c m- h ÿ h¿[n- ∏ n- ° nt√? tcJ-s∏-SpØq. apºv ]Tn-®n-´p≈ Imcy-߃
A]ISw kw`- h n® Bƒ°v ASn- b - ¥ nc {]tbm-P-\-s∏-Sp-Ønbpw IqSp-X¬ hnh-c-ßfpw
klmbw \¬Im≥ ]ecpw aSn-°p-∂Xv F¥p- Nn{X-ßfpw tiJ-cn®pw {]Y-a-ip-{iq-j-sb-∏‰n
sIm-≠mbncn°pw? N¿®sNøq. Hcp imkv{X-]-Xn∏v Xbmdm°q.

A B C

............................................ ............................................ ............................................

Nn{Xw ˛ 6.5.
c‡\n-thi\w (blood transfusion)
Hcm-fn¬ \n∂v as‰m-cm-fn-te°v c‡w ssIam‰w sNøp-∂-Xn\v c‡-\n-th-i\w F∂mWv ]d-bp-
∂-Xv. ASn-b-¥n-c-L-´-ß-fn¬ Hcm-fpsS Poh≥c-£n-°m≥ Bcp-sS -c-‡hpw kzoI-cn-°m≥ Ign-
bptam? CtX-∏‰n \nß-fpsS A`n-{]mbw Ipdn-°q.
..........................................................................................................................................................
c‡-\n-th-i\w \S-Øp-tºmƒ Fs¥ms° Imcy-ß-fmWv {i≤n-t°-≠Xv? \¬In-bn-´p≈ kqN-
I-ß-fpsS ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ At\-z-jWw \SØn Hcp Ipdn∏v Xbmdm-°q.
$ tcmK-∏-I¿®m km[yX
$ c‡-Øns‚ Afhv
$ ZmXm-hns‚ {]mbw, enwKw, Btcm-Ky-ÿnXn XpS-ßn-bh
$ A\p-tbm-PyX
c‡-Øns‚ A\p-tbm-Py-X F∂-Xp-sIm≠v F¥mWv A¿Y-am-°p-∂Xv? NphsS \¬In-bn-cn-°p∂
hnh-cWw {i≤n-°q.

90
 Poh-imkv{Xw

F√m a\p- j y- c n- e p- a p≈ t°≠Xp≠v. Rh LS-I-߃ ]e-Xp-s≠-¶nepw

c‡-Øns‚ s]mXp-L-S\ B‚n-P≥ D BWv Ah-bn¬ {][m-\w. Cu
kam- \ am- s W- ¶ nepw Nne LS-Iap≈-h¿ Rh t]mkn-‰ohv F∂pw C√m-
LS-I-ß-fn¬ hyXym-k-ap- Ø-h¿ Rh s\K-‰ohv F∂pw Adn-b-s∏-Sp∂p.
≠m-Ipw. 1901 ¬ {]kn-≤o-I-
Rh LS-I-an-√mØ Hcm-fn-te°v Cu LS-I-ap≈
cn® Hcp Kth-jWteJ-\-
Øn¬ Imƒ em≥UvÃo-\¿ c‡-sa-Øp-tºmƒ DS-\Sn bmsXm-cp {]iv\hpw
Imƒ em≥UvÃo\¿ F∂ imkv { X- ⁄ - \ mWv D≠m-Ip-∂n-√. F∂m¬ Abm-fpsS icocw Rh
c‡- \ nthi\w km[y- a m- LS-I-Øn-s\-Xnsc kmh-[m\w B‚nt_m-Un-
°m-\p≈ am¿Kw \n¿tZ-in-®Xv. Acp-W-c-‡m- Iƒ cq]-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂p. ho≠p-sam-cn-°¬ CtX
Wp-°-fpsS D]-cn-X-e-Øn¬ ImW-s∏-Sp∂ LSIw ico-c-Øn-se-Øp-tºmƒ apºp cq]-s∏´
B‚n-P-\p-I-fp-sS km∂n-[y-sØ A-Sn-ÿm-\- B‚n- t _m- U nIƒ Rh LS- I - Ø n- s \- X nsc
am-°n-bmWv c‡sØ {Kq∏p-I-fmbn Xncn-t°- {]h¿Øn®v Acp-W-c-‡m-Wp-°sf \in-∏n-
≠-sX∂v At±lw \n¿tZ-in-®p. Cu Is≠- °p∂p. c‡-\n-th-i-\-Øn\v Rh LS-Iw ]cn-K-
ج temIw AwKo-I-cn°pIbpw At±-l- Wn-t°-≠-Xns‚ {]m[m\yw a\- n-em-bn-t√.
Øn\v s\mt_¬ kΩm\w e`n- ° p- I bpw
s\K-‰ohv c‡-{Kq-∏p≈ kv{Xo°pw t]mkn-‰ohv
sNbvXp.
c‡-{Kq-∏p≈ ]pcp-j\pw BZyw P\n-°p∂
c‡sØ {Kq∏p-I-fm-°n Xncn-°m≥ hyXy-kvX- Ip™n\v XI-cm-sdm∂pap-≠m-Ip-∂n-√. F∂m¬
co-Xn-Iƒ \ne-hn-ep-s≠¶nepw A B O {Kq∏nwKv {]khka- b Øv πmk‚ th¿s]- S p- t ºmƒ
coXn-bmWv IqSp-X¬ hym]-I-ambn D]-tbm-Kn- Ip™ns‚ c‡-Ønse Rh LSIw AΩ-bpsS
°-s∏-Sp-∂-Xv. AcpWc‡mWp°-fn-e-S-ßn-bn- c‡-Øn-se-Øntb°mw. At∏mƒ AΩ-bpsS
´p≈ B‚n-P-\p-Iƒ AYhm A•q-´n-t\m-P\pI- icocw Cu LS-I-Øn-s\-Xnsc B‚n-t_m-Un-
fpsS (agglutinogens) km∂n[ytam Akm-∂n- Iƒ cq]-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂p. ]n∂o-Sp≈ K¿`-ß-fn¬
≤ytam ASn-ÿm-\a - m-°n-bmWv c‡sØ hyXy- Ip™v Rh+ BsW-¶n¬ t\csØ cq]-s∏´
kvX-{Kq-∏p-I-fmbn Xncn-°p-∂-Xv. c‡πmkva- B‚n- t _m- U n- I ƒ πmk‚- h gn {`qW- Ø n¬
bn¬ hyXykvX B‚n-t_m-Un-Iƒ AYhm {]th-in®v Acp-W-c-‡m-Wp-°ƒ I´-]n-Sn®v
A•q- ´ n- \ n≥ (agglutinin) ImW- s ∏- S p- ∂ p≠v . {`qWw \in-°p-∂-Xn-\n-S-bm-°p-∂p. Fdn-t{Xm-
\¬In-bn-´p≈ ]´n-I-bn¬ \n∂pw hyXykvX ªm- t Ãm- k nkv ^o‰m- e nkv (erythroblastosis
c‡-{Kq-∏p-I-fnse B‚n-P≥, B‚n-t_mUn foetalis) F∂mWv Cu tcmKm-hÿ-bpsS t]cv.
F∂n-h-sb-∏‰n [mcW cq]-s∏-Sp-Øq. CXpw ico-c-Øns‚ Hcp {]Xn-tcm-[-kw-hn-[m\w
c‡-{Kq∏v B‚nP≥ B‚nt_mUn Xs∂-bm-sW∂p ]d-bmw.
A A Anti-B Poh≥ c£n-°m-\mbn c‡-\n-th-i\w \S-tØ-
B B Anti-A
≠n-h-cp∂ ]e -A-Sn-b-¥ncL´-ßfpw D≠m-
Imw. CØcw L´ßfn¬ c‡w Zm\w-sN-øm≥
AB A, B C√
{]mb-]q¿Øn-bm-b-tijw \ap°p km[n-°pw.
O C√ Anti-A, Anti-B c‡- Z m\w t{]m’m- l n- ∏ n- ° m≥ \ap°v
\nß-fpsS c‡-{Kq∏v GXmWv? c‡-{Kq-∏p-Iƒ Fs¥ms° Imcy-߃ sNøm-\m-Ipw?
kqNn- ∏ n- ° p- t ºmƒ t]mkn- ‰ oh,v s\K- ‰ ohv .........................................................................................
Fs∂m-s°- ]-d-bp-∂-sX-¥p-sIm≠mWv?
kpc-£m-kw-hn-[m-\w kky-ß-fn¬
c‡-\n-th-i\w \S-Øp-tºmƒ A, B B‚n-P-\p-
Iƒs°m∏w Rh LSIw F∂ Hcn\w P¥p-°-fn-se-∂-t]mse kky-ß-fnepw kq£va-
B‚nPs‚ km∂n[yw IqSn ]cn-K-Wn- Po-hn-I-fpsS B{I-aWw tcmK-߃°v Imc-W-

91
 Poh-imkv{Xw

am-Ip-∂p. tcmK-mWp-°ƒ D≈n-tebv°v IS-°p-∂Xv XS-bm\pw D≈n-se-Øp-∂-hsb t\cn-Sm- -\p-

ap≈ kwhn-[m-\-߃ kky-ß-fn-ep-ap-≠v. LS-\m-]-chpw ssPh-cm-k-]-c-hp-amb- am¿K-߃ hgn-
bmWv kky-߃ {]Xn-tcm[w km[y-am-°p-∂-Xv. Xma-c, tNºv XpS-ßnb kky-ß-fpsS Ce-I-
fn¬ sagp-Ipt]m-ep≈ Hcm-h-c-W-ap-≈-Xmbn \n߃ {i≤n-®n-´p-≠t√m. Cu Bh-cWw tcmKm-
Wp-°sf XS-bm≥ klm-bn-°p-∂p.

Nn{Xw ˛ 6.6.

tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ D≈-n¬ {]th-in-°p-tºmƒ Ah- $ ^nt\mƒ kwbp‡ßfpsS \n¿am-Ww.

bn-ep≈ cmk-h-kvXp-°sf kky-tIm-i-߃
Xncn- ® - d n- b p- I bpw X¬^- e - a mbn Nne- X cw
sNSn-I-fnepw {]Xn-tcm-[-h¬°-cWw
t{]m´o-\p-Iƒ, kmen-kn-enIv BknUv, FYn- P¥p-°-fn¬ B‚n-t_mUn D¬]m-Z-\-Øn\p
en≥ XpS-ßnb ]Zm¿Y-߃ D¬]mZn∏n-°-s∏- Imc-W-amb Po\p-Iƒ P\n-XI F©n-\o-b-dnw-
Sp- I bpw sNøp- ∂ p. Cu ]Zm¿Y- ß fpsS Kn-eqsS kky-ß-fn-te°p am‰n-h-®m¬ kky-
km∂n[yw hgn tcmKm-Wp-_m-[-bpsS hnhcw ߃°pw B‚n-t_m-Un-Iƒ \n¿an-°m-\m-Ipw.
kky-ico-c-Øn-se-√m-bnSØpw FØp-Ibpw kky-ß-fnse B‚n-t_m-Un-Iƒ πm‚n-t_m-Un-
sNøp-∂p. XpS¿∂v tcmKm-Wp-°sf t\cn-Sm≥ Isf∂mWp hnfn-°-s∏-Sp-∂-Xv. ]pI-bn-e-s®-Sn-
hnhn[ kky-I-e-I-fnse tImi-ß-fn¬ LS-\m- bn¬ samsskIv F∂ tcmK-Øn\p Imc-W-
]-c-amb ]e am‰ßfpw D≠m-Ip-∂p. amb Sp_m-t°m-sam-sskIv sshdkn (TMV) s‚
Nne Po\p-Iƒ IS-Øn-hn´ sNSn-Iƒ°v Cu
$ AWp-_m-[nXtImi-ß-fpsS s]s´-∂p≈
tcmK-Øn-s\-Xnsc {]Xn-tcm-[-ti-jn- cq]-s∏´-
\miw.
Xmbn ImW-s∏-Sp-∂p-≠v.
$ AWp-_m-[nXtImi-ß-sf th¿Xn-cn-°p∂
tIm¿°v tImi\nc-I-fpsS cq]o-I-c-Ww.

92
 Poh-imkv{Xw

XpS¿{]-h¿Ø\߃
1) ""tcmKmWp-_m-[-bp-≠m-Ip-tºmƒ Nne tImi-ß-fpsS FÆ-Øn¬ h¿[-\-hp-≠m-hpI kzm`m-
hn-I-amWv''. c‡-]-cn-tim-[-\m-^-esØ∏‰n- B-Ip-e-X-bp-am-sb-Ønb dmWn°v tUmIvS¿
\¬Inb adp-]-Sn-bm-WnXv.
a) AWp-_m-[-bp-≠m-Ip-tºmƒ GXn\w c‡-tIm-i-ß-fpsS FÆ-Øn-emWv h¿[-\-hp-≠m-
Im≥ km[-Xy-X-bp-≈Xv?
b) Cu C\w c‡-tIm-i-ßfpsS FÆw h¿[n-°p-∂Xp sIm≠v ico-c-Øn-\p≈ {]tbm-P\w
F¥v?
c) Cu c‡-tIm-i-߃ GsXms° coXn-bn-emWv Ah-bpsS [¿aw \n¿h-ln-°p-∂-Xv?
d) Nn{X-Ønse Bibw \¬Ip∂ kqN\ D]-tbm-K-s∏-SpØn AXp-ambn _‘-s∏´ tcmK-
{]-Xn-tcm[ coXn-sb-∏‰n Ipdn∏v Xbmdm-°p-I.

c‡-tImiw tcmKmWp

.. .

2) amc-I-amb Hcp tcmK-sØ-∏-‰n-bp≈ Nne kqN-\-I-fmWv \¬In-bn-´p-≈Xv. Ah {i≤n-®-tijw

H∏-ap≈ tNmZy-߃°v DØcw Fgp-Xp-I.
$ sshd-kmWv tcmK-Imcn
$ hmbp, Pew, kº¿°w, ]cm-Z-߃ Ch hgn ]I-cp-∂n-√.
$ tcmK-_m-[-bp-≠m-bm¬ at‰Xp tcm-Km-Wp-°ƒ°pw ico-csØ Ffp∏w Iogvs∏-Sp-Ømw.
$ ^e-{]-Z-amb NnIn’bn√
$ tcmKw D≠m-°p∂ kml-N-cy-߃ Hgn-hm-°-emWv {][m-\w.
a) tcmK-taXv? tcmK-Imcn GXv?

b) tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ ico-c-Øn¬ FØm- -\p≈ km[y-X-Itfh?

c) tcmKm-Wp-°ƒ ico-c-Øn¬ {]h¿Øn-°p-∂-sX-ßs\?

d) Cu tcmKw _m[n-®m¬ Pe-tZmjw t]mepw acWImc-W-am-Imw F¥psIm≠v?

93