Bipolar Devices

Mukul Agrawal 10 December, 2001

Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305

Contents

1 Introduction 2 PN Junction
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Current Flow Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Simplifying Quantitative Assumptions Temperature Variations Breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 3
3 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Time-Dependent Response 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3

Low Frequency AC Response High Frequency AC Response

Transient Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6 2.7

Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Various Uses of pn-Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Hetero-Junction
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Benets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Various Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Band Line-Ups in Abrupt Hetero-Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Band Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10
10 10 11 11 12

I-V Char . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS

3.6 3.7 3.8

Graded Hetero-Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Isotype (n+/N or p+/P) Abrupt Hetero-Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13 13 13

Anisotype Abrupt Hetero-Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 BJT
4.1 Currents Flow Physics 4.1.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Short-Base-Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14
14 14 15 16 17 17 19 20 21 21 21 23 23 24 25 25 25 25

Basic Idea behind BJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quick Mathematical Computations DC Performance Parameters  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

T , , dc , dc

Ebers Moll Model and Gummel Poon Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Important Eects Avalanche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CB, CE input and output char 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8.3 4.8.4

CB input char (IE (VBE , VCB ) ) CB Output Char (IC (IE , VCB ))

CE input char (IB (VBE , VCE )) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CE output Char (IC (IB , VCE )) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9

Gummel Plot,

-Ic

Plot

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.10 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11 Breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.12 Small Signal Models/High Frequency Models/Transients/Noise . . . . . . . . 4.13 Microwave Transistor/Power transistor/Switching Transistor . . . . . . . . .

5 HBT 6 Further Resources References

25 25 25

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1: Introduction

Introduction

In this article we will discuss some of the most common bipolar devices such as homo- and hetero- pn junctions and homo- and hetero- bipolar junction transistors popularly known as BJTs and HBTs, respectively. In this article I will not discuss basic device physics. For some background in basic device physics readers are referred to other articles [1]. A good text book on hetero-junction bipolar devices is one written by William Liu[2]. Two books from Robert F Pierret [3, 4] are good undergraduate text on basic device physics. Book by S. M. Sze [5] is the authoritative reference on classical semiconductor devices. For basics of statistical mechanics as used in device physics reader may nd [6] useful. A book by Kittel and Kroemer [7] is a good text book reference for statistical mechanics. For classical carrier transport theory please see [8, 9] and for quantum theory of carrier transport please see [8, 10, 11]. For opto-electronic applications of these devices readers are referred to [12, 13] and for spintronic and magnetic applications can readers may want to consult [14, 15, 16]. In this article we will primarily concentrate on devices in classical physics regime. Many modern semiconductor device operate in quantum physics regime. For an introduction to quantum physics in the context of semiconductor devices please refer to other articles[17, 18, 19, 20, 21].

PN Junction

2.1

Current Flow Physics

R1 and R2 > R1 . Let us also assume that the junction 1 capacitance C . Actually, physical existence or connetcion
between the two of a capacitor is

Let us rst consider a very simple problem. Think of a series combination of two resistors with resistances has a little

not essential but it makes the arguments simpler. What I am trying to argue here is that whenever two dierent mateirals are series connected there is always a possibility of charge build up between them. How this charge builds up is very important to understand the

dynamics of charge carriers in systems where two dissimilar materials are stacked on one another. When we apply a bias of

across this series connection, what is the carrier dynamics

going inside? The voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously, so volatge at the junction would start ramping up from zero. Let us cosider what happens in innitesimally

1 If

you wnat to visualize the circuit diagram, the

R1 , R2

and

all have a common node; the far end of

R2

and

are grounded while the fornt end of

R1

would be raised to a potential bias relative to ground.

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2.1

Current Flow Physics

small time interval

dt.

From the inside of

R1 ,

a certain amount of charge would be thrown

out from the farther end while a simmilar amount of charge would come in from the front end (no charge pile-up is allowed inside conductor  charge relaxation time is very fast in conductors). Since the

R2

is larger compared to

R1 ,

this much amount of charge cannot go into

R2 in same amount of time.

So a much smaller amount of charge goes into

R2 .

Rest of the

current is used up to charge the capacitor. As capacitor charges up towards the equilibrium voltage the current through

R1 decreases

while that through

R2

increases.

Finally, steady

state is reached when two currents are same. So a charge distribution develops at the edges at steady state. If capacitor is very very small this transient will go at very fast rate. Now think of an long abrupt one sided p+n junction. Apply a positive bias. Its important to keep in mind which carriers ow in which directions. Initialy assume a uniform eld gets formed across entire structure. In p-side holes can move forward and electrons can move

backwards. In n-side holes can move forward and electrons can move backward. Now three important things happen: 1. In p-side, I have lots of holes which do move as required by the elds. Initially, there can be huge ow of such charges. But, I do not have any holes in the n side. Drift velocity of carriers is simply mobility times the electric eld, Assuming mobility is characteristic of underlying crystal and is independent of doping and also noting that initially we have uniform electric eld, we conclude that drift velocity of holes would be same on both sides. Flux of holes would be given by velocity times the density

which is very small in n-side. So holes starts building up near the outside of depletion region on n-side. 2. If steady state would ever be reached then this huge ow of holes from other side has to be stopped. This occurs by the adjustment of the depletion width. Depletion width automatically starts adjusting so that all the eld falls across the metallurgical junction only and the eld in the bulk region becomes more and more smaller. This reduces the huge ow of holes from p-side. How does this actually happens ? Holes piles up in the entire depletion area starting from the depletion edge near the n-side. They

lls up the open acceptors near the depletion edge in p-side so that eld in p-region decreases and which decrease the ow of holes. well.) 3. Also when holes starts piling up near the n-side depletion edge it starts increasing the diusion current. Finally this diusion current is the controlling factor. (Similar things happen in n-side as

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2.2

Simplifying Quantitative Assumptions

How much time would it take to reach the steady state ? That's very tough question. We would discuss this in details when we study the transient behavior. But for the time-being its important to realize that open acceptors are lled up by the majority carriers hence it does not take much time. But holes diuse inside the n-region as minority carriers and recombines with electrons there (long diode  no direct extraction of minority) . So diusion speed is related to the minority recombination speed. This second factor is the important delaying factor.

2.2

Simplifying Quantitative Assumptions

One can enumerate several (but often very reasonable) assumptions that go behind the scences, before one can make quantitative model that is simple enough to understand and still explains all the essential physics. Ignoring the trivial or obvious assumptions, following two are the most important ones:

Flat Quasi Level - Let us think about the orders of current densities we are talking about in a usual semiconductor bipolar device. The recombination generation lifetime (trap assisted) can be anything from the orders of

ms

to

ns

(typically

s).
to

Diusion length is of

m.

And the majority carrier density can be anything like

1015

to

1019

and hence minority carrier density can be anything like

105

101 .

(We actually want

more minority carriers but we also can not make it highly resistive) Let us say we have

105

minority carriers.

Let us say we apply a bias of

500mV .

The exponential

factor becomes something like density of the orders of

10

. So we get the depletion edge excess minority carrier

1013

(we are just in the verge of low level injection). So we are

talking about a current density of the orders of

1011 A/cm2 .

Let us assume the depletion

1.6 1019 108 106 100/106 or width to be 1m and let us say the carrier
have a diusion current can see the net current

density is changing from of the order of

1019 to 105 on the other end. So we 1.6 1019 1019 /106 or 106 A/cm2 . So we

that comes out is way way smaller then the huge amounts of drift diusion happening inside the depletion region. We can say that the carrier densities inside the depletion region should organize themselves according to the electric eld existing their in such a way that drift diusion should balance each other. (We can not really x the electric eld prole  because that's determined by depletion approximation which is assumed to hold true. In fact one can check the self consistency that even at the verge of high level injection  carriers inside are really few.) Now its important to realize that drift

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2.3

Temperature Variations

diusion currents are balanced with each other if you measure the carrier densities using any xed at level as a Fermi level whatever being the prole of band edges (and hence electric eld.). This is the reason why quasi-at level assumption is such a strong assumption.

Drift-diusion current equations:

Jn = qn

Ef n and x

Jp = qp

Ef p . Both these terms x

Now think of a pn

represent the charge current density (and not the particle ux).

unction under forward bias. From thermodynamics we can surely say that holes should ow from

side to

side. Hence quasi Fermi levels should have a positive slope and

hence they should try to slope away from the valance band as we move towards the n-side. Let us assume that we have some nite positive slope. Which represents that we have huge hole current owing across the depletion region. This also represents

that we have smaller minority density at the quasi neutral edge than that is possible in at quasi equilibrium. But we can easily check that the two currents rates (minority carrier diusion in the quasi neutral region and the drift-diusion inside depletion) are not necessarily same. Usually speaking, if the doping is fairly good and if we have high mobility semiconductors than drift-diusion currents would be huge. Hence carriers

would start piling up near the quasi equilibrium edge. Which represents two things. First is that the quasi Fermi level has to move towards the valance band edge to increase the carrier density and to reduce the current coming from injection. Also note that the increase of minority carrier density also increases the fwd minority diusion current while reducing the injection coming from other direction. For given value of quasi For all practical

Fermi level-valance band spacing we would achieve a steady state.

purposes, quasi Fermi level in depletion region can be taken as dead at.

2.3

Temperature Variations

Even though almost all the semiconductor parameters like diusion coecient, minority life time, mobility, diusion length, equilibrium minority carrier density etc are dependent on temperature, to a good degree of approximation, the reverse saturation current varies as

exp(Eg /KT )

because of the variations in the equilibrium minority carrier density.

2.4

Breakdown
Thermal run away

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2.5

Time-Dependent Response

Avalanche: Actually the ionization occurs inside the entire depletion. Ionization rates depend on the local electric eld. One can integrate and nd the electric current at the depletion edge. One can then calculate the multiplication factor and then calculate the condition when it reaches innite. Actual calculations would show that multiplication always tends to innity for the same value of maximum eld. threshold electric eld that should never be reached. So one can dene a

Zeener:

Avalanche breakdown voltage increases with the temperature whereas the

tunneling breakdown voltage decreases with the increase in the temperature. This is the basic distinguishing factor. band to band tunneling. Doping is needed to be high on the both sides. Its

2.5
2.5.1
at

Time-Dependent Response
Low Frequency AC Response
V1 the current is I1 and form V1 to V2 in small time

First of all, think of a leaky capacitor. Suppose at xed voltage of

V2 > V1 the leakage current is I2 . Now if voltage changes interval t, how much charge would ow across any cross section in this time interval ? Is it (I2 I1 )t? No ! Its going to be more than that. Why ? Because inherently it is a

capacitor. At higher voltage it needs to store higher charge and that also has to be supplied. This charge also appears as a current component. So a leaky capacitor can be represented as a parallel combination of an ideal capacitor and resistance. So the current would be

superposition of two components  one leakage current that's in-phase with the voltage and one displacement-capacitive-current which is out of phase with voltage. Exactly same things happen in diode also. quasi-statics is maintained. Assume frequency is low enough so that

That means assume that ac signal is actually a series of dc

steps so we are actually allowing enough time for the charges to come into static levels. In such a situation its very easy to calculate the incremental capacitance (dQ/dV ) and incremental resistance. For incremental capacitance just calculate the total charge stored

and dierentiates with the voltage. Incremental resistance would be just the slope of the IV char. Note that in reality junction capacitance and diusion capacitance would behave as if they have been kept in parallel. But in reverse bias the stored charge is so small the the diusion cap is negligible. And in forward bias diusion cap is way more than the junction cap.

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2.5

Time-Dependent Response

Also note that junction cap measurement in reverse bias at various voltages can theoretically tell us the doping prole of one sided junction. Also dierent kind of doping proles are used to get more capacitance ratios of varactors. Note that hyper-abrupt junction (in which doping reduces from junction towards contacts) give very large cap ratios.

2.5.2

High Frequency AC Response

At high frequencies when charge do not follow synchronously with the voltage, the response become more complicated. Incremental resistance is no more simply the slope of IV char. Also incremental cap is no more simple the derivative of stored charge. Not that such eects are expected only from diusion charge storage. Depletion charges are actually controlled by majority carriers so they usually always follows the voltage. Whenever charges do not follow voltage synchronously it leads to the frequency dependent capacitance and resistances. High frequency response can easily be solved mathematically using EM like analysis. But I am just giving intuitive feeling here. Its assumed that junction law is correct instantaneously. So the boundary conditions are forced instantaneously. So if the frequency becomes very high the stored charges do not have enough time to change at all. So capacitance

becomes smaller and smaller. But boundary condition are immediately forced. So basically slope near the depletion edge becomes higher. And so instantaneous current becomes higher.

2.5.3

Transient Response
Analysis are

Diodes can be turned ON/OFF either by voltage steps or by current steps.

exactly same just one needs to take care of the slope of minority carrier proles near the depletion edges. Turn-o transients cause much more troubles than the turn on transients. Think of a diode in series with a resistance. Think of turn o transient with negatively biasing voltage pulse. Since the current has to ow in opposite directions the slope of

the prole becomes opposite immediately. But the boundary conditions are still valid. So boundaries tell us that junction is still forward biased so the drop across diode is small and current is huge negative. This continues for some time till density becomes quite small. After that small change in boundary carrier density causes great change in potential so current starts reducing. Turn o transient is also used for lifetime measurements. One can easily think that although steady state may take time to reach still the steady state current arrives pretty soon in turn-ON transient. Because almost in entire process the drop across diode is very small. That's why turn-o transients are more important.

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2.6

Noise

2.6 2.7

Noise Various Uses of pn-Junctions

Rectiers :- high power rectiers usually can't operate at high frequencies. Used for various wave shaping applications. (ideal rectier would have zero reverse current, very high breakdown voltage, zero turn-on voltage, zero forward incremental resistance.) High band gap reduces the reverse current. Also keeps reverse current under limit even at high temperatures (usually rectiers tolerate huge currents so junction temperatures are quite high). Although large Eg would increase the cut-in voltage. It also increase the avalanche breakdown voltage. Also to increase the avalanche breakdown voltage one needs to keep the doping level low (at least in one side). That increase the forward resistance and hence also the heating eect. For this special geometries should be

chosen. Make the lightly doped side wider and shorter. But then take care of punch through.

Voltage Regulators/ Reference diodes :- Heavy doping on both sides are needed. For light doping or for graded junctions usual procedure of breakdown is avalanche. For heavy doping usual procedure is Zeener. Breakdown voltage can be shifted by changing the dopings.

Varactor :- dierent doping proles are used for achieving dierent cap ratios.

Can

have many uses like in tuning circuits. Also used for frequency multiplication, harmonic generation, and active lters ???? Hyper abrupt junctions are used for better cap ratio over a range of voltage.

Fast Recovery Diode/Switching Diode:-

Less charge storage:

Heavy doping not possible because it starts injection in opposite direction Narrow base diode

Small lifetime:

Add recombination-generation (RG) centers Use GaAs

Metal-semiconductor (MS) junctions

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3: Hetero-Junction

But huge amount of RG centers cannot be added because that also increase the RG current. Also it might aect the eld distribution and minority carrier density as well. At some point one needs to go for either GaAs or MS junction.

Step Recovery Diode:- (Is it a pin diode in reality ???) doping prole so that most of storage near the edges only. Creates a perfect step during turn o transients.

PIN Diode :- Many a times we need to dope the semiconductor heavily to reduce the resistance but that increase both the depletion as well as diusion capacitance. One solution is two use hetero-structure with reverse doping so that diusion capacitance reduces. But still junction capacitance would denitely increase because of the reduced depletion width. The other solution is to use the PIN diode. Other benet of the PIN diode is in photo-detectors so that more light can be absorbed. Also it can be used in modulators because of constant electric eld prole. (??????) Another benet of pin diode is high breakdown voltage because the peak electric eld is low for the same applied bias.

Hetero-Junction

3.1

Benets
One sided injection (even with reverse doping  so other benets of resistance/capacitance etc can also be obtained) as required in lasers or BJT etc

Reduces GR current which again helps in one sided injection even in the presence of GR in depletion

Higher breakdown both because of reduced charge spillover and because of higher bandgap

Current ow into high doped side ..... so no resistance problems In high freq additional benets of low cap/high cut of etc are obtained

3.2

Various Types
Only completely solid-soluble, iso-electronic and lattice matched pairs are useful as hetero-junctions because usually non-iso-electronic systems are dopant on each other.

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3.3

Band Line-Ups in Abrupt Hetero-Junctions

Since hetero-junctions can be made between a large a number of semiconducting materials with very dierent positions of conduction band edges (Ec ) and valance band edges (Ev ) with respect to the vacuum level, following three dierent types of band alignments are possible:

When the bandgap of the narrow-bandgap material (NBG) is completely within (in energy scale) the bandgap of the wide-bandgap material (WBG), it is called type1 hetero-junction,

 

When only

Ec

of the NBG is above

Ec

of WBG (or similar situation with

Ev )

its

called type2 hetero-junction When complete bandgap of the NBG is out of the bandgap (again, in energy scale) of the WBG its called type3

Type 2 and 3 hetero-junction are used only when extremely heavy inversion layers are needed. Only one pair of common semiconducting materials is known to have type3 band alignment.

3.3

Band Line-Ups in Abrupt Hetero-Junctions

Understand what is the meaning of vacuum level and why it bends. Understand why discontinuity in band edges occur and why of bias.

Ec /Ev

are independent

Realize that built in eld, built in potential DO DEPEND on denitely depend on doping also as usual.

Ec

and

Ev

also. They

Strictly depletion and built-in potential do not divide up between the two material in the ratios of doping densities even if depletion approximation is made. But in practice dielectric permittivity is usually same that's why under depletion approximation one can still assume that bending divides between two in the ratios of doping.

3.4

Band Engineering
One sided injection:- Remember in (graded) pn-junctions currents are limited by the diusion of minority carriers. So whichever side have more minority carriers (NBG)

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3.5

I-V Char

would be the controller.

So in forward bias current is injected into NBG where it

diuses (comes from WBG). Whereas in reverse biased current is extracted from NBG where it diuses and goes into WBG. So if I want the one sided forward injection of electrons I should go for N/p. N/p+) (Because of other benets also one usually go for

Small RG current in depletion for still keeping one sided injection:- Again the same doping structure would do. Depletion should go into the WBG material and hence

n=p will occur in WBG material.

Avoiding charge spill over/high eld :- Suppose I want to make a p/n+ junction at the same time I do not want charge spill over. Then I need a pair which have large positive

Ec

and then I can dope it P/n+. We would get the preferential one sided

injection of holes into n+ as might be expected from p/n+ and we would also be able to avoid charge spill over. (Note that charge spill over also reduce by trivial reasoning that with hetero junction you do not need heavy doping at all). Similarly, if we want p+/n then we should go for large positive

Ev

and dope p+/N. (Basically in wherever

spillover is expected we need a straight fall discontinuity in that band edge and no cross over discontinuity)

Large breakdown:- This also favored if we dope the NBG heavily to throw the depletion region into the graded WBG. (Isn't the breakdown most expected at the point where highest electric eld exist ?????????????) Note that decrease in breakdown voltage is also helped by the decrease in the charge spill over.

So in all of above three band engineering benets NBG should be doped heavily. If

Ec > Ev

then heavy doping of NBG should be n+ to avoid charge spill over.

3.5

I-V Char
Current because of recombination-generation (RG) in delpletion region is smaller in hetero-junctions then in homo-junctions.

Note that even though current from RG happening in depletion region also varies exponentially with voltage and looks rectifying, it is usually not something that is desired. For example, it reduces gain of a transistor. Also, it would reduce eciency

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3.6

Graded Hetero-Junctions

of a laser (non radiative).

Only when we just want a non-linear IV, for example in

hetrodyning applications, only then current through such processes is OK.

This is one of major benets and dierentiating feature of hetero-junctions.

3.6

Graded Hetero-Junctions
Grading is required because otherwise IV char becomes bias dependent and moreover the transition point is not well dened and depends from device to device. So resultant IV char is either recombination current (low biases) or minority diusion current (large biases).

exp(qV /KT )

dependence mostly. Recombination current is usually same as

the equivalent homo-junction of WBG material. Hence usually recombination current is completely negligible.

3.7

Isotype (n+/N or p+/P) Abrupt Hetero-Junctions

If NBG is heavily doped (easy to see  otherwise no barrier) then isotype abrupt heterojunctions behave just exactly same as Schottky diodes. N is negative and P is positive for forward bias. So current is limited by thermionic emission. Mostly dependence.

exp(qV /KT )

3.8

Anisotype Abrupt Hetero-Junctions

Depending upon the the doping ratio a fraction of applied bias, say p side and a fraction falls across n side.

1/n,

falls across

Current is either dependent on diusion Thermionic

of minority carriers or thermionic emission depending on applied bias. emission part would depend as

exp((1 1/n)qV /KT ).

Calculation of recombination

current (as usual very small in well built hetero-junctions) is much more dicult is junction is abrupt because junction-law cannot be used anymore.

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4: BJT

BJT

4.1
4.1.1

Currents Flow Physics

Short-Base-Diode
Before understanding the carrier ow in a BJT its required to understand the carrier ow in short-base-diode. So lets consider a pn junction in which n-side is much smaller than the diusion length. Holes would be injected from the p-side and electrons

would be injected from the n-side. All of the injected electrons would recombine slowly and steadily while diusing in the bulk p-side. Note that majority carrier that is holes would drift in the bulk to get recombined with diusing electrons. Second point to

note is that diusion current would reduces as we move into the p-side. If we pick up any two points 1 and 2 such that if diusion is higher at point 1 than that at point 2 then it clearly means that the lost carriers have recombined in between points 1 and 2 (continuity equation for any one type of carriers). As we move towards innity entire injected carriers would get recombined. On the contrary, very few injected holes recombines in the bulk of n-side. Most of the carrier straight away goes to the surface and recombines there. We can calculate how many gets recombine in the bulk by The number of carrier reaching the

calculating the area under the minority prole.

surface would be equal to the diusion current at the surface. (Usually its assumed that surface states density is so huge that the excess carrier density at surface would always be forced to zero.) Reverse bias situation is exactly opposite. Lets consider

the n-side. The diusion current towards the surface side would still be smaller than that towards the junction side (exactly same as of the forward bias case). The reason is that surface supplies lots of minority carriers and then bulk additionally supplies a few minority carriers through generation as the minority carriers diuse towards the junction. The amount of carriers being pumped by the surface would be given by the slope at the surface whereas the amount of carriers being extracted would be given by the slope at the depletion edge. Whereas the area will represent the dierence between the two that is the number of carriers generated per unit time.

Idea of punch through can be understood in short base diode quite easily.

Why do

diode carry very little current in reverse bias ? Simple because the direction of electric eld in the bulk (very small but required for drift of majority) makes the majority carriers ow in such a direction in the bulk that it asks for great number of carriers

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4.2

Basic Idea behind BJT

from other side which it just can't provide. For example small electric eld can cause great currents in p-side but the direction of ow is such that it asks for huge number of holes per second from n-side. Whereas n-type side just CANNOT provide holes at more than a xed rate determined by the thermal generation rate of minority carriers. So nally charge imbalance would reduce the current to a very small value. Note that the direction of eld in depletion layer is just opposite to the direction of eld in bulk. For example if depletion layer expands in p-side and touches the metal contact then now metal can easily provide lots of electrons needed for maintaining the continuity of electron ow into the n-side. Similarly if depletion layer in n-side extends and touches the metal contact still metal can also provide huge number of holes also (???????????). Such a depletion layer expansion is called punch through.

4.2

Basic Idea behind BJT

So the basic idea is that if a short-base-diode is forward conducting then I have to have a supply of electrons that would (1) gets back injected into p-side, and (2) recombines with holes in n-side. We also might need have additional supply for recombination

within depletion layer and other similar non-ideal eects. Without such an adequate supply of carriers diode would self adjust to reduce the forward current. So this is the key idea behind transistor. Controlling one current I control the other one. By proper dopings we can make the controlling current much smaller than the controlled current and hence the amplication.

In the transistor what we do is that we remove the metallic contact from the short base side and put another pn-junction there so the supply of majority carriers for back injection and recombination in the bulk gets highly restricted (for the time being think of that as reverse bias .... we will see below that its not required though). Note that a pn-junction in place of metal contact do not appreciably disturb the forward current that would have own with metal contact (minority carrier prole in the base remains almost same) (provided we send required majority carriers from some other route) but it severely restricts the opposite ow of required majority carriers. Geometry is the key here. Now we place another metallic contact from where I can supply the carriers in controlled manner. Geometry is key for separating forward current (the controlled current) from the backward current (the controlling current). In simple short base

diode this separation is impossible. Note that if the third terminal is absent then the

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4.3

Quick Mathematical Computations

device would never be able sustain a high minority carrier density in the bulk base because the supply of majority carriers required is not possible. From such a device only very small current is possible.

Many books try to project as if reverse bias in CB junction is crucial for operation of a BJT. But that's not true. BJT would work even if CB junction voltage is zero, forward bias or reverse bias. A reverse bias at CB junction helps in two ways. (1)

There are some minority carriers deposited in the base because of the injection from EB junction. These have to recombine and hence they need some majority carriers per unit time. A reverse bias in the CB junction extracts some of these deposited carriers and hence reduces the requirement for the majority carriers. (2)Secondly it extracts some carriers from the collector and supply them as majority carriers into the base. In case CB junction is forward biased then it would itself deposit some additional minority carriers in the base. Additionally some additional carriers would be required to be back injected across CB junction. So instead of helping base current a forward bias would increase the requirement on the part of the base current.

4.3

Quick Mathematical Computations

All current equations can very easily be derived if we know the minority carrier proles. Emitter current is simply made of two components -a) the back injection from base into emitter and b) the diusion in the base given by the slope of the minority prole. Key to note here is just that this slope also depends on the CB bias. Similarly collector current is made of two components  a) back injection and b) slope in base. Then base current can be calculated at low frequencies by assuming current continuity. ((Note that although we say that 'back injection from base'  it DOES NOT mean that the current is coming from base metal contact and would also form base current. current can only be predicted from current summation.)) Base

Ebers Moll model tries to write minority carrier proles as the linear superposition of that with

VCB = 0

and that with

VEB = 0.

This process is also exactly correct. Hence

currents come out to be the sum of currents of two narrow base diodes. But its not needed do all this for intuitive understanding.

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4.4

DC Performance Parameters 

T , , dc , dc

4.4

DC Performance Parameters  T , , dc , dc
is dened to be the transport ratio which is the ratio of injected current that reaches collector side without recombination in base to the carriers injected at emitter junction towards collector side. So for example, for an npn transistor that, strictly speaking,

T =

InC . Note InE

InE = 0

does not necessarily imply

InC = 0.

So this factor

makes sense only when base width is fairly small and one can make a linear minority prole approximation inside the base. In that case

InE = 0 does necessarily imply that

is completely made of

InC = 0.

So we can say that only a fraction of the current injected reaches the collector.

When you leave the emitter junction open,

IC ICB0

IpC

and

InE = InC = 0.
its value of

Additionally, when you start throwing in current from emitter junction

only component that you play with is

InC .

You have no access to

IpC

which sticks to

ICB0 .

So with this narrow base assumption following relations/terms can

be derived/dened.

is the injection eciency.

dc = T (denition) in the absence of carrier multiplication. InC = dc IE and IpC = ICB0 . Hence, IC = ICB0 + dc IE . Hence, dc = (IC ICBO )/IE (this can alternatively be taken as a denition of dc ). Where ICB0 = (1 dc r,dc )IC0 . r,dc is the Ebers Moll's reverse common base current gain. Where ICB0 is the collector current with IE = 0 whereas IC0 is the collector current whenVEB = 0 which basically
is same as the reverse saturation current of the short base CB ideal diode. Note that

ICB0

is much smaller then

IC0

because

ICB0

only has

IpC

and no

InC .

dc = (IC ICE0 )/IB (take it as denition). Where ICE0 is the current with open base. Where dc = dc /(1 dc ). (alternative denition) One can also write ICE0 is terms of the Eber's Moll component IC0 by noting that ICE0 = ICB0 /(1 dc ).
So basically

ICB0

and

dc is common base current gain IE = 0. Similar denition for also

'starting' from that current when can be given.

IC =

4.5

Ebers Moll Model and Gummel Poon Model

Ebers Moll model tries to write minority carrier proles as the linear superposition of that with

VCB = 0

and that with

VEB = 0.

This process is also exactly correct

(even if you don't use linear minority carrier proles. But in the following discussion

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4.5

Ebers Moll Model and Gummel Poon Model

I would assume it to be linear.

Note that its true because boundary conditions are

dened by junction laws and the exact minority prole can be written as sum of the two functions. Device would not obey the simple additive Ebers Moll Model if at

quasi Fermi levels and hence the junctions law don't obey.). Hence currents come out to be the sum of currents of two narrow base diodes. But its not needed do all this for intuitive understanding.

For example, let us calculate the collector current. Collector current in this model is made of three components and not two. First two are just dependent on the third on

VCB

and

VEB .

We denote those components which depend on

VCB

by subscript 1

and those which depends on

VEB

by subscript 2. Note we are using only two subscripts

for three current components. Now, if

VEB = 0 then IC

would simply be the short base

diode current which is made of two components

IC1 = ICp + ICn1 = IC0 exp(qVCB /KT 1)

Note that the only on And

ICp

in taken care of in its entirety in the above equation (that depends

VCB ).

But only a component of

ICn

is accounted for by the above expression.

IE

would simply be

IE1 = IEn (which

is simply the current injected into base or

extracted from the base.

If collector-base is fwd biased it would inject carriers into On

the base and some of those would be extracted by the emitter-base junction.

the other hand if CB is reversed biased then, CB would extract the carriers from the base and EB would inject into the base). Let us take, for an example, that CB is fwd biased. Then a few of those injected would recombine in the base and hence we can dene an equivalent parameter

r,dc

so that

IE1 = IEn1 = r,dc IC1

Now let us consider the case when

VCB = 0.

In this case

IC2 = ICn2 = dc IE2

And

IE2 = IEp + IEn2 = IE0 exp(qVEB /KT 1)

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4.6

Other Important Eects

So nally,

IE = IE0 exp(qVEB /KT 1) + r,dc IC0 exp(qVCB /KT 1) IC = IC0 exp(qVCB /KT 1) + dc IE0 exp(qVEB /KT 1)
Only other important point here is to note that all four performance parameters in the above equations are not independent rather

r,dc IC0 = dc IE0 .

Gummel Poon model takes care of the non uniform doping in base and drift current in the base.

4.6

Other Important Eects

In this section we will discuss: Kirk Eect (base-push out), base width modulation (Early eect), bandgap narrowing, geometrical eects (eg., size of collector= size of emitter), emmitter crowding, base resistance, nonuniform base, avalanche (CE/CB) and punch through. Because of bandgap narrowing we can not dope emitter too high. Also because of resistance (consequently thermal/emitter crowding problems) problems we cannot dope base too low. So basically we cannot improve injection eciency of EB junction too much. Moreover we cannot dope collector heavily because of base width modulation and punch through and we cannot dope it low also because of gain reduction due to kirk eect at moderate injection levels. There are also high frequency/cap/resistance issues involved in all three dopings. Kirk eect is also called the base push out eect. It happens because of the velocity

saturation. Note that the current inside depletion region is made of both drift and diusion components and usual at quasi Fermi equilibrium assumption assumes that depletion region can supply as much current as current limiting system can supply. Now for a reverse biased CB junction in the transistor the current limiting system is the EB base junction that is injecting the carriers. CB junction would through all of these to the right side. As current density increases, major current component inside depletion region is the drift current. Once the velocity saturation is hit, the charges start piling up inside the CB junction and in the limit pushes the CB metallurgical junction to the right and eectively base width increases.

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4.7

Avalanche

4.7

Avalanche
An electron in some initial state in the conduction band interacts with some electron in the valance band and give rise to two electrons in the conduction band and a hole in valance band. In this process energy and momentum (pseudo) conservation should hold. Together with this one can prove that probability is an highly peaked function and peaks when the group velocity of the nal three particles is same. Now, one

can dene an ionization energy that is the minimum energy that an electron in the conduction band should have to initiate the ionization. One should note that because of the above three restrictions the ionization energy is usually much higher than the Eg.

One can dene another parameter called the ionization rate. Its equal to the number of ionized carriers any one carrier generates moving a unit distance. generation rate would be So the total

n nvn + p pvp = n jn /q + p jp /q .

Ionization rates are strong

functions of electric eld and temperatures. Ionization rates should increase with the electric eld and should decrease with the temperature (scattering)

One can integrate the above generation rate across the depletion layer to obtain the multiplication factor

M = Ip (W )/Ip (0).

Avalanche condition is that

M .

For a

given doping prole electric eld gets xed which can then tells us what should be the applied external bias for breakdown.

Instead of the above model, one can use a much simplied model. Avalanche occurs whenever E_max crosses some E_critical.  E_critical should increase with the Eg and should decrease with mean free path. Usually mean free path do not change from material to material. So mostly the material dependence comes only from Eg.  One relate E_critical to another parameter called V_break. should be inversely proportional to the doping. Neglecting V_bi, V_break

 V_break should increase with

temperature because of scattering (mean free path).

For understanding the punch through its important to realize that the than

VCE

is smaller

|VBE | + |VBC |

because the elds in the two junctions are in opposite directions.

For better understanding it better not to think of ideal depletion where electric eld abruptly becomes zero. Rather think as if fringes of one overlaps with others to reduces the others as they starts touching each other. Hand wavingly  although the external applied

VBE

remains same the actual junction behaves as it has been more forward

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4.8

CB, CE input and output char

biased and hence injects more carriers. All of them are immediately removed by reverse biased junction. Even when there is no overlap the slope of minority carriers in-between two depletion layers increases gradually as usual because of early eect. But when

fringe eld start overlapping this slope abruptly increases because the injection from one side increase due to barrier lowering. In short base diode depletion width touches an innite source of carriers (so equivalently slope of minority carrier becomes innite). So neglecting bulk resistance current should be innite. But in BJT depletion width touches a nite source (magnitude of minority carrier is xed). But try to realize that slope should become very high because space between two depletion is negligible. But before this space becomes too small the fringe elds are already too close. They

starts canceling each other so barrier lowering due to fringe overlap cause the abrupt increase in the slope much before the usual early eect would have made the slope innite.

4.8
4.8.1

CB, CE input and output char

CB input char (IE (VBE , VCB ) )
For all kind of zero or reverse biases at CB junction the minority carrier prole in base looks almost same (neglecting early eect). EB junction simply looks like a short base diode. Early eect can easily be included. It seems characteristics are never drawn for positive CB biases. But its not at all dicult to predict. With forward bias at CB only dierence is that the slope of minority prole in base reduces and hence the for same

IE

VBE

reduces. But the basic relation would look like similar to the short base

diode ... with probably a bit longer width.

4.8.2

CB Output Char (IC (IE , VCB ))

A few important points to note are:-

The curves are almost absolutely at. This is because the parameter that is being kept constant is emitter current and if collector-base junction is not too much forward biased

IE IC .

(On too much forward biased reverse injections also become important. But

in any case forward bias across CB is never studied). So if we change base width changes and

VCB

denitely

IC

should have changed but we need to keep

IE

to its previous

value so we would have to decrease

VBE

that would also keep

IC

same as previous.

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4.8

CB, CE input and output char

Even if

VCB = 0

the collector current is almost same because even at zero bias the

slope of minority carrier prole in the base is almost same. And that in the collector is also not much dierent from when it was in reverse biased. What would happen when we forward bias the CB junction can easily be predicted if bear in our mind that EB junction usually have very good injection eciency. So we can always neglect the back injection for getting an intuitive feeling. Note that such a back injection at CB junction is not negligible because of usual dopings. Now when if increase the forward bias across

VEB to keep the slope of minority carrier prole in the base same in order to keep the IE same. Hence that component of
the CB junction we would also have to increase the collector current that's coming straight from the BE junction would almost be same. But crucial thing to realize is that now because of the forward bias base would also start injecting considerable amount of minorities into the collector. It important to

understand that this opposite component of the current. And hence current actually reduces.(Note that in collector both majority and minority are being injected and are owing in same direction.) dierent It would ultimately reach the zero value. Note that for

IE

we denitely expect dierent

VCB

at which

IC = 0.

But the dierence

is usually quite small. Because forward current injection increases exponentially with the forward voltage. (One can easily guess that if we dope collector much higher than the base in order to reduce the back injection at CB junction we greatly reduce such a decrease in collector current because of forward bias. Current would decrease but very slightly ... would remain almost at. But the only negative thing is that it would greatly enhance the early eect and risks of punch through. Think as if fringes of one overlaps with others to reduces the others as they starts touching each other. Hand wavingly  although the external applied

VBE

remains same the actual junction behaves

as it has been more forward biased and hence injects more carriers. All of them are immediately removed by reverse biased junction. Even when there is no overlap the slope of minority carriers in-between two depletion layers increases gradually as usual because of early eect. But when fringe eld start overlapping this slope abruptly

increases because the injection from one side increase due to barrier lowering. In short base diode depletion width touches an innite source.)

Breakdown occurs either because of punch through (thin base and lightly doped base than collector) or because of avalanche multiplication.

The reverse saturation current is much smaller than a small base reverse biased diode

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4.8

CB, CE input and output char

saturation current which is almost same as that of BJT with shorted base and emitter because the slope of the minority carrier concentration towards the EB junction has to be zero to make emitter current zero.

4.8.3

CE input char (IB (VBE , VCE ))

Keep it mind that recombination in base makes negligible contribution to the base current in current technology. keep large Let us say we are considering npn transistor. Let us

VCE

(actually we just want to keep it large enough so that CB junction never

goes into forward bias. So small forward bias in EB junction mean reverse bias across CB junction. Increasing the forward bias across EB junction would simply reduce the reverse bias across CB junction. As far as CB remains reverse biased it do not cause any eects. Base current is mostly made of back injection. So increasing

VBE

simply gives

us diode char with very small currents. Curve would be quite independent of the

VCE

as long as CB remains reverse biased. In practice there might be a minute dierence because of the early eect. Eect is very minute because although slope changes when CB bias changes the area is not changed that much. in base current is quite small. Now if we keep small Also the contribution of area

VCE

say

VCE = 0

then as we Now

increase the forward bias across EB same forward bias comes across CB also.

base current would have two components  one is the back injection across EB and other the back injection across CB. Both would go exponential. So the total base

current would still be exponential but this time it would be much much higher because the injection eciency of CB junction is very poor and hence back injection across CB might be quite big.

4.8.4

CE output Char (IC (IB , VCE ))

Early eect shows up. Curves are not perfectly at. In active region, note that, CB junction is always reverse biased. Base current is almost made of back injection and hence is almost entirely dependent on simply keep biased.

VBE

(see input char). So to keep

IB

constant we

VBE constant. Now as we increase VCE CB gets more and more reverse Ideally IC should have been at because minority slope remains intact. But

early eects changes the slope little bit.

Now as

VCE

goes down to about

0.7V

its no more possible to keep BE forward biased

and CB reverse biased. As rst approximation let us guess that base current is still

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4.9

Gummel Plot,

-Ic

Plot

completely made up of back injection into emitter so in order to keep base current same we would keep

VBE

same. That means CB would be forward biased. That changes the

slope and changes the collector current. There is another point here. With forward bias at collector junction we also start injecting minority carriers from base into collector. So base current should go up. So to keep same base current we would have to reduce

VBE .

Note that if we want reduce

IB

by say10, we should be ready to reduce the

forward injection by at least say

1m.

So small change in

VCE

would sharply reduce the

collector current (because of good injection eciency).

Avalanche breakdown voltage in CE conguration would be smaller then CB conguration because of the feedback.

The reverse saturation current in CE (ICE0 ) would also be more than the of similar reasons.

ICB0

because

4.9

Gummel Plot, -Ic Plot

Usually in active region gain do not depend on collector current because both collector current and base current have same dependence with base emitter bias. (collector current or base current can only be changed by changing base emitter bias). Also

ICB0

is negligible.

At low currents gain is small because of RG current. At higher currents gain is again small because of high injection eects and because of kirk eect. At still higher level IR drop eect further reduces gain.

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4.10

Temperature

4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13

5 6

Temperature Breakdown Small Signal Models/High Frequency Models/Transients/Noise Microwave Transistor/Power transistor/Switching Transistor

HBT Further Resources

Some useful mathematical background can be found in one of the articles [22] written by the author or [23] or the wikipedia pages [24].

For a brief review of postulatory nature of quantum mechanics see another article [17] or following references [25, 26, 27]. Symmetries in physical laws and linearity of quantum mechanics are discussed in related articles [28, 18]. References [29, 30, 31] also provides good discussion about symmetries. Review of quantum eld theory (QFT) can be found in the reference [19] or [32, 33, 34] while an introductory treatment of quantum measurements can be found here [20] or here [35, 26].

A good discussion on equilibrium quantum statistical mechanics can be found in references [6, 36, 37] while an introductory treatment of statistical quantum eld theory (QFT) and details of density matrix formalism can be found in the references [10, 38]. A brief discussion of irreversible or non-equilibrium thermodynamics can be found here [39, 40].

To understand relationship between magnetism, relativity, angular momentum and spins, readers may want to check references [14, 16] on magnetics and spins. Some

details of electron spin resonance (ESR) measurement setup can be found here [41, 15].

Electronic aspects of device physics and bipolar devices are discussed in [1, 42, 3, 4, 5]. Details of electronic band structure calculations are discussed in references [43, 44, 13] and semiclassical transport theory and quantum transport theory are discusssed in references [8, 45, 9, 11].

List of all related articles from author can be found at author's homepage.

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REFERENCES

References
[1] M. Agrawal,  Device Physics, (2002). URL http://www.stanford.edu/~mukul/

tutorials/device_physics.pdf . (Cited on pages 3 and 25.) [2] W. Liu,

Fundamentals of III-V Devices: HBTs, MESFETs, and HFETs/HEMTs Semiconductor Device Fundamentals

(Wiley-Interscience, 1999). (Cited on page 3.) [3] R. F. Pierret, (Addison Wesley, 1996). (Cited on

pages 3 and 25.) [4] R. F. Pierret,

Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals (2nd Edition) (Modular Series on Solid State Devices, V. 6) (Prentice Hall, 2002). (Cited on pages 3 and 25.) Physics of Semiconductor Devices
(John Wiley and Sons (WIE), 1981). (Cited

[5] S. Sze,

on pages 3 and 25.) [6] M. Agrawal,  Statistical Quantum Mechanics, (2003). URL http://www.stanford.edu/ ~mukul/tutorials/stat_mech.pdf . (Cited on pages 3 and 25.) [7] C. Kittel and H. Kroemer, (Cited on page 3.) [8] M. Agrawal,  Classical and Semiclassical Carrier Transport and Scattering Theory, (2003). URL http://www.stanford.edu/~mukul/tutorials/scattering.pdf . pages 3 and 25.) [9] M. Lundstrom, (Cited on

Thermal Physics (2nd Edition)

(W. H. Freeman, 1980).

Fundamentals of carrier transport

(Cambridge Univ Pr, 2000). (Cited

on pages 3 and 25.) [10] M. Agrawal,  Non-Equilibrium Statistical Quantum Field Theory, (2005). URL http: //www.stanford.edu/~mukul/tutorials/stat_QFT.pdf . (Cited on pages 3 and 25.) [11] S. Datta,

Electronic transport in mesoscopic systems (Cambridge Univ Pr, 1997). (Cited

on pages 3 and 25.) [12] M. Agrawal,  Optical Modeling of Nano-Structured Materials and Devices, (2007). URL http://www.stanford.edu/~mukul/tutorials/optical.pdf . (Cited on page 3.)

Mukul Agrawal

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REFERENCES

[13] S. L. Chuang,

Physics of Optoelectronic Devices (Wiley Series in Pure and Applied

Optics)

(Wiley-Interscience, 1995). (Cited on pages 3 and 25.)

[14] M. Agrawal,  Magnetic Properties of Materials, Dilute Magnetic Semiconductors, Magnetic Resonances (NMR and ESR) and Spintronics, (2003). URL http://www.stanford. edu/~mukul/tutorials/magnetic.pdf . (Cited on pages 3 and 25.) [15] C. Slitcher,  Principles of Magnetic Resonance, Springer Series in Solid State Sciences

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Mukul Agrawal

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Fundamental Physics in Nano-Structured Materials and Devices

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(Stanford

University, 2008), URL http://www.stanford.edu/~mukul/tutorials.

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Mukul Agrawal

28
Fundamental Physics in Nano-Structured Materials and Devices

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(Stanford

University, 2008), URL http://www.stanford.edu/~mukul/tutorials.

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Mukul Agrawal

29
Fundamental Physics in Nano-Structured Materials and Devices

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(Stanford

University, 2008), URL http://www.stanford.edu/~mukul/tutorials.