Plate Girder Design

Design of Plate Girders
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The most common type of plate girder is an I-shaped section

built up from two flange plates and one web plate, as shown in Figs. 9.1
and 9.2. The moment-resisting capacities of plate girders lie somewhere
between those of deep standard rolled wide-flange shapes and those of
trusses. Plate girders can be welded (Figs. 9.2 to 9.5), riveted, or bolted
(Fig. 9.6). Riveted plate girders are practically obsolete. Very few bolted
plate girders are designed nowadays. Therefore, we cover only the design
Figure 9.1 Plate girder in a multistory building

Design of Plate Girders 2
Figure 9.2 Welded Figure 9.3 Plate Figure 9.4 Built-

plate girder girder with cover up girder with T
plates sections
Figure 9.5 Welded Figure 9.6 Riveted or

box girder bolted plate girder
of welded plate girders in this book.

Plate girders are used in both buildings and bridges. In buildings,
when large column-free spaces are designed to be used as an assembly
hall, for example, the plate girder is often the economical solution. In
such cases, the designer must choose between a plate girder and a truss.
Plate girders, in general, have the following advantages over trusses:
3 Design of Plate Girders
1. Connections are less critical for plate girders than for trusses,
particularly statically determinate trusses. In a statically
determinate truss, one poor connection may cause the collapse of
the truss.
2. Fabrication cost of plate girders is less than that of trusses.
3. Plate girders can be erected more rapidly and more cheaply than
trusses.
4. Depth of a plate girder is less than the height of a comparable truss.
Consequently, plate girders need less vertical clearance than
trusses. This makes them very attractive for multilevel highway
bridges.
5. Plate girders generally vibrate less than trusses under moving
loads.
6. Painting of plate girders is easier than painting of trusses. This
means less maintenance cost for plate girders.
In contrast, plate girders in general are heavier than trusses, especially

for very long spans.
Plate girders basically carry the loads by bending. The bending
moment is mostly carried by flange plates. In order to reduce the girder
weight and possibly achieve maximum economy, hybrid plate girders are
sometimes used. In a hybrid girder, flange plates are made of higher-
strength steel than that of the web. Or, in a tee-built-up plate girder, as
shown in Fig. 9.4, the two T sections are made of higher-strength steel
than the connecting web plate. Design of hybrid plate girders is also
covered in this chapter. Allowable bending stress for hybrid girders is
limited to 0.60Fy (ASD F1).
9.2 POSTBUCKLING BEHAVIOR OF THE WEB PLATE
In addition to flange plates and a web plate, a plate girder often

consists of intermediate and bearing stiffeners. As mentioned in the
previous section, the two flange plates basically carry the bending
moment. A web plate is needed to unify the two flange plates and to
carry the shear. Thin web plates are susceptible to unstable behavior.
Thick web plates make the girder unnecessarily heavy. A relatively thin
web plate strengthened by stiffeners often yields the lightest plate girder.
Figure 9.7 Analogy between a truss and a stiffened plate girder

Stiffened plate girders are designed on the basis of the ultimate

strength concept. As the magnitude of the load on the girder is increased,
the web panels between adjacent vertical stiffeners buckle due to
diagonal compression resulting from shear. For a theoretical presentation
of the subject the reader should refer to Salmon and Johnson (1996). For
the designer of plate girders the detailed knowledge of the theoretical
development is not essential. She/he should, however, acquire a feel for
the behavior of plate girders under increasing load.
If the plate girder has properly designed stiffeners, the instability
of the web plate panels, bounded on all sides by the transverse stiffeners
of flanges, will not result in its failure. In fact, after the web panels
buckle in shear, the plate girder behaves like the Pratt truss shown in Fig.
9.7(a). It will then be able to carry additional loads. A stiffened plate
girder has considerable postbuckling strength. The Pratt truss of Fig.
9.7(a) is subjected to a concentrated load applied at its midspan. In this
truss, the vertical members are in compression and the diagonals are in
tension. The postbuckling behavior of the plate girder is analogous to the
behavior of this truss. As shown in Fig. 9.7(b), after the shear instability
of the web takes place, a redistribution of stresses occurs; the stiffeners
behave like axially compressed members, and shaded portions of the web
behave like tension diagonals in the truss of Fig. 9.7(a). This truss-like
behavior is called tension-field action in the literature. The postbuckling
strength of the web plate may be three or four times its initial buckling
strength. Consequently, designs on the basis of tension-field action can
yield better economy.
Hybrid girders cannot be designed on the basis of tension-field
action, due to the lack of sufficient experiment results.
9.3 PROPORTIONING OF THE WEB PLATE
At the outset, we must initially choose a value for the depth h of

the web plate. As a general guideline, experience shows that the ratio of
the depth of the web plate h to span length L varies from 1/25 to 1/6.
1 h 1
≤ ≤ (9.1)
25 L 6
This ratio, however, is often within the range 1/15 to 1/10.
1 h 1
≤ ≤ (9.2)
15 L 10
Deeper girders are generally used when the loads are heavy (for
example, when they need to carry large column loads in high-rise
buildings). Very shallow girders with 1/25 < h/L < 1/15 are used as
continuous plate girders.
In design of plate girders, we should design the plate girder with
several different values of the web depth-to-span ratios and find the total
weight of the plate girder for each case. By drawing the total weight
versus h/L ratio, we can obtain an economical (practical approximate
optimum or minimum weight) solution for our design. Of course,
repetitive manual design of plate girders is quite cumbersome and time-
consuming. However, with the aid of the interactive program (to be
discussed in Sec. 9.12), the final design can be achieved quickly. Totally
automated optimum design of stiffened plate girders is rather
complicated due to the highly nonlinear nature of the problem.
Abuyounes and Adeli (1986, 1987) present algorithms for minimum
weight design of simply supported steel homogeneous and hybrid plate
girders. Adeli and Chompooming (1989) present minimum weight
design of continuous prismatic and nonprismatic plate girders. Adeli and

Mak (1990) present minimum weight design of plate girder bridges
subjected to moving loads. In this book, however, our approach is
interactive design, which is presented in Sec. 9.12.
After the h/L ratio has been selected, the depth of the web plate
will be known. The next step is to choose the web thickness. The web
thickness is chosen based on the following two criteria:
1. The web plate should have sufficient buckling strength to prevent

vertical buckling of the compression flange into the web.
2. The web plate should carry all the shearing force.
In calculating the shear strength of the web, it is assumed that the

shear stress distribution is uniform throughout the web depth.
Figure 9.8
Squeezing of the web
due to bending of the
girder during tension-
field action
Fyf
Fyf
Fyf Fyf
Fyf Fyf
Figure 9.9
During the postbuckling behavior of the web plate, the bending

curvature of the plate girder produces compressive forces in the web
plate, as shown in Fig. 9.8. This figure shows a portion of the plate girder
located between two neighboring sections. Due to the deflected shape of
the girder, the compressive force F1, acting on the top compression
flange and the tension force F2 acting in the bottom tension flange create
compressive forces F3 on the web plate. This plate should have sufficient
buckling strength to resist the compressive forces F3. To satisfy this
requirement, according to ASD G1, the web depth-thickness ratio should
not be greater than α1, which is a decreasing function of the yield stress
of the compression flange Fyf.
h 14,000
≤ α1 = (9.3)
tw [ F yf ( F yf + 16.5)]1 / 2
The variation of α1 with Fyf is shown in Fig. 9.9. This equation is derived
from a stability analysis of the web plate, taking into account the effect
of residual stresses but without including the transverse stiffeners. For
closely spaced stiffeners – that is, when spacing of the transverse
stiffeners a is not greater than 1.5 times the distance between flanges –
the limiting ratio α1 is increased to α2.
h 2,000
≤α2 = when a ≤ 1.5h (9.4)
tw F yf
The variable α2 is also shown in Fig. 9.9. Note that the difference
between α1 and α2 increases with an increase in the yield stress. For
high-strength steel, α2 is much larger than α1.
To satisfy the second criterion, we should have
V
tw ≥ (9.5)
hFv
where V is the shear force and Fv is the allowable shear stress given in
ASD F4.
Fy C v h 380
Fv = ≤ 0.40 F y for > (9.6)
2.89 tw Fy
where
45,000k v
when Cv ≤ 0.8
Fy (h / t w ) 2
Cv = (9.7)
190 k v
when Cv > 0.8
h / t w Fy
5.34
4.00 + when a/h < 1.0 (kv > 9.34)
( a / h) 2
kv = (9.8)
4.00
5.34 + when a/h ≥ 1.0
( a / h) 2
Note that Cv is the ratio of shear stress at buckling to the shear yield
stress (Salmon and Johnson, 1996). For hybrid girders, Fy in Eqs. (9.6)
and (9.7) is the yield stress of the web steel.
We can increase the allowable shear stress by relying on the
postbuckling behavior and tension-field action of the web plate, provided
that the following conditions are met (ASD F5 and G3):
1. The plate girder is not a hybrid one

2. Intermediate stiffeners are provided
3. Cv ≤ 1.0 (9.9)
4. a/h ≤ [260/(h/tw)]2 (9.10)
5. a/h ≤ 3.0 (9.11)
The last two conditions are somewhat arbitrarily chosen limits on the
panel aspect ratio a/h to facilitate handling during fabrication and
erection. When the effect of tension-field action is taken into account, the
allowable shear stress is given by (ASD G3)
Fy  1 − Cv 
Fv = C v + 2 1/ 2 
≤ 0.40 F y (9.12)
2.89  1.15(1 + a / h ) 
2
Note that the second term within the brackets is the tension-field
contribution.
One may select the web thickness based on the first criterion
[Eqs. (9.3) and (9.4)] and then check for the second criteron [Eq. (9.5)].
In this case the maximum computed shear stress (fv)max must be less than
the allowable shear stress Fv.
Vmax
( f v ) max = ≤ Fv (9.13)
ht w
After preliminary proportioning of the web plate, we may check

if intermediate stiffeners are needed. According to ASD F5, intermediate
stiffeners are not required if
h
< 260 (9.14)
tw
and the maximum shear stress in the web is less than the allowable shear
stress given by Eq. (9.6). Equation (9.6) can be specialized for the case
of no stiffeners. For very large a/h, Eq. (9.8) yields k = 5.34. Substituting
this value of k into Eq. (9.7) and the resulting values into Eq. (9.6), we
finally find the following equation for the allowable shear stress when
intermediate stiffeners are not needed:
83,150 h 548
when >
(h / t w ) 2 tw Fy
152 F y 380 h 548
Fv = when < ≤ (9.15)
h / tw Fy tw Fy
h 380
0.40 F y when ≤
tw Fy
It should be noted that plate girders with intermediate stiffeners are

generally lighter than plate girders without intermediate stiffeners.
To prevent the undesirable consequences of corrosion, an
absolute minimum web thickness is usually specified in practice. A
minimum thickness of 3/8 in. is recommended for bridge plate girders.
For plate girders used in buildings which are not exposed to the harsh
corrosive environment, a smaller absolute minimum web thickness of ¼
in. is suggested.
9.4 PROPORTIONING OF THE FLANGES
9.4.1 Preliminary Calculation of Flange Area
The aim is to select a flange plate of area sufficient to carry the

maximum bending moment Mmax.
M max
Required S = (9.16)
Fb
In this equation, S is the elastic section modulus with respect to the major
axis and Fb is the allowable bending stress given in the ASD F1 and
discussed in Chapter 5. We can find an approximate relation for the

section modulus. The moment of inertia of the section with respect to the
major axis is
I = 121 t w h 3 + 2b f t f (h / 2 + t f / 2) 2 + 122 b f t 3f
(9.17)
I ≈ 121 t w h 3 + 2 A f (h / 2) 2
where bf is the width of the flange plate, tf is the thickness of the flange
plate, and Af = bf tf = area of the flange. The elastic section modulus is
then approximately equal to
I I t h2
S = ≈ = w + Af h (9.18)
d /2 h/2 6
By equating Eqs. (9.16) and (9.18) and solving for Af, we find an
equation for the preliminary estimate of the area of the flange.
M max t w h M max Aw
Af = bf t f ≈ − = − (9.19)
Fb h 6 Fb h 6
In this equation, Aw = tw h is the web area.
9.4.2 Preliminary Selection of the Flange Plate
In order to avoid local flange buckling, the width-thickness ratio

of the flange plate is limited by ASD B5 (Table 5.1 in the text).
bf 190
≤ (9.20)
tf Fy / k c
4.05 h
0.46
> 70
(h / t w ) tw
kc = (9.21)
h
1 ≤ 70
tw
To find the minimum flange thickness required, we set
190
bf = tf (9.22)
Fy / k c
Substituting Eq. (9.22) into Eq. (9.19) and solving for tf, we obtain
1/ 2 1/ 2
 Fy / k c  M max t w h   Fy / k c 
tf =  −  = Af  (9.23)
 190  Fb h 6   190 
   
This equation roughly gives the minimum flange thickness required to

prevent the local buckling of the flange plate. We may round this
thickness to a commercially available size, for example, as a fraction of
1/16 in., and use it as the trial design thickness of the flange plate.
However, in many cases, this design would result in very thin and wide
flange plates. Therefore, the designer may wish to choose a flange
thickness larger than that obtained by Eq. (9.23). After selecting the
thickness of the flange plate, we find the required flange width bf from
Eq. (9.19).
At this point, we can calculate the exact value of the moment of

inertia of the section from Eq. (9.17) and check if the available section
modulus is at least equal to Mmax /Fb.
9.4.3 Reduction of the Allowable Bending Stress
In regions of large bending moments, a thin web plate may

deflect laterally on its compression side. When this happens the bending
stress distribution over the depth of the girder will no longer be linear.
The result will be a reduction in the bending stress capacity of the web
and transfer of additional stresses to the compression flange. Instead of
performing a rather complicated nonlinear analysis to find the increased
maximum stress in the flange, ASD G2 requires that the allowable
bending stress in the compression flange to be reduced to F’b when the
web depth-thickness ratio exceeds 970 / F y .
 A  h 760   h 970
F ' b ≤ Fb 1.0 − 0.0005 w  −  Re when > (9.24)
 A f  t w Fb   tw Fy
In this equation, Aw is the web area. When h/tw < 970 / F y , no

reduction of the allowable bending stress is necessary. Note that when
the compression flange does not have sufficient lateral support, the
allowable bending stress Fb must be reduced according to ASD F1, as
discussed in Sec. 5.5, to take into account the possibility of lateral
torsional buckling. Re is the hybrid beam coefficient given by
 
A
(
12 + w 3α − α 3 )
 Af 
Re =   ≤ 1 .0 (9.25)
  A  
 2 6 + w  
 A f 
  
where Fyw is the web yield stress, α= 0.60Fyw /Fb ≤ 1.0, and Fb is the
allowable bending stress after the lateral-torsional buckling has been
considered, when it is assumed that the entire member is made of the
grade of the steel used in the flanges. This equation is intended to
account for the effect on the strength of a hybrid girder with a web of
low yield strength. Equation (9.25) is applicable only when the area and
grade of steel in both flanges are the same. Otherwise, a more
complicated analysis is required. For nonhybrid girders, Re = 1.0.
If reduction of the allowable bending stress is necessary, we
should check if the computed bending stress is less than the reduced
allowable bending stress.
M max
fb = < Fb' (9.26)
S
9.5 INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS
Intermediate stiffeners are provided to stiffen the web plate

against buckling and to resist compressive forces transmitted from the
web during tension-field action. They are designed based on the
following requirements:
1. When the design of plate girder is based on tension-field action, the

gross area of each intermediate stiffener or the total area of a pair of
stiffeners, when they are used in pairs, should be at least equal to

(ASD G4)
1 a a2 / h2  F yw  f v 
Ast = Dht w (1 − C v )  −   
2 1 / 2   (9.27)
 h (1 + a / h )  f ys  Fv
2
2 
where fv is the greatest computed shear stress in the panel under

consideration, Fys is the yield stress of the stiffener, and
2.4 for single plate stiffeners

D= 1.0 for stiffeners used in pairs
1.8 for single angle stiffeners
During tension-field action the intermediate stiffeners behave as

short struts. The required area by Eq. (9.27) ensures sufficient
compression capacity of the stiffeners. Due to eccentric transfer of
load with respect to the web, single-sided stiffeners are subject to
considerable bending moment in addition to axial load and
consequently are substantially less efficient than double-sided
stiffeners. This consideration is reflected in Eq. (9.27) by the variable
D.
2. The moment of inertia of a single intermediate stiffener or a pair of

intermediate stiffeners (Ist) with respect to an axis in the plane of the
web and perpendicular to the plane of the stiffener(s) (axis X-X in
Fig. 9.10) should be at least equal to (ASD G4)
I st = (h / 50) 4 (9.28)
Figure 9.10
Plan of portion of a plate
girder with a pair of
stiffeners
where h, the depth of the web plate, is in inches. This requirement is

intended to provide adequate lateral support for the web plate and
prevent it from deflecting out of its plane when web buckling takes
place.
3. Each stiffener should be checked for the buckling requirement of

ASD B5. Stiffeners are free on one edge and consequently
considered as unstiffened elements. Denoting the width and
thickness of the stiffener by bs and ts, respectively, we should have
bs 95
≤ (9.29)
ts Fy
4. When intermediate stiffeners are required, their spacing should be

such that
a. The computed shear stress in the web does not

exceed the allowable shear stress given by Eq.
(9.6) or Eq. (9.12), whichever is applicable.
b. a / h ≤ [260 /( h / t w )] 2 (9.10)
c. a / h ≤ 3.0 (9.11)
 f 
d. f b ≤ Fb =  0.825 − 0.375 v  F y ≤ 0.60 F y (9.30)
 Fv 
The last requirement should be met only when the design of the
web plate is based on tension-field action. In this case, due to large shear
stresses in the web, the maximum tensile stress which acts at an angle to
the girder axis could be considerably larger than the maximum tensile
stress parallel to the girder axis. In lieu of a lengthy analysis for finding
the maximum tensile stress based on the combined shear and tension
stresses, ASD G5 requires that Eq. (9.30) be satisfied, in which fb is the
maximum bending tensile stress due to moment in the plane of the girder
web. According to ASD Commentary G5, the interaction equation (9.30)
need not be checked in the following two cases.
1. fv ≤ 0.60Fv and fb ≤ Fb
2. fv ≤ Fv and fb ≤ 0.75Fb
The two end panels adjacent to the supports are designed without
the advantage of tension-field action. They are expected to act as anchor
panels for the neighboring panels with tension-field action. For these two
panels, the computed shear stress should not exceed the allowable shear
stress given by Eq. (9.6).
9.6 BEARING STIFFENERS
According to ASD K1.8, bearing stiffeners should always be

provided in pairs at the ends of plate girders and, if required, at points of
application of concentrated loads. These bearing stiffeners should extend
roughly to the edges of the flange plates, and their length should be close
to the depth of the web plate in order to have close bearing with the
flange plates. They are designed as columns with a cross-sectional area
which includes a centrally located strip of the web.
For end bearing stiffeners, the width of the central strip of the
web is taken as 12 times the thickness of the web (Fig. 9.11). Therefore,
the effective area for checking the axial compressive stresses is
Aeff = 2 Abs + 12t w2 (9.31)
where Abs is the cross-sectional area of each bearing stiffener.

For an interior bearing stiffener the width of the central strip of
the web is taken as 25 times the thickness of the web (Fig. 9.11). Thus,
the effective area becomes
Aeff = 2 Abs + 25t w2 (9.32)
If the bearing stiffener is subjected to a concentrated load (or

reaction) of magnitude P, the compressive stress in the bearing stiffener,
fcb, shall not exceed the allowable axial compressive stress Fa.
Figure 9.11 Equivalent cross-sectional areas for column design of

bearing stiffeners
P
f cb = ≤ Fa (9.33)
Aeff
Evaluation of the allowable axial stress requires determination of the

slenderness ration KL/r. Because the bearing stiffeners are connected to
the web, the effective length factor K is taken as low as 0.75.
Since the allowable axial compressive stress Fa depends on the
radius of gyration, r, the bearing stiffeners must be designed by the trial-
and-error procedure.
Buckling of the web will conceivably occur about a horizontal
axis parallel to the plane of the web. So it is customarily assumed that the
hypothetical column consisting of the web and stiffeners will possibly
buckle about the same axis; otherwise each stiffener will buckle about its
own axis, which is perpendicular to the previously mentioned axis. As a
result, the radius of gyration r is calculated about the horizontal axis in
the plane of the web.
9.7 DESIGN OF WELDED CONNECTIONS
9.7.1 Connection of Flange to Web
Flange and web plates are connected to each other by fillet

welds. Figure 9.12 shows a disassembled portion of the plate girder
between two neighboring sections. Flange-to-web fillet welds are
designed to transmit horizontal shear due to the variation of the bending
moment over the girder and the direct pressure due to applied distributed
load.
Figure 9.12 Connection of flange to web
From elementary beam theory (Sec. 5.2), the horizontal

(longitudinal) shear per unit length of the fillet weld is
VQ VA f (h + t f )
q1 = = (9.34)
I 2I
where Q is the first moment of the flange area about the neutral axis and
V is the shear force at the section under consideration.
The direct pressure due to applied load creates vertical shear q 2
per unit length of the fillet weld, which is in practice assumed to be
roughly equal to the intensity of the distributed load w. The resultant
design force per unit length of the weld is
q = (q 12 + q 22 )1 / 2 (9.35)
If we denote the size of the fillet weld by ww and the allowable shear
stress of the weld electrode by Fv, noting that there are two lines of fillet
welds on each side of the web plate, the allowable strength of the fillet
weld will be
q a = (0.707)(2 ww ) Fv (for SMAW) (9.36)
Substituting for value of q 1 , from Eq. (9.36), and q 2 = w into Eq. (9.35)
and equating the resulting equation to Eq. (9.36), we obtain the following
equation for the size of the continuous fillet weld:
1/ 2
V 2 A 2f 
 2
( h + t f ) 2
+ w 2

 4I (9.37)
ww =   (for SMAW)
1.414 Fv
Instead of continuous flange-to-web weld, intermittent fillet

welds are sometimes used, as shown in Fig. 9.13. If we denote the length
Figure 9.13 Intermittent flange-to-web fillet weld

of each portion of the fillet weld by L1 and the spacing of the intermittent
weld by a1, the following relation holds between these two variables:
L1qa = a1q (9.38)
Substituting for q and qa form Eqs. (9.35) and (9.36), respectively, we

obtain
1/ 2
V 2 A 2f 
 2
(h + t f ) 2 + w 2 
L1 ww  4 I  (9.39)
= (for SMAW)
a1 1.414 Fv
By choosing two of the three parameters a1, L1, and ww, the designer can
find the third parameter from Eq. (9.39).
9.7.2 Connection of Intermediate Stiffeners to the Web
The magnitude of the shear transfer between the web and

stiffeners is in general very small. As a result, a minimum amount of
welding is used. When the tension-field action is the design basis [Eq.
(9.12)], however, a conservative formula is provided by the ASD code
for the amount of shear to be transferred between the web and stiffeners.
According to ASD G4, the connection of the intermediate stiffeners to
the web plate should be designed for a total shear transfer, in Kips per
linear inch of single stiffener or a pair of stiffeners, at least equal to
3/ 2
 Fy  fv
f vs = h  (9.40)
 340  Fv
where Fy is the yield stress of the web steel in ksi, and fv and Fv are the
maximum computed shear stress and the allowable shear stress in the
adjacent panels, respectively. Furthermore, welds in stiffeners which are
required to transmit a concentrated load or reaction should be designed
for the larger of the corresponding load (or reaction) and the shear given
by Eq. (9.40).
If intermediate stiffeners are used in pairs, noting there are four
lines of fillet weld at each stiffener-web connection, we find that the
required continuous weld size is
f vs / 4 f vs
ww = = (for SMAW) (9.41)
0.707 Fv 2.828 Fv
When single stiffeners are used, either alternated on the sides of

the web plate (Fig. 9.14) or placed on one side of the web (Fig. 9.15)
Figure 9.14 Horizontal section of a plate girder with

alternated stiffeners
Figure 9.15 Horizontal section of a plate girder with

stiffeners placed on one side
possibly for a better look, two lines of fillet welds are available at each
stiffener-web connection and the required weld size will be
f vs / 2 f vs
ww = = (for SMAW) (9.42)
0.707 Fv 1.414 Fv
We may also use an intermittent weld for the stiffener-web

connections, as shown in Fig. 9.16. Denoting the weld length by L1 and
the spacing by a1, we find that the required size of the fillet weld for the
case of double stiffeners is
a1 f vs
ww = (for SMAW) (9.43)
2.828 L1 Fv
Similarly, for the case of single stiffeners, we obtain
a1 f vs
ww = (for SMAW) (9.44)
1.414 L1 Fv
Figure 9.16
Connection of stiffeners to
web by intermittent welds
The clear distance between welds should not be greater than 16 times the
web thickness or greater than 10 inches (ASD G4).
(a1 − L1 ) ≤ 16t w and 10 in. (9.45)
Welding of the stiffeners to the compression flange keeps them normal to

the web and consequently makes them more stable. Moreover, such
welding causes the stiffeners to resist any uplift tendency due to torsion
and thus provides restraint against torsional buckling of the compression
flange.
Welding of the stiffeners to the tension flange is not necessary
(Fig. 9.16). In fact, such welding increases the chance of fatigue or brittle
failure. Intermediate stiffeners not transmitting a concentrated load or
reaction can be stopped short of the tension flange (ASD G4) (Fig. 9.16).
The distance between the point of termination of the stiffener-to-web
weld and the near toe of the web-to-flange weld should not be smaller
than four times the web thickness or greater than six times the web
thickness.
9.8 DESIGN OF A SIMPLE HOMOGENEOUS PLATE GIRDER

BASED ON THE ASD CODE
9.8.1 Problem Description
Design of the doubly symmetric plate girder shown in Fig. 9.17

is covered in this section. The girder has a span of L = 150 ft. The
loading on the girder consists of a uniform load of w = 4 K/ft and a
concentrated load of P = 500 Kips applied at a distance of 100 ft from
the left support. Use A36 steel with yield stress of 36 ksi for the flange
and web plates as well as the double stiffeners. For welds, use E70
electrodes with an allowable shear stress of 21 ksi. Lateral support is
provided at supports, at the point of application of concentrated load, and
at point D located at a distance of 50 ft from the left support A. Since the
compression flange carries a uniform load, assume that it is restrained
against rotation.
Figure 9.17
9.8.2 Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams
Reactions at support A and B (Fig. 9.17) are
(4)(150)(75) + (500)(50)
RA = = 466.67 Kips
150
RB = (4)(150) + 500 − 466.67 = 633.33 Kips
The shear diagram is shown in Fig. 9.18.

Bending moment over the girder:
For 0 ft < x < 100 ft:
Figure 9.18 Shear diagram
2
M ( x) = R A x − wx
2
dM ( x) R 466.67
= R A − wx1 = 0 ⇒ x1 = A = = 116.67 ft > 100 ft
dx w 4
∴ There is no maximum between A and C.

For 100 ft < x < 150 ft:
2
M ( x) = R A x − wx − P ( x − 100)
2
dM ( x) R −P
= R A − wx1 − P = 0 ⇒ x1 = A <0
dx w
∴ There is no maximum between C and B. Therefore, the maximum

bending moment over the girder is at point C under the concentrated
load.
Mmax = Mc = 466.67(100) - 4(100)(50) = 26667 K-ft
The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 9.19.

Figure 9.19 Bending moment diagram
9.8.3 Selection of the Web Plate
Referring to Eq. (9.2), we choose the following depth for the

girder web:
L (150)(12)
h= = = 150 in.
12 12
From Eq. (9.3):
h 14,000 150
≤ = 322.0 ⇒ t w ≥ = 0.47 in.
t w [36(36 + 16.5)]1/ 2
322
For closely spaced stiffeners, that is, when a ≤ 1.5 d, from Eq. (9.4):
h 2000 150
≤ = 333.3 ⇒ t w ≥ = 0.45 in.
tw 36 333.3
It is seen that for A36 steel with yield stress of 36 ksi, Eqs. (9.3) and
(9.4) yield values close to each other. In other words, the minimum
thickness of the web plate cannot be substantially reduced by closely
spacing stiffeners. Try tw = 0.5 in. or PL150 in.x0.5 in. for the web plate.
h
= 300 ; Aw = 75 in.2
tw
Tentatively assuming the allowable bending stress to be Fb =

0.60Fy = 22 ksi, check if reduction of the allowable bending stress is
required.
h 970
= 300 > = 161.67
tw Fy
∴ Allowable bending stress must be reduced according to Eq. (9.24).
9.8.4 Selection of Flange Plates
Because the allowable bending stress in the flange plates must be

reduced, we may decrease Fb = 0.60Fy = 22 ksi somewhat, say, to Fb =
20 ksi. The required flange area, Af, can be computed approximately
from Eq. (9.19).
(26,667)(12) 75
Af = bf t f = − = 94.17 in.2
(20)(150) 6
The minimum flange thickness in order to prevent flange local

buckling is obtained from Eq. (9.22).
4.05 h
kc = for > 70
(h / t w ) 0.46 tw
Figure 9.20
4.05
kc = = 0.294
(300) 0.46
1/ 2
 36 
 
tf =  0. 294 (94.17) = 2.34 in.
 190 
 
 
Try PL38 in.x2.5 in. for each flange; Af = 95 in.2. The girder section is
shown in Fig. 9.20.
From Eq. (9.17):

I = 121 (0.5)(150) 3 + 2(38)(2.5)(75 + 1.25) 2 + 122 (38)(2.5) 3

= 1,245,396 in.4
I 1,245,396
S= = = 16,069.6 in.3
h / 2 +t f 75 + 2.5
Find the allowable bending stress Fb (Sec. 5.5).
rT = radius of gyration of the flange plus one-sixth of the web area

about the y-axis (Fig. 9.20)
1/ 2
 6t f b 3f + ht w3 
rT =  
12(6t f b f + ht w ) 
1/ 2
 6t f b 3f  bf
rT ≈   = (9.46)
12(6t f b f + ht w )  (12 + 2 Aw / A f )1 / 2
38
rT = = 10.31 in.
(12 + 150 / 95)1 / 2
For region AD and CB of the girder the ratio of the smaller to larger end
moments, M1/M2, is zero (Figs. 9.17 and 9.19). This ratio for region DC
is equal to
M1/M2 = MD/MC = -18,333.5/26,667 = -0.687
Region DC is the critical region, so we find the allowable bending stress

for this region.
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05(M1/M2)+0.3(M1/M2)2
= 1.75+1.05(-0.687)+0.3(-0.687)2 = 1.17 < 2.30
1/ 2
 510,000C b   (510,000)(1.17) 
1/ 2
  = = 128.74
  
 Fy   36 
1/ 2
 102,000C b   (102,000)(1.17) 
1/ 2
  = = 57.58
  
 F y   36 
L u = unbraced length = AD = DC = CB = 50 ft
1/ 2 1/ 2
 102,000C b  L (50)(12)  510,000C b 
  < u = = 58.2 <  
 Fy  rT 10.31  Fy 
   
 2 F y ( Lu / rT ) 2  2 (36)(58.2) 2 
Fb =  −  Fy =  −  (36) = 21.55 ksi
 3 1,530,000C b   3 1,530,000(1.17) 
Calculate the reduced allowable bending stress F’b from Eq.

(9.24).
  75   150 760 
Fb' = 1.0 − 0.0005   −  21.55 = 20.39 ksi
  95   0.5 21.55 
The maximum bending stress in the girder is
M max (26,667)(12)
fb = = = 19.91 ksi < 20.39 ksi O.K.
S 16,069.6
9.8.5 Intermediate Stiffeners
1. Check if intermediate stiffeners are required [Eq. (9.14)].
h 150
= = 300 > 260
t w 0 .5
∴ Stiffeners are required.
2. Find the location of the first stiffener from each end.
a. At the left end
R A 466.67
fv = = = 6.22 ksi
Aw 75
Substitute for Fv = fv = 6.22 ksi in Eq. (9.6) and solve for Cv.
2.89 Fv (2.89)(6.22)
Cv = = = 0.5 < 0.8
Fy 36
From Eq. (9.7):
Fy C v (h / t w ) 2 (36)(0.5)(300) 2
kv = = = 36 > 9.34
45,000 45,000
From Eq. (9.8):

1/ 2
a  5.34 
1/ 2
 5.34 
=  =  = 0.41
h  k v − 4   36 − 4 
amax = 0.41(150) = 61.3 in.
Tentatively, place the first intermediate stiffener at a distance of

50 in. from the left end A.
b. At the right end
RB 633.33
fv = = = 8.44 ksi
Aw 75
2.89 Fv (2.89)(8.44)
Cv = = = 0.678 < 0.8
Fy 36
Fy C v (h / t w ) 2 (36)(0.678)(300) 2
kv = = = 48.81 > 9.34
45,000 45,000
1/ 2
a  5.34 
1/ 2
 5.34 
=  =  = 0.345 in.
h  k v − 4   48.81 − 4 
amax = 0.345(150) = 51.8 in.
Figure 9.21 Equivalent areas for bearing stiffeners at A and C

7
Flanges: 2PL38 in. x 2½ in. Intermediate stiffeners between E and C: 2PL6.5 in. x /16 in. x 12 ft 4 in.
9
Web: PL150 in. x ½ in. Intermediate stiffeners between C and F: 2PL7 in. x /16 in. x 12 ft 4 in.
3
Bearing stiffeners at A, B, and C: 2PL18 in. x 1 /16 in. x 12 ft 6 in.
Figure 9.22 Final design
Tentatively, place the first intermediate stiffener at a distance of

40 in. from the left end B.
3. Find the spacing of remaining stiffeners.
From Eq. (9.10)
a ≤ [260 /( h / t w )] h = [260 /(300)] (150) = 112.6 in.

2 2
amax = 112.6 in.
Equation (9.10) controls over Eq. (9.11), so the latter need not be
checked.
We choose to use uniform spacing between point E (at the
location of the first stiffener away from the left end) and point C (at
the location of the concentrated load) and also between point C and
F (at the location of the first stiffener away from the right end) (Fig.
9.22).
a. Spacing of the stiffeners between points E and C (Fig. 9.22)

Vmax = maximum shear

= R A − 12
50
( w) = 466.67 − 12
50
(4) = 450.0 Kips
Vmax 450
fv = = = 6.00 ksi
Aw 75
Try a = 105 in. and change the spacing of the first stiffener away
from end A from 50 in. to 45 in. (Fig. 9.22).
Vmax = R A − 12
45
( w) = 466.67 − 12
45
(4) = 451.67 Kips
Vmax 451.67
fv = = = 6.02 ksi
Aw 75
a 105
= = 0 .7 < 1
h 150
5.34 5.34
k v = 4 .0 + 2
= 4 .0 + = 14.90
(a / h) (0.7) 2
45,000k v (45,000)(14.90)
Cv = 2
= = 0.207 < 0.8
Fy (h / t w ) (36)(300) 2
Because all five conditions mentioned in Sec. 9.3 are satisfied,

we can take advantage of the tension-field action and use Eq.
(9.12) for calculating the allowable shear stress.
36  1 − 0.207 
Fv = 0.207 + 2 1/ 2 
2.89  1.15(1 + 0.7 ) 
= 2.58 + 7.04 = 9.62 ksi > f v = 6.02 ksi O.K.
Note that the contribution of the tension-field action is

substantial in this example.
b. Spacing of the stiffeners between points C and F (Fig. 9.22)
Vmax = R B − 12
40
( w) = 633.33 − 12
40
(4) = 620.0 Kips
Vmax 620
fv = = = 8.27 ksi
Aw 75
Try a = 110 in. and change the spacing of the first stiffener away
from end B from 40 in. to 50 in. (Fig. 9.22).
Vmax = R B − 12
50
( w) = 633.33 − 12
50
(4) = 616.66 Kips
Vmax 616.66
fv = = = 8.22 ksi
Aw 75
a 110
= = 0.733 < 1
h 150
5.34 5.34
k v = 4.0 + 2
= 4.0 + = 13.93
( a / h) (0.733) 2
45,000k v (45,000)(13.93)
Cv = 2
= = 0.193 < 0.8
Fy (h / t w ) (36)(300) 2
From Eq. (9.12):

36  1 − 0.193 
Fv = 0.193 + 2 1/ 2 
2.89  1.15(1 + 0.733 ) 
= 2.40 + 7.05 = 9.45 ksi > f v = 8.22 ksi O.K.
Spacing of the stiffeners over the girder span is shown in Fig.

9.22.
4. Check combined shear and bending in the web.
The critical section for this check is either at point C, where the
bending moment has the largest value and the shear force is
considerable, or somewhere close to but to the right of this point,
where the bending is slightly smaller than the maximum value but
the shear force is larger than that at point C (Figs. 9.18 and 9.19).
Let us first check the combined shear and bending at point C
under the concentrated load [Eq. (9.30)].
VC 433.33
fv = = = 5.78 ksi
Aw 75
The allowable bending tensile stress in the web [Eq. (9.30)]:
 
 F y =  0.825 − 0.375
f 5.78 
Fb =  0.825 − 0.375 v  (36) = 21.44 ksi
 Fv   9.45 
The maximum bending tensile stress in the web (at the junction of
web and flange):
M C y (26,667)(12)(75)
fb = = = 19.27 ksi < Fb = 21.44 ksi O.K.
I 1,245,396
Note that if this condition is not satisfied, the spacing of the

intermediate stiffeners is normally reduced. Also, because fb/Fb =
0.90 is considerably less than one, we do not need to check the other
locations to the right of point C. Whenever fb/Fb is close to one, such
a check may be necessary.
5. Select the intermediate stiffeners.
Spacing of the stiffeners between E and C is a = 105 in. and

between C and F is a = 110 in. (Fig. 9.22). The cross-sectional area
of a pair of stiffeners is found by Eq. (9.27), which is a function of
aspect ratio a/h.
a. For region EC. From Eq. (9.27):
1  0 .7 2  6.02 
Ast = (150)(0.5)(1 − 0.207) 0.7 − 2 1 / 2  
2  (1 + 0.7 )  9.62 
= 5.56 in.2
bs t s = 5.56 / 2 = 2.78 in.2 (9.47)
From Eq. (9.29):
bs 95
≤ = 15.8
ts 36
Substituting for bs = 15.8ts in Eq. (9.47) will yield the minimum

thickness required for the intermediate stiffeners.
t s = (2.78 / 15.8)1 / 2 = 0.419 in. = 6.7/16 in.
Try 2PL6½ in. x 7/16 in. for intermediate stiffeners from E to C

(excluding C). Check the moment of inertia requirement (Eq.
9.28).
4 4
 h   150 
  =  = 81 in.
4
 50   50 
I st = 121 (167 ) (6.5 × 2 + 0.5) 3 = 89.7 in. 4 > 81 in. 4 O.K.
Use 2PL6½ in. x 7/16 in. for intermediate stiffeners from E to C

(excluding C).
Intermediate stiffeners need not be extended to the tension
flange (Fig. 9.22) and their length h1 can be four times the web
thickness shorter than the depth of the web.
h1 = h − 4t w = 150 − 4(0.5) = 148 in. = 12 ft 4 in.
b. For region CF. From Eq. (9.27):
1  0.733 2  8.22 
Ast = (150)(0.5)(1 − 0.193) 0.733 − 2 1 / 2  
2  (1 + 0.733 )  9.45 
= 7.89 in.2
bs t s = 7.89 / 2 = 3.94 in.2
bs = 15.8t s
Minimum t s = (3.94 / 15.8)1 / 2 = 0.5 in.

Use 2PL7 in. x 9/16 in. for intermediate stiffeners from C to F

(excluding C). Moment of inertia check is not needed, because
these plates are larger than those used in region EC.
Length of stiffeners:
h1 = h − 4t w = 12 ft 4 in.
9.8.6. Bearing Stiffeners
Bearing stiffeners should extend roughly to the edges of the

flange plates. Noting that the width of the flange plates is 38 in. and the
thickness of the web is 0.5 in., we choose a width of bbs = 18 in. for the
three pairs of bearing stiffeners (Fig. 9.22).
1. Bearing stiffeners at the left support

a. Check buckling (width-thickness ratio).
bbs 95 95
≤ = = 15.8
tbs Fy 36
18 18.2
t bs ≥ = 1.14 in. = in.
15.8 16
Try 2PL18 in. x 13/16 in. for the left support. Abs = 21.375 in.2
b. Check axial compressive stress due to reaction RA = 466.67
Kips. From Eq. (9.31):
Aeff = 2 Abs + 12t w2 = 2(21.375) + 12(0.5) 2 = 45.75 in.2

Moment of inertia of the equivalent area about the x-axis (Fig.

9.21):
I ≈ 121 ( ) (36.5)
19
16
3
= 4812.06 in.4
Radius of gyration about the x-axis:
r = I / Aeff = 4812.06 / 45.75 = 10.26 in.
KL 0.75(150)
= = 10.96
r 10.26
1/ 2
 2π 2 E 
1/ 2
 2π 2 (29,000)  KL
Cc =   =  = 126.1 >
 Fy 
   36  r
5 3( KL / r ) ( KL / r ) 3
F.S. = factor of safety = + −
3 8C c 8C c3
3
5 3  10.96  1  10.96 
= +  −  
3 8  126.1  8  126.1 
= 1.699
Allowable axial stress:
 (KL / r )2   1  10.96  2   36 
Fa = 1 −  F y / F.S. = 1 −    
 2C c2   2  126.1    1.699 
= 21.11 ksi
Actual axial stress:

R A 466.67
fa = = = 10.20 ksi < 21.11 ksi O.K.
Aeff 45.75
Use 2PL18 in. x 13/16 in. x 12 ft 6 in. for the bearing stiffeners at
the left support.
Sometimes the height of the bearing stiffeners is chosen
slightly, say ¼ in., less than the depth of the web plate. The
bearing stiffener, however, should be in contact with the flange
receiving the concentrated load.
2. Bearing stiffeners at the right support
Reaction at the right support:
RB = 633.33 Kips
Try 2PL18 in. x 13/16 in. the same as for the left support.
RB 633.33
fa = = = 13.84 ksi < Fa = 21.11 ksi O.K.
Aeff 45.75
Use 2PL18 in. x 13/16 in. x 12 ft 6 in. for the bearing stiffeners at the
right support.
3. Bearing stiffeners at the concentrated load
Because the axial load for these stiffeners, P = 500 Kips, is less than
RB, and the effective area (Fig. 9.21) is larger than that of the end
bearing stiffeners, we can use the same 2PL18 in. x 13/16 in. x 12 ft 6
in. for bearing stiffeners at the location of the concentrated load.
9.8.7 Web-to-Flange Fillet Weld
We design the web-to-flange connection based on the maximum

shear over the girder length.
Vmax = RB = 633.33 Kips
We use intermittent SMAW welds. The relation between the width of the
fillet weld ww, the length of weld segment L1, and the spacing a1 is given
by Eq. (9.39).
1/ 2
 (633.33) 2 (95) 2  4 
2
 (150 + 2 . 5) 2
+   
 12  
2
L1 ww  4(1,245,396)
= = 0.1246
a1 1.414(21)
Minimum weld size for a 2.5-in. flange plate is 5/16 in. (Sec. 8.3.5 and
ASD Table J2.4).
Try ww = 5/16 in. Substituting this value into the previous
equation, we obtain
a1 = 2.51L1 (9.48)
The minimum length of a segment of intermittent weld is larger

of four times the weld size (4ww = 1.25 in.) and 1.5 in. (ASD J2b).
L1min = 1.5 in.

The maximum longitudinal spacing of the intermittent weld is the

smaller of 24 times the thickness of the thinner plate and 12 in. (ASD
D2).
Thickness of the thinner plate = 0.5 in.
a max = 12 in.
Try 5/16-in. weld, 4 in. long. From Eq. (9.48), we obtain
a1 = 10.04 in.
Use 5/16-in. weld, 4 in. long, 10-in. spacing.
9.8.8. Stiffener-to-Web Fillet Weld
1. For segment EC (Fig. 9.22)
f v = 6.02 ksi; Fv = 9.62 ksi
From Eq. (9.40):
3/ 2
 Fy 
3/ 2
fv  36   6.02 
f vs = h  = (150)    = 3.23 ksi
 340  Fv  340   9.62 
We use intermittent welds. From Eq. (9.43):

L1 ww f vs 3.23
= = = 0.05439 (9.49)
a1 2.828 Fv 2.828(21)
The minimum weld size for a ½-in.-thick plate is 3/16 in. The
maximum weld spacing is
a max = 24t s or 12 in. = 24(167 ) = 10.5 in.
Try a 3/16-in. fillet weld with a spacing of 10 in. From Eq. (9.49) we
obtain L1 = 2.90 in.
Minimum length of the weld segment = 4ww or 1.5 in. = 1.5 in.
Use 3/16-in. weld, 3.0 in. long, 10-in. spacing.
2. For segment CF (Fig. 9.22)
f v = 8.22 ksi; Fv = 9.45 ksi
3/ 2
 36   8.22 
f vs = (150)    = 4.5 ksi
 340   9.45 
L1 ww 4.50
= = 0.0757 (9.50)
a1 2.828(21)
The minimum weld size for a 9/16-in.-thick plate is ¼ in.
a max = 12 in.
L1min = 1.5 in.

Try a ¼-in. intermittent fillet weld with a spacing of a1 = 12 in. From

Eq. (9.50) we obtain L1 = 3.63 in.
Use ¼-in. weld, 4 in. long, 12-in. spacing.
3. Bearing stiffeners
We use 2PL18 in. x 13/16 in. x 12 ft 6 in. for each pair of bearing
stiffeners.
Minimum weld size: 5/16 in.
Try ww = 5/16 in. Use continuous welds on both sides of each stiffener
plate.
Shear strength of 5/16-in. fillet weld = 0.707(165 )(21)

= 4.64 K/in.
Total strength of four lines of weld = 4(150)(4.64) = 2784 Kips

> Vmax = 633.33 Kips O.K.
and
> hf vs = (150)(4.50) = 675 Kips O.K.
Use 5/16-in. weld continuously on both sides of all bearing stiffeners.
9.8.9. Girder Weight
γ = specific gravity of steel = 0.490 Kips/ft3

95
Weight of the flange plates = 2Af Lγ = 2( 144 )(150)(0.49) = 96.89 Kips
Weight of the web plates = htwLγ = ( 150

12
)( 012.5 )(150)(0.49) = 38.28 Kips
Weight of the flange and web plates = 135.26 Kips
Weight of the stiffeners
= [3(2)(18)( 19
16
)(150) + 11(2)(6.5)( 167 )(148.0)
+ 5(2)(7)( 169 )(148.0)](0.49/123) = 9.73 Kips
Total weight of the plate girder = 135.26 + 9.73 = 145.0 Kips
Note that the weight of the stiffeners is 6.7 percent of the total weight of
the plate girder.
9.9 DESIGN OF A HYBRID GIRDER BASED ON THE ASD

CODE
Design of the same plate girder described in Sec. 9.8.1 is desired

except that
1. The yield stress of steel used in the flange is 50 ksi (the yield stress
of the web plate and stiffeners is the same, 36 ksi).
2. The compression flange is laterally supported throughout its length.
3. Single intermediate stiffeners are used.
The shear and bending moment diagrams are the same as before (Figs.
9.18 and 9.19).
9.9.2. Selection of the Web Plate

Depth of the girder web: h = L/12 = 150 in.

From Eq. (9.3):
h 14,000 150
≤ = 242.8 ⇒ t w ≥ = 0.62 in.
t w [50(50 + 16.5)]1/ 2
242.8
For closely spaced stiffeners, i.e., when a ≤ 1.5d, from Eq. (9.4):
h 2000 150
≤ = 282.8 ⇒ t w ≥ = 0.53 in.
tw 50 282.8
Try tw = 9/16 in. or PL150 in. x 9/16 in. for the web plate. Note that spacing
of the intermediate stiffeners a should not be greater than 1.5d. For the
selected web plate, we have
Aw = (150)(169 ) = 84.375 in.2

h 800
= = 266.67 ;
tw 3
970 970 h
= = 137.18 < = 266.67
Fy 50 tw
The allowable bending stress must be reduced according to Eq. (9.24).
9.9.3 Selection of Flange Plates
First, we find an approximate relation for the area of one flange

plate for hybrid girders, taking into account the reduction of the
allowable bending stress according to Eq. (9.24). This equation at the

limit can be written as (neglecting the term in the bracket)
6 A f + βAw
Fb' = Fb (9.51)
6 A f + Aw
where
β = 1.5α − 0.5α 3 (9.52)
From Eq. (9.18):
M max h
S= = (6 A f + Aw ) (9.53)
Fb' 6
Combining Eqs. (9.51) and (9.53) and solving Af, we obtain
M max βAw
Af = − (9.54)
Fb h 6
In this example:
α = 0.60 Fyw / Fb = 0.6(36) / 30 = 0.72 < 1.0
β = 1.5(0.72) − 0.5(0.72) 3 = 0.893
(26,667)(12) (0.893)(84.375)
Af = − = 58.55 in.2
(0.60)(50)(150) 6
Minimum flange thickness is found from Eq. (9.22).

4.05 4.05
kc = 0.46
= = 0.310
(h / t ) (266.67) 0.46
1/ 2
 50 / 0.31 
tf = (58.55) = 1.98 in.
 190 
Try PL30 in. x 2 in. for each flange plate; Af = 60 in.2

Check Eq. (9.20):
bf 30 190 190
= = 15.0 = = = 15.0
tf 2 F yf / k c 50 / 0.31
Properties of the section:
I = 121 (169 ) (150) 3 + 122 (30) (2) 3 + 2(60) (75 + 1) 2 = 851,363 in. 4
I 851,363
S= = = 11,056.7 in.3
h / 2 +t f 75 + 2
Allowable bending stress Fb = 0.60Fyf = 0.60(50) = 30 ksi

We find the reduced allowable bending stress from Eq. (9.24):
Aw 84.375
= = 1.406
Af 60.0
6 + βAw / A f 6 + 0.893(1.406)
Re = = = 0.980
6 + Aw / A f 6 + 1.406
  84.375  
Fb' = (30) 1.0 − (0.0005) (266.67 − 138.76 ) (0.980)
  60.0  
= 26.76 ksi
M max (26,667)(12)
fb = = = 28.94 ksi > 26.76 ksi N.G.
S 11,056.7
Try PL31 in. x 21/8 in. for each flange.
A f = (31)(2.125) = 65.875 in.2

I = 121 (169 ) (150) 3 + 122 (31) (2.125) 3 + 2(31) (2.125)(75 + 17
16
)2
= 920,492.8 in. 4
920,492.8
S= = 11,935.1 in.3
75 + 178
Check Eq. (9.20):
bf 31 190
= = 14.59 < = 15.0 O.K.
tf 2 18 F yf / k c
Calculate the reduced allowable bending stress from Eq. (9.24).
Aw 84.375
= = 1.281
A f (31)(2.125)
6 + βAw / A f 6 + 0.893(1.281)
Re = = = 0.981
6 + Aw / A f 6 + 1.281
  84.375  
Fb' = (30) 1.0 − (0.0005) (266.67 − 138.76) (0.981)
  65.875  
= 27.02 ksi
M max (26,667)(12)
fb = = = 26.81 ksi < Fb' O.K.
S 11,935.1
Use PL31 in. x 21/8 in. for each flange. Af = 65.875 in.2
Intermediate stiffeners are required, and their spacing should not

be greater than
amax = 1.5d = 1.5(h + 2tf) = 1.5(150 + 4.25) = 231.4 in.
Also, from Eq. (9.10):
a max ≤ [260 /( h / t w )] h = [260 / 266.67] (150) = 142.60 in. (governs)

2 2
For hybrid girders, the design cannot be based on tension-field action,

and we must use Eq. (9.6) for the allowable shear stress. We use uniform
spacing between A and C and between C and B (Fig. 9.17).
1. Spacing of the stiffeners between A and C.
Vmax R A 466.67
fv = = = = 5.53 ksi < 0.40 F y = 14.40 ksi
Aw Aw 84.375
From Eq. (9.6):
2.89 Fv ( 2.89)(5.53)
Cv = = = 0.444 < 0.8
Fy 36
From Eq. (9.7):
Fy C v (h / t w ) 2 (36)(0.444)(266.67) 2
k= = = 25.26 > 9.34
45,000 45,000
From Eq. (9.8):
1/ 2 1/ 2
a  5.34   5.34 
=  =  = 0.501
h  k − 4  25.26 − 4 
amax = 0.501(150) = 75.2 in.
Use a = 75 in. between A and C (Fig. 9.23).
2. Spacing of the stiffeners between C and B.
Vmax R B 633.33
fv = = = = 7.51 ksi < 0.40 F y = 14.40 ksi
Aw Aw 84.375
2.89 Fv ( 2.89)(7.51)
Cv = = = 0.603 < 0.8
Fy 36
Fy C v (h / t w ) 2 (36)(0.603)(266.67) 2
k= = = 34.30 > 9.34
45,000 45,000
1/ 2 1/ 2
a  5.34   5.34 
=  =  = 0.42
h  k − 4  34.30 − 4 
amax = 0.42(150) = 63 in.
Use a = 60 in. between C and B (Fig. 9.23).

Note that because the design of hybrid girders in not based on
tension-field action, no stress reduction due to interaction of
simultaneous bending and shear stresses is necessary. In other words,
the combined shear and bending check [Eq. (9.30)] is not required
for hybrid girders.
3. Selection of intermediate stiffeners.
Selection of the size of the intermediate stiffeners in hybrid

girders is based upon Eqs. (9.28) and (9.29). We can find an
approximate formula for the minimum required thickness of the
stiffeners.
First, let us consider the case of single stiffeners. The moment of
inertia of a single stiffener with respect to an axis in the plane of the
web and perpendicular to the plane of the stiffeners is approximately
equal to
I st ≈ 13 t s bs3 (9.55)
Substituting for bs from the limiting case of Eq. (9.29) into Eq. (9.55)
yields
285,792 4
I st = ts (9.56)
( Fy ) 3 / 2
Finally, equating Eqs. (9.28) and (9.56) and solving for ts, we obtain
the following approximate formula for the minimum required
thickness of the intermediate stiffeners:
t s = 0.000865h( F y ) 0.375 (9.57)
In the case of double stiffeners, we must multiply the right-hand

side of Eqs. (9.55) and (9.56) by 2, and the resulting equation for the
minimum thickness is
t s = 0.000727 h( F y ) 0.375 (9.58)
Flanges: 2PL31 in. x 21/8 in.

9
Web: PL150 in. x /16 in.
9 3
Intermediate stiffeners: PL7.5 in. x /16 in. x 12 ft 3 /4 in. (on one side)
Bearing stiffeners at A, B, and C: 2PL15 in. x 1 in. x 12 ft 6 in.
Figure 9.23 Final design of the hybrid plate girder

If we assume single stiffeners, the minimum stiffener thickness

is
t s = 0.000865(150)(36) 0.375 = 0.50 in.
Try ts = 9/16 in. From Eq. (9.29):
95t s 95(9 / 16)

bs ≤ = = 8.90 in.
Fy 36
Try PL7.5 in. x 9/16 in. for stiffeners on one side.
3
1  t 
Furnished I st = t s  bs + w 
3  2
3
1 9  9 
=    7.5 +  = 88.3 in. 4
3  16   32 
4 4
 h  150 
Required I st =   =   = 81 in. < 88.3 in. O.K.
4 4
 50   50 
Length of intermediate stiffeners:
9
h1 = h − 4t w = 150 − 4  = 147.75 in. = 12 ft 33/4 in.
 16 
Use PL7.5 in. x 9/16 in. x 12 ft 3¾ in. for stiffeners on one side.
9.9.5 Bearing Stiffeners

The procedure for design of bearing stiffeners is the same for the
nonhybrid girder example of Sec. 9.8.6 and therefore will not be repeated
here. The answer:
Use 2PL15 in. x 1 in. x 12 ft 6 in. for bearing stiffeners at each support
and at the location of the concentrated load.
9.9.6. Connections
The procedure for design of web-to-flange fillet welds is the

same as for nonhybrid plate girders. This portion of the design is left as
an exercise for the student.
For stiffener-to-web fillet welds, however, Eq. (9.40) will not
apply and only the minimum amount of welding, as given in ASD J2.2b
and covered in Sec. 8.3, needs to be used.
9.9.7 Girder Weight
Weight of the flange plates = 2Af L γ = 2(65.875)(150)(0.49)/144

= 67.25 Kips
Weight of the web plates = htwLγ = 2(150)( 19
16
)(0.49)/144 = 43.07 Kips
Weight of the flange and web plates = 67.25 + 43.07 = 110.32 Kips
= [2(3)(1)(15)(150) + (24)( 169 )(7.5)(147.75)](0.49/123)
= 8.07 Kips
9.10 ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES OF DESIGN OF PLATE

GIRDERS ACCORDING TO THE ASD CODE
Example 1
A simply supported hybrid steel plate girder consists of two WT18x115

sections with yield stress of 50 ksi and a 100 in. x 0.75 in. plate with
yield stress of 36 ksi as shown in Fig. 9.24. The length of the span is 150
ft. What is the maximum uniformly distributed load that can be
supported by this girder? The compression flange is embedded in a
concrete floor deck. Consider bending only.
Figure 9.24
Solution
The centroidal axis of the top WT section is specified by the axis x in

Fig. 9.24. Properties of a WT18x115 section are
t f = 1.26 in. t w = 0.760 in.
A = 33.8 in. 2 I x = 934 in. 4
Moment of inertia of the built-up section:
I x = 2[934 + 33.8(50 + 17.95 − 4.01) 2 ] + 121 (0.75)(100) 3

= 340,739 in. 4
Section modulus of the built-up section:
Ix 340,739
Sx = = = 5014.5 in.3
50 + 17.95 67.95
Allowable bending stress:
Fb = 0.60 F yf = 0.60(50) = 30 ksi
h 2(66.69) 970 970

= = 177.8 > = = 137.18
tw 0.75 Fy 50
∴ Reduction of allowable bending stress in the compression flange is

necessary (see Sec. 9.4.3).
A f = (16.47)(1.26) = 20.75 in.2
Aw = (100)( 34 ) + 2(33.8 − 20.75) = 101.1 in.2
α= 0.60Fyw /Fb = 36/50 = 0.72
(
12 + ( Aw / A f ) 3α − α 3 
Re = 
)

 12 + 2( Aw / A f ) 
=
(
12 + (101.1 / 20.75) 3 × 0.72 − 0.72 3 )
 = 0.952
 12 + 2(101.1) /( 20.75) 
 A  h 760 
Fb' = Fb 1.0 − 0.0005 w  −  Re
 A f  t w Fb 
  101.1   133.38 760  
= 301.0 − 0.0005   −   (0.952) = 25.84 ksi
  20.75   0.75 30  
wo = weight of the girder per unit length

= 2(0.115) + (100)(0.75)(0.490)/144 = 0.23 + 0.26 = 0.49 K/ft
Maximum moment acting on the girder is (Fig. 9.25)
( wmax + wo ) L2
M max = = Fb' S x
8
Therefore, the maximum uniformly distributed load that can be

supported by this girder is
8 Fb' S x 8(25.84)(5014.5)
wmax = 2
− wo = − 0.49 = 3.35 Kips/ft
L (150) 2 (12)
Example 2
Find the spacing of the intermediate stiffeners in the previous example,

assuming that the beam must carry a uniformly distributed load of 3.35
K/ft in addition to its own weight. Choose the minimum number of
uniformly spaced stiffeners using A36 steel with yield stress of 36 ksi.
Figure 9.25
Solution
The design load intensity (Fig. 9.25):
W = 3.35 + 0.49 = 3.84 Kips/ft
Since uniformly spaced stiffeners are provided, the spacing of stiffeners

must be based on the maximum shear along the beam.
wL (3.84)(150)
Vmax = = = 288 Kips
2 2
The maximum shear stress in the girder is
Vmax 288
fv = = = 2.85 ksi < 0.40 F y = 14.4 ksi
Aw 101.1
We set this maximum shear stress to allowable shear stress given by Eq.
(9.6) and solve for Cv.
Fy C v
Fv = = fv
2.89
2.89 f v (2.89)(2.85)
Cv = = = 0.229 < 0.80
Fy 36
Calculate k from Eq. (9.7).
Fy C v (h / t w ) 2 (36)(0.229)(177.8) 2
k= = = 5.79 < 9.34
45,000 45,000
Now, we can calculate the maximum spacing from Eq. (9.8).
1/ 2 1/ 2
a  4   4 
=  =  = 2.98
h  k − 5.34   5.79 − 5.34 
Spacing of the stiffeners is also limited by Eqs. (9.10) and (9.11).
a max = 2.98h = 2.98(2)(66.69) = 397.5 in. = 33.1 ft

and
2
 260 
2
 h = 
260 
a max =   (133.38) = 285.22 in. = 23.77 ft
 h / tw   177.8 
Therefore, the governing limit is amax = 23.77 ft. Use
(150)(12)
a= = 257.1 in.
7
Use six intermediate stiffeners and two pairs of bearing stiffeners at the
supports.
Example 3
Determine the allowable shear capacity (Kips) of the homogeneous plate

girder interior panel shown in fig. 9.26 if the bending tensile stress in the
web is 27.5 ksi. What percentage of the shear capacity of the panel
comes from the beam action prior to the web buckling and what
percentage is the share of the tension-field action after the shear buckling
of the web? Yield stress of the steel is 50 ksi
Figure 9.26
Solution
a = 9 ft = 108 in. h = 100 in. t w = 0.5 in.
a
= 1.08 > 1
h
h 2000
= 200 < = 283
tw F yf
Find k from Eq. (9.8):
4 4
k = 5.34 + 2
= 5.34 + = 8.77
(a / h) (1.08) 2
Find Cv from Eq. (9.7):
45,000k 45,000(8.77)
Cv = 2
= = 0.197 < 0.8
Fy (h / t w ) 50(200) 2
Find the allowable shear stress from Eq. (9.12). (All of the five
conditions given in Sec. 9.3 for relying on the postbuckling behavior and
tension-field action of the web plate are met.)
Fy  1 − Cv 
Fv = C v +  = 0.068 F y + 0.164 F y
2.89  1 . 15 1 + ( a / h ) 2 
 
= 0.232 F y = 11.61 ksi < 0.40 F y
Allowable bending stress:
 f 
Fb =  0.825 − 0.375 v  F y = 27.5 ksi = 0.55 F y
 Fv 
Solve for fv:
f v = 0.733Fv = 0.733(11.61) = 8.51 ksi
Shear capacity of the plate girder = fv Aw = (8.51)(100)(0.5) = 425.7 Kips

Percentage of the shear capacity from the beam action
 C 
=  v F y Aw  /( f v Aw ) = 0.068 F y / f v = 0.068(50) / 8.51 = 0.4
 2.89 
= 40 percent
Percentage of the shear capacity from the tension-field action = 100 – 40

= 60 percent
9.11 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN OF PLATE

GIRDERS
9.11.1 Introduction
In this section we cover the load and resistance factor design of

plate girders with tension-field action according to the LRFD code
(AISC, 1998). Design of plate girders according to the LRFD code can
be based on tension-field action if
h 970
> = λr (9.59)
tw F yf
If this requirement is not satisfied, the plate girder is designed as a beam

as presented in section 5.10. In particular, when the design is without the
tension-field action, the design shear strength and the transverse
stiffeners will be based on the provisions of LRFD F2 covered in section
5.10.2 and LRFD Appendix F2.
9.11.2 Web Buckling Strength
The following requirement must be satisfied in order to maintain

sufficient web buckling strength (LRFD Appendix G1):
14,000
for a > 1.5 h
[ F yf ( F yf + 16.5)]1 / 2
h
= (9.60)
tw
2,000
for a ≤ 1.5 h
F yf
where h is the clear distance between flanges for welded plate girders.
Note that these equations are similar to Eq. (9.3) and (9.4) for the ASD
code.
9.11.3 Flexural Design
The limit states to be considered in the design are tension-flange

yield and compression flange buckling. If we denote the nominal flexural
strength of the girder by Mn and the bending resistance factor by φb, the
design flexural strength will be φb Mn. The nominal flexural strength
should be taken as the smaller value obtained from the limit states of the
tension-flange yield and compression flange buckling. At the present
time a constant value of 0.9 is used for the resistance factor φb.
1. Limit state of tension-flange yield. The nominal flexural strength

based on the limit state of tension-flange yield is given by (LRFD
Appendix G2)
M n = Re S xt F yt (9.61)
Coefficient Re in Eq. (9.61) is the hybrid girder factor. It is equal to 1

for nonhybrid girders and is given by
12 + a r (3m − m 3 )
Re = ≤ 1.0 (9.62)
12 + 2a r
for hybrid girders where ar is the ratio of the web area to the
compression flange area (a r = Aw / A f ≤ 10) and m is the ratio of the
web yield stress to the flange yield stress (m = Fyw/Fyf) or to Fcr.
In Eq. (9.6), Sxt is the section modulus of the girder
corresponding to the tension flange in in.3 and Fyt is the yield stress
of the tension flange in ksi.
2. Limit states of compression-flange buckling. The nominal flexural

strength based on the limit states of compression-flange buckling is
given by (LRFD Appendix G2)
M n = R PG Re S xc Fcr (9.63)
where Sxc is the section modulus of the girder corresponding to the

compression flange in in.3. The coefficient RPG takes care of the
reduction of the allowable bending stress resulting from the lateral
displacement of the web plate on its compression side and is
determined by
ar h 
R PG = 1 −  c − 970  ≤ 1.0 (9.64)
1200 + 300a r  tw Fcr 

where hc is twice the distance from the neutral axis to the inside face
of the compression flange and Fcr is the critical compression flange
stress to be discussed later in this section. Note that Eq. (9.64)
corresponds to Eq. (9.24) of the ASD code covered in Sec. 9.4.3.
In general, there exist three limit states of buckling. They are
lateral-torsional buckling (LTB), flange local buckling (FLB), and
web local buckling (WLB). Because the design is based on the
postbuckling behavior of the web plate, the limit state of WLB does
not apply. However, we must evaluate the critical Fcr corresponding

to the limit states of LTB and FLB and use the lower value in Eq.
(9.63).
3. Evaluation of critical stress Fcr. The critical stress Fcr is given as a

function of slenderness parameters λ, λp, and λr, and a plate girder
coefficient CPG. λp and λr are the limiting slenderness parameters as
defined in section 5.10.1 for beams.
F yf for λ ≤ λP
 1  λ − λp 
C b F yf 1 −    ≤ F yf for λP <λ ≤ λr
Fcr =  2  λ r − λ p  (9.65)

C PG
for λ > λr
λ2
The quantities λ, λp, λr, and CPG are specified for two limit states
of LTB and FLB separately.
a. For the limit state of LTB:
Lu
λ= (9.66)
rT
300
λp = (9.67)
F yf
756
λr = (9.68)
F yf
C PG = 286,000C b (9.69)
In these equations, Cb is the same as that defined by Eq. (5.35).
b. For the limit state of FLB:
bf
λ= (9.70)
2t f
65
λp = (9.71)
F yf
230
λr = (9.72)
F yf / k c
4
kc = 0.35 ≤ k c ≤ 0.763 (9.73)
h / tw
C PG = 26200k c (9.74)
C b = 1.0 (9.75)
Note that the governing slenderness parameters will be the ones

that render the lower value of the critical stress Fcr.
9.11.4 Preliminary Proportioning of the Flange Plate
Equations (9.61) and (9.63) cannot be used directly for the

design of the flange plate. We will derive an approximate but explicit
equation for the flange area for the common case of doubly symmetric
girders and based on the limit state of tension-flange yield.
In the case of doubly symmetric sections Eqs. (9.61) and (9.62)
can be wrttien in the following form:
12 A f + (3m − m 3 ) Aw
Mn = S x F yf (9.76)
2(6 A f + Aw )
Now, substitute for approximate value of Sx from Eq. (9.18) into Eq.
(9.76) and simplify:
M n = 121 hF yf [12 A f + (3m − m 3 ) Aw ] (9.77)
Substituting for Mn from Eq. (9.77) into the following equation and
solving for Af
M u = φb M n (9.78)
we finally find the following formula for the flange area of a doubly
symmetric girder:
Mu (3m − m 3 ) Aw
Af = − (9.79)
φ b hF yf 12
After finding the area of the flange we still have to select two different
design parameters: width and thickness of the flange.
For some guidance in selecting the flange design parameters, let
us find bounds on bf and tf for a given Af for the case when the critical
stress Fcr is equal to the yield stress Fyf (its maximum value). For the
limit state of LTB, we must have [Eqs. (9.65), (9.66), and (9.67)]:
Lu 300
≤ (9.80)
rT F yf
Substituting for rT from Eq. (9.46) into this equation, we obtain the
following bound on bf in order to have Fcr = Fyf:
Lu
bf ≥ 2 F yf (6 + Aw / A f ) (9.81)
300
For the limit state of FLB, we must have [Eqs. (9.65), (9.70), and (9.71)]:
bf 65
≤
2t f F yf
Substituting for bf = Af /tf into this equation and solving for tf, we find the
following bound on tf in order to have Fcr = Fyf:
1/ 2
 Af 
t f ≥  
 (F )
yf
1/ 4
(9.82)
 130 
Note that for a given required Af, the requirement of Eqs. (9.81) and
(9.82) often cannot be met simultaneously, and a compromise must be
made. For the economical design of plate girders, the values of critical
stress Fcr obtained from the limit states of LTB and FLB should be close
to each other. In Sec. 9.13, an iterative scheme is used for achieving this
goal in the applet for interactive design of plate girders.
9.11.5 Shear Design without Tension Field Action
If the nominal shear strength is denoted by Vn, the design shear

strength is φvVn, where φv = 0.9 is the shear resistance factor. The
nominal shear strength for design without tension field action is given by
(LRFD Appendix F2.2)
h kv
0.6 Aw F yw for ≤ 187
tw F yw
  h
0.6 Aw F yw 187 
kv
 F yw t
Vn =   w (9.83)
kv h kv
for 187 < ≤ 234
F yw tw F yw
Aw (26400k v ) h kv
2
for > 234
(h / t w ) tw F yw
5
kv = 5 + (9.84)
( a / h) 2
The web plate buckling coefficient kv shall be taken as 5 whenever
> 3 or [260 /( h / t w )]
a 2
(9.85)
h
9.11.6. Shear Design with Tension Field Action
The design shear strength with tension field action is φvVn, where
the resistance factor φv is 0.9. The nominal shear strength is given by
(LRFD Appendix G3)
h 187 k v
0.6 Aw F yw for ≤
tw F yw
Vn =
 1 − Cv  (9.86)
0.6 Aw F yw C v + 
 1.15(1 + a 2 / h 2 )1 / 2 
h 187 k v
for >
tw F yw
where Cv is the ratio of the critical web stress according to linear

buckling theory to the shear yield stress of the web steel. It is given by
187 k v h 234 k v
187 k v for ≤ ≤
F yw tw F yw
(h / t w ) F yw
(or 1.0 ≥ Cv > 0.8)
Cv = (9.87)
h 234 k v
44,000k v for >
tw F yw
(h / t w ) 2 F yw
(or Cv ≤ 0.8)
The parameter kv is defined by Eq. (9.84)

Equation (9.86) shall not be used for hybrid girders or for end-
panels in nonhybrid girders. In these cases, as well as when relation
(9.85) holds, the tension-field action is not allowed, and the following
equation shall apply:
Vn = 0.6 Aw F yw C v (9.88)
9.11.7. Transverse Stiffeners
Transverse stiffeners are not required in the following two cases:
h 418
≤
tw F yw (9.89)
or
Vu ≤ 0.6φ v Aw F yw C v (9.90)
In Eq. (9.90), Vu is the required shear based on the factored loads, φv is

0.90, and Cv must be evaluated for kv = 5.
When transverse stiffeners are required, their design should be
based on the following requirements:
1. For design based on tension-field action, the gross area of each

transverse stiffener or a pair of stiffeners should be at least equal to
(LRFD Appendix G4)
 V  F yw 
Ast = 0.15ht w D (1 − C v ) u − 18t w2  ≥0 (9.91)
φ  
 V
v n  ys 
F
The coefficient D is the same as that defined in Sec. 9.5. Vu is the

required factored shear at the location of the stiffener.
2. The moment of inertia of a single stiffener of a pair of stiffeners with

respect to an axis in the plane of the web and perpendicular to the
plane of the stiffeners should be at least equal to (LRFD Appendix
F2.3)
I st = at w3 j (9.92)
where
 2.5 
j= 2
− 2  ≥ 0 .5 (9.93)
 (a / h) 
9.11.8 Combined Bending and Shear
For plate girders with transverse stiffeners, depending on the

values of the required shear Vu (0.6φVn ≤ Vu ≤ φVn) and required moment
Mu (0.75φMn ≤ Mu ≤ φMn), an interaction check may be necessary as
specified by the following equation (see the last two paragraphs of Sec.
9.5 for an explanation):
Mu V
+ 0.625 u ≤ 1.375
φM n φV n (9.94)
In this expression φ = 0.9.

9.12. DESIGN OF A SIMPLE PLATE GIRDER BASED ON THE

LRFD CODE
We design the same example of Sec. 9.8 on the basis of the

LRFD code, but only for one load combination: dead plus live load.
Assume that the distributed and concentrated loads are resolved into dead
and live loads as follows:
Intensity of distributed dead load: wD = 3 K/ft

Intensity of distributed live load: wL = 1 K/ft
Concentrated dead load: PD = 400 Kips
Concentrated live load: PL = 100 Kips
Using the load factors given in Sec. 2.7, Eq. (2.2), we find the
design factored distributed and concentrated loads are as follows:
w = 1.2w D + 1.6 w L = 1.2(3) + 1.6(1) = 5.2 K/ft
P = 1.2 PD + 1.6 PL = 1.2(400) + 1.6(100) = 640 Kips
9.12.2 Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams
Shear and bending moment diagrams for the factored loads are
shown in Figs. 9.27 and 9.28, respectively. Maximum design bending
moment and shear are
M max = M u = 34,333.3 K-ft = 412,000 K-in.
Vmax = Vu = 816.67 Kips
9.12.3 Selection of the Web Plate
Select the depth of the girder web:
L (150)(12)
h= = = 150 in.
12 12
From Eq. (9.60)
Figure 9.27 Shear diagram
Figure 9.28 Bending moment diagram

322.0 for a > 1.5h

h
≤
tw
333.3 for a ≤ 1.5h
h 150
tw ≥ = = 0.47 in.
322 322
Try tw = 0.50 in. or PL150 in. x 0.5 in. for the web plate.
h
= 300; Aw = 75 in. 2
tw
9.12.4. Selection of the Flange Plates
1. Preliminary selection of the flange plates.
We find an approximate flange area from Eq. (9.79).
m=1
412,000 (3 − 1)(75)
Af = − = 72.3 in.2 (9.95)
0.9(150)(36) 12
Lu = unbraced length = 50ft = 600 in.
For the critical stress Fcr to be equal to the yield stress, from Eq.
(9.81):
bf ≥ 600
300
2(36)(6 + 75 / 72.3) = 45.0 in. (9.96)
and from Eq. (9.82):
t f ≥ (72.3 / 130)1 / 2 (36)1 / 4 = 1.83 in. (9.97)
To begin with, based on Eq. (9.97), try tf = 2 in. Then, based on

Eq. (9.95), try bf = 40 in.; Af = 80 in.2
I x = 121 (0.5)(150) 3 + 122 (40)(2) 3 + 2(80)(75 + 1) 2 = 1,064,838 in.4
I x 1,064,838
Sx = = = 13,829.1 in.3
77 77
bf 40
rT = = = 10.74 in.
(12 + 2 Aw / A f ) 1/ 2
[12 + 2(75) /(80)]1 / 2
For doubly symmetric girders, the nominal flexural strength on the

basis of the limit state of tension-flange yield is always greater than
or equal to the flexural strength on the basis of the limit state of
compression-flange buckling. Therefore, only the latter needs to be
checked.
2. Check for the limit state of compression-flange buckling:
a. Lateral torsional buckling
Lu 600
λ= = = 55.87
rT 10.74
300 300
λp = = = 50.0
F yf 36
From the LTB point of view, the middle segment of the girder
(segment DC in Fig. 9.17) is the critical segment. The moment
gradient coefficient Cb is found from Eq. (5.35).
MA = moment at quarter point of the unbraced segment

= 603.33(62.5) − 12 (5.2)(62.5) 2 = 27,551.9 ft-K
MB = moment at center line of the unbraced segment

= 603.33(75) − 12 (5.2)(75) 2 = 30,624.7 ft-K
MC = moment at three-quarter point of the unbraced segment

= 603.33(87.5) − 12 (5.2)(87.5) 2 = 32,885.1 ft-K
12.5M max
Cb =
2.5M max + 3M A + 4 M B + 3M C
12.5(34,333.3)
=
2.5(34,333.3) + 3(27,551.9) + 4(30,624.7) + 3(32,885.1)
= 1.10
756 756
λr = = = 126.0
F yf 36
λ p < λ < λr
 1  λ − λp 
Fcr = C b F yf 1 −  
 2  λ r − λ p 

 1  55.87 − 50.00 
= (1.10)(36) 1 −  
 2  126.0 − 50.00 
= 38.07 ksi > F yf = 36 ksi
∴ Fcr = 36 ksi.
b. Flange local buckling
bf 40
λ= = = 10
2t f 2( 2)
65 65
λp = = = 10.83 > λ = 10
F yf 36
Fcr = F yf = 36 ksi
Therefore, the governing critical stress is Fcr = 36 ksi.
ar h 
R PG = 1 −  c − 970 
 tw
1200 + 300a r Fcr 

75 / 80  970 
=1−  300 −  = 0.912
1200 + 300(75 / 80)  36 
φ b M n = φ b R PG S x Fcr = 0.9(0.912)(13,829.1)(36.00)
= 408,633 K-in.
The value of φb Mn is within 1% of Mu = 412,000 K-in. and PL40

in. x 2.0 in. is acceptable for the flange plate.
If the section were not O.K., we would have to increase the
area of the flange. We choose the second trial flange plate on the
basis of the following estimate of the new required flange area:
New A f = (old A f )( M u / φ b M n ) (9.98)
We can use Eq. (9.98) also to possibly reduce the area of the
flange when φb Mn is larger than Mu.
1. Check if intermediate stiffeners are required.

a. Check Eq. (9.89):
h 418 418
= 300 > = = 69.67
tw F yw 36
b. Check Eq. (9.90) (with kv = 5):
h 234 k v 234 5
= 300 > = = 87.2
tw F yw 36
44,000k v (44,000)(5)
Cv = 2
= = 0.0679
(h / t w ) F yw (300) 2 (36)
0.6φ v Aw F yw C v = 0.6(0.9)(75)(36)(0.0679) = 99 Kips
This value is smaller than the maximum shear in segments AC

and CB of the plate girder (Fig. 9.27).
∴ Intermediate transverse stiffeners are required.
2. Find the location of the first stiffener away from each end.
a. At the left end:
Vu = 603.33 Kips = φ vVn = 0.9V n Kips
From Eq. (9.88):
C v = Vu /[0.6φ v Aw F yw ]
= 603.33 /[0.6(0.9)(75)(36)] = 0.4138 < 0.8
From Eq. (9.87):
k v = (h / t w ) 2 C v F yw / 44,000
= (300) 2 (0.4138)(36) / 44,000 = 30.47
From Eq. (9.84):
a / h = [5 /( k v − 5)]1 / 2 = [5 /( 25.47)]1 / 2 = 0.443
a max = 0.443h = 0.443(150) = 66.4 in.
Tentatively, place the first intermediate stiffener at a distance 45

in. from the left end A.
b. At the right end:
a max = 55.7 in.
Tentatively, place the first intermediate stiffener at a distance 50

in. from the right end B.
3. Find the spacing of the remaining stiffeners.

As in the example of Sec. 9.8, we use uniform spacing between
point E (at the location of the first intermediate stiffener from the left
end) and point C (the location of the concentrated load) and also
between point C and point F (at the location of the first intermediate
stiffener from the right end), similar to Fig. 9.22. Whenever the
aspect ratio a/h is greater than 3 or [260/(h/tw)]2, the coefficient kv
shall be taken as 5. We limit the aspect ratio a/h to these values.
2
a  260 
2
 = 
260 
≤   = 0.75 < 3
h  h / tw   300 
a max = 0.75h = 0.75(150) = 112.5 in.
a. Spacing of the stiffeners between point E and C (Fig. 9.22):

Try a = 105 in.; a/h = 0.7.
From Eq. (9.84):
5 5
kv = 5 + 2
=5+ = 15.20
( a / h) ( 0 .7 ) 2
234 k v 234 15.20 h

= = 152.1 < = 300
F yw 36 tw
From Eq. (9.87):
44,000k v 44,000(15.20)
Cv = 2
= = 0.206
(h / t w ) F yw (300) 2 (36)
From Eq. (9.86):

 1 − Cv 
Vn = 0.6 Aw F yw C v + 
 1.15(1 + a 2 / h 2 )1 / 2 
 1 − 0.206 
= 0.6(75)(36) 0.206 + 2 1/ 2 
= 1250 Kips
 1.15(1 + 0.7 ) 
φ vVn = 0.9(1250.0) = 1125 Kips
Vu = R A − 12
45
w = 603.33 − 12
45
(5.2) = 583.83 Kips < φ vVu O.K.
b. Spacing of the stiffeners between C and F (Fig. 9.22).

Similar to case a, we find a = 110 in. to be satisfactory.
C v = 0.194; Vn = 1230.0 Kips; Vu = 795 Kips
4. Check shear and bending interaction.

We perform the interaction check at point C under concentrated
load where the bending moment is the largest (actually, a very small
distance to the right of point C).
M u = 412,000 K-in.; Vu = 556.67 Kips
M n = 465,487 K-in.; Vn = 1230 Kips
Since Vu is less than 0.6φVn = (0.6)(0.9)(1230) = 664.2 Kips, an

interaction check is not necessary,
Note that the spacing of the stiffeners in this example is the same
as that for the example of Sec. 9.8 designed according to the ASD
code and shown in Fig. 9.22.
5. Select intermediate stiffeners.

a. Region EC:
a = 105 in.; a/h = 0.7; C v = 0.206
From Eq. (9.91):
 583.83  36 
Ast = 0.15(1.0)(150)(0.5)(1 − 0.206) − 18(0.5) 2  
 1125  36 
= 0.14 in. 2
bs t s = 0.07 in. 2 (9.99)
From Eq. (9.93):
2 .5 2 .5
j= 2
−2= − 2 = 3.10 ≥ 0.5
( a / h) (0.7) 2
From Eq. (9.92):
I st = 121 t s (2bs + t w ) 3 ≥ at w3 j = (105)(0.5) 3 (3.10)

= 40.69 in. 4 (9.100)
bs 95
≤ = 15.8 (9.101)
ts 36
The area requirement of Eq. (9.99) is minimal. Therefore, bs and

ts should be selected based on Eqs. (9.100) and (9.101). The
minimum thickness to satisfy Eqs. (9.100) and (9.101) is ts = 3/8

in. From Eq. (9.101):
bs ≤ 5.92 in.
Try 2PL5.5 in. x 3/8 in.

From Eq. (9.100):
I st = 121 (0.375)(11 + 0.5) 3 = 47.53 in. 4 ≥ 40.69 in. 4 O.K.
Use 2PL5.5 in. x 3/8 in. for intermediate stiffeners from E to C.

b. Region CF:
a = 110 in.; a/h = 0.733

The answer is the same as for region EC.
Use 2PL5.5 in. x 3/8 in. for intermediate stiffeners from C to F.
9.12.6 Bearing Stiffeners
Design of bearing stiffeners according to LRFD K1.9 is similar

to the design according to the ASD code covered in section 9.6. Noting
that the width of the flange plate is 40 in. and the thickness of the web is
0.5 in., we choose a width of bbs = 19 in. for all bearing stiffeners.
1. Bearing stiffeners at supports.

We design the support bearing stiffeners based on the larger
shear at support B, RB = 816.67 Kips. To satisfy the buckling
requirement we must have
Fy 36
t bs ≥ bbs = (19) = 1.20 in.
95 95
Try 2PL19 in. x 1¼ in.; Abs = 23.75 in.2

The effective area for finding the axial compressive load capacity is
found from Eq. (9.31)
Aeff = 2 Abs + 12t w2 = 2(23.75) + 12(0.5) 2 = 50.50 in. 2
I = 121 ( 54 )(19 + 19 + 0.5) 3 = 5944.4 in. 4
r = I/Aeff = 5944.4 / 50.50 = 10.85 in.
KL (0.75)(150)
= = 10.37
r 10.85
1/ 2 1/ 2
KL  F y   36 
λc =   = 10.37  = 0.116 < 1.5 LRFD E2
r  π 2 E   29,000π
2

Fcr = (0.658 λc ) F y = (0.658 0.116 )(36)

2 2
= 35.80 ksi
Pn = Aeff Fcr = (50.50)(35.80) = 1807.9 Kips
φ c Pn = 0.85(1807.9) = 1536.7 Kips > R B = 816.17 Kips O.K.
Use 2PL19 in. x 1¼ in. x 12 ft 6 in. for the bearing stiffeners at

the left and right supports.
2. Bearing stiffeners at concentrated load.

Buckling requirement governs. Therefore,

Use 2PL19 in. x 1¼ in. x 12 ft 6 in. at the location of concentrated
load.
9.12.7 Girder Weight
γ = specific gravity of steel = 0.490 Kips/ft3

80
Weight of the flange plates = 2Af Lγ = 2( 144 )(150)(0.49) = 81.7 Kips
75
Weight of the web plate = Aw Lγ = 2( 144 )(150)(0.49) = 38.3 Kips
Weight of the flange and web plates = 81.7 + 38.3 = 120.0 Kips
= [(3)(2)(19)( 54 )(150) + (16)(2)(5.5)( 83 )(148)](0.49/123)
= 8.8 Kips
Comparing the weight of this design based on the LRFD code

with the corresponding one based on the ASD code presented in section
9.8, we observe that the former is about 11 percent lighter than the latter.
9.13 WEB-BASED INTERACTIVE DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDERS
The applet presented in this section is for interactive design of

homogeneous and hybrid plate girders according to the ASD and LRFD
codes. This applet consists of three windows: input window, output
window and control window (Fig. 9.29).
The input window consists of Configuration panel, Flange &

Web panel, Stiffeners panel, and Welds Panel. The user can enter the
corresponding input for the design of plate girders in those panels.
Span length, lateral supports (similar to applet for design of
beams described in Sec. 5.11), and distributed and concentrated loads are
set in the configuration panel (Fig. 9.29). The loading on the girder may
consist of a uniformly distributed load plus a specified number of
concentrated loads. The concentrated loads are named alphabetically
from left. Alphabets “A” and “B” are reserved for the left and right
supports, respectively. The girder may have either full lateral support or
intermediate lateral supports.
Width, thickness, and steel type of flange plates and thickness
and steel type of the web plate are set in the flange & web panel (9.30a).
To begin the design of a plate girder the user needs to specify the steel
types of flange and web plates only. The applet displays the first design
results as shown in Fig. 9.30b. Like other applets presented in the
previous chapters, this applet requires minimum amount of design entry
to perform a design. However, the user can perform redesigns repeatedly
simply by changing only one or several of the input values.
To design a hybrid girder, the user needs to select the steel types
of flange plates and web plate properly. For impractical values, for
example, if the user selects a steel type for flange plates with lower
strength than that of the web, the applet warns the user with a pop-up
message shown in Fig. 9.31.
Figure 9.29
(a) Initial screen before running the applet (in this

stage, the user can choose the steel types only)
(b) After running the applet Figure 9.30

Steel type of bearing and intermediate stiffeners, thickness and

width of bearing stiffeners, and thickness, width, the place of the 1st
stiffener, and the number of the intermediate stiffeners are set in the
stiffeners panel (Fig. 9.32). By default, bearing stiffeners at each
concentrated load are designed differently from those at supports and
intermediate stiffeners are designed for each segment (defined as a
portion of the girder between two concentrated loads or a support and a
concentrated load). But the user can change and make them the same
throughout the length of the girder after the first design presented by the
applet.
Numbers of bearing stiffeners and segments depend on the
number of concentrated loads given in the input panel. The applet
handles this situation by adding selection lists as the user enters the
concentrated loads. Initially, the applet provides only one segment
selection, i.e. the entire span for girder without any concentrated loads
defined as “From A to B” (Fig. 9.32a). As the user enters additional
concentrated loads the applet creates additional segments. For example,
Figure 9.31
(a) Before running the applet

in Fig. 9.33, the applet has added a second segment and the two segments
are denoted as “From A to C” and “From C to B”. Depending on the
selection made by the user, the applet displays the required input items
for the selected segment. This scheme saves screen space by using the
same screen area for all different segments. The same scheme is used for
the bearing stiffeners as well as other panels such as welds panel in the
input window, and elevation, sections, and welds panels in the output
window.
Intermediate stiffeners may or may not be provided and single or
double plates may be used as intermediate stiffeners. If the user chooses
to design a plate girder without intermediate stiffeners, all input
components related to intermediate stiffeners are deactivated (Fig. 9.34).
Figure 9.33
Figure 9.34
(a) Before running the applet

Figure 9.36
At the beginning of the design of a plate girder the user needs to specify
the steel types of stiffeners, whether intermediate stiffeners are provided
or not, and whether double or single intermediate stiffeners are used only
(Fig. 9.32a). The applet displays design results as shown in Fig. 9.32b.
The last panel in the input window is the welds panel for
electrode type, and size, length and spacing of the welds connecting
flange to web, size of the weld connecting bearing stiffeners to web, and
size, length, and spacing of the weld connecting intermediate stiffeners to
web (9.35). The user can choose intermittent or continuous fillet welds
for flange-to-web and intermediate stiffener-to-web connections. But,
continuous fillet welds are used for connecting bearing stiffeners to web
as required by the ASD and LRFD codes. At the beginning of the design
of a plate girder the user needs to specify the electrode type and whether
intermittent or continuous welds are used only (Fig. 9.35a). The applet
displays design results as shown in Fig. 9.35b.
The user can select the two primary design parameters in the
control window placed in the upper right corner of the screen (Figs. 9.29
and 9.36). They are the method of design, ASD and LRFD, and the web
depth-to-span ratio. Since the web depth-to-span ratio is a key design
factor in design of plate girders, this option is placed separately from the
flange & web panel in the input window so that the user can design the
plate girder with several different values of the web depth-to-span ratios
easily.
Figure 9.37
The output window consists of loadings panel, BMD (bending

moment diagram) panel, SFD (shear force diagram) panel, Elevation
panel, Sections panel, Welds panel, and Girder Weight Panel (Fig. 9.29).
Loadings panel displays the loadings, supports, and points of lateral
support similar to the applet for design of beams (Fig. 9.37).
BMD panel displays the bending moment diagram for the given
loadings and shows the magnitude and location of the maximum bending
moment (Fig. 9.38). Similarly, SFD panel shows the shear force diagram
along with maximum shear force and magnitude of shear force at
supports and concentrated loads (Fig. 9.39).
Figure 9.38
Elevation and sections panels display the elevation and the

sections of the plate girder, respectively as shown in Figs. 9.40 and 9.41.
It can display the section at support or at the location of a concentrated
load (Fig. 9.41) and a section within any segment (Fig. 9.42).
Welds panel displays the design results of the weld along with
minimum and maximum code requirements (Fig. 9.43). Knowing the
minimum and maximum requirements, the user can easily perform a
redesign without trying improper values.
The girder weight panel is the last panel in the output window,
and displays the various weight components as well as the total weight of
Figure 9.39
the plate girder (Fig. 9.44).

The example data used in Figs. 9.29 to 9.36 are the same as those
of the example problem solved in section 9.8. The results shown in Figs.
9.37 to 9.44 are for the same problem also. The hybrid girder presented
in section 9.9 also has been solved by the applet. The results are
presented in Figs. 9.45 to 9.49.
Figure 9.40
Figure 9.41
Figure 9.42
Figure 9.43
Figure 9.44
Figure 9.45
Figure 9.46
Figure 9.47
Figure 9.48
Figure 9.49
9.14 PROBLEMS
9.1 Design a simply supported welded hybrid plate girder subjected to a

distributed load of intensity 3.5 K/ft including the girder weight and
a concentrated load of 400 Kips at a distance of 50 ft from the left
support, as shown in Fig. 9.50. The girder has lateral supports at the
two ends and at points D, E, and F, as indicated on the figure.
Double plates are used for intermediate stiffeners. Use A36 steel
with yield stress of 36 ksi for the web plate and stiffeners and A572
steel with yield stress of 60 ksi for the flange plate. Use E70
electrode and shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) for connecting
various plates.
Figure 9.50
9.2 A simply supported welded plate girder has a span of 200 ft and is
subjected to a uniform load of 4 Kips/ft including its own weight.
The girder is laterally supported at the supports and at the midspan.
Based on a preliminary design, a 180 in.x0.75 in. plate is selected for
the web, and a 40 in.x1.5 in. plate is selected for each flange. Using
A36 steel with yield stress of 36 ksi and considering the bending
stresses in the flange only, check the adequacy of this preliminary
design.
9.3 Design the intermittent web-to-flange fillet weld for the hybrid girder
designed in Sec. 9.9 of the book, using submerged arc welding
(SAW) and E70 electrode. Use the minimum weld size and
minimum length for the intermittent fillet segments.
9.4 Solve Example 1 of section 9.10, assuming that the plate girder
consists of two WT12x52 with yield stress of 60 ksi and a 100 in. x
0.50 in. plate with yield stress of 36 ksi.
9.5 Design the bearing stiffeners in Example 1 of Sec. 9.10.
9.6 Design the intermediate stiffeners in Example 1 of Sec. 9.10, using

a. single stiffeners
b. double stiffeners

Plate Girder Design

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Design of Plate Girders

The most common type of plate girder is an I-shaped section

Figure 9.1 Plate girder in a multistory building

Figure 9.2 Welded Figure 9.3 Plate Figure 9.4 Built-

Figure 9.5 Welded Figure 9.6 Riveted or

of welded plate girders in this book.

In contrast, plate girders in general are heavier than trusses, especially

9.2 POSTBUCKLING BEHAVIOR OF THE WEB PLATE

In addition to flange plates and a web plate, a plate girder often

Figure 9.7 Analogy between a truss and a stiffened plate girder

Stiffened plate girders are designed on the basis of the ultimate

9.3 PROPORTIONING OF THE WEB PLATE

At the outset, we must initially choose a value for the depth h of

This ratio, however, is often within the range 1/15 to 1/10.

design of continuous prismatic and nonprismatic plate girders. Adeli and

1. The web plate should have sufficient buckling strength to prevent

In calculating the shear strength of the web, it is assumed that the

During the postbuckling behavior of the web plate, the bending

1. The plate girder is not a hybrid one

After preliminary proportioning of the web plate, we may check

It should be noted that plate girders with intermediate stiffeners are

9.4 PROPORTIONING OF THE FLANGES

9.4.1 Preliminary Calculation of Flange Area

The aim is to select a flange plate of area sufficient to carry the

discussed in Chapter 5. We can find an approximate relation for the

In this equation, Aw = tw h is the web area.

9.4.2 Preliminary Selection of the Flange Plate

In order to avoid local flange buckling, the width-thickness ratio

To find the minimum flange thickness required, we set

This equation roughly gives the minimum flange thickness required to

At this point, we can calculate the exact value of the moment of

9.4.3 Reduction of the Allowable Bending Stress

In regions of large bending moments, a thin web plate may

In this equation, Aw is the web area. When h/tw < 970 / F y , no

9.5 INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS

Intermediate stiffeners are provided to stiffen the web plate

1. When the design of plate girder is based on tension-field action, the

stiffeners, when they are used in pairs, should be at least equal to

where fv is the greatest computed shear stress in the panel under

2.4 for single plate stiffeners

During tension-field action the intermediate stiffeners behave as

2. The moment of inertia of a single intermediate stiffener or a pair of

where h, the depth of the web plate, is in inches. This requirement is

3. Each stiffener should be checked for the buckling requirement of

4. When intermediate stiffeners are required, their spacing should be

a. The computed shear stress in the web does not

9.6 BEARING STIFFENERS

According to ASD K1.8, bearing stiffeners should always be

Aeff = 2 Abs + 12t w2 (9.31)

where Abs is the cross-sectional area of each bearing stiffener.

Aeff = 2 Abs + 25t w2 (9.32)

If the bearing stiffener is subjected to a concentrated load (or

Figure 9.11 Equivalent cross-sectional areas for column design of

Evaluation of the allowable axial stress requires determination of the

9.7 DESIGN OF WELDED CONNECTIONS

9.7.1 Connection of Flange to Web

Flange and web plates are connected to each other by fillet

Figure 9.12 Connection of flange to web

From elementary beam theory (Sec. 5.2), the horizontal

q a = (0.707)(2 ww ) Fv (for SMAW) (9.36)