Tailings Guidelinesb v3 - Draft

This is a draft document and has not
been released for use.

IMPORTA!T DISCLAIMER
ANCOLD Incorporated and its members, the Convenor and Members of the Working Group
which developed these Guidelines, and the independent Reviewers, do not accept responsibility
for the consequences of any action taken or omitted to be taken by any person, whether a
purchaser of this publication or not, as a consequence of anything contained in this publication.
No persons should act on the basis of anything contained in this publication without appropriate
professional advice in relation to the particular circumstances.
GUIDELINES ON TAILINGS
DAMS
PLANNING, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION,
OPERATION AND CLOSURE
May 2011
A!COLD Guidelines on Tailings Dams Guidelines on Tailings Dams A!COLD
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ANCOLD produced their Guidelines on Tailings Dam
Design, Construction and Operation in 1999. Since
that time the publication has been widely used within
Australia and internationally where the expertise of
Australian practice has been recognised.
In the ten years since the release these Guidelines
there has been considerable increase in the recognition
of environmental responsibilities by the mining
industry and its regulators, particularly in addressing
the concept of sustainable mining. This has culminated
in Australia with the release of Tailings Management
one of a series of publications outlining Leading
Practice Sustainable Development Program for the
Mining Industry published by the Australian
Government Department of Industry, Tourism and
Resources (DITR).
ANCOLD has prepared these new guidelines to
provide a single base document that supports the DITR
publication and others like it, with engineering detail
that can be accepted by all relevant government
authorities, and national and international companies
involved in tailings dam development, allowing them
to undertake design and construction consistent with
leading industry practice. The new guidelines include
Foreword
much of the original guidelines but with appropriate
updating. There is considerable new information on
designing for closure and on the use of risk assessment
techniques to assist in design and management.
ANCOLD is pleased to make this contribution towards
safe and cost-effective tailings dams. The work is the
result of the Tailings Dam Sub-committee of ANCOLD
and I take this opportunity to thank these members for
the unselfsh contribution oI their time and
experience.
These guidelines are not a design, construction or
operation code, and dams personnel must continue to
apply their own considerations, judgements and
professional skills when designing and managing
tailings dams. As time goes on there will no doubt be
improvement in contemporary tailings dam practice
and it is intended that these guidelines will be updated
as circumstances dictate. ANCOLD welcomes
comments on these guidelines which will assist with
future revisions.
!eil Blaike
Chairman, ANCOLD
Membership of the A!COLD Working Group
Membership of the Ancold Working Group for Guidelines on
Planning, Design, Construction, Operation and Closure of
Tailings Storage Facilities
David Brett, (Convener) Principal Engineer, Water and Waste Management - GHD Pty Ltd
Imran Gillani Principal Engineer - URS Australia Pty Ltd
Keith Seddon Principal Engineer - ATC Williams Pty Ltd
Norm Himsley Consultant and Member - NSW Dam Safety Committee
Russ McConnell Manager Containment Systems Department of Environment and Resource
Management (DERM), Queensland
Dr Gary Bentel Consultant
Dr Bruce Brown Chief Adviser, Tailings and Dams, Technology and Innovation - Rio Tinto
Professor Andy Fourie Professor of Civil Engineering - The University of Western Australia
Professor David Williams Golder Professor of Geomechanics - The University of Queensland
Reviewers
John Phillips Principal Engineer - GHD Pty Ltd, Australia
Rob Williamson Knight Piesold, South Africa
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Table of Contents
4.0 Characterisation and Behaviour of Tailings 26
4.1 Introduction 26
4.2 Physical and Engineering Characteristics 26
4.2.2 Compression/Consolidation Tests 27
4.2.3 Permeability Tests 27
4.2.4 Strength Tests 27
4.2.6 In-situ Testing 28
4.2.7 Field Trials 28
4.3 Mineralogy and Chemistry 28
4.3.1 Geochemistry of the Liquid and Solid Components 28
4.4 Rheology and Transport of Tailings 29
4.5 Tailings Beaches 29
5.0 Design - Water Management 30
5.1 Design Criteria 30
5.1.1 Spillways 30
5.1.2 No-spill Allowances 30
5.2 The Water Balance 31
5.3 Stream Management 31
5.4 Rainfall Run-Off 32
5.5 Tailings Decant Water 32
5.6 Evaporation 32
5.7 Water Recovery 32
5.8 Seepage 33
5.8.1 General 33
5.8.2 Predicting seepage quality and quantity 33
5.8.3 Components of a seepage model 34
5.8.4 Monitoring and verifcation 34
5.8.5 Predicting impact on groundwater 35
5.8.6 Environmental Assimilative Capacity 35
5.8.7 Design Measures to Minimise Seepage 35
5.8.8 Lining of TSFs 35
5.9 Drains and Filters 36
6.0 Design Embankment 37
6.1 Stability Analysis 37
6.1.1 Stability Evaluations 37
6.1.2 Methods of Stability Analyses 37
6.1.3 Loading Conditions 37
6.1.3.1 Drained condition: 37
6.1.3.2 Undrained condition: 38
6.1.3.3 Pseudo-static Condition: 38
6.1.3.4 Post-seismic Condition: 38
6.1.4 Shear Strength Characterisation 39
6.1.5 Acceptable Factors of Safety 40
6.1.6 Additional Points to Consider 40
6.1.7 Progressive Failure 40
6.1.8 Reliability and Sensitivity Analyses 40
6.2 Earthquake Considerations 41
6.3 Settlement 41
6.4 Durability of Construction Materials 42
6.5 Design Report 42
6.6 Third-Party Reviews 42
Table of Contents
1.0 Scope 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Past Lessons Learnt 1
1.3 Sustainable Use of Dams for Tailings Storage 2
1.4 The need for these Guidelines 2
1.5 Australian Regulations and Guidelines 3
1.6 Consultations 4
1.7 Procedure for Tailings Dam Life Cycle Management 4
1.8 Defnitions 6
2.0 Key Management Considerations 8
2.1 Selection of Waste Disposal Strategy 8
2.1.1 Disposal Strategies 8
2.1.2 General Principles for Above Ground Tailings Dam Disposal 8
2.2 Risk Management 9
2.2.1 Risk Management Process 9
2.2.2 Risk Assessment 10
2.3 Consequence Category 10
2.4 Planning 14
2.4.1 Life of Mine Planning 14
2.4.2 Key TSF Planning Objectives 14
2.4.3 Important TSF Planning Data 15
2.5 Tailings Management Plan 15
2.5.1 Design Planning 16
2.5.2 Construction Planning 16
2.5.3 Operation Planning 17
2.5.4 Emergency Response Plan/Dam Safety Emergency Plan 17
2.5.5 Closure and Rehabilitation Planning 17
2.5.6 Observational approach 17
2.6 External (Third Party) Review 18
3.0 Tailings Storage Methods & Deposition Principles 19
3.1 System Components 19
3.2 Environmental Protection Measures 19
3.2.1 Overview 19
3.2.2 Protecting the Community 20
3.2.3 Protecting Waters, Air and Land 20
3.2.4 Protection of Fauna 20
3.3 Delivery 20
3.4 Methods of Discharge and Depositional Strategies 21
3.4.1 Methods of Discharge 21
3.4.2 Depositional Strategies 21
3.4.3 Segregation and Beach Slope 22
3.4.4 Decant Pond 22
3.5 Methods of Containment 23
3.5.1 Constructed Storages 23
3.5.2 Self-Stacking Tailings 23
3.5.3 Existing Voids 23
3.5.3.1 Open Pits 24
3.5.3.2 Voids in Waste Dumps 24
3.5.3.3 Underground Mine Disposal 24
3.5.4 Co-Disposal 24
3.6 Discharge to Environment 25
3.7 Method of Construction 25
3.7.1 Staged Construction 25
A!COLD Guidelines on Tailings Dams Guidelines on Tailings Dams A!COLD
1 Guidelines on Tailings Dams A!COLD
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1.1 Introduction
These Guidelines have been produced by ANCOLD to
update and extend the previous ANCOLD Guidelines
on Design, Construction and Operation of Tailings
Dams, 1999. The revised Guidelines were seen as
necessary, to not only review the general technical
content oI the document but specifcally to highlight
the consideration of risk through all aspects of the
tailings dam life cycle, and also to extend the advice
on designing for the closure and post-closure phases.
The Guidelines are intended to support existing
guidelines such as Tailings Management one of a
series of publications outlining Leading Practice
Sustainable Development Program for the Mining
Industry published by the Australian Government
Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources
(DITR, 2007). It is intended that the ANCOLD
Guidelines provide additional advice to designers
intending to achieve sustainable development as
defned by the Bruntland Report (UNWCED, 1987)
and adopted by the International Council on Mining
and Metals (ICMM) as being:
development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.
In the mining and metals sector, this means that
investments should be fnancially proftable,
technically appropriate, environmentally sound and
socially responsible (ICMM, 2003).
Attention is also drawn to an ICOLD Bulletin on
Sustainable Design and Post-Closure Performance of
Tailings Dams, currently (2010) in draft form, that
reinforces many of the parameters described in this
ANCOLD Guideline.
This ANCOLD Guideline introduces the concept of
design evolution, whereby initial design should adopt
conservative, best estimate design parameters on
the basis of available data that can be progressively
refned as real data becomes available. This is
1.0 Scope
1.0 SCOPE
commonly known as the observational approach to
design.
This Guideline is primarily directed at providing
advice on the above ground storage of tailings but
many of the principles apply to other forms of tailings
containment.
1.2 Past Lessons Learnt
The mining industry has learnt from many tailings
storage failures and incidents in recent decades that
are helping to develop leading practice tailings
management. The International Commission on Large
Dams (ICOLD) Bulletin 121 (2001) provides a
comprehensive report of these lessons, drawing from
a range of tailings storage facility failures and
incidents. The main causes of failures and incidents
identifed were:
lack oI control oI the water balance
lack oI control oI construction, and
a general lack oI understanding oI the Ieatures that
control safe operations.
Tailings containment wall failures were (in order of
prevalence):
slope instability
earthquake loading
overtopping
inadequate Ioundations, and
seepage.
Tailings incidents appear to be more common where
upstream construction was employed compared with
downstream construction. Tailings containment walls
constructed using the downstream method performed
similarly to water-retaining embankments.
ICOLD Bulletin 121 also concluded that successful
ANCOLDs charter is to promote and assist in the development of safe and technically appropriate dams.
This charter includes a focus on dams used for the containment of tailings and other wastes, which, along
with the normal hazards associated with water dams, have the additional potential for major environmental
impact if not properly conceived, designed, constructed, operated and closed in an appropriate manner.
7.0 Construction 43
7.1 Introduction 43
7.2 Supervision and Documentation 43
7.2.1 General 43
7.2.2 Design Engineer 43
7.2.3 Responsible Engineer 43
7.2.4 Quality Control/Quality Assurance 43
7.2.5 Construction Site Management 44
7.3 Storage Preparation 47
7.3.1 Clearing and Stripping 47
7.3.2 Springs and Permeable Ground 47
7.3.3 Preparation for Liners 47
7.4 Foundation Preparation 47
7.5 Instrumentation 48
7.6 Source of Materials 48
7.7 Use of Tailings for Construction 49
7.7.1 Perimeter Embankments 49
7.7.2 Hydrocyclones 49
7.8 Staged Construction 50
7.9 Commissioning 51
7.10 As Built Drawings and Construction Report 51
8.0 Operation 52
8.1 Management and Training 52
8.2 Operations Plan 52
8.3 Operations, Maintenance and Surveillance Manual 53
8.4 Monitoring and Surveillance 53
8.5 Embankment Raising 55
8.6 Dam Safety Emergency Plan 56
8.7 Maintenance 56
8.8 Security 56
9.0 Closure 57
9.1 Sustainable Closure 57
9.2 Closure Plan 57
9.3 Closure Options 58
9.4 Closure Issues 58
9.5 Relinquishment 58
10.0 References 59
List of Figures
Figure 1 Tailings Storage Management over the TSF Lifecycle 5
Figure 2 Management structure for contractor constructed TSF 45
Figure 3 Management Structure for Owner Constructed TSF 46
List of Tables
Table 1 Severity Level impacts assessment 12
Table 2 Recommended consequence category 13
Table 3 Recommended design foods Ior spillway design and Ireeboard allowance 30
Table 4 Additional Wet Season storage allowance - Fall-back method 30
Table 5 Acceptable factors of safety 39
Table 6 Dam safety inspections levels 54
Table 7 Frequency of Inspection 54
Table of Contents
A!COLD Guidelines on Tailings Dams
2 A!COLD Guidelines on Tailings Dams
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planning and management of tailings storage facilities
could beneft greatly Irom:
the involvement oI stakeholders
thorough investigations and risk assessments
comprehensive documentation, and
tailings management integrated into mine
planning, operations and closure.
1.3 Sustainable Use of Dams for
Tailings Storage
Tailings, or contaminated waters associated with
tailings have the potential to be one of the most
signifcant environmental impacts Irom a mining or
processing operation, not only during operations but
also long after closure of the mine or processing
plant.
Over the last 30 years there has been a substantial
improvement in our understanding of the design
requirements and methods to allow design of safe
tailings storage structures. This knowledge must now
be extended to cover the safety of the storages into the
extreme long-term, well after the closure of the mining
operation, extending the concept of stewardship and
enduring value.
The viability of a surface storage tailings dam needs to
be properly explored, taking into account the potential
costs of closure and long-term post-closure
maintenance. There will be a range of alternative
possibilities, some of which may offer substantial
benefts with regard to the long-term stability and
environmental risk. Possibilities could include:
backflling oI mine voids, including underground
workings
alternative use (e.g. as a construction material)
reprocessing to remove problematic components,
and
sub-aqueous disposal in a non-sensitive location.
1.4 The need for these
Guidelines
Tailings dams have many similarities to conventional
water holding dams. However, ANCOLD considers
that there are suIfcient important diIIerences to justiIy
a specifc guideline Ior Tailings Dams.
1.0 Scope
Tailings dams comprise structures to store unwanted
waste from a mineral extraction, power generation or
manufacturing process. This gives rise to the following
particular features which differ from conventional
dams:
the embankments must store solids deposited as a
slurry as well as manage free water
both the solids and waters stored in tailings dams
may contain contaminants which have the potential
for environmental harm if not contained both now
and in the future
their operating liIe may be relatively short but they
are potentially required to safely store the tailings
for extremely long periods of time, possibly in
perpetuity
they are oIten built in stages over a number oI
years
the construction, particularly any subsequent
raising, sometimes may be undertaken by mine
personnel without the level of civil engineering
input or control applied to conventional water
dams
the materials, both those used Ior embankment
construction and the tailings themselves, are likely
to vary during mine life
water management is crucial, particularly iI
harmful materials are contained
seepage and dust may have a major impact on the
environment
daily operations such as placement oI tailings and
recovery of water are critical to
the safety of the storage
the flling rate, the ultimate height and even the
overall storage confguration may well change in
unforeseeable ways during construction and
operation, and
the storage must be designed with mine closure in
mind, so as to create a permanent, maintenance
free deposit that does not pose any unacceptable
long-term environmental impact or risk.
To highlight these differences, the term Tailings
Storage Facility (TSF) is often used, instead of dam.
In some cases, tailings storage can be successfully
achieved with minimal requirement for embankment
dams in the traditional sense.
1.0 Scope
The primary objectives for the design of a TSF are:
the saIe and stable containment oI tailings and
contaminants
the saIe management oI decant and rainIall runoII
the management oI seepage
the ability to achieve long-term eIIective closure,
leaving no unacceptable environmental legacy,
and
The meeting oI these objectives in a cost eIIective
manner.
1.5 Australian Regulations and
Guidelines
The regulation of tailings dams in Australia comes
under State Government mining legislation.
In Western Australia, the Department of Minerals and
Energy (DME), through the Mining Act 1978, Mining
Act Regulations 1981, Mines Safety and Inspection
Act 1994 and Mine Safety and Inspection Regulations
1995, regulates safety and environmental aspects of
tailings disposal.
Western Australia has produced three guidance
manuals to improve tailings management, namely:
The Guidelines on the SaIe Design and Operating
Standards for Tailings Storage (DME 1999)
Guidelines on the Development oI an Operating
Manual for Tailings Storage (DME 1998), and
Water Quality Protection Guidelines No .2
Tailings Facilities (DME 2000).
In Victoria, the Minerals and Petroleum Division
(MPD) of the Victorian Department of Primary
Industries (DPI) is responsible for regulating the
minerals, petroleum and extractive industries within
Victoria and its offshore waters, including
Commonwealth waters. The MPD manages the
administration of the Mineral Resources Development
Act 1990 and the Extractive Industry Development
Act 1995.
Victoria has produced a document entitled,
Management of Tailings Storage Facilities which sets
out regulatory policies and provides guidelines for
tailings storage in the state of Victoria (DPI 2003).
In Queensland, while the mining and other extractive
industries are regulated under industry specifc
legislation, tailings storage facilities are regulated
under the Environmental Protection Act 1994 using
the advice given in the Technical Guidelines for
Environmental Management in Exploration and
Mining Industry 1995. It contains specifc guidelines,
amongst many others, on Tailings Management, Site
Water Management and Water Discharge
Management.
In Tasmania a mining lease is required under the
Mineral Resources Development Act 1995. Dam
safety is handled under The Water Management Act
1999 which highlights in part 8, the regulations on
dam construction maintenance and decommissioning.
There are no specifc regulations or tailings
management guidelines for tailings storage facilities
in Tasmania.
In South Australia there are no specifc regulations on
tailings storage, and guidelines for tailings
impoundment construction and operation have been
adopted from Western Australia and Victoria. South
Australian regulators are moving away from
prescriptive regulations to more objective methods
and risk management.
In New South Wales (NSW) tailings dam safety is
handled under the Dams Safety Act 1978 overseen by
the NSW Dams Safety Committee. The NSW
Department of Primary Industries also handles
operational matters relating to mining under the NSW
Mining Act. The NSW Dams Safety Committee in
June 2010 produced a number of updated Guidance
Sheets covering a range of aspects related to dam
safety. In particular DSC3F covers tailings dams, but
many of the others are relevant.
In 2007 the Australian Government through the
Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources,
published a Manual entitled Tailings Management,
which was one of a series of publications outlining
Leading Practice Sustainable Development for the
Mining Industry (DITR, 2007). This guideline outlines
a risk based approach to tailings management that
synthesises the understanding of key issues affecting
sustainable development.
Prior to publication of the Tailings Management
Manual, the Ministerial Council on Mineral and
Petroleum Resources (MCMPR) and the Minerals
Council of Australia produced a document in 2003
entitled, Strategic Framework for Tailings
Management. This document focused on stewardship,
stakeholder engagement, risk management,
implementation and the closure aspects of tailings
storage (MCMPR and MCA, 2003). It was not intended
to provide a detailed set of guidelines on tailings
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1.0 Scope
management, but to compliment tailings regulations
and state specifc tailings guidance manuals where
they exist. The goal of this document was to establish
regulatory and industrial input to develop more
consistent guidelines for tailings storage within
Australia.
1.6 Consultations
A key success element of an extractive industry is
acceptance by the community that the industry is
operating in a sustainable manner, wherein the benefts
to the community and the environment outweigh the
disturbance caused by the operation of the industry.
Tailings dams, open cut pits and rock waste dumps are
the main visible legacies left behind by extractive
industries. Most of the Australian Regulations and
guidelines require some form of consultation with
stakeholders at various stages in the development of a
project involving tailings dams. Prior knowledge of
likely impacts amongst stakeholders could avoid issues
associated with the appearance of the impacts. With
tailings dams, the key stakeholders are usually:
The background land owners (Iarmers, traditional
owners, etc.)
The surrounding community (neighbours, etc.)
The Local Government Authority (roads, support
infrastructure etc.)
The Industry Regulatory Authority (approvals,
surveillance, etc.)
Persons involved with Planning, Design, Construction,
Operation and Closure of tailings dams need to be
aware of the consultation requirements in each state.
1.7 Procedure for Tailings Dam
Life Cycle Management
Tailings storages must meet legislative requirements
and generally conform to recognised guidelines. The
processes needed to authorise a tailings storage are
similar irrespective of the location or nature of the
project. A typical process is described in Figure 1.
Activities are grouped within functional interest
groups (lower left corner of an activity box) as
follows:
MINE represents the project owner, including
commercial interests, project management,
operations, safety, liability, etc.
ENG representing activities which predominantly
require the application of engineering and other
professional skills
REG representing the regulatory Iunctions
required by laws that have to be met so that the
project can take place, and
STAKE representing the community and other
stakeholders affected by a project including land
owners, local authorities, infrastructure support,
environmental values, heritage, etc.
The outputs described in the bottom activity boxes
refect the primary objectives oI project tenure within
a supportive community, resulting in safe, sustainable
and cost-effective tailings storage.

1.0 Scope
Figure 1 Tailings Storage Management over the TSF Lifecycle
Procedure for Planning , Design, Construction, Operation and
Closure of Tailings Dams
LEGEND
MINE Mine owner//Operator
ENG Engineering function
REG Regulatory authority Tailings Dams
STAKE Stake holders (Land owners etc.)
TAILINGS
FACILITY
LIFECYCLE
PROCEDURE
MINE DEVELOPMENT PHASES
OUTPUT
INPUT
Identify and
Characterise
Waste Products
Mining Resource
Data
(ore body etc)
Feasability
MINE 4
Estimate
Production Rates
and Final Volumes
MINE 2.4.3
Identify Special
Requirements for
Waste Management
ENG 4
Identify Potential
Waste Disposal
Strategies and Sites
ENG
Establish Risk
Management
Framework
Geographical Data
(disposal sites,
Soil materials, etc)
Planning
MINE/ENG
Develop
Waste Disposal
Conceptional Plan
ENG
Consultations with
Regulators and
Stake Holders
MINE
AGREE on land
use & Design Criteria
Operational Aspects
MINE/REG/STAKE
Prepare Detailed
Design of Waste
Management System
Mineral
Process
Data
Design
ENG
Design
Waste Management
System Infrastructure
ENG
Submit
Proposals
for Approval
MINE
Review Proposals
& Issue Approvals,
Leases & Licenses
REG
MINE REC/STAKE MINE
Proceed with
Developement
of Mine
Economic
Waste Disposal
System
Sustainable Safe
Waste Disposal
Strategy
Project Tenure
Regulatory Approvals
Stakeholder Acceptance
Water
Management
Data
Operation
MINE
Operate Mine
Monitor & Review
Tailings Placement
MINE
Decomission
Tailings
Storage
MINE/ENG
Mine
Closure
MINE/REG/STAKE 2.1
2.223
2.4-2.6
1.6
3.5
6
1.5
1.5
7
8
9
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1.0 Scope
1.8 Denitions
Tailings (or Tailing or Tails) - Tailings, or tails
comprise the residue or waste that comes out of the
tail end of a processing plant. The processes that
produce tailings can be:
mineral processing to extract metals or compounds
from ore
benefciation processes that upgrade ore, coal, etc
by removing some or all of unwanted materials
washing processes including sand or coal washing,
and clay upgrade
residue (ash or Iume) Irom combustion oI coal, or
from blast furnaces, and
by-products Irom chemical reactions within a
process (e.g. gypsum).
These processes generally produce fne-grained
products as a result of ore crushing, pre-existing grain
sizes or chemical precipitation. The processes
themselves are generally water based and the tailings
are for the most part produced as a slurry of solid
particles suspended in water.
Waste products that are essentially liquid only are not
considered as tailings, although a number of principles
for storing such products are similar to those outlined
in this Guideline.
The volume of such tailings is extremely large since
some extraction processes pass virtually all of the
mined ore through to the tailings system.
Tailings Storage - a site where processing wastes are
temporarily or permanently stored, not necessarily
formed by a dam structure.
Tailings Storage Facility (TSF) - includes the tailings
storage, containment embankments and associated
infrastructure.
Tailings Dam - a structure or embankment that is
built to retain tailings and/or to manage water
associated with the storage of tailings, and includes
the contents of the structure. This does not include
separate water dams (e.g. seepage collection dams)
that may be part of the overall TSF.
Freeboard - the vertical distance between the
operating or predicted water level in a storage and the
level where water would overfow the dam.
Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) - the
theoretical greatest depth of precipitation for a given
duration that is physically possible over a particular
catchment.
Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) - the largest food
hydrograph resulting from PMP and, where applicable,
snowmelt, coupled with the worst food-producing
catchment conditions that can be realistically expected
in the prevailing meteorological conditions.
Annual Exceedence Probability (AEP) - the
probability that a particular storm or event will be
exceeded in any year.
1 in 1000 AEP Storm (or 1 in 100 AEP or 1 in 10,000
AEP) - a storm event which produces a rainfall that is
statistically likely to occur once in a 1000 years (or
100 or 10,000 years) at the site under study.
Storage Capacity - The storage of the facility, usually
referred to as dry tonnes. This requires knowledge of
the in-situ dry density of the tailings likely to be
achieved in the storage.
Solids Content (or concentration) - mass of solids as
a percentage of the combined mass of solids plus
liquids in a slurry.
Water Content - (process engineering defnition)
mass of water as a percentage of the combined mass of
solids plus liquids
1.0 Scope
Moisture Content - (geotechnical defnition) mass oI
evaporable water as a percentage of the mass of
solids.
Slimes - silt or clay size material, usually with a high
water content.
Specifc Gravity (or Soil Particle Density) - mass per
unit of solid volume of the solids particles in the
tailings.
Slurry Density (or Pulp Density) - total mass of
slurry per unit of total volume of the solids plus
liquids.
Dry Density - mass of solids per unit volume of the
solids plus liquids plus air voids
Failure - the occurrence of an event outside the
expectation of the design or facility licence conditions,
that could range from the uncontrolled release of water
including seepage, to a major instability of an
embankment leading to loss of tailings.
Design Engineer - Person with appropriate
qualifcations and experience responsible Ior the
design of the tailings dam.
Responsible Engineer - Person with appropriate
qualifcations and experience responsible Ior the
supervision of construction, or subsequent raising of
the tailings dam. Ideally this should be the Design
Engineer, or iI not, well defned linkage between the
design and supervision personnel should be developed
to ensure that design requirements are met by the
construction phase.
Consequence Category - The ranking of the severity
oI the consequences oI dam Iailure as defned by
ANCOLD Guideline on Consequence Categories of
Dams, (Draft released April 2011) This term supersedes
Hazard
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2.0 Key Management Considerations
2.0 KEY MA!AGEME!T CO!SIDERATIO!S
The objective of planning is to ensure a commitment to managing an appropriate level of risk during all
phases of the life cycle of a tailings dam, including concept development, design, construction, operation,
decommissioning, rehabilitation, ongoing monitoring and the extended post-closure period
2.1 Selection of Waste Disposal
Strategy
2.1.1 Disposal Strategies
A tailings disposal strategy will describe the selected
method of transporting, discharging, storing and
permanent retention of tailings waste products.
A disposal strategy must be selected to suit the type of
process, the fnal volumes, the tailings characteristics,
the nature of the available disposal area, the local
climate, long-term requirements including capping,
environmental impacts and any Statutory requirements.
The strategy must consider the closure and post-
closure costs to ensure that the correct decisions are
made during concept development.
Disposal strategies need to consider both the method
of containment, the method of disposal and the method
of closure, post-closure monitoring and ultimate
relinquishment or maintenance.
Containment Method:
single-stage earth-fll embankment
multi-stage raising, possibly using tailings as a
construction material
stacked, dry tailings
within voids created by waste rock piles
backflling oI open cut mines
underground mine/stope fll, and
seabed disposal (not covered by this Guideline).
Disposal Method
subaqueous into areas where water covers the
deposit
sub-aerial beaching on areas exposed to the
atmosphere
hydrocyclone beaching and separation
thickened slurry (high density paste or central
thickened discharge)
co-disposal with coarse rejects or waste rock
mechanical or solar drying and dry stacking
commercial use (where possible), and
Iurther processing.
2.1.2 General Principles for Above Ground
Tailings Dam Disposal
Generally accepted principles for the management of
tailings disposal in above ground dams are listed
below. In some circumstances the designer may need
to select certain principles at the partial expense of
others.
Tailings dams should be used primarily Ior the
containment of tailings. The amount of water
stored on a tailings storage should be minimised to
encourage drying and consolidation of the tailings
except where specifc design requirements dictate
otherwise, such as sub-aqueous disposal to mitigate
oxidation or other chemical reaction.
Where tailings dams are used as water storages Ior
process waters, balancing storages, control of acid
generation, or for the storage of harvested runoff
waters, consideration should be given to the
potential lower in-situ density of the tailings and
the increased risk of seepage and overtopping in
this situation.
The need Ior suitable lining or underdrainage to
minimise or manage seepage should be assessed at
the initial planning stage, based on thorough
hydrogeological studies, chemical analysis of
leachate toxicity and impact studies. Seepage from
tailings storages should be contained if necessary
by downstream collection dams.
Water quality monitoring appropriate to the nature
oI the overfow or seepage waters and associated
control and treatment systems may need to be
installed between the storage and any release point
to the external environment.
Thick deposits oI wet slimes should be avoided.
They commonly result in poorly consolidated and
weak tailings, which require greater storage
volume and are diIfcult to cap and rehabilitate in
the long-term.
Deposition oI coarse tailings against embankment
walls is to be encouraged for sub-aerial disposal
where upstream lifting is proposed to ensure rapid
consolidation, drying and gain in strength.
Tailings may be stored to a level higher than the
crest of the tailings dam wall (e.g. dry stacking)
provided that such heaped tailings can be
demonstrated to be geotechnically stable under all
conditions including earthquakes.
Deposition procedures or landIorms, which
facilitate excessive dust creation, leaching of
tailings and leachate transport should be avoided.
The storage Iacility should be designed with
consideration to the potential for adverse chemical
reactions within the tailings mass, foundations,
and storage structures.
All storages must be designed with adequate
Ireeboard to retain design foods, with spillways to
pass higher foods without damaging the dam.
Even structures designed to prevent discharge of
water need consideration of safe spillage in an
event exceeding the design condition.
All tailings storages must be monitored to enable
performance to be compared with design
assumptions, and the Iacility then modifed as
necessary.
Staged construction should be used where practical
to minimise initial capital cost and to enable
changes to improve performance and/or process
operations and/or production to be accommodated
in future stages.
The design must take into account the requirements
for long-term closure, which may include the
expectation of producing a long-term stable
landform with no ongoing maintenance beyond
that for natural landforms or similar land uses.
2.2 Risk Management
2.2.1 Risk Management Process
Major tailings dam failures may be relatively
infrequent, but the consequential harm can be
enormous. Past failures have led to loss of life,
catastrophic environmental damage, public outrage,
restrictive regulatory intervention and associated
fnancial losses and costs Ior the company responsible.
There are signifcant measurable fnancial, reputation
and sustainability benefts associated with achieving
leading practice tailings management that effectively
manages the potential risks associated with tailings
dams during and after their operating lives.
Irrespective of the detail and quality of the design,
failures can occur if any tailings facility element (e.g.
drains, flters) and the system as a whole, are not
designed, constructed and operated in accordance
with the primary intent of controlling and managing
risk.
Leading tailings management practice recognises
potential design limitations and uncertainties by
applying a risk-based management approach
throughout the life of the facility from project
conception, through design, construction, operation
and closure.
To minimise, manage and control key risks, a risk
management process should be part of the project
conception stage, with the application of a waste
management hierarchy that attempts to eliminate or
reduce the quantity and improve the quality of the
waste. Benefcial risk treatments may include:
avoiding the risk by deciding not to start or continue
with the activity that gives rise to the risk (where
this is practicable)
eliminating the risk (or specifc hazards) through
design
reducing the likelihood oI the negative outcomes
e.g. through stringent construction quality control,
and through implementation of an effective
surveillance and response plan
reducing the extent and/or severity oI the
consequential impacts, including preventative
measures such as increasing freeboard or post-
event mitigation through emergency response
plans, and
sharing the risk (win-win) such as backflling a
neighbours mine void.
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This risk-based process starts with the consideration
of alternative storage methodologies such as in-pit
disposal or co-location of tailings within waste dumps.
Where applicable, these techniques can reduce the
complexity of the containment structures and their
failure likelihood and consequence.
The risk-based process then continues into the design
and operational phases. Operations should include
management plans that track performance against
design predictions, monitor leading indicators of
failure, trigger design and operating improvements if
required, and ensure quick and effective response to
signs of distress or impending failure.
As tailings storage facilities and the loads applied to
them are constantly changing as they store more
tailings, risk-based tailings management and planning
must also manage these changing circumstances.
Managing such change should be a core consideration
in the planning, design, construction, closure and
rehabilitation of tailings storage facilities.
AS/NZS ISO 31000:2009 Risk management -
Principles and guidelines provides a generic guide to
managing risk and the key elements of the risk
management process.
In focussing primarily on those issues that are material
to achieving the performance objectives, the risk-
based approach also becomes a robust and effective
management tool. Activation of this approach at the
start of the project provides the dam owner with
greater confdence in the design and provides the
designer with the ability to tailor the design towards
meeting the required risk profle.
2.2.2 Risk Assessment
Within the risk management process, risk assessment
is used in varying Iorms to evaluate specifc risk issues
or a combination of risk events. The type of assessment
chosen depends on the complexity of the risk, the
criticality of the element under consideration (related
to safety, health, environment, business continuity),
the potential consequence of a failure, and the quantity
and quality of available data .
Quantitative risk assessment is frequently used by
designers of high consequence category dams to
quantiIy and evaluate the risk tolerability oI specifc
elements or features of a tailings dam such as spillway
capacity (ANCOLD, 2003).
Qualitative or semi-quantitative assessments are often
used to rank and prioritise risk controls and risk action
plans, or to demonstrate the risk associated with a
combination of events e.g. fault event tree.
A risk assessment of a tailings dam should clearly
identify the leading indicators of potential failures,
either of individual elements, or in combination where
a number of individual issues combine to result in a
failure. It is useful to categorise or group leading
indicators (that require similar control measures). This
will provide greater appreciation of the potential
weaknesses in the facility/system, allowing them to be
correctly and effectively managed.
Risks that are retained as tolerable clearly require the
effective implementation of risk controls to maintain
their tolerability. Risk management encompasses the
regular assessment of the facility performance against
its design, during which the likelihood and consequence
of hazards are rigorously reassessed, and actions are
clearly defned and prioritised to minimise the
occurrence or impact of the risks.
2.3 Consequence Category
The outcome of a risk assessment should give guidance
to the Consequence Category of the tailings dam and
lead to selection of appropriate design parameters.
This is undertaken by considering the potential failure
modes of the facility and the resulting consequences
to the business, the social and natural environment
and the potential for loss of life. It is noted that
ANCOLD are currently developing a revised Guideline
on the Consequences of Dam Failure (ANCOLD,
2011), expected to be released in a similar timeframe
to this Guideline. The content oI fnal versions oI each
document will be aligned prior to release.
There are likely to be signifcantly diIIerent
consequences for some failure modes, depending on
the life stage of the project. For example, erosion would
be readily repaired during operation but could become
a potential mechanism for large-scale failure post-
closure when limited maintenance is likely. Similarly,
seepage of contaminated water can be readily collected
and treated during operation but could lead to
signifcant environmental impact Iollowing closure.
The impact of large scale failure of a tailings dam
could increase signifcantly with time as the structure
increases in scale and height. It is therefore necessary
to undertake individual consequence assessments for
each of the different phases of dam life.
The Consequence Category should be established
using the methodology described in Consequence
Guidelines (ANCOLD, 2011). The critical input to
determining the Consequence Category is the
assessment of the consequences of failure. This
involves considering a dam-break simulation under
various conditions oI fooding, including 'sunny day
(no fooding) and extreme food events.
The methodology for the dam-break analysis can
involve complex hydrological studies, or for simple
cases could follow simple empirical or qualitative
methods. For tailings dams the simulation often
assumes that tailings are replaced with water, or use
more sophisticated methods to model mudfow.
Modelling oI the fow oI mixed tailings and water is
complex. Considerable judgement would be needed to
determine a realistic mudfow scenario.
The resulting water or mud fow is mapped in relation
to the topography of the areas downstream of the dam,
to determine the inundation area and the depth and
velocity oI potential fows. The consequences oI this
inundation are then evaluated and ranked in accordance
with the Population at Risk (PAR), the nature of the
receiving environment and the potential severity of
impact in relation to the nature of the released
material.
The new ANCOLD Guidelines on the Consequence
Categories oI Dams (2011) diIIer signifcantly Irom
the previous guidelines. The term Consequence
Category replaces Hazard Rating, and a new level
of severity of impact, catastrophic has been
introduced. Table 1 shows the recommended severity
levels for environmental impact.
With tailings that contain potentially harmful
materials, it will be necessary to include other potential
health and environment impact pathways. It will be
necessary for designers to take account of the different
physical and geochemical nature of tailings and
transport water, as compared to water, when assessing
the consequ
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Table 2 shows the recommended Consequence Category cases (ref A!COLD 2011). As can be seen the
'catastrophic` impact classihcation results in a High Consequence Categorv even when there is no population
at risk. As the Consequence Categories are used to determine design parameters and operational requirements
for tailings dams, as will be presented in later Chapters of this Guideline, this means that risk assessment using
these ANCOLD Guidelines is likelv to recommend higher design parameters for earthquake and ood than
previous guidelines. This is considered to be appropriate, particularly when taking into account the extended
design life expectations of tailings dams.
Table 1 Severity Level impacts assessment (part summary table-see A!COLD Consequence Guidelines
(2011) for details)
DAMAGE TYPE MI!OR MEDIUM MAJOR CATASTROPHIC
Infrastructure
(dam, (houses,
commerce, farms,
community)
<$10M $10M-$100M $100M-$1B >$1B
Business
importance
Some restrictions Signifcant impacts Severe to crippling Business
dissolution,
bankruptcy
Public health <100 people
affected
100-1000 people
affected
<1000 people
affected for more
than one month
>10,000 people
affected for over
one year
Social dislocation <100 person or <20
business months
100-1000 person
months or 20-2000
business months
>1000 person
months or >200
business months
>10,000 person
months or
numerous business
failures
Impact Area <1km
2
<5km
2
<20km
2
>20km
2
Impact Duration <1 (wet) year <5 years <20 years and >20 years
Impact on natural
environment
Damage limited to
items of low
conservation value
(e.g. degraded or
cleared land,
ephemeral streams,
non-endangered
fora and Iauna).
Remediation
possible.
Signifcant eIIects
on rural land
and local fora
& fauna.
Limited effects on:
A. Item(s) of local
& state natural
heritage.
B. Native fora and
fauna within
forestry, aquatic
and
conservation
reserves, or
recognised
habitat
corridors,
wetlands or fsh
breeding areas.
Extensive rural
effects.
Signifcant eIIects
on river system and
areas A & B.
Limited effects on:
C. Item(s) of
National or
World natural
heritage.
D. Native fora and
fauna within
national parks,
recognised
wilderness
areas,
RAMSAR
wetlands and
nationally
protected
aquatic
reserves.
Remediation
diIfcult
Extensively affects
areas A & B.
Signifcantly aIIects
areas C & D.
Remediation
involves
signifcantly altered
ecosystems.
Table 2 Recommended consequence category
(Adapted from the ANCOLD Consequence Guidelines Table 3 - the worst case of the three inputs Population
at Risk, Receiving Environment and Severity of Damage and Loss- determines the Consequence Category)
Note: A, B and C are subdivisions within the HIGH Consequence Category level with A being highest and C
being lowest.
Population
at Risk
Severity of Damage and Loss
Minor Medium Major Catastrophic
<1 Very Low Low Signifcant High C
1 To 10 Signifcant Note 1 Signifcant Note 1 High C High B
Note 1 High C High C High B High A
101 To 1,000 High B High A Extreme
>1,000 Extreme Extreme
Note 1. Change to 'High C` where there is the potential of one or more lives being lost.
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2.4 Planning
2.4.1 Life of Mine Planning
Tailings storage facilities must be designed to safely
contain water and tailings in a dynamic environment,
not only during the operational life of the mine, but
also for many years after closure of the mine has
occurred. There is a wide variation in current
acceptable design life periods, varying up to 1000
years in the USA and to 1000-2000 years in the EU
noting that closure design is tending to be defned in a
geological timescale. The period of 1000 years is
considered reasonable, given that in Europe there are
currently examples of tailings storages in excess of
800 years old that are being actively monitored.
Planning should integrate all the processes, systems,
procedures and other activities required for a safe and
economical TSF. Issues infuencing the design and
management of TSFs include the following:
The conceptual design oI appropriate transport,
disposal and storage methods (Chapter 3 - Tailings
Storage Methods and Deposition Principles)
The anticipated tailings properties during the liIe
of the mine, and how these may vary (quantity and
quality) (Chapter 4 - Characterisation and
Behaviour of Tailings)
The management oI water; either leIt over Irom the
transportation of the tailings in a slurry, or from
rainfall events (Chapter 5 Water Management)
The detailed analysis and design oI the Iacility and
its various components including the design of
raises and closure (Chapter 6 - Design and
Analysis)
The construction oI the Iacility (Chapter 7 -
Construction) including the construction of
intermittent raises
The operation oI the storage Iacility (Chapter 8 -
Operation) including tailings deposition planning
and budgeting for intermittent raises, and
monitoring of environmental and leading stability
indicators to reconcile performance against design,
and
Decommissioning and closure to ensure that the
post-closure performance will meet stakeholder
expectations and regulatory requirements (Chapter
9 - Decommissioning and Closure).
Integrated Life of Mine planning should take account
of the potential activities that will take place through
the total life of the structure. This will include the
initial mine life but also consider potential extension
of mining or changes in tailings properties that might
affect the design.
Integrating the planning for tailings storage into Life
of Mine planning should also take account of impacts
or synergies with all aspects of the mine operation.
This can be particularly important to take advantage
of other mine wastes for construction, water
management impacts on mining and processing and
particularly on closure methodology. Often cost and
environmental benefts can be made Ior the overall
project with minor extra effort or cost impost on one
aspect. Optimal tailings storage considerations are
often not considered as part of mine or processing
operations. An example of this could be the inclusion
of strategic waste rock placement at a small cost
premium during operations to facilitate major cost
savings at closure.
2.4.2 Key TSF Planning Objectives
The key objectives of integrated planning include:
1. A TSF design that is optimal (fnancial and
environmental) in terms of the whole-of-life
storage methodology and design through full
consideration of all potential alternatives.
2. Planning should consider the full cost of tailings
disposal Irom conceptualisation to fnal
decommissioning and rehabilitation, including
long-term post-closure maintenance considerations.
Considerations should include social, geochemical,
environmental, technical and economic aspects,
particularly the long-term impacts.
3. Correct designs through the full understanding of
the setting, the operating environment and the
potential risks including mitigatory measures to
prevent adverse impact.
4. Key decisions must be based on all issues involved,
particularly when using discounted cash fow
methods that may minimalise the fnancial impacts
associated with long-term risks issues. Decision
making should be based on the whole of life
evaluation of the potential consequences (cost,
health, safety, environmental and community).
5. Decision making and implementation should allow
an adequate margin of safety, and risks should be
kept below levels that place an undue exposure to
hazards on third parties or the environment.
6. Environmental impacts are minimised by initial
design and also through an ongoing and continuous
programme of management and monitoring.
7. Development of a robust closure plan taking into
account the potential fnal landIorm, land use and
environmental protection systems and the potential
for post-closure environmental impact.
8. A management process that optimises and
improves the TSF operation and manages risks so
that they do not increase during the operation.
9. Plan all phases of a tailings dams life to ensure
optimum performance including consideration of
potential changes to storage volumes through
either early closure or extended mine life.
10. A full, whole of life valuation of the TSF over its
life-cycle including all phases of its life.
11. Planning should consider possible developments
beyond the immediate economic mine life. The
life of a mine may be extended beyond the initial
development stage, often for many decades.
Planning should provide a degree oI fexibility that
might allow signifcant strategic and economic
benefts to be achieved in the Iuture with minimal
cost in the present. This could be particularly
important with Potential Acid Forming (PAF)
tailings
2.4.3 Important TSF Planning Data
In order to plan and design tailings storage systems the
following data are required:
estimates oI the fnal volume oI tailings to be
stored
land available Ior tailings storage which will
exclude areas set aside due to ore reserves,
environmental or archaeological (including
Aboriginal) factors, plant construction, other
industries, cost etc.
basic environmental limitations; tailings disposal
plans should be developed as part of the
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
basic tailings properties both geotechnical and
chemical including process conditions, added
chemicals and expected changes with time
storage requirements, tailings production rates and
delivery conditions, how they will change with
time and the potential for planned or unplanned
changes to the delivery conditions
design liIe and total storage requirement with
consideration of potential future changes, such as
development of new ore bodies
topography oI potential disposal sites
consideration oI the consequences oI Iailure oI the
storage, which will assist in risk assessment and
selection of design parameters to be used
Ioundation conditions including geology,
hydrogeology, groundwater quality
seismicity oI the area and seismic design
parameters
available construction materials including
geotechnical properties
long-term weather conditions including rainIall,
evaporation, wind and extreme storms, with
consideration of potential climate change
rainIall runoII conditions, both on the storage and
from surrounding areas
existing hydrological, suspended solids, dissolved
solids and water chemistry data for nearby rivers
and streams, and
long-term stable landIorm requirements including
future land use and revegetation.
A major part of the planning process is to identify the
data required, determine what data are available and
to develop programmes to obtain the remainder. In
some cases this may involve monitoring of the early
operations to confrm design assumptions that were
based on experience or simply estimated due to the
impracticality of obtaining such data at the design
stage.
2.5 Tailings Management Plan
A Tailings Management Plan (TMP) is required for
the complete life of the project including closure and
any post-closure care and maintenance. The Plan
should address design, construction, operation, closure
and rehabilitation.
The Plan should account for any staged development.
For example, lead times for design and construction of
new storages should be clearly identifed relative to the
estimated time oI flling oI existing storages.
Since changes commonly occur throughout the life of
a project, which can affect the operation of the tailings
area, the Plan should be fexible and capable oI
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modifcation. To this end the plan can be subdivided
into Short, Medium, and Long-Term Plans.
The Long-Term Plan provides the overall planning
criteria, control points and goals for achieving
satisfactory tailings disposal over the remaining life of
the project. This long-term plan ensures that there is
suIfcient storage capacity Ior the projected mine liIe
and takes into account potential mine life extensions.
This Plan should provide a link to the Closure Plan,
discussed later in these guidelines.
The Medium Term-Plan provides management
information and detailed schedules of the anticipated
construction and capital expenditure necessary to
maintain the tailings disposal area for the next few
years, typically 3 to 5 years. The goals for the medium-
term plan are dictated by the long-term plan.
The Short-Term Plan provides the month to month
operating framework for the tailings storage. This
includes the management of tailings beaches and wet
season storm-water runoII. Modifcations to the short-
term plan can be made to suit operating conditions
provided they Iall within the goals specifed in the
longer-term plans.
Plan Reviews should be carried out at least annually
based on the performance of the whole disposal system
and updated future production rates. Tailings storages
often do not operate exactly as planned. Therefore it is
critical that regular reviews are carried out and plans
revised. One common outcome from out-dated plans
is the unexpected discovery that a tailings storage is
flling early and the panic construction oI a new storage
with consequent impact on cash fow, compromises in
the standard of design and risk of environmental
impact.
The basic steps towards preparing a tailings
management plan should include the following.
2.5.1 Design Planning
The TMP must take into account that tailings dam
design is not completed at the start of a project. It is
more likely that the design will evolve over a number
of years during operations. Accordingly, the TMP
should include a design plan providing information on
the basis of design and a methodology for a design
review process. The design plan should include:
an estimation oI the total long term storage
requirement
broad topographic and local land use survey oI the
project area with assessment of the compatibility
of the tailings disposal and storage options
detail on the physical and chemical nature oI the
tailings to be stored;
tailings characteristics such as beaching angle,
settled density, and strength from laboratory tests
or pilot trials to be updated as practical experience
is gained
any special health and saIety, handling and
containment methods required, including statutory
requirements and approval processes
tailings disposal method, rate(s) and period
estimated volume oI liquids to be reclaimed and
likely variability and a method Ior confrmation
local meteorology (wind, rain, evaporation) and
seismicity of the area
a water balance model Ior the proposed tailings
storage area
Ireeboard, overfow, and storage requirements and
restrictions
estimated rate and quality oI seepage losses
concept Iuture storage requirements and area
staged construction plan that meet the
requirements
site investigation data identiIying Ioundation and
groundwater conditions and sources of construction
materials
selection oI fnal disposal area(s)
assessment oI rehabilitation requirements;
fnal design and construction plan, and
site monitoring equipment.
2.5.2 Construction Planning
A construction plan, by the designer, is required to list
the order in which the various elements of the tailings
storage are assembled and how the various items of
work interrelate. In addition, long-term construction
planning identifes latest dates by which new works
must be commissioned. Typical elements would be:
contract tender period, award and mobilisation
Ioundation preparation
construction oI earthworks and/or embankment
construction oI tailings discharge system
(pipework, outlets, controls)
construction oI water reclaim and overfow
systems, and
installation oI monitoring and security systems.
2.5.3 Operation Planning
Long, medium and short-term management plans
should be prepared to ensure:
eIfcient flling oI the disposal area
transIer and reclaim oI any decant liquors
saIe containment or control oI food waters
periodic raising oI embankments
surveillance and maintenance
progressive rehabilitation where possible, and
accommodation oI any variations Irom initial
planning criteria.
2.5.4 Emergency Response Plan/Dam Safety
Emergency Plan
An Emergency Response Plan (ERP) or Dam Safety
Emergency Plan (DSEP) outlines the required
procedures to:
protect a dam and the associated community in the
event of an emergency which may threaten the
dams security
defne the basis oI communication and
responsibility in an emergency
notiIy the Emergency Authorities during a potential
dam failure emergency, and
provide relevant inIormation to assist the
Emergency Authorities in its emergency planning
for areas affected by dam breach and loss of water
and tailings.
An ERP/DSEP outlines the required actions of owners
and their personnel in response to a range of possible
emergency situations.
The ERP/DSEP should be prepared in accordance
with Guideline on Dam Safety Management
(ANCOLD, 2003).
2.5.5 Closure and Rehabilitation Planning
Closure and Rehabilitation Planning should ensure
that the tailings disposal area is left in such a way that
it is able to:
maintain an acceptable impact on the
environment
be structurally stable
be resistant to deterioration through erosion or
decay
be compatible with the surrounding unmined
landform, and
be Iunctionally compatible with the agreed post-
mining land use.
The above criteria should apply over the perceived
time frame of the post-closure period, which may be
indefnite. II there is no defned post-closure design
life, ANCOLD recommend adopting 1000 years as a
reasonable period as being considered in
perpetuity.
2.5.6 Observational approach
Tailings impoundments take many years to construct
and can experience many changes which may require
operational response. During the design phase,
geotechnical predictions are often based on limited
knowledge. The observational approach is a process of
verifying design assumptions and using additional
data, knowledge and lessons learned to revise, improve
and optimise the design.
Central to the observational approach is an
instrumentation and monitoring program to observe
and record key leading indicators associated with
design and performance criteria (e.g. seepage, phreatic
surface, density, strength parameters).
The observed values are compared against the design
predictions to evaluate if any changes in operation or
design are needed. Instrumentation data reviews are
helpful in identifying any imminent problems.
However, more subtle behaviours may only be
identifed by yearly review. It is essential to react to
changes well before they become a serious problem.
The observational method provides the ability to
address concerns through prevention rather than
cure.
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The observational approach has proved to be of value
in reviewing pore water pressure predictions. It is
unrealistic to expect that the pore pressure conditions
within a TSF could be accurately predicted throughout
its operational life. During TSF operations it is
common that conditions (depositional, mineralogical,
process, weather etc.) change, leading to changes in
the pore pressure conditions within the impoundment.
The observational method addresses this uncertainty
by checking the validity of the design pore pressure
conditions and giving a basis for reviewing and
revising models.
Another beneft oI the observational approach is that it
can reduce the upfront capital cost of a project. The
design is based on best estimate conditions and the
observational approach is utilised to check estimated
parameters. The best estimate design is checked
against actual conditions. Upgrade measures might be
required following start-up if best estimate
assumptions are incorrect. The observational approach
is used to decide if and when any upgrade measures
need to be constructed.
2.6 External (Third Party)
Review
Planning should allow for review by independent
parties at critical phases of the TSF life cycle. Review
could take place during concept and feasibility studies,
design and construction. Third party review may also
be relevant during operation.
3.0 Tailings Storage Methods & Deposition Principles
3.0 Tailings Storage Methods
& Deposition Principles
The objective of tailings storage is to minimise the current and future risks from the storage. This will be
achieved by ensuring the physical and geochemical stability of the tailings deposit over the whole of life of
the storage.
3.1 System Components
The main system components to a tailings storage
facility are:
environmental protection measures
a method Ior the delivery oI tailings to the disposal
site
a method Ior the distribution, discharge and
deposition of tailings within the storage
a method Ior containment oI the deposited tailings,
and
a method Ior water management.
The design and operating practices for tailings
transport, discharge, deposition, and water
management (decant recovery) are closely inter-
related. Suitable combinations will depend on
environmental values, the terrain, tailings
characteristics, water balance including climatic
factors, and the method of containment.
3.2 Environmental Protection
Measures
3.2.1 Overview
A tailings storage system needs to consider the
potential impact of the system on the surrounding
environment so as to minimise the operational and
future risks from the storage.
The principle environmental values that need
consideration are:
the community, which includes saIety, people and
their support infrastructure and industry
waters, which includes immediate receiving
waters, watercourses, groundwater, water storages
and potable water supply sources
air, which can be a transport vector Ior dust
contaminants and fugitive gases
land, which includes Iauna and fora support
ecosystems, and
heritage.
Recognised potential sources of environmental harm
associated with tailings storage systems include:
energy oI stored tailings or water (dam break)
toxicity oI stored substances (tailings, water or
fugitive emissions such as gas or dust), and
toxicity oI substances within a processing plant
and associated works.
Recognised potential mechanisms of environmental
harm associated with tailings storage systems
include:
uncontrolled mass release oI fowable substances,
either tailings or waters, by collapse or failure of
the containment embankment (dam break)
uncontrolled limited release oI contaminated
fowable substances into environmentally sensitive
places (spillway discharge, seepage to water
resources, overtopping from either upstream or
downstream)
transport oI Iugitive emissions (gas ,dust) to
environmentally sensitive places by wind, and
operational Iailure (pipe burst, pump Iailure, etc.).
Environmental risks should be managed by, in order
of preference, following the principles of:
avoidance by design
separation by distance
isolation by barriers, or
management by operational control within
tolerable risk limits.
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3.2.2 Protecting the Community
The protection of the community is of primary
importance. It is best achieved through avoiding
situations where emissions from a tailings storage
system could, or be perceived to, adversely impact on
the community. Experience has shown that locating
tailings storages immediately above residential areas
is not acceptable practice.
3.2.3 Protecting Waters, Air and Land
Some recognised principles to protect waters include:
avoid placing tailings storages on natural drainage
lines (rivers, creeks, valley foors) with signifcant
upstream catchments
avoid placing tailings storages immediately above
water resources (dams, creeks, lakes, aquifers,
water holes, etc.)
make provisions in the design Ior the detection,
collection and management of seepage to prevent
emissions to the environment
make provisions in the operational control to
minimise the risk of uncontrolled discharge
through spillways, and
manage, through deposition practices and other
means, moisture content of beaches to minimise
oxidation that could lead to acid and metalliferous
drainage (AMD).
Some recognised principles to protect air include:
manage, through deposition practices and other
means, moisture content of beaches to minimise
salting and dusting
application oI dust suppressants (polymers etc.),
and
use oI barrier layers (coarse rejects, waste rock,
water) to prevent wind accessing tailings.
3.2.4 Protection of Fauna
Tailings storages have potential for environmental
harm to the surrounding land through the potential to
harm fauna accessing the tailings storage.
Some recognised principles to prevent access by fauna
are;
isolation by Iences (animals)
isolation by netting (birds).
3.2.5 Protecting Heritage
Avoidance by design should be adopted wherever
possible.
3.3 Delivery
Selection of the transport system including the use of
any aids (such as thickeners) is generally based on
economic considerations of capital and operating costs
but could be dictated by other design considerations.
The design of transport systems should include
provision for instrumentation, monitoring, methods
for checking for leaks, and spill containment methods
for line breaks or malfunctions.
Options available for transport of tailings include:
pipelines (gravity or pumped)
channels/fumes
direct discharge (to the head oI the storage or into
a natural channel leading to the storage)
conveyed/trucked (Ior 'dry or mechanically
dewatered material), and
specialised transport or disposal systems
including:
pneumatic Ior dry materials such as fy-ash,
fume, and
screw conveyors - Ior drier or denser material
over short distances.
Pipelines conveying pumped tailings slurry remain
the most common form of delivery. Design
considerations in this case include the following:
thinner slurries involve transport oI excessive
water and hence may increase overall pumping
costs
all except very dilute slurries behave as non-
Newtonian fuids. Thicker slurries typically have
distinct non-Newtonian properties which may
vary according to rate of shear, shear history,
chemical effects etc. This is a specialised area of
rheology, and testing and subsequent design
requires great care in simulating the likely range of
conditions
slurries containing coarser sand or gravel particles
require certain minimum velocities to prevent
settlement of particles, although some systems use
partially sanded lines with a moving bed of
particles in the lower portion of the delivery line.
This practice is useIul where there are signifcant
variations in process rates and hence fow
velocities
blockages in low points during stoppages
set up oI high density or thixotropic tailings in the
pipeline during stoppages (a standby system
capable oI fushing pipelines, even in a power
outage, may be required), and
corrosion/abrasion/scour oI delivery pipelines.
ICOLD Bulletin 101 and Paste and Thickened Tailings
- A Guide (AGC, 2009), provide additional detail on
design of tailings transport systems.
3.4 Methods of Discharge and
Depositional Strategies
3.4.1 Methods of Discharge
Decisions about the discharge method are made at the
design stage. In due course the operators must be made
aware of the requirements and good operating
principles to implement these procedures effectively
(see also ICOLD Bulletin 101, 1995).
For any impoundment type storage, it is necessary to
ensure a method oI distribution which will eIfciently
utilise the storage. Typical discharge methods to
achieve this are:
Single Point - For some depositional strategies and
surface topography, a single discharge point will
be possible. However, if the discharge point is kept
in one location, tailings may build up from this
point and the flling oI the impoundment may be
uneven, requiring more sophisticated methods.
Alternating Single-Point Involves discharging
the full stream of tailings from a single point at any
one time, but with a number of alternative points
available. Discharge points are alternated from
time to time. This method may be utilised where
there are separate valleys to the storage and evenly
distributed flling is required.
Multiple Discharge/Spigoting - A header main is
installed along sections of the storage perimeter
with multiple valved outlets located at intervals
(e.g. 10 m or 20 m centres). The discharge can then
be rotated around the storage by using a limited
number of outlets for a time, then closing them and
opening the next series of outlets. This technique
is known as spigoting.
Hydrocyclones - Where tailings contain a
signifcant proportion oI sand, hydrocyclones may
be used to separate the coarser, more freely
draining material Irom the fner Iraction. The
coarser Iraction is discharged as 'underfow with
a relatively low water content. Following drainage,
this material is then used to construct/raise the
embankment, typically by centreline or
downstream methods, including possible provision
for compaction. Good separation of the sand from
the fnes (i.e. low fnes in the produced sand) is
important to ensure drainage and stability of the
embankment. The fner Iraction plus most oI the
water is discharged separately as 'overfow into
the storage.
3.4.2 Depositional Strategies
Basic strategies are:
Sub-aqueous where the tailings surIace is
continuously submerged below free water.
Separation of the tailings solids from the liquid
phase occurs by the processes of sedimentation
and consolidation only. This type of deposition
may be adopted deliberately for environmental or
health and safety reasons dictated by the physical
and/or chemical properties of the tailings e.g. to
prevent oxidation of sulphides or to reduce radon
emissions from radioactive tailings. In other cases,
management of site water may not be possible
without accepting Iree water ponded or fowing
over the tailings. In containment systems of limited
surface area, the rate of rise of the tailings may be
so great that no effective surface drying occurs,
resulting in an essentially sub-aqueous system.
Sub-aerial deposition where placement oI tailings
forms an exposed beach over most of the storage
area. The evaporative drying of the surface
improves the density of the tailings. A minimal
pond area will reduce total evaporation losses and
is less attractive to birds.
Thickened Discharge - tailings thickened to a
concentration that is non-segregating can be
deposited sub-aerially from single or multiple
points, which can be located centrally (Central
Thickened Discharge). Thickening to
concentrations higher than the non-segregating
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concentration is also an effective method of
minimising water loss without major increases in
operating costs.
'Dry stacking systems involve dewatering the
tailings (e.g. using mechanical flters) to a state
where they can be handled by earthmoving
machinery or conveyors.
Design considerations include:
The eIIect oI variations in evaporation Irom
summer to winter on strength and density.
The implications and management oI water that
may accumulate during wet / winter seasons or
following storms.
Initial placement in narrow valleys and/or when
the frst flling rise rate is high and will not allow
drying. This effectively is subaqueous placement
even though the long-term system is designed as
sub-aerial, and the implications of pockets of low
strength material must be fully evaluated in the
design.
Multiple Storages - Rotating discharge between
several cells allows the central pond in one cell to
dry out whilst it is being rested. The accumulation
of wet low strength slimes in the centre of the
storage is thus minimised seepage fows through
the base are reduced due to the regular interruption,
and scheduling of embankment raising is easier
since it is not necessary to be discharging into and
raising the same storage simultaneously.
Point oI Discharge Flocculation - Signifcant de-
watering of a slurry may be achieved by heavy
dosing with chemical additive ('focculent) at the
point of discharge from a pipeline. This results in a
higher initial settled density, improved water
recovery, and the potential Ior higher fnal density
depending on site evaporation rates. It also imparts
additional viscosity to the slurry and a steeper
beach slope results giving improved runoff and
drainage. It appears to be most effective in the case
oI tailings slurries with high/plastic fnes content.
3.4.3 Segregation and Beach Slope
In slurries at low solids contents, the segregation of
coarser particles towards the top of the slope will give
a classical concave beach profle (Blight, 1994).
Reasonably steep slopes (up to 5 to 10%) may be
obtained locally near the discharge, but the down-
slope angles may be close to horizontal.
The coarser material on the upper part of the beach
may be subsequently utilised in embankment
construction or Ior mine backfll. II this method is
used, due allowance must be made in the design for
the changed properties of the residual slimes, compared
to the original all-in tailings.
As the tailings slurry is thickened, it eventually
becomes non-segregating and remains as a
homogeneous slurry. The resulting beach slope will be
more uniform and steeper overall. Advantage can then
be taken of these properties to stack the tailings.
Typical overall beach slopes obtained by thickening
are in the range 1% to 4%. If the tailings are discharged
from central points, low conical hills will form. The
method is then called central thickened discharge
(CTD).
3.4.4 Decant Pond
The size and location oI the decant pond is infuenced
by the method and direction of discharge and the
geometry of the tailings storage. The pond location
may have a critical infuence on the quantity oI seepage
that occurs, and on the static and seismic (liquefaction)
stability of the storage.
The storage capacity can potentially be greatly
increased by discharging downslope towards the
embankment. However, the decant pond will form
against or near the embankment. This will generally
lead to a higher phreatic surface through the
embankment, which will adversely affect embankment
stability. The embankment height may also need to be
increased to provide the necessary freeboard for water
management.
The relative slopes of the ground and the tailings beach
infuence whether down-slope discharge will be
advantageous. Concave beach slopes from segregating
slurries will lose much of the advantage. Hence down-
slope discharge will be most effective with thickened,
non-segregating tailings that will form a steeper
overall beach slope.
In some circumstances there will be virtually no
decant pond. However some form of runoff/decant
dam will probably be required to manage wet season
and storm runoff.
An exposed slope is not appropriate for potentially
acid forming tailings.
Where the upslope method is used, the storage can be
maximised for a given embankment height by
minimising the beach length, thus favouring a
relatively centrally located decant pond.
3.5 Methods of Containment
3.5.1 Constructed Storages
Storages constructed using retaining embankments
are the most common form of tailings storage, and fall
into two main types:
cross valley or gully impoundments, and
oII-valley impoundments (including side-hill and
fully contained ring-dyke or paddock type
impoundments).
Cross-valley sites are often more economical if the
topography permits smaller embankments per volume
of storage. However, they will have incoming run-off
from the stream and adjacent slopes requiring special
attention to water control. Side-hill impoundments
generally require more embankment length and will
have potential runoff from the uphill slope. Paddock
impoundments which include embankments on all
four sides, have minimal or no runoff into the
storage.
Embankment types may be classifed frstly by their
required function, and secondly by the method of
construction.
Embankments may be designed with the function of
either:
retaining water and solids, or
retaining solids only.
Embankments designed to retain both water and solids
will require many of the features of a conventional
water storage dam, including low permeability clay
zones or upstream liners, flters and drainage Ieatures,
and foundation improvement measures to limit
seepage.
Embankments designed to retain solids only will often
include flter/drainage zones to permit saIe passage oI
seepage. Alternatively, they may be used in systems
where the depositional strategy is designed to minimise
the occurrence of high phreatic surfaces within the
embankment region and less elaborate measures may
be justifed.
3.5.2 Self-Stacking Tailings
Down-slope discharge of non-segregating thickened
tailings, or discharge from a raised central point will
minimise the need for retaining embankments, but
may require higher thickening and pumping costs.
This method adopts a beach slope to be maintained
throughout the operation. The consequences of this
are that the design needs to cater for:
variability oI ore and underfow density
a continuous lateral spread oI the edge oI the
tailings stack
incremental raising oI external bunds
potential process upsets, and
Flushing oI lines with water.
Advantages of the method are:
minimal embankments and hence low construction
costs
low operating costs at the TSF
the large beach area maximises the opportunity Ior
evaporative drying and hence the density and
strength of the tailings can be high
the runoII/decant pond can be located oII the
tailings and can be better managed
the fnal profle is selI-shedding (oI rainIall) on
closure, and
the fnal landIorm may be in keeping with the
surrounding topography.
Disadvantages of the method are:
the large area required Ior placement
the negative eIIect on storage capacity iI thickener
performance deteriorates or varies below design
assumptions
the dependence on evaporative drying to achieve
enhanced strength and density
the capital cost oI thickeners, and the operating
costs associated with high focculant usage
pumping costs associated with high viscosity
slurries
erosion oI slopes in high rainIall regions,
control oI dusting over large areas, and
rehabilitation is required over a larger area (but
unit costs may be lower).
3.5.3 Existing Voids
Tailings may be contained at low cost in worked out
pits, voids in waste dumps or in underground
workings.
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3.5.3.1 Open Pits
Disposal into open pits can be used in a multi-pit
operation or where abandoned pits are available
nearby.
Relevant considerations include:
sterilisation oI underlying or adjacent resources
interaction with potential under-ground resources
interaction with groundwater
the rate oI rise, will aIIect the degree oI evaporation
and consolidation that will occur during flling,
which infuences:
placement density
water recovery Irom the tailings
access Ior fnal capping
post-flling consolidation settlement
the eIIectiveness oI under-drains, and
the static head Ior pumping decant/runoII Irom the
pit.
In-pit disposal is a preferred approach for some
situations e.g. to reduce the risk of uncontrolled post-
closure release of tailings into the environment by
surface erosion.
3.5.3.2 Voids in Waste Dumps
In some open-pit or open-cut mines there may be a
possibility to modify the shape of waste dumps or
spoil piles to provide for containment of tailings.
Relevant considerations in this instance include:
the particle size distribution oI the waste, and its
ability to physically retain the tailings
the Iate oI tailings water infltrating into the dumps,
and
potential eIIects oI infltrating water on the stability
of the dump.
3.5.3.3 Underground Mine Disposal
Some underground mining methods require previously
excavated stopes to be progressively backflled.
Tailings are a possible backfll material but, being in
slurry form, are usually slow to drain and consolidate.
For this reason the coarser fraction is often separated
oII Irom the fne tailings Iraction and used as backfll,
commonly after stabilising with cement or lime.
Alternatively thickeners or mechanical flters may be
used to dewater tailings to a paste consistency,
allowing greater percentages oI fnes to be incorporated
in the backfll (ACG, 2005).
This is a specialised procedure requiring considerable
research, experience and design including assessment
of the effect on deeper or adjacent stopes that might be
operating.
There may also be occupational health risks associated
with discharge of tailings underground.
3.5.4 Co-Disposal
The technique of co-disposal (Williams, 1997) applies
in processes that produce rock waste and tailings in
two or more separate size streams where the fne
fraction is able to be incorporated into the voids of the
coarser material (e.g. coal, mineral sands).
Historically, these were disposed of separately,
typically by treating the coarse waste as a solid (i.e.
conveying or trucking), and the fne Iraction as
conventional tailings (slurry).
Co-disposal involves mixing of the waste streams
either for the purpose of either or both of:
Iacilitating transport, and
improving the properties oI the waste product aIter
placement.
Co-disposal mixes can be transported either by
pipeline as a slurry, or by truck or conveyor if the mix
has suIfcient strength.
Because of the problems associated with pumping
dense mixes, co-disposal transport often uses very
dilute slurries. Features of these types of systems are:
large pumps and pipelines
pipeline wear issues
requirements Ior supply and recycle oI dilution
water
segregation oI the coarse and fne Iraction on
discharge
blocking oI pipelines, and
Iormation oI a separate coarse section and a slimes
pond in the storage.
Attempts have been made to pump dense slurries so
that at deposition the slurry is non-segregating, with
the resulting benefts oI selI-stacking tailings. Slurries
with high solids concentrations are required which are
diIfcult to pump the slurry using centriIugal pumps.
Positive displacement pumps are required with
commensurate capital and operating cost implications.
An alternative approach is to mix the coarse and fne
fractions at the point of discharge.
Where co-disposal is undertaken with the aim of
improving the properties oI the fnal mix, the intent is
usually to have the particles comprising the coarser
Iraction in contact, with the interstitial voids flled by
the fnes, plus the water. II this is not achieved, the
properties of the mix will simply be governed by the
properties oI the fnes
3.6 Discharge to Environment
Disposal of tailings into rivers or shallow marine
waters generally has signifcant negative environmental
implications. Any tailings disposal method that may
result in serious or irreversible environmental damage
is not viewed as appropriate tailings disposal
methodology by the community or by the mining
industry.
Deep sea tailings placement techniques may be
acceptable where deep water is close to the mine and
if appropriate criteria are met. The depth of water
required is likely to make the method unsuitable for
the Australian continental shelf.
3.7 Method of Construction
3.7.1 Staged Construction
Initial construction of tailings storages to their full
fnal height is rare as this requires large material
quantities and signifcant capital expenditure. Hence a
scheme of staged construction is often adopted.
An initial starter embankment will have a life
typically of about one to three years. The primary
reasons are to minimise the initial capital cost and, to
provide the opportunity in the design for the tailings
themselves to be used in or to form part of the future
embankment.
The design must anticipate the future needs of the
embankment right through to completion and
rehabilitation. Thus features such as foundation cut-
offs, underdrainage, linings, and decant provisions
must be constructed at the same time as the starter
embankment. Access to construct any of these items
or to undertake remedial work may not be available
later in mine life. In addition access to construction
materials initially obtained from within the storage
area may not be available for future stages.
Following the completion of a starter embankment or
initial stage, there are three basic methods of staged
construction. These are:
Downstream, incorporating a starter dam
Centreline, where part oI the raised embankment
is built on tailings with the rest by downstream
construction, and
Upstream, where most oI the embankment is built
over the tailings beach.
ICOLD Bulletin 106 contains further information on
these methods of construction.
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4.0 Characterisation and Behaviour of Tailings
It is not possible to properly design, operate or close a tailings dam without adequate knowledge and
understanding of the tailings properties
4.1 Introduction
Design of a tailings storage facility should include
adequate testing of representative samples of the
tailings and include feld testing where possible.
In general, testing should include:
physical characteristics oI the tailings (both as a
slurry and as solids), including allowance for
particle segregation
engineering characteristics, such as shear strength
parameters, consolidation and permeability
characteristics
chemistry oI the process liquor
mineralogy / geochemistry (including the receiving
environment), and
rheological properties (see Section 4.4).
In the case of initial design for a new mine/ore body,
available samples may be limited to proto-type tailings
(e.g. residue from metallurgical process design testing
on limited samples of ore), or tests on tailings from a
similar ore-body from another mine. The quantity of
material available may limit the amount of testing that
is possible. In these cases the results should be treated
with due caution. A conservative approach should be
adopted until the design parameters are confrmed by
follow up tests on production tailings and observation
oI feld perIormance.
The amount of testing necessary may be reduced in
cases where the properties are already well known,
provided monitoring confrms that properties are not
changing.
4.2 Physical and Engineering
Characteristics
4.2.1 Laboratory Testing
Typical tailings may include sand, silt and clay sized
particles. As a result of water based processing
technologies, tailings are typically produced in slurry
form.
Physical tests for tailings should recognise that:
some tailings behaviour and test results will be
infuenced by processes applied to the slurry prior
to discharge, such as focculation, thickening, and
pumping
some tailings behaviour and test results will be
infuenced by processes which occur aIter
deposition, such as segregation, and
tailings deposited sub-aqueously, particularly
through deep water, are likely to segregate.
Segregation also typically occurs for tailings
slurries of low solids concentration deposited sub-
aerially.
The characteristics (including density, strength and
compressibility) of the various components following
segregation will not be the same as those for the initial
all in tailings. It is therefore necessary to consider:
iI segregation will occur, and (iI it does), and
the properties oI the segregated components.
Sample preparation prior to testing must also take
account of the origin and nature of the sample. Some
tailings properties may be strongly infuenced by
slurry history. Samples which have been obtained
from an existing process may have already been
focculated and thickened. Alternatively samples
derived from metallurgical test-work, are unlikely to
have been focculated and thickened. Storage time can
be an important consideration, as some materials will
change characteristics when stored for extended
periods.
Tests which should be carried out and that are generally
not infuenced by slurry history include:
soil particle density (specifc gravity)
particle size distribution
plasticity (Atterberg Limits), and
maximum/minimum dry density.
Tests infuenced by slurry history typically include:
settled density
density aIter drying
segregation characteristics, and
rheological parameters.
In these cases it is desirable that the tests should be
carried out on samples that have been taken, or
prepared, to replicate actual conditions.
Rheological testing undertaken for the purpose of
thickener design (sizing and torque calculation) is
typically carried out on settled slurry without pre-
shearing. Many slurries are thixotropic and/or subject
to shear thinning. Tests on samples that have not been
pre-sheared may be misleading if used for purposes of
pipeline design, or for beach slope estimation.
4.2.2 Compression/Consolidation Tests
An estimate of the density of the deposited tailings at
the end oI flling is a common design requirement.
Consolidation tests (often using a Rowe cell
apparatus) are frequently carried out to provide data
for this analysis.
The mechanism of increase in effective stress (resulting
in consolidation and increased density) in a tailings
deposit is likely to be the result of a combination of
three mechanisms:
development oI negative pore pressure due to
evaporation from the surface
downward seepage into an underdrainage system,
and
increase in overburden stress due to selI-weight
consolidation.
Generally:
gravel, sand or sand / silt mixes will settle relatively
rapidly to form a soil-like mass little affected by
subsequent drying
fne silts and clays will settle slowly to Iorm a soIt,
soil-like mass of low density which will continue
to settle (consolidate) under its own weight with
time according to the speed at which the contained
water in the tailings voids can escape, and
mixtures oI grain sizes may segregate in the
storage with coarser particles settling near the
discharge outlets and the fnest particles being
carried to the furthest parts of the storage.
With due allowance for low densities and some possible
chemical effects, most deposited tailings eventually
behave in a similar manner to soils of the same grain
size and shape. In the interim, however, fner grained
material may remain as a fuid or as a thixotropic
material for extensive periods.
4.2.3 Permeability Tests
The permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of tailings
is dependent on the particle sizes, the amount and type
of clay minerals present in the tailings, and the density
achieved in the material at a given time. Laboratory
consolidation tests carried out on tailings samples can
provide permeability data for low density tailings that
cannot be tested by conventional permeameters. Field
tests in boreholes or pits are useful as they also include
the infuences oI layering and shrinkage cracking.
4.2.4 Strength Tests
Triaxial tests are the preferred method of strength
testing, although shear box methods are still sometimes
used.
Strength tests may be carried out on undisturbed
samples recovered as part of a site investigation
program. This may require specialised sampling,
handling and transportation techniques.
Alternatively, specimens may be prepared in the
laboratory from either:
sedimentation and consolidation Irom a slurry,
and
dry/moist preparation Iollowed by saturation and
consolidation.
In all cases it is critically important to ensure that
specimens are not pre-consolidated nor tested at a
density that is un-realistic compared to the actual in-
situ conditions.
It is important to characterise both the drained and the
undrained shear strength properties of tailings.
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4.2.5 Introduction to Liquefaction
Some tailings are produced in the form of wet sand,
gravel, ash or flter cake which can be handled and
placed as a semi-solid or solid material. Beaches
formed from these materials often appear solid.
However, it is important to consider whether such
apparently solid material may liquefy under either
static or dynamic loading conditions. Similarly stacks
of such materials may become unstable under these
loading conditions and stability of these stacks should
be evaluated using similar stability analysis techniques
as used for conventional impoundments. The topic of
liquefaction is complex and a useful reference is Idriss
and Boulanger (2008).
4.2.6 In-situ Testing
The condition (or state) of existing tailings deposits
may need to be evaluated by in-situ testing. The
reasons for investigation may include:
sampling Ior chemical or geochemical reasons
assessment oI in-situ strength and/or degree oI
consolidation
assessment oI dry density
permeability evaluation, and
evaluation oI phreatic surIace and/or degree oI
saturation.
The scope of any investigation work must be closely
tied to the aims of the investigation.
Suitable methods are heavily infuenced by
traIfcability and access, or on the stability oI any test
hole/excavation.
Typical investigation methods include:
boring in cased holes, with Standard Penetration
Test (SPT) and undisturbed tube sampling
cone penetration tests (CPT), preIerably in
conjunction with pore pressure probes (CPTu)
shear vane tests
dynamic cone testing
in-situ density evaluation by sand replacement
test, and
hand auguring and test pitting.
In-situ test penetration methods are useful for
evaluation of the liquefaction potential of a deposit,
and of the post-liquefaction shear strength.
In principle, both SPT and CPT methods can be used.
In practice, SPT methods are not continuous, and not
suIfciently sensitive to low strength materials, and
CPT methods are increasingly preferred. (ref Robertson
and Fear, 1995 Olsen and Mesri 1970
4.2.7 Field Trials
Field trials (such as trial embankments) can be used to
confrm properties oI tailings and proposed
construction techniques.
4.3 Mineralogy and Chemistry
4.3.1 Geochemistry of the Liquid and Solid
Components
Tailings and transport liquors may contain deleterious
substances such as acids or alkalis, high salt levels,
cyanide, heavy metals, radioactive elements, etc.
Knowledge of the mineralogy and chemistry of the
contained solids and fuids is thereIore essential to the
proper environmental design of a storage area.
There may also be ongoing chemical reactions within
the storage, some of which are deleterious. Examples
include:
oxidation oI sulphide ores to create acidic water
base exchange with cyanide compounds into non
soluble forms, and
binding oI metals onto clay particles.
Apart from environmental considerations, knowledge
of mineralogy and chemistry also helps predict the
behaviour during disposal, the consolidation phase
and for eventual rehabilitation.
Fine tailings of apparently similar particle grading,
can consist oI fnely ground rock particles or
alternatively of an aggregation of many clay particles
which have been focculated by surIace charges oI
individual clay particles. Behaviour during deposition
and consolidation may differ markedly since
focculated clays may disperse in Iresh water (Irom
rainIall). Conversely, apparently fne grained materials
may focculate in the presence oI saline process water
or concentrated decant water. Testing procedures
should assess these effects and potential changes with
time.
Some processes add lime, which can cause focculation,
or dispersants/frothers which can cause dispersion.
The addition of gypsum or lime to a consolidating clay
tailings deposit can markedly improve soil conditions
for rehabilitation.
Some tailings change grain size upon exposure as a
result of oxidation, whilst others form a cemented
mass due to chemical changes or precipitation of
dissolved chemicals as drying continues.
It is therefore imperative that knowledge of
mineralogical and chemical aspects be gained, together
with knowledge of possible variations in ore types,
processing variables, and potential reactions on
exposure to rain and air. Any testing should take place
using fresh, saturated samples with actual or simulated
process water. Further testing with rainwater and pre-
dried samples would give comparative results which
may help to identify relevant issues.
4.4 Rheology and Transport of
Tailings
Rheology of tailings affects the delivery and discharge
characteristics and may become important at higher
solids concentrations. The determination of rheological
characteristics is a specialised feld. Test methods can
include rheometer and/or pipe loop tests.
The most common method of transport is as a slurry,
generally within the range 20% to 65% solids content
by weight. The actual solids content that may be
adopted for design is a function of:
the specifc gravity oI the solids
the solids content at the end oI the process
whether thickeners / flters are used Ior water
or chemical recovery or to reduce the volume for
tailings pumping, and
rheological properties and pumping costs.
In some cases the initial settled density of tailings is a
function of the density at discharge i.e. some produce
settled tailings at a higher density compared to simply
sedimented/settled tailings.
4.5 Tailings Beaches
Beach angles can be approximated from laboratory
trials but are neither reliable nor consistent with actual
beach behaviour. Theoretical calculations based on
rheology or shear strength may be imprecise due to
material variability and the diIfculty in determining
the low shear strength of recently settled material. If
there are existing or nearby tailings beaches of similar
material, grading and process then these will be a
useful guide.
Beach angles are also a function of the method of
operation of a storage. Beach angles below water are
complex due to various infuences that can occur, but
are generally steeper where the beach enters the
water.
The slope of the beach depends on the solids content of
the tailings, the nature of tailings including the
tendency to segregate at low beaching velocities, the
energy/velocity of deposition, and the distance to the
decant pond (ICOLD Bulletin 101, 1995). Steeper
beaches can cause signifcant 'air-space volumes in
the basin that develops and can thereby increase the
storm storage capacity but reduce the tailings storage
capacity. The beach may be infuenced by potential
slumping under earthquake or storm loading, or by
rainfall erosion of upper slopes leading to sediment
deposition on lower slopes.
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5.0 Design - Water Management
The objective of water management for a tailings storage is to ensure that the risks posed by water to the
structural integrity of the storage and to the wider environment are adequately managed and that the water
resources of the site are utilised responsibly.
5.1 Design Criteria
Following the establishment of the Consequence
Category (Section 2.3) of the tailings dam, the design
criteria related to water can be determined. These
criteria will include:
5.1.1 Spillways
A spillway should always be provided even where no
spill requirements are in force, to guard against
uncontrolled spillage during unforeseen circumstances
that could lead to failure of the dam structure. The
spillway depth should allow for passage of the design
food, assuming an initial water level is at the spillway
invert prior to the occurrence oI the design food.
Additional Ireeboard above the maximum food water
level to the dam crest might be required to prevent
wave action overtopping the crest, depending on the
potential for damage or environmental impact. The
design food requirement Ior spillway design can
preferably be determined by risk assessment methods
and Guidelines on Design Floods for Dams (ANCOLD,
2000). These requirements are summarised in Table 3.
The design food may need to be varied during diIIerent
phases of the Tailings Dam life cycle if the Consequence
Category varies.
It may be appropriate to add an additional freeboard to
allow for wind set-up in larger storages and for
uncertainties of calculation, particularly where loss of
stored water during overtopping has environmental
consequences, or if erosion has potential for
embankment breaching.
In addition the freeboard at closure should take into
account potential settlement of the embankment due
to consolidation and earthquake induced deformation.
For the post-closure design period the impact of
multiple events should be considered. This could
include several earthquakes with Annual Exceedence
probabilities in excess of the OBE.
5.1.2 !o-spill Allowances
Where water quality within the storage is unsuitable
Ior release during fooding, an appropriate storage
allowance should be provided below the spillway crest
to store contaminated foodwater and accumulated
wet season runoff. The storage allowance should be
developed by risk assessment methods or provide
additional storage using a Fall Back method as
presented in Table 4. Wet season runoff should be
assessed using a run-oII coeIfcient oI 1.0, unless a
rigorous and calibrated hydrological model is
developed. Refer to Section 5.4 for run-off
calculations.
Table 3 Recommended design oods for spillway
design and freeboard allowance
Consequence
Category
Design
Flood AEP
Wave Freeboard
Allowance
Low 1:100 Wave run-up for 1:10
AEP wind
Signifcant 1:1000 Wave run-up for
1:100 AEP wind
High Or 1:100,000 Wave run-up for
1:500 AEP wind
PMF None
Extreme PMF To be determined by
risk assessment
5.2 The Water Balance
An important design task is the development of a water
balance model for the tailings storage system. The
water balance model will help understand the ways
water might affect the design and subsequent
operational limitations and risks.
Water used in tailings transport is likely to make up a
signifcant proportion oI water use at a mine site. Much
of this water will be retained in the tailings storage
trapped within the pores. A portion will be returned to
the process or released if environmental conditions
allow. Some water will be lost through evaporation
and/or seepage. Water gains from the natural
environment into the disposal area can include surface
streams, groundwater infow and rainIall.
The total of water inputs into a tailings storage will be
balanced by recovery, disposal or losses from the area.
The water balance will determine the performance
characteristics of the tailings disposal system,
including fows and loses such as seepage that would
need to be managed during its operation and fnal
abandonment. Any imbalance can lead to progressive
changes in the volume stored in the pond.
For many parts of Australia there are now in excess of
100 years of accumulated rainfall records. Reference
to these data provides a good indication of the rainfall
extremes (both wet and dry) which are likely to occur
throughout a mines life. In many cases water balance
modelling will necessitate running selected years, or
alternatively the entire record. The analyses may need
to be done on the basis of monthly rainfall, or in critical
cases, daily rainfall.
Water balance modelling may also need to take
account of variations in tailings properties, quantities
and levels with time, and the proposed schedule of
dam raises. This typically means that some years in a
mine life are more susceptible to extreme rainfall
events than others. The consequences of these
occurrences need to be properly evaluated on the basis
of joint probability.
Similarly the variation of climatic conditions needs to
be included in any modelling to predict the potential
range of water balance outcomes.
Water balance calculations frequently utilise
spreadsheets, modelling packages, or purpose written
programs. These should be preserved and the
modelling reviewed when actual feld data becomes
available after start-up to calibrate the model.
The simplest water balance calculations deal with just
water quantity. However, where water quality is an
issue, it is possible to incorporate this into water
balance calculations. It is relatively easy to carry out a
balance for ions such as chlorides, but for unstable
species such as cyanide, a decay series must be
incorporated. An appropriate rate of decay may need
to be determined by project specifc test work.
Modelling of heavy metals can also be carried out, but
in the absence of allowances for precipitation,
adsorption, etc., may lack relevance.
Modelling of water quality can be contentious in cases
where oxidation of sulphides is expected to occur on
tailings beaches where acid drainage is likely to
develop. In these instances it is diIfcult to predict the
ongoing fux oI additional dissolved compounds into
the system.
5.3 Stream Management
The tailings area is often separated from the
surrounding stormwater streams to minimise food
design requirements, to maximise settling of tailings
and to minimise the volume of water which may need
special management due to water quality issues.
Tailings storages should ideally be located away from
signifcant streams or at the head oI valleys where
catchment outside the storage is limited. Any streams
that develop above the tailings storage should be
diverted past the storage where this is practical. The
design fow capacity oI diversion works should relate
to the relevant predicted food fows and the need to
protect the tailings storage Irom food infow. However,
if the diversion works have limited capacity then the
consequences of overtopping need to be taken into
account in the capacity of the tailings dam and its
outlets. The potential failure of a diversion system
should be considered.
Tailings storages design criteria normally require
consideration of ultimate abandonment. Any diversions
must then be adequate for long-term, low maintenance
performance and allow for erosion and degradation of
structural elements.
Diversion of external stormwater inputs may be less
critical when the tailings are required to be stored
under water. It may be necessary to divert an expanded
catchment to the tailings dam to provide suIfcient
water to keep tailings covered during extreme dry
periods.
Table 4 Additional Wet Season storage allowance
- Fall-back method
Hazard
Category
Additional Storage Allowance
Low 1:5 AEP 2 month wet season runoff
Signifcant 1:10 AEP 2 month wet season
runoff
High 1:100 AEP 2 month wet season
runoff
Extreme 1:1000 AEP 2 month wet season
runoff
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5.4 Rainfall Run-Off
RainIall can be a major component oI water infow,
with catchment runoff mixing with decant water in the
pond area.
Run-off calculations should be made in accordance
with normal hydrological methods, as outlined in
Australian Rainfall & Run-Off (The Institution of
Engineers, Australia, 1999). Run-off from the
surrounding land surfaces, any tailings beaches and
from the pond area itself, will need to be taken into
account.
Tailings beaches can vary considerably in their run-
off characteristics. Coarse tailings, particularly when
cycloned for embankment construction, can be quite
permeable and well drained. This can lead to a reduced
coeIfcient oI run-oII but increased movement oI
rainwater into the tailings and/or groundwater system.
However, most 'all-in fne tailings have a low
permeability and are readily saturated resulting in a
comparatively high coeIfcient oI run-oII.
5.5 Tailings Decant Water
Tailings normally settle on beaches, thus decanting a
proportion of the transport water over a short time
frame This would be followed by a longer term release
of transport water as consolidation of the tailings takes
place for both sub-aerial and sub-aqueous methods of
discharge. Further water is lost where there is
evaporation from exposed beaches.
It is commonly found that the increase in density is
much greater in sub-aerial deposition than in sub-
aqueous deposition. This applies not only to the initial
water loss but also to the long-term consolidation
phase due to the extra effective weight caused by
lowered water levels. As tailings dry, the capillary
tension in the pores causes major consolidation
forces.
5.6 Evaporation
Evaporation from tailings beaches and ponds can lead
to signifcant water loss Irom the system. Losses Irom
ponds can be evaluated from pan-evaporation data
using appropriate adjustment factors or by calculations
utilising wind speed, temperature, solar radiation, etc.
Losses from beaches can similarly be evaluated.
A factor of 0.7 to 0.8 is commonly used as a multiplier
to adjust evaporation rates from water ponds as
compared with measurements in standard Type A
evaporimeters with bird screens. Evaporation is also
directly proportional to wind speed and exposed
locations will develop higher evaporation losses than
sheltered locations. Losses from exposed beaches are
a complex function of solar radiation, colour, degree
of saturation, permeability, depth to saturation,
capillary effects, temperature of tailings, etc. A
common assumption for wet beaches is to assume
beach evaporation is equal to lake evaporation.
Salinity can have a major effect on the rates of
evaporation from both tailings and from ponded water
(Newson and Fahey, 1998). Salinities above that of sea
water will reduce evaporation by 5% to 20%. More
importantly, the formation of a salt crust on the tailings
surface will create a barrier which slows further
drying of the beach.
Water recovery is improved by minimising the free
water surface area on a tailings storage, which reduces
evaporation loss. In some cases it may be strategic to
maximise evaporation in order to remove contaminated
water as part of an environmental management plan.
This would require maximising the tailings pond area
and/or frequent wetting of beaches with thin layers,
and/or by using a separate evaporation pond.
5.7 Water Recovery
Excess water within the tailings storage is either
removed by evaporation or collected for recycle to the
process plant, depending on environmental and
process considerations. In some cases water quality
may allow direct discharge to the environment.
Recovery is usually achieved by a pump or gravity
system. Floating pump stations allow fexibility oI
operation with water level changes being easily
accommodated. However, maintenance and running
costs can be high. Pump sizing may need to cope with
volumes accumulated in severe food events. Floating
gravity decants or siphon decants can also be developed
iI suIfcient head is available.
Fixed decant structures are commonly used. These
usually comprise concrete or steel tower structures
with controllable outlets at various levels. They often
have permeable materials such as rockfll surrounding
them to improve water clarity and give a large area for
water entry. The draw off level can be adjusted to suit
requirements of the pond. A tailings discharge plan is
required to control the beach shapes so as to maintain
the position of the pond around the tower.
The structural design of tower decants should take
into account the large down-drag forces applied to the
structure by consolidation settlement of the tailings.
The draw-off system needs to allow the formation of
adequate pondage to permit settlement of solids before
the water is removed. A shroud over the outlet is also
common to prevent foating debris or scum being
carried over.
5.8 Seepage
5.8.1 General
Seepage from tailings storages will potentially develop
through the embankments, Ioundations and foor oI
the impoundment. The amount of seepage loss will
depend on the permeability of the various materials
and will be greatly infuenced by the permeability oI
the tailings themselves, which in many cases is quite
low.
Seepage losses may not be signifcant in the overall
water balance, but the environmental impact of
contaminated seepage may be the more signifcant
factor.
Along with losses due to evaporation, seepage is one
oI the more diIfcult components to quantiIy accurately.
Often this is taken as the component that closes the
water balance, in other words, once the inputs and
other outputs (losses) are quantifed (or estimated),
seepage losses are considered to be the component
that balances the inputs and outputs. However these
can seriously under or overestimate the seepage losses
due to uncertainty in estimating other large water
balance components.
Seepage assessment is necessary as part of detailed
design to:
defne pore pressures Ior use in stability analysis
evaluate restrictions on rate oI rise, iI any
determine potential impacts oI seepage on the
receiving environment, and
allow design oI drainage and collection systems.
It is necessary to attempt to quantify potential seepage
losses before the tailings dam is constructed and this is
where the role of seepage modelling is important.
The key driver of seepage is the elevation difference
between the decant pond and the surrounding ground.
If there were no water retained on, or within, the
tailings dam, seepage would not be a concern. This is
one of the primary perceived advantages of high
density thickened tailings deposits where no decant
pond exists on top of the storage. However, seepage
from the associated balance pond needs to be
considered. The height of a conventional TSF increases
during its lifetime, thus continually increasing the
elevation difference between the pond and the
surrounding ground and hence the driving head
causing seepage. When predicting likely seepage
losses from a TSF it is therefore common to use the
fnal height as the design condition Ior modelling.
However, it can be useful to make predictions of likely
seepage quantities at various times during the
operational life of the TSF. In this way, predicted
perIormance (such as drain fow rates) can be compared
with actual perIormance, allowing Ior modifcations
to the predictions oI perIormance at fnal height. It
also allows for intervention at an early stage should
actual performance be worse than the predicted
performance. This proactive approach may also allow
for taking advantage of an opportunity, should the
actual performance be better than the predicted
performance.
Seepage, as conventionally defned, is not the only
mechanism responsible for the generation of pore
water pressures within tailings impoundments.
Consolidation (squeezing of water from the pore
spaces) is an equally important mechanism that should
be considered in the analysis of pore pressure in
tailings. The combination of seepage and consolidation
pressures generally culminates in non-hydrostatic
conditions which need to be considered in the design
of tailings dams.
5.8.2 Predicting seepage quality and quantity
Estimates of likely seepage volumes are usually based
on some form of modelling. This modelling utilises
computer simulations and it is essential that accurate
and realistic input parameters are obtained for these
modelling exercises. It is also important to benchmark
the output by comparing actual seepage against
seepage predictions for various intermediate phases of
a tailings dam construction, and not restricted to the
fnal geometry.
Once realistic input parameters, boundary conditions
and model geometry have been determined, a seepage
analysis can be used to estimate the direction and
quantity of seepage from a TSF. It will usually be
necessary to estimate seepage quality as well. In some
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cases it may be possible to base estimates of quality
solely on the measured quality oI decant water;
however it is becoming increasingly necessary to
predict the fate of contaminants (contained within the
tailings seepage water) in the surrounding environment.
Input from specialists such as geochemists may be
required.
Modelling can also be useful in predictions of likely
pore water pressures within a TSF, which is essential
to quantifying the stability of a TSF.
Seepage modelling can also be used to locate
instrumentation designed to monitor the performance
of a TSF during construction and operation. Modelling
can help identify likely critical sections and locations
within a TSF where instrumentation can provide
maximum beneft.
5.8.3 Components of a seepage model
Any seepage model must include a realistic
representation of the geometry of the problem being
modelled, assignment of suitable parameters to the
various materials present (in-situ soils, tailings, liners,
etc.) and defnition oI appropriate boundary
conditions.
Problem geometry: Representation of the tailings
within a TSF and the foundation soil below a TSF as
homogeneous and isotropic layers is often unacceptably
simplistic. In particular, the foundation soil may be
complex, with the existence for example of paleo-
channels, Iractures, fssures or layers oI diIIering
material. It is essential to conduct suIfcient site
characterisation to ensure a realistic representation of
the subsurface has been established.
Material properties: For a seepage analysis the key
parameter is the saturated hydraulic conductivity.
Some materials might exhibit anisotropic hydraulic
conductivity values. Saturated/unsaturated modelling
would involve the potential variation of hydraulic
conductivity with degree of saturation in material
above the fully saturated zone. Transient seepage
analyses would require data on hydraulic conductivity,
porosity and/or volumetric water content. The
hydraulic properties of tailings are dependent on the
void ratio achieved in practice, and potential layering
and cracking within the deposit.
5.8.4 Monitoring and verication
All tailings dams require some form of instrumentation.
Piezometers are used for measuring positive pore
water pressures. Most conventional piezometers can
only measure positive pore pressures which occur
below the phreatic surface. The phreatic surface starts
at the decant pond, and the slope of this surface towards
the perimeter of the tailings dam depends on the
hydraulic properties of the tailings and underlying
soils as well as any drainage layers or liners that might
have been incorporated into the tailings dam. If the
fow is predominantly vertical (bottom draining) the
pore water pressures underneath the phreatic surface
are generally less than hydrostatic. In contrast, when
dealing with high rates of rise and/or very soft tailings,
generation of excess pore water pressures can create
higher than hydrostatic conditions below the phreatic
surface. Capturing of true and realistic pore water
pressure distributions within a tailings dam is crucial
for any seepage modelling exercise.
II a suIfcient number oI piezometers are installed the
shape of the phreatic surface and underlying pressures
can be determined. This information can be used to
verify design assumptions, modelling predictions and
as input to stability analyses. .Instrumentation can
also be used to provide trigger levels that would
indicate unsafe conditions due to increased pore water
pressures above safe values.
Regular piezometer monitoring enables the
performance of a tailings dam to be evaluated on an
ongoing basis.
Data from a piezometer should be carefully interpreted.
Pore-water pressures within a tailings dam can be due
to not only the fow Irom the decant pond, but may
also be from a high rate of rise that result in high
excess pore water pressures, if tailings have a low
coeIfcient oI consolidation.
Drains and/or drainage layers may be built into the
dam during construction to keep the phreatic surface
a suitable distance away from the downstream face.
The design of suitable drainage is described in ICOLD
Bulletin No 97, Tailings Dams Design of Drainage.
Instrumentation of tailings dams is discussed in
ICOLD Bulletin 104 - Monitoring of Tailings.
5.8.5 Predicting impact on groundwater
Once the potential quantity and quality of seepage
water has been estimated, the potential impact on
groundwater can be predicted. Before considering
potential impacts, it is essential to accurately
characterise and quantify the background (existing)
conditions. Information required includes depth to the
water table(s), any signifcant aquiIer(s), amount and
quality of the groundwater and the transmissivity of
the ground. Information can be obtained from records
or sampling of existing bores, other geological and
geotechnical drilling carried out on the site, and
specifc hydrogeological investigations. A
hydrogeological investigation can include simple
monitoring bores to measure water levels, down-
hole tests carried out to assess formation permeability,
pump testing, and water quality testing.
5.8.6 Environmental Assimilative Capacity
Where seepage studies indicate a potential problem, it
may be necessary to model the actual movement of
contaminants in the environment.
Contaminants in groundwater may be subject to
attenuation by various natural processes including
decay, biological and/or chemical breakdown,
retardation/absorption, dispersion, and dilution. Flow
through unsaturated zones, in particular if the soils or
weathered rocks have a high clay content, is particularly
important in this regard. Cyanide and metals absorption
characteristics can be measured for soils using
laboratory scale tests. For rocks, some form of in-
ground tracer type tests may be preferred.
Groundwater seepage velocities are often slow and the
actual mass of contaminant transported may be small.
Where seepage emerges into existing streams or other
water bodies, the assessment of potential effects should
be based on the diluted concentrations. Threshold
concentrations in the receiving water that are
acceptable are set by regulatory authorities.
5.8.7 Design Measures to Minimise Seepage
Rather than having to implement retrospective water
management strategies such as installing seepage cut-
off trenches or interception bores, implementation of
certain key principles during the design phase can
minimise seepage problems. Maximisation of solar
drying, minimisation of water content of tailings and
minimising the volume (and areal extent) of ponded
water are fundamental considerations.
5.8.8 Lining of TSFs
Methods to limit or manage foundation seepage
include cut-offs, interception trenches or wells,
grouting, and collection sumps/dams below points of
seepage. Cut-offs are useful in areas where preferential
seepage zones of higher permeability exist within the
foundations.
Naturally occurring clay under impoundment areas
can be left in place or improved by added compaction
to constitute a liner, or if necessary, additional clay
may be imported. Natural clays often have relatively
high permeability due to fssures, root holes etc.
All foundation soils will allow some seepage. However,
the rate of seepage may be so slow and the assimilative
capacity of the environment so large that the impacts
of the leakage small. A risk based approach to seepage
losses would quantify the magnitude of this potential
impact. In some circumstances it is not necessary to
line a TSF, such as when the tailings liquor is benign,
or when the local groundwater is unft Ior animal or
human consumption (e.g. hypersaline). At the other
extreme, however, there might be situations where
leakage of even very small concentrations of a
particular contaminant might be unacceptable, such as
certain radioactive constituents.
Synthetic liners are an option in lieu of or in conjunction
with clay. When considering the potential need for an
engineered lining system, such as a geomembrane or a
composite liner, it is necessary to quantiIy the beneft
of such a solution. The tailings material itself may
have a very low permeability, particularly the tailings
at the base of the TSF where consolidation has reduced
void ratios and thus hydraulic conductivities.
Furthermore, it is often the case that the more
weathered or oxidised ore at the top of the deposit is
mined and processed frst, giving a layer oI more
clayey tailings across the base of the impoundment
facility.
Consideration of an engineered lining system should
also consider the implications of underdrainage, when
all seepage through the tailings would have to be
collected and managed within drainage structures.
Otherwise there is the risk of rapid build-up of excess
pore water pressures (as downward drainage into the
sub-surface is limited, potentially leading to low
density and low strength tailings.
Liners may consist of a number of materials
including:
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compacted clay
natural soils mixed with bentonite or similar
additives
bitumen seal
PVC or similar liners
HDPE, butyl or similar geosynthetic liners, and
bentonite layers oI patent design.
Some clays focculate in the presence oI high salinity
water and have lesser permeability than indicated by
laboratory results using fresh water.
Each of these should be researched for the possibility
of damage, compatibility with the retained tailings,
and for their longevity. It is noted for example, that
PVC material can lose its plasticiser in contact with
clay ground and therefore loses quality in such
circumstances. The liners will be subject to a full
hydrostatic pressure unless drainage systems are built
on top. In such circumstances small tears and
incomplete seams can lead to quite signifcant volumes
of seepage despite the integrity of the main part of the
liner. Most synthetic liners have an inherent assigned
permeability due to the likelihood of minor
imperfections in the manufacturing process.
Where the control of seepage is crucial a double liner
(or composite liner) system may be used. In its simplest
form two liners are placed in contact with each other
on the basis that the probability of faults occurring in
each liner at the same location is very remote. A typical
situation would be a plastic (or geosynthetic) liner
placed over a compacted clay liner.
In some situations the two liners may be separated by
a drainage medium such as sand which contains
collector pipes which will collect any seepage through
the frst liner into a monitoring system. Since this
drainage layer will almost invariably be at atmospheric
pressure, the hydraulic gradient across the lower liner
is then very low and can therefore be assumed to
control seepage below the second liner to minimal
levels.
5.9 Drains and Filters
Drainage is one factor affecting seepage and stability,
that can be addressed in the design.
A drainage system must have the following features:
a flter to prevent loss oI particles Irom the dam or
foundation
a drainage layer to convey the water Irom the flter,
and
outlets to exit water Irom the drainage layer.
The drains and drainage layers have to be large enough
and extend far enough within the embankment to
reduce pore pressures as required. They must be
completely surrounded by flter material so as to
prevent any fne particles Irom being carried away
with the drained water, which could lead to failure by
piping. Further information is in ICOLD Bulletin No.
97, Tailings Dams - Design of Drainage.
Filters must be properly designed e.g. use Sherard and
Dunnigan (1984) and constructed of clean, free
draining, non-plastic sand and gravel. Geotextile
flters in contact with tailings may clog and should
only be used after consideration of this aspect.
The design liIe oI a flter in a tailings dam environment
needs particular consideration in relation to the post-
closure period, if there is a risk of chemical precipitation
or reaction that may change flter properties. It is likely
that a flter cannot be relied on to perIorm its Iunction
into the post-closure phase if AMD seepage is
occurring, or could possibly develop. In this case,
design may need to consider alternative means to
protect a tailings storage from the risk of piping. This
could include:
provide conservatively sized flters
avoid materials prone to piping, and
design Ior very
6.0 Design Embankment
The objective of tailings storage embankment design is to ensure that the structures are able to withstand
the potential loading conditions that could be expected during their life time to the extent that the risk of
failure is acceptably low.
6.1 Stability Analysis
6.1.1 Stability Evaluations
Stability evaluations of tailings dams differ from those
for conventional dams in the following respects:
Tailings dam embankment zones may be thinner
and smaller, especially for the upstream method of
construction
Upstream construction relies on the strength oI the
tailings which can vary with time due to
consolidation, and
The pore pressures within the tailings are a
combination of seepage pressures and consolidation
pressures which generally culminate in non-
hydrostatic conditions requiring specialised
modelling techniques.
6.1.2 Methods of Stability Analyses
The analysis of stability of tailings dam embankments
is initially carried out using limit equilibrium
procedures. Some of these procedures consider all of
the conditions of static equilibrium (force and moment
equilibrium) while others consider only some of them.
Those procedures that have reasonable side force
assumptions and that explicitly satisfy moment
equilibrium are recommended, such as Bishop (1955),
Morgenstern and Price (1965), Spencer (1967), Chen
and Morgenstern (1983), and Sharma (1973).
Where suIfcient data are not available it will be
necessary to use conservative parameters.
In some cases (if the required data are available) a
fnite element/diIIerence method is used where
stability is marginal or where it is necessary to predict
deformations and/or pore pressures in unusual
situations. The method is directly relevant to upstream
construction on consolidated/partially consolidated
clayey tailings, where the high clay content may lead
to strain softening and where there is potential for
liquefaction.
The method of analysis should be determined by
experienced practitioners guided by a risk-assessment
process.
6.1.3 Loading Conditions
Before starting stability analyses, clear understanding
needs to develop about the loading conditions. Each
loading condition represents a physical condition or
scenario that needs to be analysed with specifc types
of material strengths. Different types of shear strengths
(drained or undrained), even for the same material,
may be needed for different loading conditions.
In addition it may be necessary to consider the
contractive and dilative state of materials. The
contractive versus dilative behaviour could be
evaluated through laboratory tests, such as consolidated
undrained triaxial tests with pore water pressure
measurements, and/or feld tests, such as cone
penetration tests with pore water pressure
measurements.
The following loading conditions should be considered
for tailings dam analyses:
6.1.3.1 Drained condition:
This loading condition assumes that the excess pore
pressures caused by loading (or unloading) have
dissipated due to a slow rate of construction or
suIfcient time aIter construction, and the shear-
induced pore pressures are also zero due to a slow rate
of shearing during failure. In essence, this loading
condition represents the long-term stability of a
tailings dam under steady-state conditions, with no
rapid change in phreatic surface or geometry (either
loading or excavation).
For this loading condition, all materials are
characterised with effective stress drained shear
strength. The physical conditions/scenarios that this
loading condition may represent include:
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long-term static stability oI the ultimate design
height embankment, and
long-term post closure stability oI a TSF.
This loading condition should not be used to evaluate:
stability during construction, where geometry and/
or pore water pressures are changing
stability oI contractive materials
stability oI new construction over existing slopes
stability oI renewed deposition over old
impoundments
slope stability with toe excavation, and
post-seismic stability where the seismic event is
small enough to preclude any liquefaction but large
enough to induce undrained conditions.
For these latter scenarios the short-term undrained
loading condition needs to be evaluated as described
below.
6.1.3.2 Undrained condition:
The undrained loading condition represents the
stability of an embankment where loading and/or
failure occurs rapidly enough that there is not enough
time for drainage of induced excess pore water
pressures, or where pore pressures are developed due
the contractive nature of the tailings. Some drainage
may occur in the feld but it is diIfcult to predict how
much and where along the shear surface it will occur.
To guard against this uncertainty, the standard practice
is to check the stability of such materials using the
undrained strength envelope. Materials for which
undrained strength is of particular importance include
saturated contractive tailings and foundation clay
layers. Coarse grained, free draining materials and
dilative materials, which are not expected to sustain
any excess pore water pressures, are adequately
characterised with effective stress drained shear
strength parameters.
Static liquefaction is another important slope failure
mechanism whose potential needs be evaluated as part
oI the undrained loading condition. As defned by Fell
(2007), static liquefaction occurs at low stresses and is
characterised by large pore pressure development,
resulting in close to zero effective stresses at low strain
levels. Further details on static liquefaction can be
obtained from Fell (2007) and Duncan and Wright
(2005).
6.1.3.3 Pseudo-static Condition:
One of the earliest procedures of analysis for seismic
stability was the pseudo-static procedure, in which the
earthquake loading is represented by a static horizontal
force, equal to the soil weight multiplied by a seismic
coeIfcient, k. This approach is conservative in that
forces in the critical direction exist for only a short
time before being followed by equal forces in the
opposite direction which stabilise the slope. Pseudo-
static analyses provide a useful way of screening for
potential stability problems, however are less
conservative when the soils involved may lose a
signifcant amount oI their strength due to the
earthquake.
Because seismic loading is of short duration, it is
reasonable to assume that except for some coarse
grained materials, the soils will not drain appreciably
during the period of earthquake shaking. Thus,
consolidated undrained shear strengths are used for
most fne grained materials in pseudo-static analyses.
The US Army Corps of Engineers (1984) recommend
the use of undrained conditions for cohesive soils and
drained conditions for free draining granular materials,
with a 20 percent strength reduction to allow for strain
weakening during earthquake loading. Further
guidance on strength reduction factors and seismic
coeIfcients can be obtained Irom Duncan and Wright
(2005).
It is generally accepted that the pseudo-static analysis
is not an accurate tool of seismic stability assessment
of embankment dams, and that it may only be used as
a screening tool for dams not susceptible to liquefaction
(ANCOLD Guidelines for Design of Dams for
Earthquake, August 1998).
The indication of a low factor of safety from pseudo-
static analysis should lead to an assessment of potential
embankment deformation.
6.1.3.4 Post-seismic Condition:
Following an earthquake, the stability of a slope may
be diminished because cyclic loading has reduced the
shear strength of the material this is especially true
for tailings. The reductions in shear strength are
generally treated differently depending on whether or
not liquefaction occurs.
The frst step in evaluating strength loss is to determine
if the material will liquefy. The procedures for doing
this are semi-empirical, based on consideration of
particle size grading, the degree of saturation, results
oI feld tests and case histories. Four diIIerent feld
tests are generally considered suitable for measuring
soil resistance to liquefaction: (1) cone penetration
tests, (2) Standard Penetration tests, (3) shear-wave
velocity measurements, and (4) for gravelly sites, the
Becker penetration test. Various correlations have
been developed that relate the results from these tests
to the resistance of the material against liquefaction,
measured as cyclic resistance ratio (CRR). The CRR
values are then compared with the seismically induced
seismic stress ratio (CSR) to determine if liquefaction
will occur. CSR values could be estimated from the
simplifed procedure oI Seed and Idriss (1971) or could
be calculated using a more rigorous site response
analysis approach, such as that implemented in the
SHAKE computer program.
If liquefaction is expected, reduced values of the
undrained residual shear strengths are estimated. If a
material is not expected to liquefy it is still possible
that pore water pressures will increase in the material
and its shear strength may be reduced. The reduction
in shear strength is generally related to the factor of
saIety against liqueIaction, which is defned as CSR
divided by CRR.
Once the post-seismic shear strengths have been
determined, a conventional static slope stability
analysis is performed to estimate the post-seismic
stability of the structure.
Liquefaction assessment is a specialised area that
requires expert knowledge. Susceptibility of materials
to liquefaction is not only dependent upon the CRR/
CSR values but also on many other material
characteristics such as particle size gradations,
Atterberg limits, etc. Guidance on liquefaction
assessment and post-seismic stability can be obtained
from Duncan and Wright (2005) and Seed and
Boulanger (2008).
6.1.4 Shear Strength Characterisation
The level oI site investigations, including feld and
laboratory testing, should be compatible with the level
of design and the associated analyses.
Effective stress (drained) shear strength parameters
may be estimated from consolidated drained (CD)
triaxial test(s), consolidated direct simple shear test(s),
consolidated undrained (CU) triaxial test(s) with pore
water pressure measurement.
Consolidated undrained shear strength should be
derived in accordance with the Undrained Strength
Analysis (USA) approach of Ladd (1991). The crux of
the USA approach is that the undrained shear strength
is a function of the pre-shear/pre-loading effective
consolidation stress. This approach is also commonly
called the su/`v approach.
For situations where the undrained strength is
estimated to be higher than the drained strength,
undrained strength should be capped at the drained
strength to avoid reliance on negative pore water
pressures. In other words, undrained shear strength
values higher than the drained shear strength values
should generally be avoided.
For horizontal or near horizontal shear planes, direct
shear or direct simple shear type shear strength should
be used (instead of the triaxial shear strength) to
account for possible anisotropy in shear strength.
The use of total strength parameters is not
recommended because total stresses do not directly
account for the pore water pressures, and for tailings
dams the use of total stress parameters may give
misleading results. Material strengths, both drained
and undrained, are a function of effective stresses and
not of total stresses.
Table 5 Acceptable factors of safety
Loading Condition
(Note 1)
Recommended
Minimum for
Tailings Dams
Shear strength to be used for evaluation
Long-term drained 1.5 Effective Strength
Short-term undrained (potential loss of
containment)
1.5 Consolidated Undrained Strength
Short-term undrained (no potential loss of
containment)
1.3 Consolidated Undrained Strength
Post-seismic 1.1 Post Seismic Shear Strength See Note 2
!ote 1 See Section 6.1.3 for description of loading conditions
Note 2 Cvclicallv reduced undrained/drained shear strength and/or liquehed residual shear strength for
potentiallv liquehable materials.
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6.1.5 Acceptable Factors of Safety
There are no rules for acceptable factors of safety, as
they need to account for the consequences of failure
and the uncertainty in material properties and
subsurface conditions. Table 5 shows the ANCOLD
recommended factors of safety for tailings dams under
various loading conditions.
If a Pseudo-Static analysis is undertaken, a factor of
safety greater than 1.0 may be taken as indicative of
limited deformation being caused by the design
earthquake. A factor of safety less than 1.0 should not
be interpreted as necessarily indicating failure of an
embankment but only as a trigger for a deformation
assessment. The potential for failure should then be
judged on the basis of the assessed deformation, and
the potential consequences of this deformation in
terms of release of tailings or water that could lead to
failure.
6.1.6 Additional Points to Consider
The Iollowing points are made specifcally in reIerence
to use of limit equilibrium methods to analyse the
stability of tailings dams.
In the majority of applications, non-circular failure
surfaces may need to be considered.
Critical Iailure surIaces are defned as those which
give the lowest factor of safety, and which would likely
cause signifcant damage iI sliding occurred. Shallow
Iailure surIaces are oIten identifed by computer
analyses using automatic search routines as giving the
minimum factor of safety but do not lead to the critical
breaching of the dam.
Situations which can lead to an overestimation of
factor of safety can usually be related to the assumptions
made regarding shear strength and pore pressures, not
to problems in the analysis itself, e.g.:
incorrect assessment oI location oI phreatic surIace
and pore water pressure conditions
anisotropic conditions in the fll or tailings, giving
relatively high horizontal permeability
non-recognition oI bedding plane shears or landslip
surfaces in the foundation
non-recognition oI fssuring in the soil/rock
foundation
liqueIaction` under earthquake loading, leading to
loss of shear strength, and
static liqueIaction as stress conditions change e.g.
by upstream construction where failure occurs at
stresses less than given by effective stress
parameters. This occurs when the loose tailings
generate positive pore pressures during shearing.
Recent advances in the area of numerical modelling
have made it possible to calculate the factor of safety
oI a slope using fnite element/diIIerence techniques
(Dawson and Roth, 1999; Dawson, Motamed,
Nesarajah, and Roth, 2000). The major advantage of
using fnite element/diIIerence methodology is that
trial shear surfaces are not required to locate the most
critical shear surface. This is an expert area requiring
special skills, judgment and experience other than
mathematical expertise.
6.1.7 Progressive Failure
Consideration should be given to the risk of progressive
failure (Potts et al, 1990), where, for example, the slip
surface passes through high plasticity clay which
exhibits brittle or strain softening behaviour.
6.1.8 Reliability and Sensitivity Analyses
Reliability calculations are used to estimate the
statistical reliability of the calculated factor of safety
considering the inherent uncertainties in the input
parameters. It provides a means of evaluating the
combined effects of uncertainties and a means of
distinguishing between conditions where uncertainties
are particularly high or low. Reliability calculations
could be performed using probability based statistical
techniques such as those described by Duncan (2000).
This may be useful in decision making.
It is good practice that analyses are carried out to
assess the sensitivity of the factor of safety to
assumptions on shear strength, pore pressures and
geometry of sliding, and that the embankment is
designed to be stable within a range of assumptions.
Seepage analyses should be reviewed in light of
stability analyses to ensure the potential range of the
critical pore pressures has been evaluated.
6.2 Earthquake Considerations
The design of a tailings dam for earthquake should
take into consideration the:
level oI seismic activity that may occur at the site
potential Ior amplifcation or dampening oI the
frm ground acceleration by Ioundation and/or
embankment materials
ability oI the proposed tailings dam to survive
predicted earthquake loadings, and
potential Ior liqueIaction oI the saturated tailings
on an elevated beach or in the storage.
The assessment of seismic hazard can be made from a
history of the earthquakes that have occurred in the
vicinity of the storage. Reference is made to Australian
Standard AS 1170.4-1993, however this does not cover
the wide range of earthquake probabilities relevant to
dam designs.
High and Signifcant Consequence Category tailings
dams should use specifc site inIormation and the
assistance of seismology specialists. Estimates of
ground motion parameters from past earthquakes can
be calculated Ior a specifc site.
The designer requires information on both the
Operating Basis Earthquake (OBE) and the Maximum
Design Earthquake (MDE) for dam design (refer
ANCOLD Guideline for Design of Dams for
Earthquakes, 1998). Dams should remain serviceable
under the OBE. OBE is generally expected to cause
limited damage/deformations that could be repaired
without signifcantly disrupting operations. Under the
MDE, damage could be more extensive and may
disrupt operations, but the structural integrity of the
dam needs to be maintained and uncontrolled release
of tailings/water should not occur. Thus, MDE is
always higher than the OBE.
The OBE for tailings dams should generally be as
follows, subject to the ANCOLD 1998 guideline
referenced above:
a 1 in 50 AEP event Ior LOW Consequence dams
a 1 in 100 AEP event Ior SIGNIFICANT
Consequence dams, and
a 1 in 1000 AEP event Ior HIGH and EXTREME
Consequence dams.
When considering the MDE, the concept of Maximum
Credible Earthquake (MCE) is often used. The MCE
is calculated deterministically and is taken as the
maximum theoretical earthquake associated with
known or inferred faults in proximity of the site.
Therefore the MCE technically does not have a return
period associated with it, and is the maximum
earthquake that could ever occur at the site. Earthquake
events for 10,000 year, or 20,000 year or 50,000 year
AEP generally start approaching the MCE event.
The MDE should be at least a 1:10,000 AEP event for
HIGH and EXTREME Consequence Dams.
Well compacted embankment dams constructed from
clayey fll or rockfll are generally resistant to
earthquake shaking, although provision must be made
for crest settlements and displacements resulting from
the earthquake. These can be estimated so that a
suitable freeboard can be maintained at all times to
avoid risk of overtopping.
Hydraulically placed sand flls are particularly
susceptible to liquefaction or slope instability under
earthquake conditions unless compacted to an
acceptable relative density. The required density
depends on grading and grain shape and can be
determined by laboratory tests. Several tailings dams
using upstream construction have failed by
liquefaction.
Upstream construction dams require particularly
careful design and detailing to withstand earthquakes.
They should use internal drainage and suitably shaped
starter dams to reduce the length of a potential failure
surface that could pass through the retained tailings.
Note that tailings as placed are usually stratifed, so
underdrains may not result in complete drainage of the
tailings and liquefaction may occur under moderate
earthquakes.
Tailings dams are typically analysed for earthquake
stability in stages of increasing order of complexity
according to the results of the previous stage. The
stages are described in ANCOLD (1998).
6.3 Settlement
Tailings densities are low when deposited, but will
increase under the effects of surface drying or from
consolidation under self-weight, the weight imposed
by ongoing deposition or the weight of a capping
layer.
Consolidation rates may be quite slow, sometimes
taking many years, particularly Ior fne grained, clayey
tailings. Traditional consolidation models used in
geomechanics do not correctly simulate early
behaviour, and use must be made of Finite Strain
Theory and fnite element modelling.
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As the material consolidates, the permeability also
reduces with the lowest layers being most dense and
having the lowest permeability. This restricts
downwards fow necessitating much oI the
consolidation water to move upwards through a longer
distance than consolidation of normal soils. This in
turn causes a slower consolidation than might be
expected. Detailed analyses take into account the
changing characteristics of the tailings as they
consolidate.
The consolidation of tailings may result in settlements
of many metres in some cases.
The effects of such settlement on the embankment or
any structures near or within the tailings are to be
considered carefully. For example, upstream
construction may be built partly on an existing earthen
embankment and partly on tailings, causing ongoing
differential settlement. This can lead to cracking of
the embankment both longitudinally and laterally, the
effects of which should be considered in stability
analyses.
Similarly, the settlement of tailings around any
embedded decant tower, causeway or, pipe system can
be quite signifcant leading to down-drag loads which
can damage such systems. Monitoring equipment
embedded in the tailings must also be capable of
tolerating such settlements.
Settlement may continue for many years after the
placement oI tailings have been fnalised. This will
mean that surface drainage on a rehabilitated upper
surface will change with time and may cause ponding
iI suIfcient allowance or ongoing maintenance has not
been provided.
The consolidation causing this settlement may also
continue to release water and any associated salts from
within tailings for a considerable time after mine
closure.
Settlement can be caused by evaporation from the
tailings surface which, apart from shrinkage in the
drying layer, will lower the groundwater level and
increase the effective stresses on deeper tailings and
thus initiate further consolidation.
6.4 Durability of Construction
Materials
The durability of all construction materials must be
considered in the design of tailings dams intended to
safely retain tailings into the long-term post-closure.
Examples could include:
rip-rap or armour rock subject to break-down by
weathering
rockfll containing sulphides that could be prone to
oxidation, breakdown and release of acid drainage
drain material that may react with the process
solution, and
synthetic materials such as geotextile and pipes
that do not have proven long-term performance.
6.5 Design Report
The design report describes the basis of the design,
including the design concept/philosophy and all design
parameters such as the geotechnical properties of the
tailings and construction materials, the site
meteorological conditions (rainfall, evaporation, wind,
etc.) and the key performance criteria. The design
report is critically important in determining the safety
controls, operating procedures and maintenance
programs that need to be implemented for the
successful operation of the facility.
The design report also provides easy and quick
reference for details in the event of an emergency, the
assessment and evaluation of an operational need to
modify operation or design, or the need for a back-
analysis of an issue arising.
6.6 Third-Party Reviews
As a prudent and proven risk management/control
approach, third-party reviews are encouraged at
different stages of design and operation of TSFs. These
reviews should be treated separate from the annual
reviews of the facility, and should be carried out by an
independent party different than the designer.
7.0 Construction
7.0 Construction
The objective of construction is to create a safe and stable tailings storage that conforms to the design
intent, meets regulatory commitments and meets the intended tailings and water management
requirements.
7.1 Introduction
The integrity of a tailings embankment is as critical as
for any water dam. Assuming a sound design, the
success or failure of a tailings embankment will
depend heavily on the manner in which it is constructed.
Construction management, technical supervision and
quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) are
essential for the successful construction of a TSF and
ancillary works.
The requirements for successful construction
management of a TSF are as set out below, together
with other construction related issues.
These requirements apply equally to initial construction
and any subsequent stages or raises.
7.2 Supervision and
Documentation
7.2.1 General
The responsibilities for technical direction and
documentation oI the works need to be Iully defned
prior to the commencement of construction. The
preferred arrangements are set out in the following
sections.
7.2.2 Design Engineer
It is highly desirable that the Design Engineer should
be closely involved in construction. It is preferable that
the Design Engineer should also be the Responsible
Engineer (see below), but where this is not the case, the
Responsible Engineer should have a defned
relationship to the Design Engineer to allow ongoing
interaction to ensure the design intent is achieved.
7.2.3 Responsible Engineer
The Responsible Engineer is the engineer responsible
Ior supervision during construction and Ior certifcation
of the construction works.
The usual regulatory requirement for construction
certifcation is that the works have been executed in
accordance with the design intent. It follows that all
design changes required during construction must be
approved by the Design Engineer, and documented
either by notes or revisions to construction drawings.
The Responsible Engineer should be responsible for
the technical direction of the work and should certify
that the TSF has been constructed in conformance
with the design and specifcations.
The Responsible Engineer should be represented on
site during construction by an Engineers
Representative or Resident Engineer who will carry
out the technical direction of the work. Technical
direction comprises interpretation of the design and
specifcations and review oI site conditions and
materials to ensure that the intent of the design is
implemented. Site conditions often vary from those
assumed during the design and it is important that
these variations are recognised, accommodated and
documented during construction. Construction
inspector(s), reporting to the Resident Engineer should
be used when the complexity or importance of the
work warrants it.
Visual inspection oI works can be signifcantly more
effective than random sampling and testing in
maintaining the quality of workmanship.
7.2.4 Quality Control/Quality Assurance
Quality Assurance (QA) comprises management of
the design, construction and operation process to
ensure that the systems in place are capable of
delivering the quality objectives of a project. Quality
Control (QC) comprises inspection of the work and
testing of materials prior to incorporation in the Works
to ensure compliance with the specifcations. This
work comprises testing oI potential borrow areas, flter
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7.0 Construction
materials, concrete aggregates etc., inspection of
membrane liners, pumps, pipelines etc. during or soon
after manufacture and prior to installation or
incorporation into the works.
The QC work is usually carried out by the Responsible
Engineer or an independent testing company who
reports to the Responsible Engineer. Irrespective of
the size of the project, as a minimum, earthworks
should be subject to geotechnical testing. Test methods
should be in accordance with the methods set out in
AS 1289, Methods of Testing Soils for Engineering
Purposes. Whilst not strictly applicable to embankment
dams, further guidance on the practicalities of
earthworks testing is provided in AS 3798-2007
Guidelines on Earthworks for Commercial and
Residential Developments.
A Site Inspection Manual that presents QA
methodology and the types and frequency of QA/QC
test work, inspection, recording and reporting
requirements, in accordance to the construction
specifcation, should be prepared, maintained and
amended when required,. The Manual should include
a site organisation chart showing lines of
communication and responsibilities for the construction
management team. The manual should include
protocols for acceptance and rejection of components
of the work, and re-work and re-testing requirements.
7.2.5 Construction Site Management
There are several ways in which the construction of a
TSF can be delivered. These include:
TSF constructed by owner using mine equipment
or by direct hire
TSF constructed by contractor, and
TSF constructed by combination oI contractor and
owner.
It is not unusual for the initial stage of a TSF to be
constructed by a contractor and subsequent stages to
be constructed by the mine. The management system
required for the successful construction of the TSF
will depend on who is carrying out the work.
An appropriate management structure for a TSF
constructed by a contractor is shown in Figure 2.
7.0 Construction
Mining
Company
Responsible
Engineer
Construction
Manager
Contractual
Management
Technical Management
Responsible
Engineers
Representative
QA/QC Contractor
Figure 2 Management structure for contractor constructed TSF
The size of this management team depends on the size and level of complexity of the construction project. The
team could be as little as one person who provides technical direction, carries out QA/QC inspections and feld
testing and provides contract management. This is only possible if the project is small in scope. A large TSF
development may require a signifcant team comprising a Resident Engineer, project engineers and inspectors,
and a site laboratory for materials testing. A separate construction management team may be required comprising
an owners representative, contract manager, quantity surveyors and cost control personnel.
An appropriate management structure for an owner constructed facility is shown in Figure 3.
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7.0 Construction
Mining
Company
Engineers
Representative
QA/QC
Team
Mine
Work Force
Technical Management
Figure 3 Management Structure for Owner Constructed TSF
The main difference in this case is that the mine is both the owner and constructor of the TSF as well as the client
of the engineer. The lines of authority to ensure that the technical requirements of the TSF construction are met
need to be established and recorded in the Site Inspection Manual. Again, the size of the team depends on the
size and complexity of the construction project. Projects where both contractor and owner are involved in the
construction will require elements of both management structures.
The most important requirement is technical direction and supervision to ensure that the TSF is constructed
according to the design intent of the Design Engineer.
7.0 Construction
7.3 Storage Preparation
7.3.1 Clearing and Stripping
Preparation of the storage area is typically covered in
the design specifcation and/or drawings.
The extent of storage preparation required will
generally be site specifc and dependent on a number
of factors relating to the extent of vegetation and the
necessity to control seepage through the foor oI the
storage. The following considerations apply.
All trees and large bushes within the area for storage
should be removed. The removal of these may be
carried out by dozing or felling depending on the
extent and nature of the vegetation. Vegetation and
felled trees that is not suitable for timber or other use
may be disposed of in accordance with local
regulations. Alternatively they can be chipped or
stockpiled for use during rehabilitation. Where soils
within the storage have been identifed as suitable Ior
use in rehabilitation (or topsoiling) these should be
stripped after the removal of the vegetation.
As the usefulness of organic rich soils can deteriorate
with stockpiling, the advice of the local soil
conservation department or other suitably experienced
advice should be sought on the most appropriate
methods of storing the soil to minimise degradation.
Where a design requires special treatment of the
storage foor to reduce the permeability particular
attention should be given to preventing the subsequent
desiccation and cracking of the treated soils. Where
broad scale preventative measures are not possible the
work should be carried out progressively ahead of the
tailings as it covers the foor oI the storage.
7.3.2 Springs and Permeable Ground
Features such as springs that may rise within the basin
oI a storage should be identifed. An appropriate
measure for addressing such occurrences would
include depressurising the ground water and placing a
sealing layer over the spring. The depressurising may
cease once there is suIfcient weight on top to hold
down the seal. Where groundwater drains are
considered an option, it may be appropriate to isolate
them from the tailings with an impermeable or low
permeability cover to minimise the contamination of
the groundwater by tailings water. This can ensure
that the groundwater collected by the isolated
groundwater drains will meet release standards.
Where features such as permeable faults or permeable
zones have been identifed, measures must be taken to
minimise the potential seepage problem. Appropriate
measures would include the blanketing of the areas
with a low permeability fll and/or the installation oI
drainage.
7.3.3 Preparation for Liners
Facilities that store hazardous tailings containing
cyanide, radio-nuclides etc. may require a continuous
membrane basin liner or multiple liner, refer 5.8.8.
The success of membrane liners relies on the care
taken in preparation of the bedding layers and in the
QA/QC programmes for installation. Liners can be
punctured by sharp rock particles in the bedding layer
beneath the liner or in the over liner material. Protective
layers of geotextile can be used to protect liners from
puncture. The geotextile- membrane line interface can
be a plane of weakness and care must be taken during
construction to prevent slip failures. Compound liners
require that the membrane liner be placed in direct
contact with a low permeability soil liner. This
combination can result in a signifcant reduction in
potential leakage. This relies on continuous contact
and excessive wrinkles in the membrane liner can
make this less effective.
7.4 Foundation Preparation
Foundation preparation for embankments is typically
covered in the design specifcation and/or drawings.
The foundations for embankments should be prepared
with equal care and diligence as for any conventional
water holding dam. The prepared foundation should
be inspected by a qualifed geotechnical engineer or
engineering geologist and if necessary should be
mapped. The Responsible Engineer should confrm
that the geotechnical conditions encountered are
consistent with the design assumptions.
The strength of the foundation materials needs to be
confrmed as meeting design assumptions. In dry
climates where saturated clays are rare, this is generally
not diIfcult to achieve. Where saturated clays occur,
consideration must be given to stability during
construction. Rates of construction are usually low
enough to permit the dissipation of pore pressures as
the dam is built, but stability analyses should be carried
out to determine an acceptable safe rate of construction
(refer Section 6.1). Having determined acceptable
construction pore pressures, instrumentation must be
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7.0 Construction
installed as the work proceeds to enable the actual
pore pressures to be monitored.
Where the foundations contain permeable layers of
sands, gravels or alluvial, the question of seepage
control must be addressed (refer Section 5.9). Cut-off
trenches or underdrainage collection systems may be
required, depending on the type of tailings dam, the
nature of the tailings water, the topography and the
ground water regime. Loose layers of saturated sands
are potentially liquefable and iI encountered may
need to be removed or treated in situ.
Where the foundations consist of rock, seepage may
commence along steep rock faces or in narrow joints
where good compaction is diIfcult. Concentrated
seepage through rock joints may also initiate internal
erosion in the embankment materials. This is normally
solved by reshaping such Ieatures, flling local
features with concrete, slush grouting of jointed
ground and/or the construction oI flter blankets.
Seepage through deep seated joints can be restricted
by grouting or by collecting it with a controlled
underdrainage system. The local site conditions and
nature of the rock will generally be the deciding factors
in determining the most suitable action.
7.5 Instrumentation
Instrumentation is placed to monitor response of the
TSF to construction and operation of the facilities.
Instrumentation can be delicate, and relies on accurate
installation to the specifcations oI the instrument
manufacturer and the Design Engineer. The
instruments require protection during construction
from earthmoving machinery etc. Particular care is
required to protect existing instrumentation and
monitoring equipment during staged construction or
construction of embankment raises.
Electronic equipment will also need to be shielded
from induced electric current from lightning strikes.
7.6 Source of Materials
A variety of materials may be utilised for construction
of tailings storage facilities. The material available for
use in embankment construction is likely to vary
throughout the life of the storage. Evaluation and
testing to characterise the material properties is part of
the normal design process.
Natural site materials may be available, including
typical soils and rock, similar to those which would be
used in conventional embankments. However, the
need to produce cost effective designs often requires
consideration of the use of materials which would be
considered marginal or not suitable for a water dam.
It is often desirable to locate borrow pits for natural
materials within the storage area. If this is done,
consideration should be given to the infuence oI the
borrow pit on seepage from the storage.
When the tailings are discharged into borrow pits,
they can be expected to fll rapidly with little time Ior
drying or consolidation. The persistent high water
content of these tailings will inhibit the desiccation
and consolidation of tailings deposited over these
borrow areas. Borrow pits should be located far enough
from the embankment to ensure that the desiccation of
tailings is not inhibited where stability is dependent on
the strength of the tailings. Borrow pits should be
developed to uniIorm foor grades to avoid isolated
ponding.
It may be necessary to import critical components
Irom oII-site sources (e.g. sands or gravels Ior flter/
drainage zones). The cost implications of this will
need careful consideration.
Signifcant quantities oI mine waste are generated
from open-cut operations. In many cases, pre-stripping
of the ore-body may be scheduled for the same time as
construction of the starter embankment, and waste
will be available. In other cases it may be necessary to
construct the starter embankment with natural
materials, with waste only becoming available for
subsequent raises.
In some cases, the use oI the mine feet to place
overburden waste material directly at the embankment
site can be more economic than the use of local
materials. The following considerations apply:
mining is usually on a large scale, and selection oI
particular materials will be diIfcult
wider crest widths or zone widths are likely to be
required to suit large equipment
the inclusion oI coarse and permeable material is a
distinct possibility
placement and compaction oI thin liIts, or narrow
zones will not be practicable or possible, and
it is more diIfcult to achieve Iace slopes other than
the natural angle of repose of the dumped
material.
On the other hand, there is usually no shortage of
7.0 Construction
material, and the incremental cost of placement may
be very low compared to conventional earthworks.
Where mine waste is used for embankment
construction, weathered oxide waste generally
provides a more favourable construction material. In
many instances a rock waste that could be a suitable
construction material will be precluded from use
because of its chemistry. Where any mine waste is
used for embankment construction it should be tested
to ensure that it is not potentially acid forming.
7.7 Use of Tailings for
Construction
7.7.1 Perimeter Embankments
If the design calls for the use of tailings as the main
construction material to construct perimeter
embankments (or dykes) for the TSF, it is important to
ensure that the excavation of the tailings from within
the basin does not compromise the integrity of the
TSF. When tailings are excavated from a trench
adjacent to the perimeter, rapid flling oI the trench
with tailings can result in deposits of low strength,
under-consolidated tailings in the structural zone of
the TSF embankment. This can lead to instability,
excessive seepage through the downstream face of the
embankment and possibly piping failures. Tailings
should therefore be excavated in thin layers from the
tailings beach while maintaining drainage away from
the perimeter to the supernatant pond or excavated
from areas remote from the perimeter and hauled into
place.
If the moisture content of the excavated tailings is too
high to permit compaction to the required density, the
tailings can be processed using techniques such as
mud farming where specialised machinery is use to
dry the tailings prior to excavation. Temporary
stockpiling of tailings can also be used to allow drying
to occur.
Where tailings is used for construction, the downstream
face of each stage must be dressed progressively with
a suitable material such as mine waste or topsoil and
re-vegetated to prevent erosion.
7.7.2 Hydrocyclones
Hydrocyclones have been used for the construction of
tailings embankments where the tailings contains a
high fraction of coarse material or where a clean
separation of the tailings can be achieved.
The use oI hydrocyclones is more diIfcult Ior fne
graded tailings (i.e. containing a high proportion of silt
sizes and below), and separation is not likely to be
Iully eIfcient in slurries containing signifcant
proportions oI clay fnes (as Irom oxide ores).
Effective hydrocyclone separation of a tailings material
is assisted by a low slurry density in the feed. Where
water resources are restricted, a high slurry feed
density will require small diameter hydrocyclones and
high operating pressures to achieve cyclone eIfciency.
For eIfcient construction, the underfow must be Iree
draining, able to stand at the required angle of repose
when deposited, and capable of being compacted.
Hydrocyclones can be used in a fxed location to
generate material for mechanical placement. The
cyclone underfow is stockpiled to drain then handled
and placed in a manner appropriate to its properties.
The cyclone overfow is disposed oI as a slurry.
Hydrocyclones can also be individual units located in
the embankment construction area, so that the
underfow is deposited and drained in its fnal location
without double handling. This involves periodic
relocation of units and pipelines, and must always take
account oI the need to deliver the cyclone overfow to
the storage area without causing erosion of the
underfow deposit. In general this is most easily
accomplished with small diameter cyclones, although
larger skid mounted cyclones have been used.
Hydrocyclone performance is affected by changes in
feed pressure, feed pulp density, and by wear of the
hydrocyclone components. The underfow deposit is
usually uniformly graded and is susceptible to erosion,
and cyclone malfunction can result in rapid erosion of
the deposit. Incorrectly separated or placed tailings
can be highly susceptible to liquefaction. For these
reasons constant supervision of the operation is
required.
A generous freeboard is usually maintained between
the crest of the embankment being built and the beach
Iormed by the cyclone overfow.
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7.0 Construction
Design considerations include:
location oI cyclones
number and size oI cyclones
number oI cycloning stages required
quantity and availability oI dilution water, and
quantity oI sand that can be produced compared to
requirements.
Additional information on the operation and
construction of tailings embankments using
hydrocyclones is contained in ICOLD 101 and ICOLD
106.
7.8 Staged Construction
The use of the downstream method of staged
embankment raises requires large quantities of
materials for embankment construction. Factors that
may infuence such a choice would include the need
for a water retaining dam, a rapid rate of rise in a
narrow valley situation and seismic loadings. In
addition the downstream method may be necessary
for the early stages of development when the rate of
rise is high and before the tailings has attained
suIfcient strength to permit other Iorms oI
construction. The downstream method also provides a
convenient arrangement where the waste dump can be
integrated with the tailings storage.
Other forms of staged construction are centreline and
upstream (refer to Section 3.7). These methods require
progressively less quantities oI embankment fll
material compared with downstream construction, but
have an increasing reliance on the strength of the
tailings to provide stability.
For the centreline method, the strength of the tailings
at the time oI construction is not as signifcant as it is
for the upstream method. Generally only a small
portion of the upstream shoulder is placed on the
tailings surface. If the surface is too soft to support
construction equipment, material can be dozed from
the crest oI the embankment until a suIfcient depth
has been achieved over the tailings to support the
equipment. In instances where the tailings is very soft,
it can be displaced by this method, requiring a suitable
geotextile to be laid on the surface of the tailings to
assist in the placement.
Compaction of the material initially placed on the
tailings will generally not be possible. This coupled
with the low strength of the tailings can be expected to
result in settlement with consequent formation of
longitudinal cracks on the upstream face and crest.
Providing account of this has been included in the
design, it should not present more than a temporary
construction issue. Despite this, the extent of any
cracking and settlement during construction should be
noted and reported to the designer Ior confrmation
that it is within acceptable limits.
The use of the upstream construction method is
dependent on the formation of wide, well consolidated
and drained/desiccated tailings beaches on which the
greater portion of a staged embankment is placed.
Construction by this method requires the tailings to
have adequate strength to support mechanical
equipment and the weight of the embankment without
large settlements. Under these conditions the
embankment material can generally be placed and
compacted directly on the surface of the tailings
beach.
If adverse weather conditions, unexpected changes in
ore type or increased rates of production lead to soft
tailings beaches, the design will need to be modifed to
provide access for construction and to accommodate
the ongoing settlements from consolidation.
Appropriate construction measures on soft tailings
include the provision of a drainage layer over the
footprint area on the tailings surface. The use of
geotextiles in conjunction with the drainage layer will
generally provide a signifcant improvement in the
construction conditions.
During staged construction on soft tailings attention
must be paid to stability in the upstream direction. If
the tailings have poor consolidation characteristics, it
may be necessary to restrict the rate at which the
embankment is constructed to ensure that pore
pressures within the tailings do not increase to a point
where failure can occur.
Areas of soft tailings and any design changes made
during the construction of a stage should be accurately
documented. This information is critical to ensure that
the future design and investigation take full account of
the changes.
Mud farming techniques where low pressure swamp
buggies, amphi-rollers or swamp dozers are used to
break up surface tailings crust, and provide drainage
channels can be used to improve the foundations for
the upstream stages.
Variation in conditions cannot be predicted at the
initial design stage and changes should be regarded as
normal and an integral part of ongoing design and
development. The possibility for changes should
however be recognised at the initial design stage so
that the integrity of the design can be achieved for any
potential changes.
7.9 Commissioning
The objectives of the commissioning phase are to:
confrm that all components are Iunctioning
according to the specifcations prior to placing
tailings
make saIe and protect the works which may be
damaged during the early placement of tailings,
and in particular:
covering and protection oI exposed drainage
system components from the effects of wind or
erosion by stormwater
protection oI exposed drainage system
components from the effects of damage or
blocking by tailings
protection oI the underdrains Irom damage by
construction equipment
prevent initial tailings fow Irom eroding
embankments, drains, liners, etc., and
confrm the tailings properties/behaviour and
dam/tailings facility behaviour against the design
specifcations.
7.0 Construction
7.10 As Built Drawings and
Construction Report
Construction and commissioning records, including
feld and laboratory testing, should be kept to provide
documentation of compliance with the design drawings
and specifcations. Deviations Irom the drawings or
specifcations should be documented in 'as-built
records. A fnal surIace survey is required as part oI
the as built drawings.
These records are also essential for ongoing
management of the TSF. The construction records
together with monitoring data form the basis of the
design of subsequent stages.
The records should be collated and presented in a
Construction Report prepared at the end of construction
of the starter facility and after the completion of each
stage.
'As-built drawings should be fles in records or
archive, and be readily available to operational
personnel, together with investigation and design
reports.
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8.0 Operation
8.0 Operation
Objective
The objective of the operations phase of a tailings dam is to:
- safely store the tailings
- produce a stable structure that can be successfully closed on completion of operations
- minimise risks to the environment and the operations during mining and closure.
To achieve this objective, operational constraints have to be identifed and incorporated into operational
procedures.
8.1 Management and Training
Operation of tailings storage facilities should be in
accordance with approved procedures, signed off by
regulators where required, and regularly reviewed and
modifed iI necessary to improve tailings management
or refect changes in conditions.
An Operations, Maintenance and Surveillance Manual
(refer to ANCOLD Dams Safety Management
Guidelines-2003) should be produced prior to
commencement of tailings placement, outlining all
designer requirements for operation, maintenance and
dam safety surveillance that must be met to ensure the
ongoing safety and effective operation of the tailings
storage facility. A Dam Safety Emergency Plan
(DSEP) should also be produced (see Section 8.7).
The owner should ensure that the tailings storage
facility is operated by an appropriately experienced
team with a proven track record in the execution of
works of a similar nature and magnitude. For
EXTREME, HIGH and SIGNIFICANT Consequence
Category dams, the team should include a professionally
qualifed civil or geotechnical engineer. Operators
should be appropriately trained for their roles with
regular refresher training.
It is most important that the owner and management of
an organisation owning a tailings dam are aware of the
consequences of failure of the dam, and their legal
responsibilities to ensure that proper and adequate
attention is given to the management of risks. It is the
owners responsibility to ensure that adequate funds
and resources are provided to allow staff to establish
and maintain the required level of rigor in operating
and maintaining the facility.
8.2 Operations Plan
The objective of the operational phase of a tailings
storage facility is to develop the storage in such a
manner as to ensure that the tailings facility is:
maintained in a saIe and stable state and in
accordance with prescribed risk management
specifcations
operated in accordance with the requirements oI
the Design Report and Operations, Maintenance
and Surveillance (OMS) Manual, and within the
constraints of industry norms of good practice
operated in accordance with legal requirements
operated to achieve prescribed environmental
objectives, and
operated towards achieving the closure and
intended use after closure.
The tailings facility should be operated in order to
achieve the following objectives:
to achieve the requirements oI the OMS Manual,
as periodically updated by the design engineer
to control distribution oI the tailings in order to
achieve the required geometric shape of the
deposit, to maintain the water pool within the
specifed position and to ensure that segregation
does not compromise the structural integrity of the
deposit
to control the deposition cycle in order to ensure
that settlement and drying of tailings conforms
with the design intent
8.0 Operation
to control the level and position oI the water pool
in order to maintain a specifed water cover or
maintain freeboard to prevent the risk of
overtopping (see Sect. 8.4)
to control the fow and discharge oI storm water
which accumulates on the storage in such a way as
to prevent damage
to control access so that only those persons
authorised to gain access for the purposes of
operation and supervisory management can do so
to optimise the recycle oI water Irom the storage.
Discharge of water to the environment should not
be permitted unless specifcally allowed in the
design
to keep uncontaminated water separate Irom water
which becomes contaminated, and
to control dust during windy conditions by more
frequent deposition to create maximum area of wet
beaches and by control oI traIfc in the area.
8.3 Operations, Maintenance
and Surveillance Manual
An Operation, Maintenance and Surveillance (OMS)
Manual is to be completed normally prior to
commissioning of a tailings storage facility. The
Manual should cover design intent, predicted behaviour
of tailings, daily operations and inspections, water
management procedures, criteria for mechanical and
electrical works (including pumps), surveillance,
maintenance and reporting requirements. Operational
Management Plans within the OMS Manual should
specifcally highlight all designer requirements Ior
operation and response actions that must be met to
ensure the ongoing safety of the dam.
The OMS Manual should specify all requirements for
operators and the minimum level of operator training
with alternatives (e.g. consultant assistance) whenever
these operator requirements cannot be met.
OMS Manuals for tailings dams should be updated at
least every two years with the whole tailings facility
management strategy reviewed to see if there are
better ways of achieving the facilitys objectives.
The OMS Manual should include maintenance
requirements. The Manual should be updated prior to
closure to include care and maintenance requirements
during closure.
8.4 Monitoring and
Surveillance
The operational procedures for the tailings facility
should include provisions for surveillance (i.e. regular
inspection, monitoring and evaluation) and
documentation thereof. Conditions can develop during
operations which, if not detected early, could lead to
loss of containment or unsuitable conditions for
undertaking plans for extension or closure of the
facility. Accordingly, owners should meet in full the
provisions of Chapter 5 of the ANCOLD Guidelines
on Dam Safety Management- 2003. These guidelines
recommend that owners undertake comprehensive
inspections on initial dam flling, and thence on a fve
yearly basis, with intermediate audit inspections
undertaken usually on an annual basis. These
requirements are summarised in Table 6 and Table 7.
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8.0 Operation
Table 6 Dam safety inspections levels
Type of Inspection Personnel Purpose
Comprehensive Dams Engineer and
Specialist (where
relevant)
The identifcation oI defciencies by a through onsite
inspection; by evaluating data; and by applying current criteria
and prevailing knowledge. Equipment should be test operated
to identiIy defciencies.
Intermediate Dams Engineer The identifcation oI defciencies by visual examination oI the
dam and review of surveillance data against prevailing
knowledge. Equipment is not necessarily operated.
Routine Operations personnel
/ inspector
The identifcation and reporting oI defciencies by feld and
operating personnel as part of their duties at the dam.
Special Dams Engineer and
Specialist
The examination of a particular feature of a dam for some
special reason (e.g. aIter earthquakes, heavy foods, rapid draw
down).
Emergency Dams Engineers The examination of a particular feature of a dam which has
been identifed as having a possible defciency or which has
been subject to abnormal conditions.
Table 7 Frequency of Inspection
Consequence
Category
Inspection Type
Comprehensive Intermediate Routine Special
EXTREME OR
HIGH A, B or C
On frst flling then
5 yearly
Annual Daily to tri Weekly As required
SIGNIFICANT On frst flling then
5 yearly
Annual Twice Weekly to
Weekly
As required
LOW On frst flling then
5 yearly
Monthly As required
8.0 Operation
In ensuring effective surveillance of tailings dams, the
owners are required to select suitable operational staff
and arrange for their training in the areas of dam safety
management with regular refresher courses to keep
operators up to date with current practices. As part of
that training, operators should be capable of recognising
abnormal conditions and circumstances that could
affect the safety of their dams and be able to institute
appropriate actions including when to call for more
expert assistance.
In ensuring effective surveillance of tailings dams, the
owners are required to select suitable operational staff
and arrange for their training in the areas of dam safety
management with regular refresher courses to keep
operators up to date with current practices. As part of
that training, operators should be capable of recognising
abnormal conditions and circumstances that could
affect the safety of their dams and be able to institute
appropriate actions including when to call for more
expert assistance.
Routine inspection and monitoring of the dam by
trained staff should be carried out in accordance with
the designers requirements (usually aligning with
Table 5.3 oI ANCOLD-2003 as modifed by regulatory
requirements). The items that need to be monitored
and the relevant associated instrumentation should be
designated by the dam designer to enable a suitable
coverage of the aspects that affect the ongoing safety
and operational performance of the facility.
Ongoing recording oI inspection fndings, monitoring
instrument readings, and any incidents is essential for
all tailings storages. Attention is drawn to ICOLD
(1996) Monitoring on Tailings Dams which deals
with the monitoring of tailings storages during
construction and operation.
Records should be kept in an accessible, secure
repository and in an organised form covering:
Groundwater monitoring with special emphasis on
the environmental impacts of the tailings dam on
groundwater (e.g. geochemical processes)
SurIace drainage and seepage monitoring, both
visual observations and seepage measurement are
required as a minimum, with chemical analysis
also of value (e.g. acid drainage generation)
Capacity monitoring (tailings, process water, water
recovery, evaporation)
Tailings monitoring (e.g. beach development,
drainage, density, desiccation)
Monitoring oI instrumentation and instrumentation
readings
Monitoring oI equipment and pipework
Monitoring oI dam movements, stresses, cracking
and seepage
Inspection reports (i.e. times, dates, observations)
Incident reports (i.e. time date, nature, actions),
and
Annual audit.
Monitoring of seepage is essential even when every
reasonable effort has been made to minimise it. If
suIfcient seepage occurs so that it is detectable, it will
be necessary to assess the impact on the environment,
and in some situations to take action to recover the lost
tailings liquor to limit the environmental impact.
Monitoring of the facilitys performance is also
imperative as a facility is usually designed for
particular tailings characteristics. Deviations from
these typical characteristics, (i.e. grading, slurry
density, chemical constituents) could infuence the
operating procedures and the facility performance.
Therefore, tailings characteristics should be checked
at periods not exceeding 6 months. Overall flling
rates, densities, beach shapes, water recovery etc.
should be formally evaluated at 12 month intervals,
and signifcant variations reIerred to the designer.
Formal technical reviews/audits should take place at
regular intervals. The audits should be undertaken by
appropriately skilled personnel and should be formally
recorded. Audits should include consideration of dam
safety. A suitable approach is described in ANCOLD,
2003.
Effective management techniques are required to
ensure that the outcome of the inspections, monitoring
and audits are referred to the designers, constructors,
operators and regulators as relevant. Any necessary
changes should be confrmed as having been carried
out.
8.5 Embankment Raising
Tailings dams are often designed to have containment
embankments progressively raised during operation.
Such raisings should not increase the risk of operating
the dam and need to take into account prevailing
weather conditions during raisings (food risks, wet
weather).
While upstream and centre lift tailings dams can be a
cheaper method of construction, they require the
highest level of design input, operator skill and owner
diligence in order to maintain their stability. They also
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8.0 Operation
need to be subject to strict design and operational
constraints to ensure their ongoing safety with the
following critical operational issues highlighted for
the consideration of dam owners and their designers:
a seepage fow net analysis detailing all assumptions
should be undertaken. Trigger piezometric levels,
which signal unsafe phreatic surfaces, should be
determined and documented, and should be
regularly checked against actual piezometric levels
and operating pond levels
tailings discharge requirements Ior saIe operation
of the dam should be established, targeting the
required density for construction and stability
a planned, and saIe maximum rate oI rise oI the
dam should be determined
design parameters, values and requirements Ior
seepage control, should be assessed, documented
and followed
specifcations Ior surveillance (including
monitoring instrumentation) should be determined
and outlined
food handling capabilities oI tailings dams are
particularly crucial for their long-term safe
operation, and
The rate oI rise oI an upstream or centre-liIt dam
generally should be based on consideration of a
total stress stability analysis, and incorporate
additional monitoring aimed at fully understanding
the pore pressures being developed in the dam.
8.6 Dam Safety Emergency
Plan
A Dam Safety Emergency Plan (DSEP), in conjunction
with appropriate emergency authority planning,
should be prepared for tailings dams where any
persons, infrastructure or environmental values could
be at risk should the dam collapse or fail (see Chapter
8 of the ANCOLD, 2003). The DSEP should include
an appropriate dam break study with the conservative
assumption oI liquid tailings fow in the event oI dam
failure unless a more sophisticated analysis of water
and/or tailings fow can be justifed. DSEP`s are to be
updated annually and tested at regular intervals.
8.7 Maintenance
The principle in determining maintenance priorities is
to attend to all items that affect the structural integrity
frst, Iollowed by environmental items and then by
conventional maintenance (see ANCOLD 2003 etc.).
For example, a wash-away of a perimeter wall that
compromises the freeboard, would need to be repaired
urgently, as would a burst slurry delivery pipeline.
Conversely, the gradual siltation of a stormwater drain
would need less urgent attention.
Spillages can occur in the operation of tailings
storages. The frst principle should be to prevent
spillages through disciplined operation and
maintenance. The second principle should be to
incorporate a surrounding ditch or catch area so that
the area affected by a spillage is minimised. Particularly
sensitive environmental areas, e.g. stream crossings,
should be protected from spillages. When spillages do
occur, clean-up operations should be prompt and
thorough.
8.8 Security
All access ways, and in particular those likely to be in
use during adverse climatic conditions, are to be made
safe for the operating personnel to negotiate in the
course of their duties. Access to dangerous areas
should be limited by appropriate barriers and signs
and through communication and training.
The possibility of theft and malicious damage should
be considered. The management system should thus
take into account the possible loss of equipment or
damage to the facility. Provision should be made to
ensure that the integrity of the storage is not
compromised under these potential circumstances.
9.0 Closure
9.0 Closure
Sustainable closure is the target set at commencement of planning for a tailings dam and is subject to
review throughout the construction and operation phases.
9.1 Sustainable Closure
This Guideline has introduced aspects of closure
throughout the various sections, highlighting the
important principle of designing, constructing and
operating a tailings dam with an aim to an eventual
closure strategy that will allow a safe and stable
structure to remain following the completion of mining
operations. Post-closure, a tailings dam must be able
to cope with potential conditions to be encountered
over the extended period determined as the design life,
potentially of 1000 years or longer.
The Iollowing more specifc principles apply to the
successful achievement of sustainable design and post
closure performance (ICOLD, 2010, draft):
the main objective oI mine closure should be the
long-term stabilisation of physical, chemical,
ecological and social conditions of the tailings dam
within a reasonable time scale to prevent any
ongoing degradation
the closed Iacility does not require ongoing
maintenance and expenditure other than normally
required for similar land use
the closed Iacility does not pose a risk to human
health and safety
the closed Iacility does not pose an unacceptable
environmental risk, and
the Iacility is leIt with an appropriate and
sustainable land use and water use that meets
stakeholder and community objectives.
9.2 Closure Plan
Decommissioning and rehabilitation options should
be evaluated early in the life of the project. A Closure
Plan should be prepared, and costed, as part of the
initial project development and included in economic,
social and environmental analysis of the project
viability. The Closure Plan should then be kept live
and regularly reviewed and updated as the project
develops through design, construction, operation and
potential changes in scale and direction (i.e. Integrated
Life-Cycle Management). The Closure Plan should
address
closure objectives, strategy and context
(including climatic regime, policy; perIormance
objectives, criteria and indicators)
required monitoring inIormation, data
collection, analysis and records management
specifc issues (including geochemistry oI
tailings and entrained water, salinity, radioactivity,
future land use, etc.), and
implementation and management oI closure
stages (active, passive and self-sustaining), including
monitoring and audits to ensure systematic risk
reduction.
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9.0 Closure
9.3 Closure Options
Closure options need to be reviewed on a case by case
basis as there are likely to be specifc issues to be
addressed in each case. Some considerations include:
landIorm reconstruction options will be infuenced
by climate
water management approach will be driven by
climatic regime and should consider possible
climate change
a water or saturated soil cover might be appropriate
in a wet climate to maintain the tailings saturation
when required to prevent oxidation and the
production of contaminants in seepage
a rainIall shedding cover may be appropriate in a
wet climate to minimise infltration and ongoing
seepage (incorporating a spillway and sediment
collection pond)
a store/release cover might be appropriate in a
moderate or dry climate, possibly including a
sealing layer
allowing the development oI an evaporative crust
may be appropriate in a dry climate, in which any
infltration into the desiccated tailings will re-
evaporate, without reliance on vegetation. Special
attention is required for dust control, and
stakeholder engagement is essential.
9.4 Closure Issues
Issues to be addressed in the Closure Plan include:
Final landIorm and its relationship to embankments
and storage geometry
earthworks plan and staging
materials handling and stockpiling
temporary works
physical and chemical stability oI the tailings
facility and durability of control structures
cover types Ior tailings
consequences oI extreme environmental conditions
(e.g. drought, food, fre, earthquake)
access control
structural integrity
geotechnical stability
on-going settlement
erosional stability, including sedimentation and its
infuence on drainage
surIace drainage works (noting that these
concentrate fows, making them diIfcult to sustain
without rigorous design, construction and ongoing
maintenance)
surIace treatment to minimise erosion (via rock
cover and/or vegetation), while sustaining
vegetation, and
monitoring and audit requirements Ior the closure
process and aftercare.
9.5 Relinquishment
Relinquishment will require confrmation that agreed
performance targets have been achieved. This is likely
to require a period of active management and
monitoring over an agreed timeframe during which
the required performance
10.0 References
10.0 References
Other Relevant A!COLD Guidelines
Consequence Guidelines (2010)
Guidelines on Risk Assessment (2003)
Guidelines on Dam SaIety Management (2003)
Guidelines on Design Floods Ior Dams (2000)
Guidelines Ior the Design oI Dams Ior Earthquake (1998)
Guidelines on Dam Instrumentation and Monitoring (1983)
This A!COLD Guideline for Tailings Dams is written to include aspects arising from the nature and
variety of climatic conditions in Australia and nearby countries. However, the following international
guidelines prepared by ICOLD are also relevant:
No. 45 Manual on Tailings Dams and Dumps
No. 74 A Guide to Tailings Dam SaIety
No. 97 Tailings Dams - Design oI Drainage (1994)
No. 98 Tailings Dams and Seismicity (1995)
No. 101 Tailings Dams Transport, Placement and Decantation (1995)
No. 103 Tailings Dams and Environment (1996)
No. 104 Monitoring oI Tailings Dams (1996)
No. 106 A Guide to Tailings Dams and Impoundments (1996)
DraIt Guideline oI Closure oI Tailings Dams
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References
Tailings Management, Leading Practice Sustainable Development Program for the Mining Industry,
Australian Government Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources (DITR), February 2007.
Mine Closure and Completion, Leading Practice Sustainable Development Program for the Mining Industry.
Australian Government, Department of Resources Energy and Tourism, June 2009.
Mine Rehabilitation. October 2006. Leading Practice Sustainable Development Program for the Mining
Industry. Australian Government, Department of Resources Energy and Tourism.
United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) Our Common Future (1987),
OxIord: OxIord University Press. ISBN 0-19-282080-X
ICMM SD Framework Final Principles, International Council on Mining and Metals, Document Ref: C
020/290503, 29 May 2003
AS/NZS ISO 31000:2009, Risk management - Principles and Guidelines
Brett, D When Is A Dam Not A Dam?- Design Of Mine Tailings Storage Facilities For Closure. ANCOLD
Conference on Dams, 2008
Paste and Thickened Tailings A Guide, Editors: Richard Jewell, Andy Fourie and Ted Lord, Publisher:
Australian Centre Ior Geomechanics, ISBN: 1 74052 070 X
Handbook on Mine Fill, Editors: Y. Potvin, E. Thomas and A. Fourie, Publisher: Australian Centre for
Geomechanics, ISBN: 0-9756756-2-1, 2005
Australian Rainfall & Run-Off, a Guide to Flood Estimation, 2 Volumes, The Institution of Engineers,
Australia, Canberra, 1987.
Robertson & Fear
Other Guidelines
Guidelines on the Safe Design and Operating Standards for Tailings Storage 1999 WA Department of Minerals
and Energy, www.natural-resources.org
Guidelines on the Development of Operating Manual for Tailings Storage 1998, WA Department of Minerals
and Energy, www.natural-resources.org
Management of Tailings Storage Facilities 2004, Victorian Department of Primary Industries,
www.dpi.vic.gov.au
Queensland Dam Safety Management Guidelines 2002, Queensland Department of Natural Resources,
www.nrw.qld.gov.au/compliance/wic/guidelines refer dams.html
10.0 References

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