2012 ACR Committee On Drugs and Contrast Media

ACR Manual on Contrast Media
Version 8
2012 ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media
ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8

2012 ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media
Copyright 2012 American College of Radiology
ISBN: 978-1-55903-009-0
Table of Contents
Topic Last Updated Page 1. Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V8 2012 . . . . . . 3 2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V7 2010 . . . . . 4
3. Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V7 2010 . . . . . . 5 4. Injection of Contrast Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V7 2010 . . . . . 13 5. Extravasation of Contrast Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V7 2010 . . . . . 17 6. Adverse Events After Intravascular Iodinated Contrast Media . . . . . . . V8 2012 . . . . . 21 Administration 7. Contrast Media Warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V8 2012 . . . . . 29 8. Contrast-Induced Nephrotoxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V8 2012 . . . . . 33
9. Metformin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V7 2010 . . . . . 43 10. Contrast Media in Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V7 2010 . . . . . 47 11. Iodinated Gastrointestinal Contrast Media in Adults: Indications . . . . . . V7 2010 . . . . . 55 and Guidelines 12. Adverse Reactions to Gadolinium-Based Contrast Media . . . . . . . . . . V7 2010 . . . . . 59 13. Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis (NSF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V8 2012 . . . . . 63 14. Treatment of Contrast Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V8 2012 . . . . 73 15. Administration of Contrast Media to Pregnant or Potentially . . . . . . . . V6 2008. . . . . 75 Pregnant Patients 16. Administration of Contrast Media to Breast-Feeding Mothers . . . . . . . V6 2008 . . . . . 79 Table 1 Indications for Use of Iodinated Contrast Media . . . . . . . . . . . . V6 2008 . . . . . 81 Table 2 Organ or System-Specific Adverse Effects from the Administration . . V7 2010 . . . . . 82 of Iodine-Based or Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents Table 3 Categories of Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V7 2010 . . . . . 83 Table 4 Management of Acute Reactions in Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V7 2010 . . . . . 84 Table 5 Management of Acute Reactions in Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V6 2008 . . . . . 86 Table 6 Equipment for Emergency Carts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V6 2008 . . . . . 88 Appendix A Contrast Media Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V8 2012 . . . . . 89
ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012
Table of Contents / 1
Preface
This Eighth Edition of the ACR Manual on Contrast Media replaces all earlier editions. It is being published as a Web-based document only so it can be updated as frequently as needed. This manual was developed by the ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media of the ACR Commission on Quality and Safety as a guide for radiologists to enhance the safe and effective use of contrast media. Suggestions for patient screening, premedication, recognition of adverse reactions, and emergency treatment of such reactions are emphasized. Its major purpose is to provide useful information regarding contrast media used in daily practice. The committee offers this document to practicing radiologists as a consensus of scientific evidence and clinical experience concerning the use of iodinated contrast media. The general principles outlined here also pertain to the administration and systemic effects (e.g., adverse effects) of noniodinated contrast media such as gadolinium or other compounds used for magnetic resonance imaging and gastrointestinal imaging. The editorial staff sincerely thanks all who have contributed their knowledge and valuable time to this publication. Members of the ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media at the time of this edition are: Richard H. Cohan, MD, FACR, Chair Jonathan R. Dillman, MD Robert P. Hartman, MD Syed Z. Jafri, MD, FACR Carolyn K. Wang, MD Jeffrey H. Newhouse, MD, FACR Claude B. Sirlin, MD Jeffrey C. Weinreb, MD, FACR Matthew S. Davenport, MD James H. Ellis, MD, FACR Brian R. Herts, MD Amy B. Kolbe, MD Laurence Needleman, MD, FACR Arthur J. Segal, MD, FACR Neil F. Wasserman, MD
Finally, the committee wishes to recognize the efforts of Ms. Margaret Wyatt and other supporting members of the ACR staff.
Preface / 3
Introduction
Various forms of contrast media have been used to improve medical imaging. Their value has long been recognized, as attested to by their common daily use in imaging departments worldwide. Like all other pharmaceuticals, however, these agents are not completely devoid of risk. The major purpose of this manual is to assist radiologists in recognizing and managing the small but real risks inherent in the use of contrast media. Adverse side effects from the administration of contrast media vary from minor physiological disturbances to rare severe life-threatening situations. Preparation for prompt treatment of contrast media reactions must include preparation for the entire spectrum of potential adverse events and include prearranged response planning with availability of appropriately trained personnel, equipment, and medications. Therefore, such preparation is best accomplished prior to approving and performing these examinations. Additionally, an ongoing quality assurance and quality improvement program for all radiologists and technologists and the requisite equipment are recommended. Thorough familiarity with the presentation and emergency treatment of contrast media reactions must be part of the environment in which all intravascular contrast media are administered. Millions of radiological examinations assisted by intravascular contrast media are conducted each year in North America. Although adverse side effects are infrequent, a detailed knowledge of the variety of side effects, their likelihood in relationship to pre-existing conditions, and their treatment is required to insure optimal patient care. As would be appropriate with any diagnostic procedure, preliminary considerations for the referring physician and the radiologist include: 1. 2. 3. Assessment of patient risk versus potential benefit of the contrast assisted examination. Imaging alternatives that would provide the same or better diagnostic information. Assurance of a valid clinical indication for each contrast medium administration.
Because of the documented low incidence of adverse events, intravenous injection of contrast media may be exempted from the need for informed consent, but this decision should be based on state law, institutional policy, and departmental policy. Usage Note: In this manual, the term low-osmolality in reference to radiographic iodinated contrast media is intended to encompass both low-osmolality and iso-osmolality media, the former having osmolality approximately twice that of human serum, and the latter having osmolality approximately that of human serum at conventionally used iodine concentrations for vascular injection. Also, unless otherwise obvious in context, this manual focuses on issues concerning radiographic iodinated contrast media.
4 / Introduction
Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies

General Considerations
The approach to patients about to undergo a contrast-enhanced examination has three general goals: 1) to assure that the administration of contrast is appropriate for the patient and the indication; 2) to minimize the likelihood of a contrast reaction; and 3) to be fully prepared to treat a reaction should one occur (see Tables 4, 5, and 6). Achieving these aims depends on obtaining an appropriate and adequate history for each patient, preparing the patient appropriately for the examination, having equipment available to treat reactions, and ensuring that expertise sufficient to treat even the most severe reactions is readily at hand. Although mild reactions to contrast media are relatively common, they are almost invariably self-limited and of no consequence. Severe, life-threatening reactions, although rare, can occur in the absence of any specific risk factors with any type of media. The history obtained should focus on identification of factors that may indicate either a contraindication to contrast media use or an increased likelihood of a reaction.
Risk Factors for Adverse Intravenous Contrast Material Reactions

Allergy: With regard to specific risk factors, a history of a prior allergy-like reaction to contrast media is associated with an up to five fold increased likelihood of the patient experiencing a subsequent reaction [1]. Additionally, any allergic diathesis predisposes individuals to reactions. This relationship is a difficult one to define, since many individuals have at least a minor allergy, such as seasonal rhinitis, and do not experience reactions. True concern should be focused on patients with significant allergies, such as a prior major anaphylactic response to one or more allergens. The predictive value of specific allergies, such as those to shellfish or dairy products, previously thought to be helpful, is now recognized to be unreliable [2-3] A significant number of health care providers continue to inquire specifically into a patients history of allergy to seafood, especially shellfish [4]. There is no evidence to support the continuation of this practice [4-5]. Any patient who describes an allergy to a food or contrast media should be questioned further to clarify the type and severity of the allergy or reaction, as these patients could be atopic and at increased risk for reactions [2]. Most forms of atopy result in a 2 to 3 times likelihood of contrast reaction compared with non-atopic patients [2]. However, considering the rarity of severe life-threatening anaphylaxis, this level of incremental risk remains low and should be considered in the context of risk versus benefit. Asthma: A history of asthma may indicate an increased likelihood of a contrast reaction [1,6]. Renal Insufficiency: Another specific risk category is renal insufficiency [7]. Discussion of contrastinduced nephrotoxicity (CIN) and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) can be found in the Chapters on Contrast-Induced Nephrotoxicity and NSF. Cardiac Status: Patients with significant cardiac disease may be at increased risk for contrast reactions. These include symptomatic patients (e.g., patients with angina or congestive heart failure symptoms with minimal exertion) and also patients with severe aortic stenosis, primary pulmonary hypertension, or severe but well-compensated cardiomyopathy. In all such patients, attention should be paid to limiting the volume and osmolality of the contrast media.
Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies / 5
Anxiety: A general category that deserves attention is emotional state. There is anecdotal evidence that severe adverse effects to contrast media or to procedures can be mitigated at least in part by reducing anxiety. It may be useful, therefore, to determine whether a patient is particularly anxious and to reassure and calm that patient before contrast injection. This issue was studied with reference to anxiety thought to be generated by informed consent of risks associated with intravenous (IV) contrast procedures [8]. Using a standardized anxiety index, it was concluded that the majority of patients who were and were not informed had equally elevated anxiety, and there was no increase in adverse reactions in the informed group. Miscellaneous Risk Factors: There are several other specific risk factors that deserve attention. Paraproteinemias, particularly multiple myeloma, are known to predispose patients to irreversible renal failure after high-osmolality contrast media (HOCM) administration due to tubular protein precipitation and aggregation; however, there is no data predicting risk with the use of low-osmolality or iso-osmolality agents. Age, apart from the general health of the patient, is not a major consideration in patient preparation [1]. In infants and neonates, contrast volume is an important consideration because of the low blood volume of the patient and the hypertonicity (and potentially detrimental cardiac effects) of even nonionic monomeric contrast media. Gender is not considered a major risk factor for IV contrast injection. Some retrospective case control studies suggest a statistically significant risk that the use of betaadrenergic blocking agents lowers the threshold for and increases the severity of contrast reactions, and reduces the responsiveness of treatment of anaphylactoid reactions with epinephrine [9]. Others have suggested that sickle cell trait or disease increases the risk to patients; however, in neither case is there evidence of any clinically significant risk, particularly after the injection of low-osmolality contrast media (LOCM) [10]. Concomitant use of certain intra-arterial injections, such as papaverine, is believed to lead to precipitation of contrast media during arteriography. There have been reports of thrombus formation during angiography using nonionic as opposed to ionic agents. In both cases, there are in-vitro studies that suggest possible explanations. Some patients with pheochromocytoma develop an increase in serum catecholamine levels after the IV injection of HOCM. A subsequent study showed no elevation of catecholamine levels after the IV injection of nonionic contrast media [11]. Direct injection of either type of contrast medium into the adrenal or renal artery is to be avoided, however, as this may cause a hypertensive crisis. Some patients with hyperthyroidism or other thyroid disease (especially when present in those who live in iodine-deficient areas) may develop iodine-provoked delayed hyperthyroidism. This effect may appear 4 to 6 weeks after the IV contrast administration in some of these patients. This can occur after the administration of any iodinated contrast media. It is usually self-limited. Patients with carcinoma of the thyroid deserve special consideration before the IV or oral administration of iodinated contrast media (ionic or nonionic). Uptake of I-131 in the thyroid becomes moderately decreased to about 50% at one week after iodinated contrast injection but seems to become normal within a few weeks. Therefore, if systemic radioactive iodine therapy is part of planned treatment, a pretherapy diagnostic study of the patient using an iodinated radiographic contrast medium (intravascular or oral) may be contraindicated; consultation with the ordering clinician prior to contrast administration is recommended in these patients.
6 / Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies
Intravenous injections may cause heat and discomfort but rarely cause pain unless there is extravasation. Intra-arterial contrast injections into peripheral vessels in the arms, legs, or head can be quite painful, particularly with HOCM. For such injections, iso-osmolality contrast media (IOCM) are associated with the least amount of discomfort.
Premedication
The primary indication for premedication is pretreatment of at-risk patients who require contrast media. In this context, at risk means at higher risk for an acute allergic-like reaction. The etiological mechanisms of anaphylactoid contrast reactions are incompletely understood as well as the basis of prevention with the use of corticosteroids [12]. Approximately 90% of such adverse reactions are associated with direct release of histamine and other mediators from circulating basophils and eosinophils. It is now generally accepted that most adverse allergy-like reactions are not associated with the presence of increased IgE and, therefore, unlikely to be truly allergic. However, some studies show definite evidence of IgE mediation [13]. No antibodies to IV contrast media have been consistently identified, and according to skin testing and basophil activation, IgE-mediated allergy is uncommon, occurring in 4% of patients having anaphylaxis symptoms [14]. Pathophysiologic explanations include activation of mast cells and basophils releasing histamine, activation of the contact and complement systems, conversion of L-arginine into nitric oxide, activation of the XII clotting system leading to production of bradykinin [10], and development of pseudoantigens [15]. Considerable evidence exists in the medical literature that radiographic contrast media reactions arise from mediators released by circulating basophils. Dose response studies in humans of the suppression of whole blood histamine and basophil counts by IV methylprednisone [16] show a reduction in circulating basophils and eosinophils by the end of the first postinjection hour, reaching statistical significance compared with controls by the end of the second hour, and maximal statistical significance at the end of 4 hours. The reduction of basophils is greater than eosinophils. A reduction of histamine in sedimented leukocytes is also noted at 4 hours. Many of these effects reach their maximum at 8 hours. The foregoing may provide some rationale for the use of IV steroids for at risk patients in emergency situations. Although some corticosteroid preventative effect may be gained as quickly as 1 hour after IV injection of corticosteroids, the experimental data would support a much better prophylactic effect if the examination can be delayed for at least 4 to 6 hours after giving premedication [10,17-18]. If this time interval is not clinically possible, some would omit the use of corticosteroids entirely and give only H1 blockers prior to injection of contrast [17]. However, it should be emphasized that no clinical studies have unequivocally demonstrated prevention of contrast reactions using short-term IV corticosteroid premedication. The osmolality of the contrast agent as well as the size and complexity of the molecule has potential influence on the likelihood of contrast reactions. Hyperosmolality is associated with the stimulation of release of histamine from basophils and mast cells. Increase in the size and complexity of the contrast molecule may potentiate the release of histamine [19-20]. There is some evidence to suggest that nonionic monomers also produce lower levels of histamine release from basophils compared with high-osmolality ionic monomers, low-osmolality ionic dimers and iso-osmolality nonionic dimers [20]. A large nonrandomized nonblinded study suggests significantly greater safety of nonionic contrast agents [1]. Similar safety margins have been claimed in other nonrandomized trials [21]; however, no definitive unbiased randomized clinical trials exist that demonstrate significant reduction in severe reactions and fatality [21]. Low-osmolality contrast agents also reduce the non-idiosyncratic physiologic reactions that are not related to allergy. For these reasons there is general agreement that the safety margin for low-osmolality contrast agents is better than that for ionic high-osmolality agents.
ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012 Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies / 7
Before deciding to premedicate an at risk patient, some consideration should be given to the goals of such premedication. Ideally, one would like to prevent all contrast reactions, including minor, moderate, and severe ones. However, it is most important to target premedication to those who, in the past, have had moderately severe or severe reactions requiring treatment. Unfortunately, studies have thus far indicated that the main contrast reactions that benefit from premedication are minor ones requiring no or minimal medical intervention [18]. No randomized controlled clinical trials have demonstrated premedication protection against severe life-threatening adverse reactions [10,22-23]. But this may be attributed to the rarity of lifethreatening reactions to contrast and the prohibitive numbers of subjects necessary for enough statistical power to demonstrate any beneficial effect of premedication in preventing the most severe contrast reactions. Risk of Corticosteroids: Although the risk of a few doses of oral corticosteroids is extremely low [17], precautions must be taken when administering a short course of steroids to some patients. Corticosteroids should be used with caution in patients with uncontrolled hypertension, diabetes [24], tuberculosis, systemic fungal infections, peptic ulcer disease or diverticulitis [17]. The relative risk for the use of corticosteroids compared to the likelihood of severe or fatal contrast reaction must be considered. Anaphylactoid reactions to oral glucocorticoids have been rarely reported [36]. In comparison, there have been more frequent reports of serious reactions to IV injections of frequently used corticosteroids [17,25-29]. The most common offenders are the succinate esters of methylprednisolone sodium (Solu-Medrol) [26,29] and hydrocortisone sodium succinate (Solu-Cortef) [30]. Some have suggested that non-succinate glucosteroids, such as betamethasone or dexamethasone sodium sulfate (Decadron), may be safer for intravenous use [29,31], based on follow-up skin prick tests on patients showing anaphylactic symptoms. Cross reactivity of topical and systemic steroids has been described in asthmatics resulting in bronchospasm after injecting the latter [30]. Increased risk for adverse reactions to corticosteroids has been seen more commonly in patients with asthma, particularly if those patients also have acetylsalicylic acid/nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug intolerances [26,30]. Pretesting: Preliminary intradermal skin testing with contrast agents is not predictive of adverse reactions, may itself be dangerous, and is not recommended [13-14,32].
Premedication strategies
Oral administration of steroids is preferable to IV administration, and prednisone and methylprednisolone are equally effective. It is preferred that steroids be given beginning at least 6 hours prior to the injection of contrast media regardless of the route of steroid administration whenever possible. It is unclear if administration for 3 hours or fewer prior to contrast reduces adverse reactions. Dunsky et al [16] experimentally established a theoretical scientific basis for such a strategy, but actual demonstration of clinical effects is not, to date, proved. Supplemental administration of an H-1 antihistamine (e.g., diphenhydramine), orally or intravenously, may reduce the frequency of urticaria, angioedema, and respiratory symptoms. Additionally, ephedrine administration has been suggested to decrease the frequency of contrast reactions, but the use of this medication is not advised in patients with unstable angina, arrhythmia, or hypertension. In fact, inclusion of ephedrine in a routine premedication protocol is not recommended. In one clinical study, addition of the H-2 antihistamine cimetidine to the premedication protocol resulted in a slight increase in the repeat reaction rate [33].
Specific Recommended Premedication Regimens

Several premedication regimens have been proposed to reduce the frequency and/or severity of reactions to contrast media.
Elective Premedication
Two frequently used regimens are: 1. Prednisone 50 mg by mouth at 13 hours, 7 hours, and 1 hour before contrast media injection, plus Diphenhydramine (Benadryl) 50 mg intravenously, intramuscularly, or by mouth 1 hour before contrast medium [12]. or 2. Methylprednisolone (Medrol) 32 mg by mouth 12 hours and 2 hours before contrast media injection. An anti-histamine (as in option 1) can also be added to this regimen injection [34]. If the patient is unable to take oral medication, 200 mg of hydrocortisone intravenously may be substituted for oral prednisone in the Greenberger protocol [35].
Emergency Premedication (In Decreasing Order of Desirability)

1. Methylprednisolone sodium succinate (Solu-Medrol) 40 mg or hydrocortisone sodium succinate (Solu-Cortef) 200 mg intravenously every 4 hours (q4h) until contrast study required plus diphenhydramine 50 mg IV 1 hour prior to contrast injection [35]. 2. Dexamethasone sodium sulfate (Decadron) 7.5 mg or betamethasone 6.0 mg intravenously q4h until contrast study must be done in patent with known allergy to methylpred-nisolone, aspirin, or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, especially if asthmatic. Also diphenhydramine 50 mg IV 1 hour prior to contrast injection. 3. Omit steroids entirely and give diphenhydramine 50 mg IV. Note: IV steroids have not been shown to be effective when administered less than 4 to 6 hours prior to contrast injection.
Changing the Contrast Agent to be Injected

In patients who have a prior, documented contrast reaction, the use of a different contrast agent, has been advocated and may sometimes be protective [36]. However, a change from one to another low-osmolality agent generally appears to provide little or no benefit [37]. An optional switch to a different agent may be combined with a pre-medication regimen. [Note: For a summary of patient preparation strategies, see the table following the references below.]
Breakthrough Reactions
Studies to date have demonstrated a decrease in overall adverse events after steroid premedication before contrast injection, but no decrease in the incidence of repeat severe adverse events [34]. This may be due to the infrequency of severe life-threatening reactions to iodinated contrast. Frequency and severity of repeat contrast reactions in premedicated patients (so-called breakthrough reactions) was recently studied [37-38] resulting in several important conclusions: 1) Breakthrough reaction severity, signs, and symptoms are most often similar to the index reaction; 2) The majority of low-osmolality contrast injections in premedicated patients with a prior breakthrough reaction will not result in a repeat breakthrough reaction; 3) Patients with a mild index reaction have an extremely low risk of developing a severe breakthrough reaction; 4) Patients with a moderate or severe index or breakthrough reaction are at higher risk for developing another moderate or severe reaction should breakthrough occur; 5) Severe allergies to any other substance (which includes IV iodinated contrast) are associated with a somewhat higher risk of developing a moderate or severe breakthrough reaction. This is also true of patients with more than four allergies, any drug allergy, and chronic use of oral corticosteroids [37].
Other considerations
No premedication strategy should be a substitute for the preadministration preparedness discussed in this manual. Contrast reactions occur despite premedication prophylaxis [38]. The radiologist must be prepared and able to treat these reactions. Most commonly, a repeat reaction will be similar to the patients initial reaction; however, there is a chance that a recurrent reaction will be more or less severe [38].
References
1. Katayama H, Yamaguchi K, Kozuka T, Takashima T, Seez P, Matsuura K. Adverse reactions to ionic and nonionic contrast media. A report from the Japanese Committee on the Safety of Contrast Media. Radiology 1990; 175:621-628. 2. Coakley FV, Panicek DM. Iodine allergy: an oyster without a pearl? AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 169:951-952. 3. Lieberman PL, Seigle RL. Reactions to radiocontrast material. Anaphylactoid events in radiology. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 1999; 17:469-496. 4. Beaty AD, Lieberman PL, Slavin RG. Seafood allergy and radiocontrast media: are physicians propagating a myth? Am J Med 2008; 121:158 e151-154. 5. Boehm I. Seafood allergy and radiocontrast media: are physicians propagating a myth? Am J Med 2008; 121:e19. 6. Shehadi WH. Adverse reactions to intravascularly administered contrast media. A comprehensive study based on a prospective survey. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med 1975; 124:145-152. 7. Katzberg RW. Urography into the 21st century: new contrast media, renal handling, imaging characteristics, and nephrotoxicity. Radiology 1997; 204:297-312. 8. Hopper KD, Houts PS, TenHave TR, et al. The effect of informed consent on the level of anxiety in patients given i.v. contrast material. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994; 162:531-535. 9. Lang DM, Alpern MB, Visintainer PF, Smith ST. Elevated risk of anaphylactoid reaction from radiographic contrast media is associated with both beta-blocker exposure and cardiovascular disorders. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153:2033-2040. 10. Morcos SK. Review article: Acute serious and fatal reactions to contrast media: our current understanding. Br J Radiol 2005; 78:686-693. 11. Mukherjee JJ, Peppercorn PD, Reznek RH, et al. Pheochromocytoma: effect of nonionic contrast medium in CT on circulating catecholamine levels. Radiology 1997; 202:227-231. 12. Lasser EC, Berry CC, Talner LB, et al. Pretreatment with corticosteroids to alleviate reactions to intravenous contrast material. N Engl J Med 1987; 317:845-849. 13. Laroche D, Aimone-Gastin I, Dubois F, et al. Mechanisms of severe, immediate reactions to iodinated contrast material. Radiology 1998; 209:183-190. 14. Trcka J, Schmidt C, Seitz CS, Brocker EB, Gross GE, Trautmann A. Anaphylaxis to iodinated contrast material: nonallergic hypersensitivity or IgE-mediated allergy? AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 190:666-670. 15. Lasser EC. The multipotential pseudoantigenicity of X-ray contrast media. Pseudoantigen excess may downregulate the release of hypotensive mediators. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2000; 123:282-290. 16. Dunsky EH, Zweiman B, Fischler E, Levy DA. Early effects of corticosteroids on basophils, leukocyte histamine, and tissue histamine. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1979; 63:426-432.
17. Lasser EC. Pretreatment with corticosteroids to prevent reactions to i.v. contrast material: overview and implications. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1988; 150:257-259. 18. Lasser EC, Berry CC, Mishkin MM, Williamson B, Zheutlin N, Silverman JM. Pretreatment with corticosteroids to prevent adverse reactions to nonionic contrast media. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994; 162:523-526. 19. Paton WD. Histamine release by compounds of simple chemical structure. Pharmacol Rev 1957; 9:269-328. 20. Peachell PT, Morcos SK. Effect of radiographic contrast media on histamine release from human mast cells and basophils. Br J Radiol 1998; 71:24-30. 21. Lasser EC, Berry CC. Nonionic vs ionic contrast media: what do the data tell us? AJR Am J Roentgenol 1989; 152:945-946. 22. Brockow K, Christiansen C, Kanny G, et al. Management of hypersensitivity reactions to iodinated contrast media. Allergy 2005; 60:150-158. 23. Tramer MR, von Elm E, Loubeyre P, Hauser C. Pharmacological prevention of serious anaphylactic reactions due to iodinated contrast media: systematic review. Bmj 2006; 333:675. 24. Liccardi G, Lobefalo G, Di Florio E, et al. Strategies for the prevention of asthmatic, anaphylactic and anaphylactoid reactions during the administration of anesthetics and/or contrast media. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2008; 18:1-11. 25. Armstrong PA, Pazona JF, Schaeffer AJ. Anaphylactoid reaction after retrograde pyelography despite preoperative steroid preparation. Urology 2005; 66:880. 26. Burgdorff T, Venemalm L, Vogt T, Landthaler M, Stolz W. IgE-mediated anaphylactic reaction induced by succinate ester of methylprednisolone. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2002; 89:425-428. 27. Derbent A, Ergun S, Uyar M, Oran I. Pre-treatment of anaphylaxis, does it really work? Eur J Anaesthesiol 2005; 22:955-956. 28. Kamm GL, Hagmeyer KO. Allergic-type reactions to corticosteroids. Ann Pharmacother 1999; 33:451-460. 29. Nakamura H, Matsuse H, Obase Y, et al. Clinical evaluation of anaphylactic reactions to intravenous corticosteroids in adult asthmatics. Respiration 2002; 69:309-313. 30. Dajani BM, Sliman NA, Shubair KS, Hamzeh YS. Bronchospasm caused by intravenous hydrocortisone sodium succinate (Solu-Cortef) in aspirin-sensitive asthmatics. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1981; 68:201-204. 31. Ventura MT, Calogiuri GF, Matino MG, et al. Alternative glucocorticoids for use in cases of adverse reaction to systemic glucocorticoids: a study on 10 patients. Br J Dermatol 2003; 148:139-141. 32. Yamaguchi K, Katayama H, Takashima T, Kozuka T, Seez P, Matsuura K. Prediction of severe adverse reactions to ionic and nonionic contrast media in Japan: evaluation of pretesting. A report from the Japanese Committee on the Safety of Contrast Media. Radiology 1991; 178:363-367. 33. Greenberger PA, Patterson R, Tapio CM. Prophylaxis against repeated radiocontrast media reactions in 857 cases. Adverse experience with cimetidine and safety of beta-adrenergic antagonists. Arch Intern Med 1985; 145:2197-2200. 34. Greenberger PA, Patterson R. The prevention of immediate generalized reactions to radiocontrast media in high-risk patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1991; 87:867-872. 35. Greenberger PA, Halwig JM, Patterson R, Wallemark CB. Emergency administration of radiocontrast media in high-risk patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1986; 77:630-634. 36. Wolf GL, Mishkin MM, Roux SG, et al. Comparison of the rates of adverse drug reactions. Ionic contrast agents, ionic agents combined with steroids, and nonionic agents. Invest Radiol 1991; 26:404-410. 37. Davenport MS, Cohan RH, Caoili EM, Ellis JH. Repeat contrast medium reactions in premedicated patients: frequency and severity. Radiology 2009; 253:372-379. 38. Freed KS, Leder RA, Alexander C, DeLong DM, Kliewer MA. Breakthrough adverse reactions to low-osmolar contrast media after steroid premedication. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001; 176:1389-1392.
Injection of Contrast Media

General Considerations
Injection methods vary depending on vascular access, clinical problems, and type of examination. The mode and method of delivery, either by hand or by power injector, also vary for the procedures listed. Subject to the requirements of state law, a radiologist, radiologic technologist, or nurse may administer contrast media. Stable intravenous (IV) access is necessary. For current American College of Radiology (ACR) recommendations regarding injection of contrast media (including radiopharmaceuticals), see the ACRSPR Practice Guideline for the Use of Intravascular Contrast Media. Referring to the FDA-mandated package inserts may be appropriate in determining the contrast media doses and concentrations (see Appendix A Contrast Media Specifications). It is important to avoid prolonged admixture of blood and contrast media in syringes and catheters whenever possible, due to the risk of clots forming. In general, unless known to be safe, the admixture of contrast media and any medication should be avoided. However, heparin may be combined with contrast media.
Mechanical Injection of Intravenous Contrast Media

Bolus or power injection of IV contrast material is superior to drip infusion for enhancing normal and abnormal structures during body computed tomography (CT). Radiology personnel must recognize the need for proper technique to avoid the potentially serious complications of contrast media extravasation and air embolism. (See the Chapter on Extravasation of Contrast Media.) When the proper technique is used, contrast medium can be safely administered intravenously by power injector, even at high-flow rates.
Technique
To avoid potential complications, the patients full cooperation should be obtained whenever possible. Communicating with the patient before the examination and during the injection may reduce the risk of contrast medium extravasation. If the patient reports pain or the sensation of swelling at the injection site, injection should be discontinued. Intravenous contrast media should be administered by power injector through a flexible plastic cannula. Use of metal needles for power injection should be avoided. In addition, the flow rate should be appropriate for the gauge of the catheter used. Although 22-gauge catheters may be able to tolerate flow rates up to 5 ml/sec, a 20-gauge or larger catheter is preferable for flow rates of 3 ml/sec or higher. An antecubital or large forearm vein is the preferred venous access site for power injection. If a more peripheral (e.g., hand or wrist) venipuncture site is used, a flow rate of no greater than 1.5 ml/sec may be more appropriate. Careful preparation of the power injection apparatus is essential to minimize the risk of contrast medium extravasation or air embolism. Standard procedures should be used to clear the syringe and pressure tubing of air, after which the syringe should be reoriented with the tubing directed downward. Before initiating the injection, the position of the catheter tip should be checked for venous backflow. If backflow is not obtained, the catheter may need adjustment, and a saline test flush or special monitoring of the site during injection may be appropriate. If the venipuncture site is tender or infiltrated, an alternative site should be sought. If venous backflow is obtained, the power injector and tubing should be positioned to allow adequate table movement without tension on the intravenous line.
Injection of Contrast Media / 13
A critical step in preventing significant extravasation is direct monitoring of the venipuncture site by palpation during the initial portion of the contrast medium injection. If no problem is encountered during the first 15 seconds, the individual monitoring the injection exits the CT scan room before the scanning begins. If extravasation is detected, the injection is stopped immediately. Communication between the technologist and the patient via an intercom or television system should be maintained throughout the examination. Power injection of contrast media through some central venous catheters can be performed safely, provided that certain precautions are followed. First, either the CT scout scan or a recent chest radiograph should be checked to confirm the proper location of the catheter tip. Before connecting the catheter to the injector system tubing, the catheter tip position should be tested for venous backflow. Occasionally backflow will not be obtained because the catheter tip is positioned against the wall of the vein in which it is located. If saline can be injected through the catheter without abnormal resistance, contrast media can be administered through the catheter safely. If abnormal resistance or discomfort is encountered, an alternative venous access site should be sought. Injection with large-bore (9.5-F to 10-F) central venous catheters using flow rates of up to 2.5 ml/sec has been shown to generate pressures below manufacturers specified limits. For power injection of contrast media through some central venous catheters, the radiologist should consult manufacturers recommendations. Contrast media should not be administered by power injector through small-bore, peripheral (e.g., arm) access central venous catheters (unless permitted by the manufacturers specifications) because of the risk of catheter breakage. It cannot be assumed that all vascular catheters including a peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) can tolerate a mechanical injection. However, a number of manufacturers have produced power injector compatible vascular catheters. The manufacturers specifications should be followed.
Air Embolism
Clinically significant venous air embolism is a potentially fatal but extremely rare complication of IV contrast media injection. Clinically silent venous air embolism, however, commonly occurs when an IV contrast medium is administered by hand injection. Care when using power injection for contrast-enhanced CT minimizes the risk of this complication. On CT, venous air embolism is most commonly identified as air bubbles or air-fluid levels in the intrathoracic veins, main pulmonary artery, or right ventricle. Air embolism has also been identified in intracranial venous structures. Inadvertent injection of large amounts of air into the venous system may result in air hunger, dyspnea, cough, chest pain, pulmonary edema, tachycardia, hypotension, or expiratory wheezing. Neurologic deficits may result from stroke due to decreased cardiac output or paradoxical air embolism. Patients with right-to-left intracardiac shunts or pulmonary arteriovenous malformations are at a higher risk of having a neurological deficit develop from small volumes of air embolism. Treatment of venous air embolism includes administration of 100% oxygen and placing the patient in the left lateral decubitus position (i.e., left side down). Hyperbaric oxygen has been recommended to reduce the size of air bubbles, helping to restore circulation and oxygenation. If cardiopulmonary arrest occurs, closed-chest cardiopulmonary resuscitation should be initiated immediately.
14 / Injection of Contrast Media
Suggested Reading (Articles that the Committee recommends for further reading on this topic are provided here.)
1. Carlson JE, Hedlund LJ, Trenkner SW, Ritenour R, Halvorsen RA, Jr. Safety considerations in the power injection of contrast media via central venous catheters during computed tomographic examinations. Invest Radiol 1992; 27:337-340. 2. Coyle D, Bloomgarden D, Beres R, Patel S, Sane S, Hurst E. Power injection of contrast media via peripherally inserted central catheters for CT. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2004; 15:809-814. 3. Herts BR, Cohen MA, McInroy B, Davros WJ, Zepp RC, Einstein DM. Power injection of intravenous contrast material through central venous catheters for CT: in vitro evaluation. Radiology 1996; 200:731-735. 4. Kizer KW, Goodman PC. Radiographic manifestations of venous air embolism. Radiology 1982; 144:35-39. 5. McCarthy S, Moss AA. The use of a flow rate injector for contrast-enhanced computed tomography. Radiology 1984; 151:800. 6. Murphy BP, Harford FJ, Cramer FS. Cerebral air embolism resulting from invasive medical procedures. Treatment with hyperbaric oxygen. Ann Surg 1985; 201:242-245. 7. Price DB, Nardi P, Teitcher J. Venous air embolization as a complication of pressure injection of contrast media: CT findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1987; 11:294-295. 8. Rubinstein D, Dangleis K, Damiano TR. Venous air emboli identified on head and neck CT scans. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1996; 20:559-562. 9. Ruess L, Bulas DI, Rivera O, Markle BM. In-line pressures generated in small-bore central venous catheters during power injection of CT contrast media. Radiology 1997; 203:625-629. 10. Shuman WP, Adam JL, Schoenecker SA, Tazioli PR, Moss AA. Use of a power injector during dynamic computed tomography. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1986; 10:1000-1002. 11. Williamson EE, McKinney JM. Assessing the adequacy of peripherally inserted central catheters for power injection of intravenous contrast agents for CT. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2001; 25:932-937. 12. Woodring JH, Fried AM. Nonfatal venous air embolism after contrast-enhanced CT. Radiology 1988; 167:405-407.
Injection of Contrast Media / 15
Extravasation of Contrast Media

Frequency
The reported incidence of intravenous (IV) contrast media extravasation related to power injection for CT has ranged from 0.1% to 0.9% (1/1,000 patients to 1/106 patients). Extravasation can occur during hand or power injection. The frequency of extravasation is not related to the injection flow rate. Extravasation occurring with dynamic bolus CT may involve large volumes of contrast media.
Initial Signs and Symptoms

Although most patients complain of initial swelling or tightness, and/or stinging or burning pain at the site of extravasation, some experience little or no discomfort. On physical examination, the extravasation site may be edematous, erythematous, and tender.
Sequelae of Extravasations
Extravasated iodinated contrast media are toxic to the surrounding tissues, particularly to the skin, producing an acute local inflammatory response that sometimes peaks in 24 to 48 hours. The acute tissue injury resulting from extravasation of iodinated contrast media is possibly related primarily to the hyperosmolality of the extravasated fluid. Despite this, the vast majority of patients in whom extravasations occur recover without significant sequelae. Only rarely will a low-osmolality contrast media (LOCM) extravasation injury proceed to a severe adverse event. Most extravasations are limited to the immediately adjacent soft tissues (typically the skin and subcutaneous tissues). Usually there is no permanent injury. The most commonly reported severe injuries after extravasation of LOCM are compartment syndromes. A compartment syndrome may be produced as a result of mechanical compression. A compartment syndrome is more likely to occur after extravasation of larger volumes of contrast media; however, it also has been observed after extravasation of relatively small volumes, especially when this occurs in less capacious areas (such as over the ventral or dorsal surfaces of the wrist). Less commonly, skin ulceration and tissue necrosis can occur as severe manifestations and can be encountered as early as six hours after the extravasation has occurred. A recent study has illustrated the infrequency of severe injuries after LOCM extravasation. In this report by Wang and colleagues, only one of 442 adult LOCM extravasations resulted in a severe injury (a compartment syndrome), although three other patients developed blisters or ulcerations that were successfully treated locally.
Evaluation
Because the severity and prognosis of a contrast medium extravasation injury are difficult to determine on initial evaluation of the affected site, close clinical follow-up for several hours is essential for all patients in whom extravasations occur.
Extravasation of Contrast Media / 17
Treatment
There is no clear consensus regarding effective treatment for contrast medium extravasation. Elevation of the affected extremity above the level of the heart to decrease capillary hydrostatic pressure and thereby promote resorption of extravasated fluid is recommended, but controlled studies demonstrating the efficacy of this treatment are lacking. There is no clear evidence favoring the use of either warm or cold compresses in cases of extravasation. As a result there are some radiologists who use warm compresses and some who use cold compresses. Those who have used cold have reported that it may be helpful for relieving pain at the injection site. Those who have used heat have found it helpful in improving absorption of the extravasation as well as in improving blood flow, particularly distal to the site. There is no consistent evidence that the effects of an extravasation can be mitigated effectively by trying to aspirate the extravasated contrast medium through an inserted needle or angiocatheter, or by local injection of other agents such as corticosteroids or hyaluronidase. Outpatients who have suffered contrast media extravasation should be released from the radiology department only after the radiologist is satisfied that any signs and symptoms that were present initially have improved or that new symptoms have not developed during the observation period. Clear instructions should be given to the patient to seek additional medical care, should there be any worsening of symptoms, skin ulceration, or the development of any neurologic or circulatory symptoms, including paresthesias.
Surgical Consultation
Surgical consultation prior to discharge should be obtained whenever there is concern for a severe extravasation injury. An immediate surgical consultation is indicated for any patient in whom one or more of the following signs or symptoms develops: progressive swelling or pain, altered tissue perfusion as evidenced by decreased capillary refill at any time after the extravasation has occurred, change in sensation in the affected limb, and skin ulceration or blistering. It is important to note that initial symptoms of a compartment syndrome may be relatively mild (such as limited to the development of focal paresthesia). In a previous edition of this manual, it was recommended that surgical consultation should be obtained automatically for any large volume extravasations, particularly those estimated to be in excess of 100 ml; however, more recently it has been suggested that reliance on volume threshold is unreliable and that the need for surgical consultation should be based entirely on patient signs and symptoms. If the patient is totally asymptomatic, as is common with extravasations in the upper arm, careful evaluation and appropriate clinical follow-up are usually sufficient.
Patients at Increased Risk for Extravasations

Certain patients have been found to be at increased risk for extravasations, including those who cannot communicate adequately (e.g., the elderly, infants and children, and patients with altered consciousness), severely ill or debilitated patients, and patients with abnormal circulation in the limb to be injected. Patients with altered circulation include those with atherosclerotic peripheral vascular disease, diabetic vascular disease, Raynauds disease, venous thrombosis or insufficiency, or prior radiation therapy or extensive surgery (e.g., axillary lymph node dissection or saphenous vein graft harvesting) in the limb to be injected. Certain intravenous access sites (e.g., hand, wrist, foot, and ankle) are more likely to result in extravasation and should be avoided if possible. In addition, injection through indwelling peripheral intravenous lines that have been in place for more than 24 hours and multiple punctures into the same vein are associated with an increased risk of extravasation.
18 / Extravasation of Contrast Media
Patients at Increased Risk for a Severe Extravasation Injury Once an Extravasation Occurs
A severe extravasation injury is more likely to result from an extravasation in patients with arterial insufficiency or compromised venous or lymphatic drainage in the affected extremity. In addition, extravasations involving larger volumes of contrast media and those occurring in the dorsum of the hand, foot, or ankle are more likely to result in severe tissue damage.
Documentation
All extravasation events and their treatment should be documented in the medical record, especially in the dictated imaging report of the obtained study, and the referring physician should be notified. Suggested Reading (Articles that the Committee recommends for further reading on this topic are provided here.)
1. Bellin MF, Jakobsen JA, Tomassin I, et al. Contrast medium extravasation injury: guidelines for prevention and management. Eur Radiol 2002; 12:2807-2812. 2. Burd DA, Santis G, Milward TM. Severe extravasation injury: an avoidable iatrogenic disaster? Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985; 290:1579-1580. 3. Cohan RH, Dunnick NR, Leder RA, Baker ME. Extravasation of nonionic radiologic contrast media: efficacy of conservative treatment. Radiology 1990; 176:65-67. 4. Cohan RH, Ellis JH, Garner WL. Extravasation of radiographic contrast material: recognition, prevention, and treatment. Radiology 1996; 200:593-604. 5. Cohan RH, Leder RA, Bolick D, et al. Extravascular extravasation of radiographic contrast media. Effects of conventional and low-osmolar agents in the rat thigh. Invest Radiol 1990; 25:504-510. 6. Elam EA, Dorr RT, Lagel KE, Pond GD. Cutaneous ulceration due to contrast extravasation. Experimental assessment of injury and potential antidotes. Invest Radiol 1991; 26:13-16. 7. Federle MP, Chang PJ, Confer S, Ozgun B. Frequency and effects of extravasation of ionic and nonionic CT contrast media during rapid bolus injection. Radiology 1998; 206:637-640. 8. Gault DT. Extravasation injuries. Br J Plast Surg 1993; 46:91-96. 9. Gothlin J. The comparative frequency of extravasal injection at phlebography with steel and plastic cannula. Clin Radiol 1972; 23:183-184. 10. Heckler FR. Current thoughts on extravasation injuries. Clin Plast Surg 1989; 16:557-563. 11. Jacobs JE, Birnbaum BA, Langlotz CP. Contrast media reactions and extravasation: relationship to intravenous injection rates. Radiology 1998; 209:411-416. 12. Kim SH, Park JH, Kim YI, Kim CW, Han MC. Experimental tissue damage after subcutaneous injection of water soluble contrast media. Invest Radiol 1990; 25:678-685. 13. Lang EV. Treatment to minimize skin or subcutaneous injury if extravasation occurs. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1996; 167:277-278. 14. Laurie SW, Wilson KL, Kernahan DA, Bauer BS, Vistnes LM. Intravenous extravasation injuries: the effectiveness of hyaluronidase in their treatment. Ann Plast Surg 1984; 13:191-194. 15. McAlister WH, Kissane JM. Comparison of soft tissue effects of conventional ionic, low osmolar ionic and nonionic iodine containing contrast material in experimental animals. Pediatr Radiol 1990; 20:170-174. 16. McAlister WH, Palmer K. The histologic effects of four commonly used media for excretory urography and an attempt to modify the responses. Radiology 1971; 99:511-516. 17. Miles SG, Rasmussen JF, Litwiller T, Osik A. Safe use of an intravenous power injector for CT: experience and protocol. Radiology 1990; 176:69-70. 18. Park KS, Kim SH, Park JH, Han MC, Kim DY, Kim SJ. Methods for mitigating soft-tissue injury after subcutaneous injection of water soluble contrast media. Invest Radiol 1993; 28:332-334. 19. Pond GD, Dorr RT, McAleese KA. Skin ulceration from extravasation of low-osmolality contrast medium: a complication of automation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992; 158:915-916. 20. Sinan T, Al-Khawari H, Chishti FA, Al Saeed OM, Sheikh M. Contrast media extravasation: manual versus power injector. Med Princ Pract 2005; 14:107-110. 21. Sistrom CL, Gay SB, Peffley L. Extravasation of iopamidol and iohexol during contrast-enhanced CT: report of 28 cases. Radiology 1991; 180:707-710. 22. Sum W, Ridley LJ. Recognition and management of contrast media extravasation. Australas Radiol 2006; 50:549-552. 23. Upton J, Mulliken JB, Murray JE. Major intravenous extravasation injuries. Am J Surg 1979; 137:497-506. 24. Wang CL, Cohan RH, Ellis JH, Adusumilli S, Dunnick NR. Frequency, management, and outcome of extravasation of nonionic iodinated contrast medium in 69,657 intravenous injections. Radiology 2007; 243:80-87.
Extravasation of Contrast Media / 19
Adverse Events After Intravascular Iodinated Contrast Media Administration

The frequency of adverse events related to the intravascular administration of iodinated contrast media (ICM) is low and has decreased considerably with changes in usage from ionic high-osmolality contrast media (HOCM) to nonionic low-osmolality contrast media (LOCM) [1-11]. The majority of adverse side effects are mild, non-life-threatening, events that usually require only observation, reassurance, and supportive measures [3,12,13]. Severe, sometimes life-threatening, adverse events continue to occur unpredictably. Nearly all life-threatening contrast reactions occur immediately or within the first 20 minutes after contrast media injection. Knowledge about the varying adverse effects of intravascular contrast media administration is critical as it will guide the choice of therapy. All personnel who inject intravascular contrast media should be prepared to recognize the variety of adverse events that may occur, monitor the patient, and institute the appropriate measures should treatment of an adverse reaction become necessary. These measures include notifying the supervising radiologist (or his/her designee), administering certain medications, and/or calling for additional assistance (emergency service providers, code team, etc.).
Acute Adverse Events to Iodinated Contrast Media

Allergic-Like Reactions
Adverse events to intravascular ICM commonly appear identical to an anaphylactic reaction to a drug or other allergen, but since an antigen-antibody response cannot be identified in many reacting patients, contrast reactions may be classified as anaphylactoid, allergic-like, or idiosyncratic [2,3,12,13]. Treatment of an allergic-like contrast reaction is identical to that of an equivalent allergic reaction. Allergic-like contrast reactions are likely independent of dose and concentration above a certain, but unknown, threshold [3]. The pathogenesis of most allergic-like adverse events is unclear. There are multiple possible mechanisms that result in activation of immunologic effectors [14]. It is believed that some allergic-like contrast reactions may involve activation, deactivation, or inhibition of a variety of vasoactive substances or mediators (such as histamine, complement, and the kinin system) [3,12-15]. ICM are known to directly cause histamine release from basophils and mast cells [9]. Histamine release must have occurred when patients develop urticaria, but the precise cause and pathway of histamine release are not known [3,12,13]. Skin and intradermal testing may be positive in a minority of individuals, confirming that an allergic IgE-mediated etiology may be responsible for some reactions [16].
Physiologic reactions
Physiologic reactions to ICM likely relate to specific molecular attributes that result in either direct chemotoxicity [3,12,13], osmotoxicity (adverse effects due to hyperosmolality) [14], or to binding of the small contrast media molecule to activators [9]. These reactions are frequently dose and concentration dependent [3]. Cardiac arrhythmias, depressed myocardial contractility, pulmonary edema, and seizures are very rare non-allergic-like reactions to ICM [3,9,12,13]. These phenomena are likely related to either contrast mediarelated hyperosmolality and/or calcium binding (hypocalcemia) [3,9,12,13]. Cardiac adverse events are much more common during angiocardiography.
Adverse Events of Iodinated Contrast Media / 21
Cardiovascular effects are more frequent and significant in patients with underlying cardiac disease. For example, patients with left heart failure are less able to compensate for the osmotic load and the minor negative chronotropic effects of ICM. As a result, there is an increased risk of developing acute pulmonary edema. Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema may also very rarely occur following intravascular ICM administration [16]. Vasovagal reactions are relatively common and characterized by hypotension with bradycardia. While the exact pathogenesis is unknown, this particular response is thought to be the result of increased vagal tone arising from the central nervous system. The effects of increased vagal tone include depressed sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodal activity, inhibition of atrioventricular conduction, and peripheral vasodilatation [3]. Vasovagal reactions are also related to anxiety and can occur while informed consent is being obtained, during placement of a needle or catheter for contrast media injection, or during intravascular administration of contrast media. Such reactions commonly present with a feeling of apprehension and accompanying diaphoresis [3]. While most vagal reactions are mild and self-limited, close patient observation is recommended until symptoms resolve fully. Severe hypotension may very rarely cause loss of consciousness, cardiovascular collapse, angina, or seizures [3] (See Tables 4 and 5 Management of Acute Reactions in Children and Management of Acute Reactions in Adults). Patient anxiety may also contribute to or exacerbate nonvagal adverse events. Additives or contaminants, such as calcium-chelating substances or substances leached from rubber stoppers in bottles or syringes, have been suggested as contributory to contrast reactions on some occasions [12,13].
Frequency of acute adverse events

The frequency of acute adverse events after the administration of intravascular ICM is difficult to determine since similar signs and symptoms may be due to concomitant medical conditions, medications, anxiety, etc. Underreporting and variation in classification of acute adverse reactions affects the reported incidence of these events. A standardized classification system for adverse events would help eliminate this variation in future studies. Historically, acute adverse events occurred in 5% to 15% of all patients who received HOCM. Many patients receiving intravascular HOCM experienced physiologic disturbances (e.g., generalized warmth, nausea, or emesis), and this was often documented as a contrast reaction. The use of HOCM for intravascular purposes is now very uncommon. LOCM is associated with a very low incidence of acute adverse events and the bulk of these are not life-threatening. Cochran et al [17] reported an overall adverse reaction rate of 0.2% for nonionic LOCM administered at a single institution. A slightly higher overall frequency of 0.7% was reported from another institution upon review of 29,508 patients given iopromide over a 2-year period [18]. Wang et al [19] reported an overall allergic-like reaction frequency of 0.6% upon review of 84,928 adult patients at their institution who received iohexol, iopromide, or iodixanol. A single institutional study of pediatric patients receiving intravenous LOCMs by Dillman et al demonstrated a frequency of acute allergic-like reactions of 0.18% [20]. Another single institutional study of adverse events to LOCM intravenous administration in children by Callahan et al [21] demonstrated an adverse reaction rate of 0.46%.
22 / Adverse Events of Iodinated Contrast Media
Serious acute contrast reactions are rare and have historically occurred in approximately 1 or 2 per 10,000 (0.01% 0.02%) intravascular injections of LOCM [6]. The incidence of a fatal outcome from an intravascular ICM injection is not known with precision. In the large Japanese study by Katayama et al [6], no fatal reactions were attributed to LOCM despite greater than 170,000 injections. The conservative estimate of 1 fatality per 170,000 contrast media administrations is thus often quoted. Fatal reactions to LOCMs have been reported [4,7,17,18,22,23]. A meta-analysis performed by Caro et al [4] documented a fatality rate of 0.9 per 100,000 injections of LOCM. A review of U.S. FDA and drug manufacturer data from 1990 to 1994 demonstrated 2.1 fatalities per 1 million contrastenhanced studies using LOCMs [7].
Types of Contrast Reactions (see Table 2 Organ and System-Specific Adverse Effects from the Administration of Iodinated or Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents)
Contrast reactions are most often mild, although they may be rarely life-threatening. Because prediction of the occurrence and severity of contrast reactions is impossible, regardless of risk factors, anticipation and vigilance are important.
Mild Reactions
Some adverse events to contrast material injection, such as nausea, vomiting, sensation of warmth, and flushing, represent physiologic responses (i.e., are not allergic-like) and increase in incidence with increasing contrast material osmolality and dose. Pain on injection, particularly with injection into the arteries of the lower extremities or into the external carotid arteries, is largely a function of osmolality and it not considered allergic-like. This phenomenon has decreased in incidence and severity with the use of LOCM (and even more so with use of iso-osmolality ICM) rather than HOCM. Urticarial reactions are allergic-like and almost always mild, although hives can progress in severity and/or number, and can be associated with more serious symptoms. Mild angioedema (such as a scratchy throat, slight tongue/facial swelling, and paroxysmal sneezing) not requiring medical management may also be considered a mild allergic-like reaction. Mild reactions (both allergic-like and non-allergic-like) typically do not require medical treatment, but they may presage or evolve into a more severe reaction. Vital signs should be obtained to detect hypotension that may be clinically silent while the patient is supine. Any patient with a mild allergic-like reaction should be observed for 20 to 30 minutes, or as long as necessary, to ensure clinical stability or recovery. Treatment with an antihistamine may be instituted for mild symptomatic allergic-like cutaneous contrast reactions, but is most often not necessary.
Moderate Reactions
Moderate adverse events are not immediately life-threatening (although they may progress to be so), but often require medical treatment. These events include both allergic-like (e.g., severe urticaria/erythema, bronchospasm, moderate tongue/facial swelling, transient hypotension with tachycardia) and non-allergic-like (e.g., significant vasovagal reaction) adverse events. Moderate reactions require close patient monitoring until they resolve completely. Treatment is described in Tables 4 and 5 Management of Acute Reactions in Children and Management of Acute Reactions in Adults. Vital signs should be obtained in any patient suspected of having a moderate reaction. It is also appropriate to consider securing intravenous access and providing high-flow oxygen by face mask.
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Severe Reactions
Severe adverse events are usually allergic-like and may be life-threatening. Although they are rare, it is imperative that all personnel who administer contrast media be aware that they occur unpredictably and that they require prompt recognition and treatment. Patients may initially experience a variety of symptoms and signs, including altered mental status, respiratory distress (due to either severe bronchospasm or laryngeal edema), diffuse erythema, severe hypotension, or sudden cardiac arrest. Complete cardiopulmonary collapse, while extremely rare, frequently requires intense resuscitation efforts and advanced specialized life-support equipment and trained personnel. Cardiopulmonary collapse may occur very rapidly, so all patients receiving intravascular contrast media must be observed closely during the procedure. Since the outcome of cardiopulmonary arrest worsens as the response time increases, prompt recognition of such reactions and rapid institution of treatment are crucial. Most severe allergic-like reactions require treatment with epinephrine. In the setting of life-threatening hypotension, aggressive fluid resuscitation by itself appears to be more effective than isolated pharmacologic therapy and has fewer side-effects [24]. The proper treatment depends on the manifestations of each specific contrast reaction. A variety of scenarios are discussed in Tables 4 and 5 Management of Acute Reactions in Children and Management of Acute Reactions in Adults. Severe non-allergic-like adverse events may also occur, including profound vasovagal reactions and pulmonary edema. While seizures can very rarely occur as a non-allergic-like adverse event, they may also be due to hypoxia that is the sequelae of an allergic-like or non-allergic-like contrast reaction. These nonallergic-like adverse events typically require medical management other than epinephrine.
Organ-Specific Effects
Some organ-specific adverse effects already have been noted above, and include cardiac arrhythmias, pulmonary edema, and seizures. Venous thrombosis as a result of direct vascular endothelial injury can rarely occur in response to an infusion of ICM. While contrast media have been shown to interact with the coagulation system [25,26], these likely complex interactions are in general not thought to be clinically significant [8,27]. ICM are also known to cause some alteration in red blood cell deformability and platelet function, but these effects are also not thought to be clinically relevant. The effect of ICM extravasation during intravenous administration is generally self-limited and of little clinical significance, particularly when LOCM is used. However, serious injuries can occur, and specific therapies are dealt with elsewhere (also see the Chapter on Extravasation of Contrast Media). The renal effects of contrast media (including contrast-induced nephrotoxicity, or CIN) are discussed in the Chapter on Contrast-Induced Nephrotoxicity.
Common Risk Factors for Acute Contrast Reactions

Although it is clear that certain patients are at increased risk of experiencing an adverse event to intravascular ICM, contrast reactions remain sporadic and unpredictable. Prior allergic-like reaction to ICM injection is the most substantial risk factor for a recurrent allergiclike adverse event [1,2,6,18,28]. Such a history is not an absolute predictor; although the reported incidence
of recurrent reactions ranges up to 35% [30]. Atopic individuals (particularly those with multiple severe allergies) and asthmatics are also at increased risk for allergic-like contrast reactions, although probably not to as great an extent [3,9,12,13,28-30]. Those with a history of prior allergic-like reaction to a gadoliniumbased contrast material are at no greater risk for allergic-like reaction to ICM than other atopic patients. A prospective study by Kopp et al [28] including over 74,000 patients who received iopromide demonstrated that age and gender may also relate to the frequency of such reactions, while a retrospective case-control study by Lang et al [29] showed that individuals receiving beta-adrenergic blocker therapy may be at slightly increased risk for moderate and severe reactions. Pre-existing medical conditions may increase the risk of certain adverse events. For example, bronchospasm is a common adverse event among patients with a history of asthma. Hemodynamic changes are more common in patients with significant cardiovascular disease, such as aortic stenosis or severe congestive heart failure. The effects of dose, route (intravenous vs. intra-arterial vs. other), and rate of delivery of contrast media on the incidence of adverse events are not entirely clear. Studies have shown that a test injection does not decrease the incidence of severe allergic-like reactions [31,32] and may actually increase it. Nonreaction to a test injection does not indicate that an allergic-like reaction will not occur with a standard injection [30].
Other risk factors

Drug package inserts suggest precautions are necessary to avoid adverse events in patients with known or suspected pheochromocytoma, thyrotoxicosis, dysproteinemias, myasthenia gravis, or sickle cell disease. There are scant data, however, to support the need for specific precautions in these patients when LOCM is used (See the Chapter on Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies). For example, a small retrospective study by Bessell-Browne and OMalley [33] demonstrated no adverse events following IV LOCM administration to patients with pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas.
Delayed Adverse Events to Iodinated Contrast Media

Timing
Non-acute, or delayed, allergic-like and non-allergic-like adverse events that occur following intravascular ICM exposure have long been a source of concern. Such reactions are most commonly cutaneous and may occur from 30 to 60 minutes to up to one week following contrast material exposure, with the majority occurring between three hours and two days [30,34].
Incidence
The incidence of cutaneous delayed adverse reactions has been reported to range from 0.5% to 14% [34,35]. A prospective study of 258 individuals receiving intravenous iohexol demonstrated a delayed reaction rate of 14.3% compared to a reaction rate of 2.5% for a control group undergoing imaging without intravascular contrast material [35]. In that same study, 26 of 37 delayed adverse reactions were cutaneous in nature [35]. For several reasons (lack of awareness of such adverse events, usual practice patterns, relatively low frequency of serious outcomes), such reactions are often not brought to the attention of the radiologist. Delayed reactions are more common in patients treated with interleukin-2 (IL-2) therapy [34,36,37]. There is some evidence to suggest that iodixanol (the only iso-osmolality ICM approved for use in the U.S.) has a slightly higher rate of delayed cutaneous adverse events when compared to LOCMs [37]. A
ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012 Adverse Events of Iodinated Contrast Media / 25
prospective study by Schild et al [38] demonstrated an increased frequency of delayed cutaneous adverse events to nonionic dimeric contrast material compared to nonionic monomeric contrast material.
Symptoms
The most frequent delayed adverse events following ICM administration are allergic-like and cutaneous in nature [2,34,35,37]. These are important for several reasons: they occur more often than is generally recognized; they may recur; they may have serious sequelae; and they are often inadvertently ascribed to causes other than ICM. Delayed cutaneous reactions commonly manifest as urticaria and/or a persistent rash [2,34,35,37]. They may occasionally present with a maculopapular exanthem that varies widely in size and distribution [2,30,34,39] or generalized exanthematous pustulosis [40]. Urticaria reaction/ angioedema may also occur and is usually associated with pruritus [30,34]. Rarely, pruritis may occur in the absence of urticaria. Severe cutaneous reactions have also been described in individuals with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) [37,41,42]. A study by Mikkonen et al [43] suggests that delayed cutaneous adverse events may occur at an increased frequency during certain times of the year and most commonly affect sun-exposed areas of the body. Cases also have been reported that resemble Stevens-Johnson syndrome [42,44], toxic epidermal necrolysis, and cutaneous vasculitis. Rare fatalities have been described [41,42]. A variety of non-cutaneous symptoms and signs also have been reported as delayed reactions associated with ICM. Some relatively common manifestations are nausea, vomiting, fever, drowsiness, and headache. Each of these is usually self-limited and does not require therapy. Severe delayed noncutaneous contrast reactions, while extremely rare, have been described, including severe hypotension [45] and cardiopulmonary arrest, although at least some of the events may have been due to etiologies other than ICM.
Other rare delayed adverse events

Iodide mumps (iodine-related sialoadenopathy or salivary gland swelling) [46,47] and a syndrome of acute polyarthropathy [48] are two additional delayed contrast reactions that have been reported rarely after ICM administration. These reactions appear to be more frequent in patients with renal dysfunction.
Treatment
Since delayed reactions are generally self-limited, most require no or minimal therapy [37]. Treatment is usually supportive, with antihistamines and/or corticosteroids used for cutaneous symptoms, antipyretics for fever, antiemetics for nausea, and fluid resuscitation for hypotension. If manifestations are progressive or widespread, or if there are noteworthy associated symptoms, consultation with an allergist and/or dermatologist is an appropriate next step.
Recurrence rates and prophylaxis

The precise recurrence rate of delayed contrast reactions upon re-exposure to contrast material is not known but anecdotally may be greater than 25% [37]. Based on this tendency to recur, at least some of these reactions may be due to T cell-mediated hypersensitivity [2,34,35,37,39,49]. The effectiveness of prophylaxis, particularly with oral corticosteroids, is unknown, although some have suggested this practice [37]. It is unknown whether corticosteroid premedication is indicated before a subsequent contrastenhanced study in patients who have had a prior delayed allergic-like contrast reaction.
References
1. Bettmann MA, Heeren T, Greenfield A, Goudey C. Adverse events with radiographic contrast agents: results of the SCVIR Contrast Agent Registry. Radiology 1997; 203:611-620. 2. Brockow K. Contrast media hypersensitivity--scope of the problem. Toxicology 2005; 209:189-192. 3. Bush WH, Swanson DP. Acute reactions to intravascular contrast media: types, risk factors, recognition, and specific treatment. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1991; 157:1153-1161. 4. Caro JJ, Trindade E, McGregor M. The risks of death and of severe nonfatal reactions with high- vs low-osmolality contrast media: a meta-analysis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1991; 156:825-832. 5. Ellis JH, Cohan RH, Sonnad SS, Cohan NS. Selective use of radiographic low-osmolality contrast media in the 1990s. Radiology 1996; 200:297-311. 6. Katayama H, Yamaguchi K, Kozuka T, Takashima T, Seez P, Matsuura K. Adverse reactions to ionic and nonionic contrast media. A report from the Japanese Committee on the Safety of Contrast Media. Radiology 1990; 175:621-628. 7. Lasser EC, Lyon SG, Berry CC. Reports on contrast media reactions: analysis of data from reports to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Radiology 1997; 203:605-610. 8. Lawrence V, Matthai W, Hartmaier S. Comparative safety of high-osmolality and low-osmolality radiographic contrast agents. Report of a multidisciplinary working group. Invest Radiol 1992; 27:2-28. 9. Lieberman PL, Seigle RL. Reactions to radiocontrast material. Anaphylactoid events in radiology. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 1999; 17:469-496. 10. Siegle RL. Rates of idiosyncratic reactions. Ionic versus nonionic contrast media. Invest Radiol 1993; 28 Suppl 5:S95-98; discussion S99. 11. Wolf GL, Arenson RL, Cross AP. A prospective trial of ionic vs nonionic contrast agents in routine clinical practice: comparison of adverse effects. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1989; 152:939-944. 12. Cohan RH, Dunnick NR. Intravascular contrast media: adverse reactions. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1987; 149:665-670. 13. Dunnick NR, Cohan RH. Cost, corticosteroids, and contrast media. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994; 162:527-529. 14. Almen T. The etiology of contrast medium reactions. Invest Radiol 1994; 29 Suppl 1:S37-45. 15. Lasser EC. A coherent biochemical basis for increased reactivity to contrast material in allergic patients: a novel concept. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1987; 149:1281-1285. 16. Bouachour G, Varache N, Szapiro N, LHoste P, Harry P, Alquier P. Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema resulting from intravascular administration of contrast material. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1991; 157:255-256. 17. Cochran ST, Bomyea K, Sayre JW. Trends in adverse events after IV administration of contrast media. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001; 176:1385-1388. 18. Mortele KJ, Oliva MR, Ondategui S, Ros PR, Silverman SG. Universal use of nonionic iodinated contrast medium for CT: evaluation of safety in a large urban teaching hospital. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005; 184:31-34. 19. Wang CL, Cohan RH, Ellis JH, Caoili EM, Wang G, Francis IR. Frequency, outcome, and appropriateness of treatment of nonionic iodinated contrast media reactions. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 191:409-415. 20. Dillman JR, Strouse PJ, Ellis JH, Cohan RH, Jan SC. Incidence and severity of acute allergic-like reactions to i.v. nonionic iodinated contrast material in children. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 188:1643-1647. 21. Callahan MJ, Poznauskis L, Zurakowski D, Taylor GA. Nonionic iodinated intravenous contrast material-related reactions: incidence in large urban childrens hospital--retrospective analysis of data in 12,494 patients. Radiology 2009; 250:674-681. 22. Curry NS, Schabel SI, Reiheld CT, Henry WD, Savoca WJ. Fatal reactions to intravenous nonionic contrast material. Radiology 1991; 178:361-362. 23. Spring DB, Bettmann MA, Barkan HE. Deaths related to iodinated contrast media reported spontaneously to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 1978-1994: effect of the availability of low-osmolality contrast media. Radiology 1997; 204:333-337. 24. vanSonnenberg E, Neff CC, Pfister RC. Life-threatening hypotensive reactions to contrast media administration: comparison of pharmacologic and fluid therapy. Radiology 1987; 162:15-19. 25. Fareed J, Walenga JM, Saravia GE, Moncada RM. Thrombogenic potential of nonionic contrast media? Radiology 1990; 174:321-325. 26. Kopko PM, Smith DC, Bull BS. Thrombin generation in nonclottable mixtures of blood and nonionic contrast agents. Radiology 1990; 174:459-461. 27. Schrader R. Thrombogenic potential of non-ionic contrast media--fact or fiction? Eur J Radiol 1996; 23 Suppl 1:S10-13. 28. Kopp AF, Mortele KJ, Cho YD, Palkowitsch P, Bettmann MA, Claussen CD. Prevalence of acute reactions to iopromide: postmarketing surveillance study of 74,717 patients. Acta Radiol 2008; 49:902-911. 29. Lang DM, Alpern MB, Visintainer PF, Smith ST. Increased risk for anaphylactoid reaction from contrast media in patients on beta-adrenergic blockers or with asthma. Ann Intern Med 1991; 115:270-276. 30. Meth MJ, Maibach HI. Current understanding of contrast media reactions and implications for clinical management. Drug Saf 2006; 29:133-141. 31. Fischer HW, Doust VL. An evaluation of pretesting in the problem of serious and fatal reactions to excretory urography. Radiology 1972; 103:497-501.
Adverse Events of Iodinated Contrast Media / 27
32. Yamaguchi K, Katayama H, Takashima T, Kozuka T, Seez P, Matsuura K. Prediction of severe adverse reactions to ionic and nonionic contrast media in Japan: evaluation of pretesting. A report from the Japanese Committee on the Safety of Contrast Media. Radiology 1991; 178:363-367. 33. Bessell-Browne R, OMalley ME. CT of pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: risk of adverse events with i.v. administration of nonionic contrast material. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 188:970-974. 34. Christiansen C, Pichler WJ, Skotland T. Delayed allergy-like reactions to X-ray contrast media: mechanistic considerations. Eur Radiol 2000; 10:1965-1975. 35. Loh S, Bagheri S, Katzberg RW, Fung MA, Li CS. Delayed adverse reaction to contrast-enhanced CT: a prospective singlecenter study comparison to control group without enhancement. Radiology 2010; 255:764-771. 36. Choyke PL, Miller DL, Lotze MT, Whiteis JM, Ebbitt B, Rosenberg SA. Delayed reactions to contrast media after interleukin-2 immunotherapy. Radiology 1992; 183:111-114. 37. Webb JA, Stacul F, Thomsen HS, Morcos SK. Late adverse reactions to intravascular iodinated contrast media. Eur Radiol 2003; 13:181-184. 38. Schild HH, Kuhl CK, Hubner-Steiner U, Bohm I, Speck U. Adverse events after unenhanced and monomeric and dimeric contrast-enhanced CT: a prospective randomized controlled trial. Radiology 2006; 240:56-64. 39. Vernassiere C, Trechot P, Commun N, Schmutz JL, Barbaud A. Low negative predictive value of skin tests in investigating delayed reactions to radio-contrast media. Contact Dermatitis 2004; 50:359-366. 40. Peterson A, Katzberg RW, Fung MA, Wootton-Gorges SL, Dager W. Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis as a delayed dermatotoxic reaction to IV-administered nonionic contrast media. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2006; 187:W198-201. 41. Goodfellow T, Holdstock GE, Brunton FJ, Bamforth J. Fatal acute vasculitis after high-dose urography with iohexol. Br J Radiol 1986; 59:620-621. 42. Savill JS, Barrie R, Ghosh S, Muhlemann M, Dawson P, Pusey CD. Fatal Stevens-Johnson syndrome following urography with iopamidol in systemic lupus erythematosus. Postgrad Med J 1988; 64:392-394. 43. Mikkonen R, Vehmas T, Granlund H, Kivisaari L. Seasonal variation in the occurrence of late adverse skin reactions to iodinebased contrast media. Acta Radiol 2000; 41:390-393. 44. Laffitte E, Nenadov Beck M, Hofer M, Hohl D, Panizzon RG. Severe Stevens-Johnson syndrome induced by contrast medium iopentol (Imagopaque). Br J Dermatol 2004; 150:376-378. 45. Newman B. Delayed adverse reaction to nonionic contrast agents. Pediatr Radiol 2001; 31:597-599. 46. Berman HL, Delaney V. Iodide mumps due to low-osmolality contrast material. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992; 159:1099-1100. 47. Gilgen-Anner Y, Heim M, Ledermann HP, Bircher AJ. Iodide mumps after contrast media imaging: a rare adverse effect to iodine. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2007; 99:93-98. 48. Donnelly PK, Williams B, Watkin EM. Polyarthropathy--a delayed reaction to low osmolality angiographic contrast medium in patients with end stage renal disease. Eur J Radiol 1993; 17:130-132. 49. Brockow K, Christiansen C, Kanny G, et al. Management of hypersensitivity reactions to iodinated contrast media. Allergy 2005; 60:150-158.
Contrast Media Warming

This chapter will discuss the relevant literature pertaining to the extrinsic warming of contrast media and provide suggestions of cases in which extrinsic warming of contrast media may be beneficial in the care of patients.
Introduction
Contrast media viscosity, like that of many other liquids, is related to temperature. As the temperature of a given contrast medium increases, there is a concomitant decrease in its dynamic viscosity [1]. Therefore, warmed contrast media are less viscous than room temperature contrast media. When a warmed contrast medium is hand- or power-injected into an intravenous (IV) or intra-arterial (IA) catheter, there will be less resistance than if the contrast medium had not been warmed. The relationship between viscosity and flow for contrast medium injections is typically non-linear because the flow through small bore IV catheters is turbulent and does not obey traditional laminar flow kinetics (Poiseuilles law) [2].
Iodinated Contrast Media Contrast Material Warming and Injection Kinetics

Several investigators have studied the effects of extrinsic warming of iodinated contrast media on IV and IA injection kinetics [1-9]. Halsell [5] studied the in vitro flow rates through different sized angiographic catheters with and without extrinsic contrast media warming (37oC). Contrast warming resulted in a flow rate improvement of 8% or more only when using high-viscosity contrast media (a highly concentrated ionic high-osmolality monomer and an ionic low-osmolality dimer from among the tested agents) through 4- to 5-F catheters. Lower viscosity contrast media (including a nonionic monomer at 300 mg I/ml) and larger catheters did not show this flow improvement. Hughes and Bisset [2] measured the iodine delivery rates for a variety of low-osmolality contrast media (LOCM) at both room (24oC) and human body temperature (37oC) and concluded that extrinsic warming to 37oC improved iodine delivery rates for forceful hand injection through a 5-F angiocatheter by 20% to 27% (average of 23.5%). They also found that the iodine delivery rates closely mimicked the dynamic viscosity of the tested contrast media. Contrast media with a greater viscosity tended to be delivered at substantially fewer milligrams of iodine per second compared to those with a lesser viscosity. The authors suggested that vascular opacification with forceful hand injection, such as that used during catheter angiography, could be maximized by reducing the viscosity of the utilized contrast media, either by using a lower viscosity contrast material or by extrinsic warming. Roth et al [3] tested four different ionic and nonionic iodinated contrast media through 12 differentsized catheters at both human body (37oC) and room temperature (20oC), and measured the power injection pressure of each combination using a 7 ml injection at 3 ml/second with an electronic pressure transducer. Their results supported some of Halsells [5] findings by showing that warmed contrast media have a lower viscosity, and this viscosity translates into a reduction in injection pressure, but primarily for smaller diameter (<6-F) catheters. Busch et al [4] studied the iodine delivery rates of four different contrast media through five different catheters used for coronary angiography at power injections of 100, 200, and 400 psi. Iodine delivery rates were treated as a surrogate for vascular opacification. The iodine delivery rate improved with increasing pressure, increasing iodine content (mg I/ml) and decreasing contrast media viscosity.
Contrast Media Warming / 29
Although the authors did not test the effect of extrinsic warming, they speculated that the reduction in viscosity associated with warming may be a method by which iodine delivery rates might be improved. This benefit might be greatest for lower pressure injections, such as hand injections. Hazirolan et al [8] randomized patients undergoing cardiac CT angiography into two groups: 1) 32 patients receiving warmed (37oC) iohexol 350 mg I/ml and 2) 32 patients receiving non-warmed (24oC) iohexol 350 mg I/ml, and then compared the timing and degree of subsequent arterial opacification for a test bolus injection rate of 5 ml/second through an 18-gauge peripheral IV catheter. They found that the degree of maximal enhancement within the ascending aorta, descending aorta, and pulmonary arteries was significantly greater (p = 0.005) for group 1. They also found that group 1 patients reached 100 Hounsfield Units of enhancement within the ascending aorta significantly faster than group 2 patients (p = 0.03). The authors concluded that extrinsic warming of the relatively viscous iohexol 350 improved the speed and degree of enhancement for high-rate cardiac CT angiography. However, their data was solely based on the test injection (not the diagnostic injection). Schwab et al [9] tested the maximum injection pressures of iopamidol 300, iomeprol 350, and iomeprol 400 at both room (20oC) and human body temperature (37oC) through 18, 20 and 22 gauge IV catheters using a variety of injection rates (1 to 9 ml/second) with a pressure-limited (300-psi) power injector. They concluded that warming of contrast media led to significant (p < 0.001) reductions in injection pressures across all tested media. Despite the fact that the manufacturers recommended pressure thresholds were exceeded with high-rate injections (e.g., 8 ml/second), there were no instances of IV catheter malfunction.
Iodinated Contrast Media Contrast Material Warming and Adverse Events

Although there is good evidence that warming of contrast media changes the bolus kinetics and injection pressure of iodinated contrast media, there has been little evidence that it affects clinical adverse event rates in a meaningful way [10-12]. In 1982, Turner et al [10] randomly assigned 100 patients in a double-blind fashion to receive either room temperature (20 to 24oC) or human body temperature (37oC) ionic high osmolality contrast media (HOCM), and then compared the anaphylactoid and non-anaphylactoid adverse event rates between these two groups. The authors were unable to show a significant difference, although their study was likely underpowered for a non-inferiority design. They did not report extravasation events. Vergara et al [11] conducted a non-randomized prospective study of 4,936 IV injections of iodinated contrast media in which each group of patients received a specific contrast media and temperature combination. These groups were then compared with respect to their allergic-like and physiologic adverse events. Again, extravasation rates were not assessed. The authors showed a small but significant reduction in overall adverse events for warmed (37oC) ionic HOCM compared to the same non-warmed (22oC) ionic HOCM (89/894 [10.0%] vs. 204/1607 [12.7%]). The dominant effect was a reduction in mild adverse events (49/894 [5.5%] vs. 138/1607 [8.6%]) rather than a reduction in adverse events that were moderate (36/894 [4.0%] vs. 59/1607 [3.7%]) or severe (4/894 [0.45%] vs. 7/1607 [0.44%]). Based on the above work, as well as the package inserts for many iodinated contrast media, many institutions heat their iodinated contrast media (both HOCM and LOCM) to human body temperature (37oC) prior to routine clinical intravascular administration. In most instances, this is performed using an external incubator in which the bottles of contrast media are placed. The temperature of the device is typically kept at or near human body temperature (37oC). In addition to these stand-alone warming machines, there also exist warming sleeves that can be used to keep pre-warmed bottles (or syringes filled from pre-warmed bottles) of contrast media at a stable (warmed) temperature for approximately one hour or more in cases
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where the contrast media is removed from the warming device but not immediately injected. These sleeves can be a component to the power injector itself or can function independently. Because contrast media are designated as medications, the warming of contrast media has fallen under the regulation of The Joint Commission, which mandates that if contrast media are to be extrinsically warmed, there must be both a daily temperature log for each warmer and evidence of regular maintenance for the warming device(s). This regulation has led some institutions to reconsider the use of these warming devices and reevaluate whether warming iodinated contrast media to human body temperature has a significant practical, rather than just a theoretical, benefit for IV LOCM administration. Although some institutions have discontinued the routine use of contrast media warmers for low-rate (<5 ml/second), non-angiographic, non-cardiac applications, there are little published data investigating what effect this may have on patient adverse events. The largest study investigating the effect of extrinsic warming on IV LOCM adverse events was published in 2012 [12]. In this non-inferiority retrospective analysis of 24,830 power-injections (<6 ml/ second) of IV LOCM, the authors compared the rates of allergic-like reactions and extravasations before and after the discontinuation of contrast media warming at a single institution for both iopamidol 300 (dynamic viscosity: 8.8 centiPoise (cps) at 20oC and 4.7 cps at 37oC) and the more viscous iopamidol 370 (dynamic viscosity: 20.9 cps at 20oC and 9.4 cps at 37oC). Discontinuation of contrast media warming had no significant effect on the allergic-like reaction or extravasation rates of iopamidol 300. However, it did result in nearly tripling of the extravasation rate (0.27% [five of 1851] vs. 0.87% [18 of 2074], p = 0.05) and combined allergic-like and extravasation event rate (0.43% [eight of 1851] vs 1.25% [26 of 2074], p = 0.02) for iopamidol 370. These results suggest that contrast media warming may not be needed for iopamidol 300, but may be needed for iopamidol 370 (and possibly other similarly viscous contrast media) if the primary goal is to minimize contrast media-related adverse events. However, the authors did note that there was no difference in clinical outcome between the warmed and non-warmed iopamidol 370 groups, likely because the vast majority of extravasation events and allergic-like reactions do not result in long-term morbidity or mortality. The authors did not have any data to permit evaluation of the effect of extrinsic contrast media warming on patient comfort or physiologic (e.g., nausea, vomiting, sensation of warmth) adverse events.
Warming of Iodinated Contrast Media Suggestions

Based on the available literature, the validity of extrinsic warmers seems predicated on the intended outcome. Extrinsic warming of iodinated contrast material to human body temperature (37oC) may be helpful to minimize complications and improve vascular opacification in the following circumstances: For high-rate (>5 ml/second) IV LOCM power injections For injections of viscous iodinated contrast (e.g., iopamidol 370, and presumably other contrast media with a similar or higher viscosity) For direct arterial injections through small-caliber catheters (5-F or smaller) For intravenously injected arterial studies in which timing and peak enhancement are critical features Extrinsic warming of iodinated contrast material may not be needed or beneficial in the following circumstances: For low-rate (5 ml/second) IV LOCM power injections or hand injections For injections of iodinated contrast media with a relatively low viscosity (e.g., iopamidol 300, and presumably other contrast media with a similar or lower viscosity) For direct arterial injections through large-bore catheters (6-F or larger) For IV injections in which peak opacification and timing are not critical (e.g., routine portal venous phase chest / abdomen / pelvis CT imaging)
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Package inserts for iodinated contrast media contain information about recommended storage temperatures.
Warming of Gadolinium-Based Contrast MediaSuggestions

Gadolinium-based contrast media are administered at room temperature (15 to 30oC [59 to 86oF]) and according to package inserts, should not be externally warmed for routine clinical applications.
References
1. Brunette J, Mongrain R, Rodes-Cabau J, et al. Comparative rheology of low- and iso-osmolarity contrast agents at different temperatures. Cath and Cardiov Interv 2008; 71:78-83. 2. Hughes PM, Bisset R. Non-ionic contrast media: a comparison of iodine delivery rates during manual injection angiography. Brit J Radiol 1991; 64:417-419. 3. Roth R, Akin M, Deligonul U, Kern MJ. Influence of radiographic contrast media viscosity to flow through coronary angiographic catheters. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn 1991; 22(4):290-294. 4. Busch HP, Stocker KP. Iodine delivery rate in catheter angiography under pressure conditions in manual injection. Aktuelle Radiol 1998; 8:232-235. 5. Halsell RD. Heating contrast media: role in contemporary angiography. Radiology 1987; 164:276-278. 6. Pugh ND. Haemodynamic and rheological effects of contrast media: the role of viscosity and osmolality. Eur Radiol 1996; 6:S13-S15. 7. Bae KT. Intravenous contrast medium administration and scan timing at CT: considerations and approaches. Radiology 2010; 256:32-61. 8. Hazirolan T, Turkbey B, Akpinar E, et al. The impact of warmed intravenous contrast media on the bolus geometry of coronary CT angiography applications. Korean J Radiol 2009; 10:150-155. 9. Schwab SA, Kuefner MA, Anders K, et al. Peripheral intravenous power injection of iodinated contrast media: the impact of temperature on maximum injection pressures at different cannula sizes. Acad Radiol 2009; 16:1502-1508. 10. Turner E, Kentor P, Melamed JL, et al. Frequency of anaphylactoid reactions during intravenous urography with radiographic contrast media at two different temperatures. Radiology 1982; 143:327-329. 11. Vergara M, Seguel S. Adverse reactions to contrast media in CT: effects of temperature and ionic property. Radiology 1996; 199:363-366. 12. Davenport MS, Wang CL, Bashir MR, et al. Rate of contrast media extravasations and allergic-like reactions: effect of extrinsic warming of low-osmolality iodinated CT contrast media to 37oC. Radiology 2012; 262:475-484.
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Contrast-Induced Nephrotoxicity
Definition
Contrast-induced nephrotoxicity (CIN) is a sudden deterioration in renal function following the recent intravascular administration of iodinated contrast medium in the absence of another nephrotoxic event. Unfortunately, very few published studies adequately isolate patients in whom iodinated contrast medium exposure is the only nephrotoxic event [1]. CIN occurs in children, but is rare [2-5]. Gadolinium-based contrast media either do not cause CIN when administered at FDA-approved doses, or this event is exceptionally rare.
Pathogenesis
The exact pathophysiology of CIN is not understood. Etiologic factors that have been suggested include: 1) renal hemodynamic changes (vasoconstriction), and 2) direct tubular toxicity. Both osmotic and chemotoxic mechanisms may be involved, and some investigations suggest agent-specific chemotoxicity. There is evidence that the nephrotoxic effect of iodinated contrast medium is proportional to dose for angiocardiography; data are conflicting with respect to the dose-toxicity relationship following intravenous (IV) administration.
Diagnosis
There are no standard criteria for the diagnosis of CIN; criteria used in the past have included percent change in the baseline serum creatinine (e.g., an increase of variously 25% to 50%) and absolute elevation from baseline serum creatinine (e.g., an increase of variously 0.5 to 2.0 mg/dL). One of the most commonly used criteria has been an absolute increase of 0.5 mg/dL. Studies vary in the time when serum creatinine measurements were obtained following contrast medium administration and in the number of measurements made. Few studies have followed patients for more than 72 hours. The incidence of CIN varies inversely with the magnitude of the change in serum creatinine used to establish the diagnosis. The same threshold has not been used for all studies investigating CIN. The variable definitions of acute kidney injury (AKI) in the literature have been addressed by two consensus groups the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) and the Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN). Both groups have attempted to standardize the diagnosis and staging of acute kidney injury irrespective of etiology. The RIFLE system (Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss, ESKD) was proposed by ADQI in 2004 [6] and the AKIN system was proposed by AKIN in 2007 [7]. The AKIN system is a modified version of RIFLE and is briefly defined below. This standard method of diagnosing and staging acute kidney injury may be helpful in the design of future CIN studies.
AKIN Definition of Acute Kidney Injury

The diagnosis of acute kidney injury is made according to the AKIN criteria if one of the following occurs within 48 hours after a nephrotoxic event (e.g., intravascular iodinated contrast medium exposure) [7]: 1) Absolute serum creatinine increase of 0.3 mg/dL (26.4 mol/L). 2) A percentage increase in serum creatinine of 50% (1.5-fold above baseline). 3) Urine output reduced to 0.5 ml/kg/hour for at least 6 hours.
Contrast-Induced Nephrotoxicity / 33
This system has not been directly studied with respect to CIN, but has been advocated as a common definition of intrinsic acute kidney injury, regardless of etiology [7]. The AKIN criteria also outline a system for staging the degree of renal injury that is present following the diagnosis of AKI; the interested reader is referred to the original manuscript [7].
Laboratory Tests of Renal Function

Laboratory tests may be used both to estimate the risk of CIN prior to administering contrast medium and to determine whether CIN has occurred after contrast medium administration. Serum creatinine concentration is the most commonly used measure of renal function, but it has limitations as an accurate measure of glomerular filtration. Serum creatinine is considerably influenced by the patients gender, muscle mass, nutritional status, and age. Impaired renal function can exist when the serum creatinine is normal. Normal serum creatinine is maintained until the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) at least as reflected in creatinine clearance is reduced by nearly 50%. Although direct measurement of GFR with inulin or a similar clearance marker would be more accurate in defining renal function before and after contrast administration, this is impractical and not advised. An alternative is to use one or more formulae to estimate renal function based on age, gender, body weight, and serum creatinine (e.g., the Cockcroft-Gault [8] or Modification of Diet in Renal Disease [MDRD]). Calculators are available on various web pages. These formulae have limitations because they were created from studies on narrow populations; one particular limitation is their applicability only to stable levels of renal dysfunction. This is because serum creatinine levels lag behind changes in renal function. In acute kidney injury, neither renal function nor serum creatinine is stable. Therefore, using formulae that attempt to estimate GFR (eGFR) or creatinine clearance to make clinical decisions in the setting of acute kidney injury is inadvisable.
Route of Contrast Administration

A confounding variable in the literature is related to the route of contrast medium injection and presence of concurrent procedures. In the last two decades, the CIN literature has been dominated by reports of patients who have undergone angiocardiography with iodinated contrast medium. The overall incidence of CIN in these studies is higher than it is in studies of patients who receive IV iodinated contrast medium. Several publications that compare the incidence of CIN after angiocardiography and IV contrast administration have found the risk after angiocardiography to be higher [1]. Therefore, data from angiocardiography studies likely over-estimate the risk for patients undergoing IV contrast-enhanced studies.
CIN Studies
Much of the literature investigating the incidence of CIN has failed to include a control group of patients not receiving contrast medium. This is problematic because several studies have shown that the frequency and magnitude of serum creatinine change in patients who have not received contrast is similar to the changes in patients who have received it. In more than 30,000 patients at a single institution who did not receive any contrast medium, more than half showed a change in serum creatinine of at least 25%, and more than 40% a change of at least 0.4 mg/dL [9]. The authors indicate that had some of these patients received iodinated contrast, the rise would have been undoubtedly attributed to it, rather than to physiologic variation or another etiology. To date, only eight published studies of IV iodinated contrast media use have included a control group of patients not exposed to iodinated contrast medium [10-17]. All but one [10] found no evidence of CIN.
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Bruce et al [10] showed that the frequency and magnitude of post-CT serum creatinine elevation (i.e., +0.5 mg/dL or +25% mg/dL) was equivalent in a control group of patients who did not receive contrast medium to patients who received either iodixanol or iohexol with a similar baseline serum creatinine (1.8 mg/dL). Only patients with a baseline serum creatinine greater than 1.8 mg/dL had a greater risk of post-CT renal dysfunction after exposure to LOCM (iohexol) when compared with patients not receiving intravenous contrast medium. The development of clinically significant nephrotoxicity in patients with normal renal function after the intravascular administration of iodinated contrast medium is either extraordinarily rare or does not occur.
Risk Factors for CIN

Numerous studies have attempted to isolate risk factors for CIN. There is consensus that the most important risk factor for CIN is pre-existing renal insufficiency. Multiple others have been proposed, including diabetes mellitus, dehydration, cardiovascular disease, diuretic use, advanced age, multiple myeloma, hypertension, hyperuricemia, and multiple iodinated contrast medium doses in a short time interval (<24 hours) [18-23], but these have not been rigorously confirmed as independent risk factors. Two studies have shown that CIN may occur after two closely spaced doses, but neither was designed to show that the risk was higher than after one or no dose of IV contrast medium [18,23].
Risk Thresholds
There is no universally agreed upon threshold of serum creatinine elevation (or degree of renal dysfunction) beyond which intravascular iodinated contrast medium should not be administered. In a 2006 survey of radiologists by Elicker et al [24], the cutoff value for serum creatinine beyond which intravascular iodinated contrast medium would not be administered varied widely among radiology practices. For patients with no risk factors other than elevated serum creatinine, thirty-five percent of respondents used 1.5 mg/dL, 27% used 1.7 mg/dL, and 31% used 2.0 mg/dL (mean, 1.78 mg/dL). Threshold values were slightly lower in patients with diabetes mellitus (mean: 1.68 mg/dL). We believe that there is insufficient good data at this time to prescribe a specific recommended threshold. However, we also believe that the risk of CIN from intravenous iodinated contrast media is sufficiently low that a threshold of 2.0 mg/dL in the setting of stable chronic renal insufficiency is probably safe for most patients. As previously stated, no serum creatinine threshold is adequate to stratify patients with acute kidney injury because serum creatinine in this setting is unreliable. In patients with acute kidney injury, the administration of iodinated contrast medium should only be undertaken with appropriate caution and only if the benefit to the patient clearly outweighs the risk. There has been no published series demonstrating that IV iodinated contrast medium administration to patients with acute kidney injury leads to worse or prolonged renal dysfunction than would occur in a control group. However, patients with acute kidney injury are particularly susceptible to nephrotoxin exposure and therefore it is probably prudent to avoid intravascular iodinated contrast medium in these patients (when possible), regardless of the generally low nephrotoxic risk. Anuric patients with end-stage renal disease are no longer at risk for CIN and may receive intravascular iodinated contrast material without risk of additional renal injury (see Renal Dialysis Patients and the Use of Iodinated Contrast Medium, below). The clinical benefit of using eGFR or calculated creatinine clearance in assessing preprocedural CIN risk in patients with stable renal function is uncertain because much of our published knowledge comes
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from studies that used only serum creatinine measurements. The threshold values at which different clinical actions should be taken (e.g., active IV hydration, avoidance of contrast medium administration) are neither proven nor generally agreed upon for either serum creatinine measurement or calculated creatinine clearance. In addition, the accuracy of these formulae has only been validated in the patient population for whom they were developed. The MDRD formula is known to underestimate eGFR in patients with normal and near normal renal function [25]. Herts et al [26] showed that when patients eGFR was calculated by the MDRD formula, a significantly higher percentage of patients had an eGFR of <60 ml/min than had a serum creatinine of >1.4 mg/dL. These patients might have been denied contrast medium administration had eGFR been used to determine suitability for injection (15.3% vs. 6.2%). Thomsen et al [27] reviewed the relative risk of CIN from two randomized trials using eGFR calculated from serum creatinine by the MDRD formula in patients who received IV contrast for computed tomography (CT) examinations. The risk of CIN was found to be 0.6% in patients with eGFR greater than 40 ml/ min/1.73 m2 and 4.6% in patients with an eGFR of 30 to 40 ml/min/1.7 3 m2. The CIN rate was 7.8% in patients with an eGFR 30 ml/min/1.73 m2. In a study of 421 patients with an eGFR 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 who did not have end-stage kidney disease, Weisbord and colleagues [28] found that the rate of CIN following contrastenhanced CT was 2.5% (8 of 316) in those patients who had an eGFR > 45 ml/min/1.73 m2 and 9.8% (5 of 51) in patients with an eGFR between 30 and 45 ml/min/1.73 m2. In a study by Kim and colleagues [29], which included 520 patients undergoing contrast-enhanced CT, none of the 253 patients who had an eGFR between 45 and 59 ml/min/1.73 m2 developed CIN, while six (2.9%) of 209 patients with an eGFR between 30 and 44 ml/min/1.73 m2 and seven (12.1%) of 58 patients with an eGFR lower than 30 ml/min/1.73 m2 developed CIN. All of these studies lacked a group of patients not exposed to contrast medium. Therefore, it is difficult to determine if these cases of CIN were due to contrast medium administration, another etiology, or background fluctuations in serum creatinine.
Screening
A baseline serum creatinine should be available or obtained before the injection of contrast medium in all patients considered at risk for contrast nephrotoxicity (see below for a list of suggested indications for precontrast serum creatinine measurement). Choyke et al [30] identified several patient risk factors that could exclude patients with abnormal serum creatinine with a high specificity, and suggested that if all of these were answered in the negative, 94% would have a normal serum creatinine and 99% would have a serum creatinine under 1.7 mg/dL. These risk factors included: preexisting renal dysfunction, proteinuria, prior kidney surgery, hypertension, and gout. Patients without these risk factors (especially outpatients [31]) could be reasonably excluded from serum creatinine screening prior to contrast injection, resulting in a significant cost savings. There is no universally agreed upon acceptable interval between the baseline serum creatinine measurement and contrast medium administration. Some accept a 30-day interval as adequate, although it seems prudent to shorten this interval for inpatients and those with a new or heightened risk factor for renal dysfunction.
Suggested Indications for Serum Creatinine Measurement before Intravascular Administration of Iodinated Contrast Medium
The following is a suggested list of risk factors that may warrant pre-administration serum creatinine screening in patients who are scheduled to receive intravascular iodinated contrast medium. This list should not be considered definitive and represents a blend of published data [30,31] and expert opinion: Age > 60 History of renal disease, including: o Dialysis
36 / Contrast-Induced Nephrotoxicity
o Kidney transplant o Single kidney o Renal cancer o Renal surgery History of hypertension requiring medical therapy History of diabetes mellitus Metformin or metformin-containing drug combinations*
Patients who are scheduled for a routine intravascular study but do not have one of the above risk factors do not require a baseline serum creatinine determination before intravascular iodinated contrast medium administration. *Metformin does not confer an increased risk of CIN. However, metformin can very rarely lead to lactic acidosis in patients with renal failure. Therefore, patients who develop CIN while taking metformin are susceptible to the development of lactic acidosis (see the Chapter on Metformin for recommendations). To assess the risk of lactic acidosis, it is probably prudent to stratify the risk of CIN in patients taking metformin who will be exposed to intravascular iodinated contrast medium (please also see the separate Chapter on Metformin).
Morbidity and Mortality

The clinical course of CIN depends on baseline renal function, coexisting risk factors, degree of hydration, and other factors. The usual course of CIN is a transient asymptomatic elevation in serum creatinine. Serum creatinine usually begins to rise within 24 hours of intravascular iodinated contrast medium administration, peaks within 4 days, and often returns to baseline within 7 to 10 days. It is unusual for patients to develop permanent renal dysfunction. When chronic renal failure develops, it is usually in the setting of multiple risk factors and associated with lifelong morbidity. Several studies have shown that patients with transient CIN tend to have longer hospital stays, higher mortality, and higher incidences of cardiac and neurologic events than contrast-receiving patients whose kidney function remains stable. These observations have led to widespread hesitance in the use of intravascular iodinated contrast medium when the risk of CIN is felt to be high. However, many studies investigating CIN and its consequences following intravascular iodinated contrast medium administration have failed to include a control group of patients not receiving contrast medium; therefore, it is possible that much of the morbidity and mortality previously attributed to CIN in the literature may in fact be due to other etiologies. Larger studies with proper control groups and longitudinal outcomes data are needed.
Prevention
Prior to contrast medium administration, adequate patient assessment and communication between radiologist and referring clinician are important. Consideration of alternative imaging strategies and an individualized risk-benefit assessment are fundamental.
Avoidance of Iodinated Contrast Medium

Concern for the development of CIN is a relative but not absolute contraindication to the administration of intravascular iodinated contrast medium in at-risk patients. The risk of clinically relevant renal dysfunction is very low in many situations. However, patients with acute kidney injury or severe chronic kidney disease are considered at risk for CIN. In these scenarios, the information that may be obtained by using no contrast
medium (e.g. noncontrast CT) or other modalities (e.g., ultrasound or noncontrast magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]) may be sufficiently useful that contrast medium administration can be avoided. (See the Chapter on Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis [NSF] for a discussion of the risk of developing NSF following the administration of gadolinium chelates to patients with renal disease.) In some clinical situations, the use of intravascular iodinated contrast medium may be necessary regardless of CIN risk. Although it seems logical to use the lowest possible dose of contrast medium to obtain the necessary diagnostic information, robust data supporting a dose-toxicity relationship for IV iodinated contrast medium administration are lacking. There does seem to be a directly proportional dose-toxicity relationship for intracardiac iodinated contrast medium. One purported risk factor for the development of CIN is the administration of multiple doses of intravascular iodinated contrast medium within a short period of time. Low osmolality contrast medium has a half-life of approximately two hours. Therefore, it takes approximately 20 hours for the entire administered dose of contrast media to be excreted in patients with normal renal function. Therefore, it has long been suggested that dosing intervals shorter than 24 hours be avoided except in urgent situations. We do not believe that there is sufficient evidence to justify a specific prohibition against this practice, nor a specific threshold of contrast media volume beyond which additional contrast media should not be given within a 24-hour period. Obtaining a serum creatinine measurement between two closely spaced iodinated contrast medium-enhanced studies is unlikely to be of any benefit.
Choice of Iodinated Contrast Medium

Barrett and Carlisle [32] reported a meta-analysis of the literature concerning the relative nephrotoxicity of high osmolality contrast media (HOCM) and low osmolality contrast media (LOCM). They concluded that LOCM are less nephrotoxic than HOCM in patients with underlying renal insufficiency. LOCM were not shown to be significantly different in patients with normal renal function. Rudnick et al found similar results in a large prospective study. Most centers no longer use intravascular HOCM due to the greater incidence of various adverse effects associated with its use. Studies [33-37] have failed to establish a clear advantage of IV iso-osmolality iodixanol over IV LOCM with regard to CIN. A 2009 meta-analysis using data pooled from 25 trials found no difference in the rate of CIN between iodixanol and low osmolality agents after intravenous administration [38].
Hydration
The major preventive action against CIN is to ensure adequate hydration. The ideal infusion rate and volume is unknown, but isotonic fluids are preferred (Lactated Ringers or 0.9% normal saline). One possible protocol would be 0.9% saline at 100 ml/hr, beginning 6 to 12 hours before and continuing 4 to 12 hours after intravascular iodinated contrast medium administration. Oral hydration has also been utilized, but with less demonstrated effectiveness. Pediatric infusion rates are variable and should be based on patient weight. Not all clinical studies have shown dehydration to be a major risk factor for CIN. However, in the dehydrated state, renal blood flow and GFR are decreased, the effect of iodinated contrast medium on these parameters is accentuated, and there is a theoretical concern of prolonged tubular exposure to iodinated contrast medium due to low tubular flow rates. Solomon et al [37] studied adult patients with chronic kidney disease who underwent cardiac angiography. The reported incidence of CIN was decreased by periprocedural IV hydration (0.45% or 0.9% saline, 100 ml/h, 12 hours before to 12 hours after intravascular contrast administration). In another study, IV hydration with 0.9% saline was superior to IV hydration with 0.45% saline in reported CIN risk reduction [39]. A protocol for patients with mild to moderate renal dysfunction combining pre-cardiac catheterization oral hydration and post procedural IV hydration was proved effective in one series [40].
Sodium bicarbonate
Some studies and meta-analyses of patients undergoing angiocardiography have shown intravenous hydration with sodium bicarbonate to be superior to 0.9% saline in reducing the risk of CIN [41,42], but these results have been challenged by other meta-analyses [43] and cannot be considered definitive at this time, particularly for patients receiving IV iodinated contrast material.
N-acetylcysteine
The efficacy of N-acetylcysteine to reduce the incidence of CIN is controversial. Multiple studies and a number of meta-analyses have disagreed as to whether this agent reduces the risk of CIN [44,45]. There is evidence that it reduces serum creatinine in normal volunteers without changing cystatin-C (cystatin-C is reported to be a better marker of GFR than serum creatinine). This raises the possibility that N-acetylcysteine might be simply lowering serum creatinine without actually preventing renal injury. There is insufficient evidence of its efficacy to make a definitive recommendation. N-acetylcysteine should not be considered a substitute for appropriate pre-procedural patient screening and adequate hydration.
Diuretics: Mannitol and Furosemide

Solomon et al [46] reported no beneficial effects from the osmotic diuretic mannitol when it was added to saline hydration in patients with or without diabetes mellitus. There was an exacerbation of renal dysfunction when the loop diuretic furosemide was used in addition to saline hydration. Neither mannitol nor furosemide is recommended for CIN risk reduction.
Other Agents
The evidence for other theoretically renal-protective medications, such as theophylline, endothelin-1, and fenoldopam is even less convincing. Use of these agents to reduce the risk of CIN is not recommended.
Renal Dialysis Patients and the Use of Iodinated Contrast Medium

Patients with anuric end-stage chronic kidney disease can receive intravascular iodinated contrast medium without risk of further renal damage because their kidneys are no longer functioning. However, there is a theoretical risk of converting an oliguric dialysis patient to an anuric dialysis patient by exposing him or her to intravascular iodinated contrast medium. This remains speculative, as there are no conclusive outcome data in oliguric dialysis patients in this setting. Patients receiving dialysis are also at theoretical risk from the osmotic load imposed by intravascular iodinated contrast medium because they cannot clear the excess intravascular volume. This osmotic load can theoretically result in pulmonary edema and anasarca. To mitigate this possible risk, contrast medium dosing should be as low as necessary to achieve a diagnostic result (as in all patients). However, complications were not observed in a study of dialysis patients who received intravascular nonionic iodinated contrast medium [47], though the number of patients was small. Contrast agents are not protein-bound, have relatively low molecular weights, and are readily cleared by dialysis. Unless an unusually large volume of contrast medium is administered or there is substantial underlying cardiac dysfunction, there is no need for urgent dialysis after intravascular iodinated contrast medium administration [47].
References
1. Katzberg RW, Newhouse JH. Intravenous contrast medium-induced nephrotoxicity: is the medical risk really as great as we have come to believe? Radiology 2010; 256:21-28. 2. Ajami G, Derakhshan A, Amoozgar H, et al. Risk of nephropathy after consumption of nonionic contrast media by children undergoing cardiac angiography: a prospective study. Pediatr Cardiol 2010; 31:668-673. 3. Haight AE, Kaste SC, Goloubeva OG, Xiong XP, Bowman LC. Nephrotoxicity of iopamidol in pediatric, adolescent, and young adult patients who have undergone allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Radiology 2003; 226:399-404. 4. Noyan A, Kucukosmanoglu O, Yildizdas D, Ozbarlas N, Anarat A, Anarat R. Evaluation of renal functions in children with congenital heart disease before and after cardiac angiography. Turk J Pediatr 1998; 40:97-101. 5. Senthilnathan S, Gauvreau K, Marshall AC, Lock JE, Bergersen L. Contrast administration in pediatric cardiac catheterization: dose and adverse events. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2009; 73:814-820. 6. Bellomo R, Ronco C, Kellum JA, Mehta RL, Palevsky P. Acute renal failure - definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: the Second International Consensus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Crit Care 2004; 8:R204-212. 7. Mehta RL, Kellum JA, Shah SV, et al. Acute Kidney Injury Network: report of an initiative to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care 2007; 11:R31. 8. Cockcroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron 1976; 16:31-41. 9. Newhouse JH, Kho D, Rao QA, Starren J. Frequency of serum creatinine changes in the absence of iodinated contrast material: implications for studies of contrast nephrotoxicity. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 191:376-382. 10. Bruce RJ, Djamali A, Shinki K, Michel SJ, Fine JP, Pozniak MA. Background fluctuation of kidney function versus contrastinduced nephrotoxicity. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2009; 192:711-718. 11. Cramer BC, Parfrey PS, Hutchinson TA, et al. Renal function following infusion of radiologic contrast material. A prospective controlled study. Arch Intern Med 1985; 145:87-89. 12. Heller CA, Knapp J, Halliday J, OConnell D, Heller RF. Failure to demonstrate contrast nephrotoxicity. Med J Aust 1991; 155:329-332. 13.Langner S, Stumpe S, Kirsch M, Petrik M, Hosten N. No increased risk for contrast-induced nephropathy after multiple CT perfusion studies of the brain with a nonionic, dimeric, iso-osmolal contrast medium. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2008; 29:1525-1529. 14. Lima FO, Lev MH, Levy RA, et al. Functional contrast-enhanced CT for evaluation of acute ischemic stroke does not increase the risk of contrast-induced nephropathy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2010; 31:817-821. 15. McGillicuddy EA, Schuster KM, Kaplan LJ, et al. Contrast-induced nephropathy in elderly trauma patients. J Trauma 2010; 68:294-297. 16. Oleinik A, Romero JM, Schwab K, et al. CT angiography for intracerebral hemorrhage does not increase risk of acute nephropathy. Stroke 2009; 40:2393-2397. 17. Tremblay LN, Tien H, Hamilton P, et al. Risk and benefit of intravenous contrast in trauma patients with an elevated serum creatinine. J Trauma 2005; 59:1162-1166; discussion 1166-1167. 18. Abujudeh HH, Gee MS, Kaewlai R. In emergency situations, should serum creatinine be checked in all patients before performing second contrast CT examinations within 24 hours? J Am Coll Radiol 2009; 6:268-273. 19. Byrd L, Sherman RL. Radiocontrast-induced acute renal failure: a clinical and pathophysiologic review. Medicine (Baltimore) 1979; 58:270-279. 20. Pahade JK, LeBedis CA, Raptopoulos VD, et al. Incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with multiple myeloma undergoing contrast-enhanced CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2011; 196:1094-1101. 21. Parfrey PS, Griffiths SM, Barrett BJ, et al. Contrast material-induced renal failure in patients with diabetes mellitus, renal insufficiency, or both. A prospective controlled study. N Engl J Med 1989; 320:143-149. 22. Schwab SJ, Hlatky MA, Pieper KS, et al. Contrast nephrotoxicity: a randomized controlled trial of a nonionic and an ionic radiographic contrast agent. N Engl J Med 1989; 320:149-153. 23. Trivedi H, Foley WD. Contrast-induced nephropathy after a second contrast exposure. Ren Fail 2010; 32:796-801. 24. Elicker BM, Cypel YS, Weinreb JC. IV contrast administration for CT: a survey of practices for the screening and prevention of contrast nephropathy. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2006; 186:1651-1658. 25. Becker JA. The investigation of the impact of monomeric and dimeric iodinated contrast media upon glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Radiological Society of North America Scientific Assembly and Annual Meeting. Chicago, IL; 2008. 26. Herts BR, Schneider E, Poggio ED, Obuchowski NA, Baker ME. Identifying outpatients with renal insufficiency before contrastenhanced CT by using estimated glomerular filtration rates versus serum creatinine levels. Radiology 2008; 248:106-113. 27. Thomsen HS, Morcos SK. Risk of contrast-medium-induced nephropathy in high-risk patients undergoing MDCT--a pooled analysis of two randomized trials. Eur Radiol 2009; 19:891-897. 28. Weisbord SD, Mor MK, Resnick AL, Hartwig KC, Palevsky PM, Fine MJ. Incidence and outcomes of contrast-induced AKI following computed tomography. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008; 3:1274-1281. 29. Kim SM, Cha RH, Lee JP, et al. Incidence and outcomes of contrast-induced nephropathy after computed tomography in patients with CKD: a quality improvement report. Am J Kidney Dis 2010; 55:1018-1025.
30. Choyke PL, Cady J, DePollar SL, Austin H. Determination of serum creatinine prior to iodinated contrast media: is it necessary in all patients? Tech Urol 1998; 4:65-69. 31. Tippins RB, Torres WE, Baumgartner BR, Baumgarten DA. Are screening serum creatinine levels necessary prior to outpatient CT examinations? Radiology 2000; 216:481-484. 32. Barrett BJ, Carlisle EJ. Metaanalysis of the relative nephrotoxicity of high- and low-osmolality iodinated contrast media. Radiology 1993; 188:171-178. 33. Aspelin P, Aubry P, Fransson SG, Strasser R, Willenbrock R, Berg KJ. Nephrotoxic effects in high-risk patients undergoing angiography. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:491-499. 34. Barrett BJ, Katzberg RW, Thomsen HS, et al. Contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with chronic kidney disease undergoing computed tomography: a double-blind comparison of iodixanol and iopamidol. Invest Radiol 2006; 41:815-821. 35. Feldkamp T, Baumgart D, Elsner M, et al. Nephrotoxicity of iso-osmolar versus low-osmolar contrast media is equal in low risk patients. Clin Nephrol 2006; 66:322-330. 36. Liss P, Persson PB, Hansell P, Lagerqvist B. Renal failure in 57 925 patients undergoing coronary procedures using iso-osmolar or low-osmolar contrast media. Kidney Int 2006; 70:1811-1817. 37. Solomon RJ, Natarajan MK, Doucet S, et al. Cardiac Angiography in Renally Impaired Patients (CARE) study: a randomized double-blind trial of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with chronic kidney disease. Circulation 2007; 115:3189-3196. 38. Heinrich MC, Haberle L, Muller V, Bautz W, Uder M. Nephrotoxicity of iso-osmolar iodixanol compared with nonionic lowosmolar contrast media: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Radiology 2009; 250:68-86. 39. Weisbord SD, Palevsky PM. Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy with volume expansion. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008; 3:273-280. 40. Taylor AJ, Hotchkiss D, Morse RW, McCabe J. PREPARED: Preparation for Angiography in Renal Dysfunction: a randomized trial of inpatient vs outpatient hydration protocols for cardiac catheterization in mild-to-moderate renal dysfunction. Chest 1998; 114:1570-1574. 41. Merten GJ, Burgess WP, Gray LV, et al. Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy with sodium bicarbonate: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004; 291:2328-2334. 42. Navaneethan SD, Singh S, Appasamy S, Wing RE, Sehgal AR. Sodium bicarbonate therapy for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis 2009; 53:617-627. 43. Zoungas S, Ninomiya T, Huxley R, et al. Systematic review: sodium bicarbonate treatment regimens for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy. Ann Intern Med 2009; 151:631-638. 44. Stenstrom DA, Muldoon LL, Armijo-Medina H, et al. N-acetylcysteine use to prevent contrast medium-induced nephropathy: premature phase III trials. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2008; 19:309-318. 45. Vaitkus PT, Brar C. N-acetylcysteine in the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: publication bias perpetuated by metaanalyses. Am Heart J 2007; 153:275-280. 46. Solomon R, Werner C, Mann D, DElia J, Silva P. Effects of saline, mannitol, and furosemide to prevent acute decreases in renal function induced by radiocontrast agents. N Engl J Med 1994; 331:1416-1420. 47. Younathan CM, Kaude JV, Cook MD, Shaw GS, Peterson JC. Dialysis is not indicated immediately after administration of nonionic contrast agents in patients with end-stage renal disease treated by maintenance dialysis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994; 163:969-971.
Metformin
Metformin is a biguanide oral anti-hyperglycemic agent used to treat patients with non-insulindependent diabetes mellitus. It is available as a generic drug as well as in proprietary formulations, alone and in combination with other drugs (see Table A for some of the brand name formulations). The drug was approved in the United States in December of 1994 for use as monotherapy or combination therapy in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus whose hyperglycemia is not controlled by diet or sulfonylurea therapy alone. Metformin is thought to act by decreasing hepatic glucose production and enhancing peripheral glucose uptake as a result of increased sensitivity of peripheral tissues to insulin. Only rarely does it cause hypoglycemia. The most significant adverse effect of metformin therapy is the potential for the development of metformin-associated lactic acidosis in the susceptible patient. This condition is estimated to occur at a rate of 0 to 0.084 cases per 1,000 patient years. Patient mortality in reported cases is about 50%. However, in almost all reported cases, lactic acidosis occurred because one or more patient-associated contraindications for the drug were overlooked. In one extensive 13 year retrospective study of patients in Sweden, 16 cases were found and all patients had several comorbid factors, most often cardiovascular or renal disease. There are no documented cases of metformin-associated lactic acidosis in properly selected patients. Metformin is excreted unchanged by the kidneys, probably by both glomerular filtration and tubular excretion. The renal route eliminates approximately 90% of the absorbed drug within the first 24 hours. Metformin seems to cause increased lactic acid production by the intestines. Any factors that decrease metformin excretion or increase blood lactate levels are important risk factors for lactic acidosis. Renal insufficiency, then, is a major consideration. Also, factors that depress the ability to metabolize lactate, such as liver dysfunction or alcohol abuse, or increase lactate production by increasing anaerobic metabolism (e.g., cardiac failure, cardiac or peripheral muscle ischemia, or severe infection) are contraindications to the use of metformin (see Table B). Iodinated X-ray contrast media are not an independent risk factor for patients taking metformin but are a concern only in the presence of underlying renal dysfunction. Although contrast media-induced renal failure is very rare in patients with normal renal function, elderly patients with reduced muscle mass (and thus reduced ability to make creatinine) can have a normal serum creatinine level in the presence of a markedly depressed glomerular filtration rate. Intravascular (IV) administration of iodinated contrast media to a patient taking metformin is a potential clinical concern. Of metformin-associated lactic acidosis cases reported worldwide between 1968 and 1991, 7 of the 110 patients received iodinated contrast media before developing lactic acidosis. The metformin package inserts approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration state that metformin should be withheld temporarily for patients undergoing radiological studies using IV iodinated contrast media. If acute renal failure or a reduction in renal function were to be caused by the iodinated contrast media, an accumulation of metformin could occur, with resultant lactate accumulation. The major clinical concern, then, is confined to patients with known, borderline, or incipient renal dysfunction. Limiting the amount of contrast medium administered and hydrating the patient lessen the risk of contrast media-induced dysfunction; both of these measures should be considered in patients with known or incipient renal dysfunction. The efficacy of other measures thought to limit contrast nephrotoxicity (e.g., administration of N-acetylcysteine) in preventing lactic acidosis related to metformin is not known (also see Chapter on Contrast-Induced Nephrotoxicity).
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Management
The management of patients taking metformin should be guided by the following: 1. Evidence suggesting clinically significant contrast-induced nephrotoxicity (CIN) induced by IV contrast injection is weak to nonexistent in patients with normal renal function [4]. 2. Iodinated contrast is not an independent risk factor for patients taking metformin, but it is a concern in the presence of underlying conditions of delayed renal excretion of metformin or decreased metabolism of lactic acid or increased anaerobic metabolism. 3. There have been no reports of lactic acidosis following IV contrast injection in properly selected patients. 4. In elderly patients, preliminary estimates of renal function relying on serum creatinine levels may be misleading and overestimate the adequacy of renal function. The Committee recommends that patients taking metformin be classified into one of three categories, each of which has slightly different suggested management.
Category I
In patients with normal renal function and no known comorbidities (see Table B), there is no need to discontinue metformin prior to intravenously administering iodinated contrast media, nor is there a need to check creatinine following the test or procedure before instructing the patient to resume metformin after 48 hours.
Category II
In patients with multiple comorbidities (see Table B) who apparently have normal renal function, metformin should be discontinued at the time of an examination or procedure using IV iodinated contrast media and withheld for 48 hours. Communication between the radiologist, the health care practitioner, and the patient will be necessary to establish the procedure for reassessing renal function and restarting metformin after the contrast-enhanced examination. The exact method (e.g., serum creatinine measurement, clinical observation, hydration) will vary depending on the practice setting. A repeat serum creatinine measurement is not mandatory.1 If the patient had normal renal function at baseline, was clinically stable, and had no intercurrent risk factors for renal damage (e.g., treatment with aminoglycosides, major surgery, heart failure, sepsis, repeat administration of large amounts of contrast media), metformin can be restarted without repeating the serum creatinine measurement.
Category III
In patients taking metformin who are known to have renal dysfunction, metformin should be suspended at the time of contrast injection, and cautious follow-up of renal function should be performed until safe reinstitution of metformin can be assured.
The ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media recognizes that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidelines for metformin advise that for patients in whom an intravascular contrast study with iodinated materials is planned, metformin should be temporarily discontinued at the time of or before the study, and withheld for 48 hours after the procedure and reinstituted only after renal function has been re-evaluated and found to be normal. However, the committee concurs with the prevailing weight of clinical evidence on this matter that deems such measures unnecessary.
1
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Metformin and Gadolinium

It is not necessary to discontinue metformin prior to gadolinium-enhanced MR studies when the amount of gadolinium administered is in the usual dose range of 0.1 to 0.3 mmol per kg of body weight. Table A: Medications containing metformin* Generic Ingredients Metformin Trade names Glucophage Glucophage XR Fortamet Glumetza Riomet Glucovance Metaglip ActoPlus Met ActoPlus Met XR Prandimet Avandamet Kombiglyze XR Janumet Janumet XR
Glyburide/metformin Glipizide/metformin Pioglitazone/metformin Repaglinide/metformin Rosiglitazone/metformin Saxagliptin/metformin Sitagliptin/metformin
(Metformin and several of the combination drugs also available in generic versions)
*As of June 2012.
Table B: Comorbidities for lactic acidosis with use of metformin Decreased metabolism of lactate Liver dysfunction Alcohol abuse Increased anaerobic metabolism Cardiac failure Myocardial or peripheral muscle ischemia Sepsis or severe infection Suggested Reading (Articles that the Committee recommends for further reading on this topic are provided here.)
1. Bailey CJ. Biguanides and NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1992; 15:755-772. 2. Bailey CJ, Turner RC. Metformin. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:574-579. 3. Dunn CJ, Peters DH. Metformin. A review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic use in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Drugs 1995; 49:721-749. 4. Rao QA, Newhouse JH. Risk of nephropathy after intravenous administration of contrast material: a critical literature analysis. Radiology 2006; 239:392-397. 5. Schweiger MJ, Chambers CE, Davidson CJ, et al. Prevention of contrast induced nephropathy: recommendations for the high risk patient undergoing cardiovascular procedures. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2007; 69:135-140. 6. Sirtori CR, Pasik C. Re-evaluation of a biguanide, metformin: mechanism of action and tolerability. Pharmacol Res 1994; 30:187-228. 7. Thomsen HS, Almen T, Morcos SK. Gadolinium-containing contrast media for radiographic examinations: a position paper. Eur Radiol 2002; 12:2600-2605. 8. Wiholm BE, Myrhed M. Metformin-associated lactic acidosis in Sweden 1977-1991. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1993; 44:589-591.
Metformin / 45
Contrast Media in Children

Principles regarding contrast media utilization and associated adverse events are generally similar between children and adults. This section will address specific areas in which pediatric use of contrast material differs from adult use and attempt to avoid repeating recommendations that are similar for both patient populations.
Iodinated Intravascular Contrast Media

Unique Considerations in Children Contrast Agent Osmolality
Osmolality is an important physical property of contrast media. A variety of the adverse effects attributed to intravascularly administered iodinated contrast agents seem to be related, at least in part, to this physical property, including physiologic side effects, allergic-like reactions, complications following contrast medium extravasation, and fluid shifts. There is noteworthy variation in the osmolality of the various nonionic iodinated contrast agents approved for use in the United States with equivalent iodine concentrations (see Appendix A). Contrast media osmolality is of particular importance in neonates and small children. These patients are thought to be especially susceptible to fluid shifts and have a lower tolerance for intravascular (IV) osmotic loads when compared to adults. IV administration of a hyperosmolality contrast medium may theoretically result in migration of fluid from extravascular soft tissues into blood vessels, consequently expanding blood volume. If the fluid shift is large, cardiac failure and pulmonary edema can result. In children with significant pre-existing cardiac dysfunction, consideration should be given to the use of an iso-osmolality intravascular contrast agent.
Contrast Media Viscosity

Viscosity, a measure of fluid resistance to stress, is another important physical property of contrast media. As viscosity increases, the pressure associated with IV contrast medium injection increases. This physical property is especially important for pediatric patients due to the use of small gauge angiocatheters in tiny blood vessels. Contrast medium viscosity and angiocatheter size are important factors in determining maximum injection rates. If a rapid injection rate is desired through a small angiocatheter and contrast medium viscosity is high, two problems can potentially result. First, the desired injection flow rate may not be achieved. Second, high pressure may cause catheter failure and vessel injury. There is distinct variation in viscosity between different contrast agents (see Appendix A). Additionally, contrast medium viscosity is not directly proportional to the concentration of iodine. Using iopamidol (Isovue) as an example, at body temperature, viscosity increases from 2.0 centipoise (cps) at 200 mg I/ml to 9.4 cps at 370 mg I/ml at body temperature. Viscosity of contrast media is affected by temperature (see Appendix A). As temperature increases, viscosity decreases allowing for increased flow rates at lower pressures. A study by Vergara and Seguel [1] that included both adult and pediatric patients showed that warming contrast media resulted in fewer adverse events following injection when compared to contrast media administered at room temperature.
Other Unique Issues in Children

Several additional issues complicate the administration of IV contrast media to neonates and children, including the use of small volumes of contrast medium, the use of small gauge angiocatheters, and unusual
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vascular access sites. First, very small volumes of contrast media are typically administered to neonates and infants (typically 2 ml/kg). As a result, timing of image acquisition with regard to contrast medium administration may be important when performing certain imaging studies, such as computed tomography (CT) angiography. A slower injection rate (compared to that used in older children and adults) may be useful to prolong IV enhancement. Second, small gauge angiocatheters (for example, 24-gauge) located in tiny peripheral veins (for example, in the hand or foot) are commonly utilized in neonates and infants. A study by Amaral et al [2] showed that 24-gauge angiocatheters in a peripheral location can be safely power injected using a maximum flow rate of approximately 1.5 ml/sec and a maximum pressure of 150 pounds per square inch (psi). When access is thought to be tenuous, hand injection of contrast medium should be strongly considered in order to minimize risk of vessel injury and extravasation. As many currently used central venous catheters are not approved for power injection, one should always verify that the catheter is approved for such injection and that the pressure used does not exceed its rating. Particular attention should be paid to the injection sites of neonates and infants as such individuals cannot effectively communicate the possibility of an injection site complication. Extravasation rates in children appear to be similar to those of the adult population. An extravasation rate of 0.3% was documented in a study of 554 children in which a power injector was used to administer iodinated contrast medium [2]. Most extra-vasations in the pediatric population resolve without untoward sequelae. A study by Wang et al [3] showed that 15 of 17 cases of contrast medium extravasation in children were mild in severity with minimal or no adverse effects.
Physiologic Side Effects in Children

While most minor physiologic side effects to IV contrast medium administration in adults are of minimal significance, such events are often of increased importance in children [4]. For example, local warmth at the injection site and nausea, generally regarded to be physiologic side effects to contrast medium administration, may cause a child to move or cry. Such a response to contrast medium injection may result in the acquisition of a nondiagnostic imaging study necessitating repeat imaging and additional exposure to contrast medium and radiation. There may be differences between the various nonionic low-osmolality iodinated contrast agents with regard to the incidence of injection-related side-effects [4].
Incidence of Allergic-Like Reactions

There are several difficulties in interpreting the available literature on the incidence of allergic-like reactions to IV iodinated contrast media in children. First, there are no standard definitions for such reactions. For example, many studies fail to discriminate between physiologic side effects and allergic-like reactions. In addition, these studies lack agreement on what constitutes mild, moderate, or severe reactions. Second, there is a lack of controlled prospective pediatric studies on the topic. Such investigations are difficult to perform as allergic-like reactions to contrast media in children are rare and large numbers of patients would be needed to acquire statistically meaningful results. Much of the existing literature is retrospective in nature, for which it is impossible to ensure that all adverse reactions are appropriately documented. Therefore, not surprisingly, the reported incidence of pediatric allergic-like reactions to contrast media is variable, at least in part due to the factors mentioned above. It is generally agreed, however, that the incidence of allergic-like reactions in children is lower than that in adults [1,5]. A very large study by Katayama et al [6], when stratified by age and the use of nonionic iodinated contrast media, showed that patients less than 10 years of age and the elderly have the lowest rates of adverse reactions. A study by Dillman et al [5] retrospectively reviewed greater than 11,000 IV injections of low-osmolality nonionic iodinated contrast media and documented an allergic-like reaction rate of 0.18%. Of the 20 reactions documented in their study, 16 were
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mild, one was moderate, and three were severe [5]. A similarly performed study in adult patients from the same institution over a similar time period revealed an adult reaction rate of approximately 0.6% [7]. A study by Callahan et al of 12,494 consecutive patients up to 21 years of age revealed a 0.46% incidence of adverse reactions to ioversol, the majority of which were mild [8]. A smaller study by Fjelldal et al [9] documented 5 allergic-like reactions to iohexol following a total of 547 injections, for a rate of reaction of 0.9%. While fatal reactions to contrast media in children are extremely rare (and may be due to co-morbid conditions in some cases), infants and young children require close observation during and following IV contrast medium administration as they are unable to verbalize reaction-related discomfort or symptoms.
Prevention of Allergic-Like Reactions

General guidelines for the prevention of allergic-like reactions in children are similar to those used for adult patients. A sample pediatric premedication regimen, using a combination of corticosteroid and antihistamine, is described in the Table A at the end of this chapter. Allergic-like reactions following premedication may still occur, although the frequency of such reactions is unknown [5].
Treatment of Allergic-Like Reactions

General guidelines for the treatment of allergic-like reactions in children are similar to those used for adult patients. Pediatric medication dosages, however, may be significantly different from adult dosages used in the management of such reactions (Table 4). It is recommended that a pediatric medication chart with weight-based dosages be placed on the emergency cart or posted in the room wherever intravascular contrast media is to be injected into children. Dedicated pediatric emergency resuscitation equipment (including various sizes of emergency airway devices and supplemental oxygen facemasks) also should be available in all such locations (Table 6). A separate box of pediatric airway equipment attached to the emergency cart may be useful in areas where both children and adults receive contrast media.
Contrast-Induced Nephrotoxicity (CIN) in Children

There has been no large prospective investigation dealing with the possible nephrotoxic effects of IV low-osmolality iodinated contrast agents in children. Consequently, the effects of contrast media on the kidneys are generally assumed to be similar between children and adults. A few key differences are discussed below.
Measurement of Renal Function in Children

Serum creatinine concentration reflects the balance between creatinine production and excretion. Creatinine is a break-down product of skeletal muscle, and its rate of production is proportional to muscle mass. Muscle mass depends on a variety of factors, including patient age, gender, and level of physical activity. Normal serum creatinine concentrations, thus, are quite variable in pediatric patients, even in the presence of preserved renal function. It is important to recognize that normal adult creatinine concentrations cannot be applied to the pediatric population. Normal pediatric serum creatinine concentrations increase with age, with the upper limits of normal always less than adult values (note: age-based normal serum creatinine concentrations also may vary slightly from laboratory to laboratory). There are problems with using serum creatinine concentration as the sole marker of renal function. First, a normal serum creatinine value does not mean that renal function is preserved. For example, an increase in creatinine from 0.4 mg/dl to 0.8 mg/ml in a 10-year old patient would be clinically significant and suggest some degree of renal impairment, even though both measurements may be within acceptable limits for patient age. Serum creatinine concentration may not become abnormal until glomerular filtration
has decreased substantially. Second, it may take several days in the setting of acute renal failure for serum creatinine concentration to rise. A patient, therefore, may have impaired renal function and a normal serum creatinine concentration. Measurement of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) concentration is a poor indicator of renal function. BUN concentration depends on numerous variables in addition to renal function, including daily dietary protein intake, hepatic function, and patient hydration. A popular manner by which to express renal function in children is estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). It is important to note that the two formulae used to calculate pediatric eGFR (see below) are different from those used in adults. eGFR calculations in children require knowledge of patient serum creatinine concentration and height. In addition, the assay used to measure serum creatinine concentration must be known.
GFR Calculators for Children

There is no perfect manner of estimating the GFR in children. The National Kidney Disease Education Program (NKDEP) (an initiative of the National Institutes of Health (NIH)) has published the following information regarding the estimation of GFR in children (http://nkdep.nih.gov/lab-evaluation/gfrcalculators/children-conventional-unit.shtml): Currently, the best equation for estimating GFR from serum creatinine in children is the Bedside Schwartz equation. This formula is for use with creatinine methods with calibration traceable to IDMS. Using the original Schwartz equation with a serum creatinine value from a method with calibration traceable to IDMS will overestimate GFR by 20-40%.
Equation: Bedside Schwartz Equation

GFR (ml/min/1.73 m2) = (0.41 height) / serum creatinine Height in cm Serum creatinine in mg/dL
Prevention of CIN in At-Risk Children

Risk factors for CIN in children are thought to be similar to those in adults. Unfortunately, there are no established evidence-based guidelines for the prevention of CIN in children with impaired renal function. As no pediatric-specific measures for the prevention of CIN have been established in the literature, strategies described for use in adults should be considered when using IV iodinated contrast media in children with renal dysfunction. A noncontrast imaging examination should be performed if the clinical question can be answered without IV iodinated contrast media. In addition, the use of alternative imaging modalities, such as ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging (with or without gadolinium-based contrast medium, depending on exact degree of renal impairment and the clinical question to be answered), should be considered.
Gadolinium-Based Intravascular Contrast Agents

There are only a few published studies that address adverse reactions to IV gadolinium-based contrast media in children. The guidelines for IV use of gadolinium-based contrast agents are generally similar in both the pediatric and adult populations. There are currently six gadolinium-based contrast agents approved for IV use in the United States. These agents are commonly used off-label in children as several of
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these agents are not approved for use in pediatric patients and no agent is approved for administration to individuals less than two years of age. A few pediatric-specific issues regarding these contrast agents are discussed below.
Osmolality and Viscosity

As with iodinated contrast media, there is a significant range in osmolality and viscosity of gadoliniumbased MR contrast agents. Osmolality of gadolinium-based contrast media ranges from approximately 630 mosm/kg H2O for gadoteridol (Prohance) to 1,970 mOsm/kg H2O for gadobenate dimeglumine (Multihance). Viscosities (at 37 degrees Celsius) range from 1.3 cps for gadoteridol (Prohance) to 5.3 cps for gadobenate dimeglumine (Multihance). These physical properties, however, are less important when using gadoliniumbased contrast agents in children compared to iodinated contrast agents. The much smaller volumes of gadolinium-based contrast agents that are typically administered to pediatric patients likely result in only minimal fluid shifts. The slower injection flow rates generally used for gadolinium-based contrast agents result in lower injection-related pressures and decreased risk for vessel injury and extravasation.
Allergic-Like Reactions and Other Adverse Events

While rare, allergic-like reactions to intravascular gadolinium-based contrast media in children do occur. A study by Dillman et al [12] documented a 0.04% allergic-like reaction rate to these contrast agents in children. While mild reactions are most common, more significant reactions that require urgent medical management may occur [12]. Pediatric allergic-like reactions to gadolinium-based contrast media are treated similarly to those reactions to iodinated contrast agents (Table 4). A variety of physiologic side effects may also occur following administration of gadolinium-based contrast media, including coldness at the injection site, nausea, headache, and dizziness (see package inserts). There is no evidence for pediatric renal toxicity from gadolinium-based contrast media at approved doses. Extravasation of gadolinium-based contrast media is usually of minimal clinical significance because of the small volumes injected.
Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis (NSF) and Gadolinium-Based Contrast Media

There are only a small number of reported case of NSF in children (fewer than 10 as of 2008), the majority of which were described prior to this conditions known apparent association with gadoliniumbased contrast agents [13-19]. The youngest reported affected pediatric patient is 8 years of age [20], and all reported pediatric patients had significant renal dysfunction. As there are no evidence-based guidelines for the prevention of NSF in children, we recommend that adult guidelines for identifying atrisk patients and administering gadolinium-based contrast media in the presence of impaired renal function be followed. While there has been no reported case of NSF in a very young child, caution should be used when administering these contrast agents to preterm neonates and infants [20] due to renal immaturity and potential glomerular filtration rates under 30 ml/min/1.73 m2 [21].
Gastrointestinal Contrast Media

The most commonly used gastrointestinal contrast agents in children are barium-based. These agents can be administered by mouth, rectum, ostomy, or catheter residing in the gastrointestinal tract. These contrast agents are generally contraindicated in patients with suspected or known gastrointestinal tract perforation. Iodinated contrast agents are usually preferred in the setting of suspected gastrointestinal tract perforation. As with IV iodinated contrast agents, osmolality should be considered when deciding which iodinated contrast agent to administer orally due to significant variability. Hyperosmolality iodinated contrast agents within the gastrointestinal tract may cause fluid shifts between bowel wall and lumen and, once absorbed,
between extravascular soft tissues and blood vessels [22]. Neonates and older children with cardiac and renal impairment may be most susceptible to such fluid shifts. In such patients, low-osmolality or iso-osmolality contrast agents should be considered for imaging of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Regarding rectal use, higher osmolality contrast agents can usually be diluted to a lower osmolality and still have sufficient iodine concentration to allow diagnostic imaging. High-osmolality iodinated contrast agents should be avoided in children who are at risk for aspiration. Aspirated hyperosmolality contrast medium may cause fluid shifts at the alveolar level and chemical pneumonitis with resultant pulmonary edema [23,24]. Aspiration of large volumes of both barium-based and iodinated oral contrast agents rarely may be fatal [24].
References
1. Vergara M, Seguel S. Adverse reactions to contrast media in CT: effects of temperature and ionic property. Radiology 1996; 199:363-366. 2. Amaral JG, Traubici J, BenDavid G, Reintamm G, Daneman A. Safety of power injector use in children as measured by incidence of extravasation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2006; 187:580-583. 3. Wang CL, Cohan RH, Ellis JH, Adusumilli S, Dunnick NR. Frequency, management, and outcome of extravasation of nonionic iodinated contrast medium in 69,657 intravenous injections. Radiology 2007; 243:80-87. 4. Cohen MD, Herman E, Herron D, White SJ, Smith JA. Comparison of intravenous contrast agents for CT studies in children. Acta Radiol 1992; 33:592-595. 5. Dillman JR, Strouse PJ, Ellis JH, Cohan RH, Jan SC. Incidence and severity of acute allergic-like reactions to i.v. nonionic iodinated contrast material in children. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 188:1643-1647. 6. Katayama H, Yamaguchi K, Kozuka T, Takashima T, Seez P, Matsuura K. Adverse reactions to ionic and nonionic contrast media. A report from the Japanese Committee on the Safety of Contrast Media. Radiology 1990; 175:621-628. 7. Wang CL, Cohan RH, Ellis JH, Caoili EM, Wang G, Francis IR. Frequency, outcome, and appropriateness of treatment of nonionic iodinated contrast media reactions. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 191:409-415. 8. Callahan MJ, Poznauskis L, Zurakowski D, Taylor GA. Nonionic iodinated intravenous contrast material-related reactions: incidence in large urban childrens hospital retrospective analysis of data in 12,494 patients. Radiology 2009; 250:674-681. 9. Fjelldal A, Nordshus T, Eriksson J. Experiences with iohexol (Omnipaque) at urography. Pediatr Radiol 1987; 17:491-492. 10. Schwartz GJ, Haycock GB, Edelmann CM, Jr., Spitzer A. A simple estimate of glomerular filtration rate in children derived from body length and plasma creatinine. Pediatrics 1976; 58:259-263. 11. Schwartz GJ, Munoz A, Schneider MF, et al. New equations to estimate GFR in children with CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009; 20:629-637. 12. Dillman JR, Ellis JH, Cohan RH, Strouse PJ, Jan SC. Frequency and severity of acute allergic-like reactions to gadoliniumcontaining i.v. contrast media in children and adults. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 189:1533-1538. 13. Auron A, Shao L, Warady BA. Nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy in children. Pediatr Nephrol 2006; 21:1307-1311. 14. Dharnidharka VR, Wesson SK, Fennell RS. Gadolinium and nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy in pediatric patients. Pediatr Nephrol 2007; 22:1395. 15. DiCarlo JB, Gupta EA, Solomon AR. A pediatric case of nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy: improvement after combination therapy. J Am Acad Dermatol 2006; 54:914-916. 16. Jain SM, Wesson S, Hassanein A, et al. Nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy in pediatric patients. Pediatr Nephrol 2004; 19:467-470. 17. Jan F, Segal JM, Dyer J, LeBoit P, Siegfried E, Frieden IJ. Nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy: two pediatric cases. J Pediatr 2003; 143:678-681. 18. Krous HF, Breisch E, Chadwick AE, Pinckney L, Malicki DM, Benador N. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis with multiorgan involvement in a teenage male after lymphoma, Ewings sarcoma, end-stage renal disease, and hemodialysis. Pediatr Dev Pathol 2007; 10:395-402. 19. Sanchez-Ross M, Snyder R, Colome-Grimmer MI, Blumberg M, Huttenbach Y, Raimer S. Nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus and acute lupus nephritis. Pediatr Dermatol 2007; 24:E36-39. 20. Penfield JG. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis and the use of gadolinium-based contrast agents. Pediatr Nephrol 2008; 23:2121-2129. 21. Gunn VL, Nechyba C, ed. The Harriet Lane handbook: a manual for pediatric house officers. 16th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby; 2002. 22. Cohen MD. Choosing contrast media for the evaluation of the gastrointestinal tract of neonates and infants. Radiology 1987; 162:447-456. 23. Friedman BI, Hartenberg MA, Mulroy JJ, Tong TK, Mickell JJ. Gastrografin aspiration in a 3 3/4-year-old girl. Pediatr Radiol 1986; 16:506-507. 24. McAlister WH, Siegel MJ. Fatal aspirations in infancy during gastrointestinal series. Pediatr Radiol 1984; 14:81-83.
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Table A: Sample Pediatric Corticosteriod and Antihistamine Premedication Regimen Dosage Prednisone 0.50.7 mg/kg PO (up to 50 mg) 1.25 mg/kg PO (up to 50 mg) Timing 13, 7, and 1 hrs prior to contrast injection
Diphenhydramine
1 hr prior to contrast injection
Note: Appropriate intravenous doses may be substituted for patients who cannot ingest PO medications.
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Iodinated Gastrointestinal Contrast Media in Adults: Indications and Guidelines

Conventional Fluoroscopy Indications
Barium sulfate contrast media continue to be the preferred agents for opacification of the gastrointestinal tract. They provide greater delineation of mucosal detail, are more resistant to dilution, and are less expensive than water-soluble iodinated contrast media. The current use of iodinated contrast media is primarily limited to those situations in which the administration of barium sulfate is contraindicated: 1) suspected or potential intestinal perforation or leak (including bowel abscess, fistula, or sinus tract); 2) administration before surgical or endoscopic procedures involving the bowel; and 3) confirmation of the position of percutaneously placed bowel catheters. Water soluble contrast media are absorbed rapidly from the interstitial spaces and peritoneal cavity, a feature that makes them uniquely useful in examining patients with a suspected perforation of a hollow viscus. No permanent deleterious effects from the presence of aqueous contrast media in the mediastinum, pleural cavity, or abdomen have been shown. If an initial study with iodinated contrast medium fails to demonstrate a suspected perforation, a repeat study with barium can be performed. Small leaks that are undetected with water-soluble media may be more readily demonstrated by barium sulfate media. In those patients for whom barium sulfate is contraindicated, guidelines for the use of low-osmolality contrast media (LOCM) rather than high-osmolality contrast media (HOCM) for aqueous contrast media include oral administration to adults who are at risk for aspiration. When aspirated, LOCM are much less likely to cause pulmonary edema than HOCM because of their lower osmolality. Iso-osmolality nonionic contrast media may be used in children at risk for aspiration and for evaluation of tracheoesophageal fistula. Water-soluble media are completely absorbed from the lungs, unlike barium which if not completely expectorated, can remain indefinitely and may cause inflammation. While aspiration of full strength HOCM can cause severe morbidity and mortality, aspiration of LOCM is well tolerated.
Therapeutic Uses
HOCM have been used successfully for the treatment of postoperative adynamic (or paralytic) ileus, barium impaction, and adhesive small-bowel obstruction (see dose in the Administration section below).
Contraindications
Known prior moderate or severe reaction to iodinated contrast media is an at least theoretical contraindication to oral administration of these agents. A small percentage of iodinated contrast media (approximately 1% to 2%) is normally absorbed and excreted in the urine after oral or rectal administration. Mucosal inflammation, mucosal infection, or bowel obstruction increases the amount absorbed by several fold. It is common to see opacification of the urinary tract in such patients. Because anaphylactoid reactions are not considered to be dose related and can occur with less than 1 ml of intravenous (IV) contrast media, reactions can theoretically occur even from the small amount of contrast medium absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. There are, however, only very rare reports of moderate or severe idiosyncratic reactions to orally or rectally administered iodinated contrast media.
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HOCM are contraindicated for patients at risk for aspiration. Nonionic LOCM are safer for these patients. HOCM in hypertonic concentrations should be avoided in patients with fluid and electrolyte imbalances, particularly the very young or elderly patients with hypovolemia or dehydration. The hypertonic HOCM solutions draw fluid into the lumen of the bowel, leading to further hypovolemia. Preparations made from nonionic LOCM are preferable for these patients because for any given required radiographic density, the LOCM version will have lower osmolality. Again, when there is a risk of aspiration, nonionic contrast media is safer than ionic contrast media. It has been theorized, although not shown, that a small amount of iodine can be absorbed from orally administered iodinated contrast media and may interfere with studies involving protein-bound and radioactive iodine uptake, as well as with spectrophotometric trypsin assay.
Administration
Ionic and nonionic contrast media concentrations are expressed in milligrams of iodine per milliliter of solution (see Appendix A). A 290 to 367 mg I/ml solution is recommended for fluoroscopic evaluation of the esophagus, stomach, or small bowel in adults.
Computed Tomography Indications

Orally administered contrast media are used for routine gastrointestinal opacification during abdominal computed tomography (CT). In comparison to conventional fluoroscopic imaging, there is no significant difference in the diagnostic quality of CT examinations obtained with HOCM, LOCM, or barium agents, all of which are administered at low concentration. In the United States, approximately 35% of abdominal CT examinations are currently performed using iodinated gastrointestinal contrast media. Like conventional fluoroscopic imaging, there are a few specific clinical situations in which watersoluble contrast agents are strongly favored for use in CT over barium agents: suspected gastrointestinal perforation, administration before bowel surgery, and as a bowel marker for percutaneous CT-guided interventional procedures.
Contraindications
The aqueous contrast solutions used for CT are very dilute and hypotonic (78 mOsm/kg for HOCM). Therefore, aspiration and hypovolemia are not specific contra-indications to their use. Idiosyncratic reactions remain a theoretical risk, and are felt to be more relevant to patients with active inflammatory bowel disease.
Administration
Various iodine concentrations of aqueous contrast media ranging from 4 to 48 mg I/ml have been suggested for bowel opacification with CT. Because the dilute, hypotonic contrast solutions become concentrated during their passage through the bowel, the concentration used for oral administration is a compromise between lower Hounsfield unit opacity in the proximal bowel and higher Hounsfield unit opacity in the distal bowel. In general, a solution containing 13 to 15 mg I/ml is recommended for oral and rectal administration in adults.
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1. Halme L, Edgren J, von Smitten K, Linden H. Increased urinary excretion of iohexol after enteral administration in patients with ileal Crohns disease. A new test for disease activity. Acta Radiol 1993; 34:237-241. 2. Miller SH. Anaphylactoid reaction after oral administration of diatrizoate meglumine and diatrizoate sodium solution. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 168:959-961. 3. Ott DJ, Gelfand DW. Gastrointestinal contrast agents. Indications, uses, and risks. JAMA 1983; 249:2380-2384. 4. Raptopoulos V. Technical principles in CT evaluation of the gut. Radiol Clin North Am 1989; 27:631-651. 5. Seltzer SE, Jones B, McLaughlin GC. Proper choice of contrast agents in emergency gastrointestinal radiology. CRC Crit Rev Diagn Imaging 1979; 12:79-99. 6. Swanson DP, Halpert RD. Gastrointestinal contrast media: barium sulfate and water-soluble iodinated agents. In: Swanson DP, ed. Pharmaceuticals in Medical Imaging. New York, NY: Macmillan; 1990:155-183.
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Adverse Reactions to Gadolinium-Based Contrast Media

Gadolinium chelates have been approved for parenteral use since the late 1980s. Although these agents can be differentiated on the basis of stability, viscosity, and osmolality, they cannot be differentiated on the basis of efficacy. Gadolinium chelates are extremely well tolerated by the vast majority of patients in whom they are injected. Acute adverse reactions are encountered with a lower frequency than is observed after administration of iodinated contrast media.
Adverse Reactions
The frequency of all acute adverse events after an injection of 0.1 or 0.2 mmol/kg of gadolinium chelate ranges from 0.07% to 2.4%. The vast majority of these reactions are mild, including coldness at the injection site, nausea with or without vomiting, headache, warmth or pain at the injection site, paresthesias, dizziness, and itching. Reactions resembling an allergic response are very unusual and vary in frequency from 0.004% to 0.7%. A rash hives, or urticaria are the most frequent of this group, and very rarely there may be bronchospasm. Severe, life-threatening anaphylactoid or nonallergic anaphylactic reactions are exceedingly rare (0.001% to 0.01%). In an accumulated series of 687,000 doses there were only 5 severe reactions. In another survey based on 20 million administered doses there were 55 cases of severe reactions. Fatal reactions to gadolinium chelate agents occur but are extremely rare. Gadolinium chelates administered to patients with acute renal failure or severe chronic kidney disease can result in a syndrome of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF). (See the Chapter on Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis NSF)
Risk Factors
The frequency of acute adverse reactions to gadolinium contrast media is about 8 times higher in patients with a previous reaction to gadolinium-based contrast media. Second reactions to gadolinium-based media (GBCM) can be more severe than the first. Persons with asthma and various other allergies, including to other medications or foods are also at greater risk, with reports of adverse reaction rates as high as 3.7%. Although there is no cross-reactivity, patients who have had previous allergic-like reactions to iodinated contrast media are also in this category. In the absence of any widely accepted policy for dealing with patients with prior contrast reactions (especially to gadolinium-based media) and the need for subsequent exposure to magnetic resonance (MR) agents, it does seem prudent to at least take precautions in a patient who previously had a reaction to GBCM. It should be determined if gadolinium-based contrast medium is necessary, if a different brand could be used, and if 12 to 24 hours of premedication with corticosteroids and antihistamines could be initiated. This administration is particularly applicable in patients who had prior moderate to severe reactions.
Nephrotoxicity
Gadolinium agents are considered to have no nephrotoxicity at approved dosages for MR imaging. MR with gadolinium has been used instead of contrast-enhanced CT in those at risk for developing worsening renal failure if exposed to iodinated contrast media. However, in view of the risk of NSF in patients with severe renal dysfunction, this practice should only be considered after reviewing the recommendations for use of gadolinium-based contrast in this group of patients. Gadolinium agents are radiodense and can be used for opacification in CT and angiographic examinations instead of iodinated radiographic contrast media. However, there is controversy about whether gadolinium
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contrast media are less nephrotoxic at equally attenuating doses. Caution should be used in extrapolating the lack of nephrotoxicity of intravenous (IV) gadolinium at MR dosages to its use for angiographic procedures, including direct injection into the renal arteries. No assessment of gadolinium versus iodinated contrast nephrotoxicity by randomized studies of equally attenuating doses is currently available. Initially, radiographic use of high doses of gadolinium agents was proposed as an alternative to nephrotoxic iodinated contrast media in patients with renal insufficiency. However, because of the risk of NSF following gadolinium-based contrast material administration, especially in patients with acute renal failure or severe chronic kidney disease, and because of the unknown nephrotoxicity of high doses of gadolinium agents, use of these contrast media for conventional angiography is no longer recommended.
The Safety of Gadolinium-Based Contrast Media (GBCM) in Patients with Sickle Cell Disease
Early in vitro research dealing with the effects of MRI on red blood cells (erythrocytes) suggested that fully deoxygenated sickle erythrocytes align perpendicularly to a magnetic field. It was hypothesized that this alignment could further restrict sickle erythrocyte flow through small vessels and, thus conceivably could promote vaso-occlusive complications in sickle cell patients [1]. The further supposition that the IV administration of GBCM might potentiate sickle erythrocyte alignment, thereby additionally increasing the risk of vaso-occlusive complications, is mentioned in the FDA package inserts (as of 2009) for two GBCM approved for use in the United States (gadoversetamide [OptiMARK, Mallinckrodt] and gadoteridol [Prohance, Bracco Diagnostics]). To the best of our knowledge and noted in a review [2] of the literature, there has been no documented in vivo vaso-occlusive or hemolytic complication directly related to the IV administration of a GBCM in a sickle cell disease patient. A small retrospective study by Dillman et al with a control group showed no significantly increased risk of vaso-occlusive or hemolytic adverse events when administering GBCM to sickle cell disease patients [3]. Additionally, several small scientific studies [4-6] of patients with sickle cell disease have employed MR imaging with GBCM without reported adverse effects. Therefore, it is our opinion that any special risk to sickle cell patients from IV administered GBCM at currently approved dosages must be extremely low, and there is no reason to withhold these agents from patients with sickle cell disease. However, as in all patients, GBCM should be administered only when clinically indicated.
Treatment of Acute Adverse Reactions

Treatment of moderate or severe acute adverse reactions to gadolinium-based contrast media is similar to that for moderate or severe acute reactions to iodinated contrast media (see Tables 3, 4, 5 and 6). In any facility where contrast media are injected, it is imperative that personnel trained in recognizing and handling reactions and the equipment and medications to do so be on site or immediately available. Most MR facilities take the position that patients requiring treatment should be taken out of the imaging room immediately and away from the magnet so that none of the resuscitative equipment becomes a magnetic hazard.
Extravasation
The incidence of extravasation in one series of 28,000 doses was 0.05%. Laboratory studies in animals have demonstrated that both gadopentetate dimeglumine and gadoteridol are much less toxic to the skin and subcutaneous tissues than are equal volumes of iodinated contrast media. The small volumes typically injected for MR studies limit the chances for a compartment syndrome. For these reasons the likelihood of a significant injury resulting from extravasated MR contrast media is extremely low. Nonionic MR contrast media are less likely to cause symptomatic extravasation than hypertonic agents such as gadopentate dimeglumine.
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Serum Calcium Determinations

Some gadolinium-based MR contrast media interfere with total serum calcium values as determined with some calcium assay methods. It should be emphasized that these MR contrast media do not cause actual reductions in serum calcium, only that the contrast media interferes with the test, leading to falsely low serum calcium laboratory values. In one report by Brown [7] and associates, calcium levels measured by only one of three different assays (the orthocresolphthalein assay) showed a temporary decrease for just two of four studied gadolinium-based contrast media, the length and severity of which closely mirrored the concentration of the measured gadolinium-based media in blood. Specifically, this decrease was seen after injection of gadoversetamide and gadodiamide, but not with gadopentetate dimeglumine or gadoteridol.
Off-Label Usage
Radiologists commonly use contrast media for a clinical purpose not contained in the labeling and thus commonly use contrast media off-label. By definition, such usage is not approved by the Food and Drug Administration. However, physicians have some latitude in using gadolinium chelates off label as guided by clinical circumstances, as long as they can justify such usage in individual cases. Examples include MR angiography, cardiac applications, and pediatric applications in patients younger than two years of age. In addition, no gadolinium chelate is approved in the United States for use in a power injector.
References
1. Brody AS, Sorette MP, Gooding CA, et al. AUR Memorial Award. Induced alignment of flowing sickle erythrocytes in a magnetic field. A preliminary report. Invest Radiol 1985; 20:560-566. 2. Kanal E, Shellock FG, Talagala L. Safety considerations in MR imaging. Radiology 1990; 176:593-606. 3. Dillman JR, Ellis JH, Cohan RH, et al. Safety of gadolinium-based contrast material in sickle cell disease. Journal of magnetic resonance imaging : JMRI 2011; 34:917-920. 4. Umans H, Haramati N, Flusser G. The diagnostic role of gadolinium enhanced MRI in distinguishing between acute medullary bone infarct and osteomyelitis. Magn Reson Imaging 2000; 18:255-262. 5. Westwood MA, Shah F, Anderson LJ, et al. Myocardial tissue characterization and the role of chronic anemia in sickle cell cardiomyopathy. J Magn Reson Imaging 2007; 26:564-568. 6. Zimmerman RA. MRI/MRA evaluation of sickle cell disease of the brain. Pediatr Radiol 2005; 35:249-257. 7. Brown JJ, Hynes MR, Wible JH, Jr. Measurement of serum calcium concentration after administration of four gadoliniumbased contrast agents to human volunteers. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 189:1539-1544.
8. Broome DR, Girguis MS, Baron PW, Cottrell AC, Kjellin I, Kirk GA. Gadodiamide-associated nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: why radiologists should be concerned. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 188:586-592. 9. Cochran ST, Bomyea K, Sayre JW. Trends in adverse events after IV administration of contrast media. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001; 176:1385-1388. 10. Cohan RH, Ellis JH, Garner WL. Extravasation of radiographic contrast material: recognition, prevention, and treatment. Radiology 1996; 200:593-604. 11. Cohan RH, Leder RA, Herzberg AJ, et al. Extravascular toxicity of two magnetic resonance contrast agents. Preliminary experience in the rat. Invest Radiol 1991; 26:224-226. 12. Goldstein HA, Kashanian FK, Blumetti RF, Holyoak WL, Hugo FP, Blumenfield DM. Safety assessment of gadopentetate dimeglumine in U.S. clinical trials. Radiology 1990; 174:17-23. 13. Haustein J, Laniado M, Niendorf HP, et al. Triple-dose versus standard-dose gadopentetate dimeglumine: a randomized study in 199 patients. Radiology 1993; 186:855-860. 14. Jordan RM, Mintz RD. Fatal reaction to gadopentetate dimeglumine. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1995; 164:743-744. 15. Kanal E, Barkovich AJ, Bell C, et al. ACR guidance document for safe MR practices: 2007. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 188:1447-1474. 16. Kuo PH, Kanal E, Abu-Alfa AK, Cowper SE. Gadolinium-based MR contrast agents and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Radiology 2007; 242:647-649. 17. Lin J, Idee JM, Port M, et al. Interference of magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents with the serum calcium measurement technique using colorimetric reagents. J Pharm Biomed Anal 1999; 21:931-943.
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18. McAlister WH, McAlister VI, Kissane JM. The effect of Gd-dimeglumine on subcutaneous tissues: a study with rats. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1990; 11:325-327. 19. Murphy KJ, Brunberg JA, Cohan RH. Adverse reactions to gadolinium contrast media: a review of 36 cases. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1996; 167:847-849. 20. Murphy KP, Szopinski KT, Cohan RH, Mermillod B, Ellis JH. Occurrence of adverse reactions to gadolinium-based contrast material and management of patients at increased risk: a survey of the American Society of Neuroradiology Fellowship Directors. Acad Radiol 1999; 6:656-664. 21. Nelson KL, Gifford LM, Lauber-Huber C, Gross CA, Lasser TA. Clinical safety of gadopentetate dimeglumine. Radiology 1995; 196:439-443. 22. Niendorf HP, Brasch RC. Gd-DTPA tolerance and clinical safety. In: Brasch RC, Drayer BP, Haughton VM, et al, ed. MRI Contrast Enhancement in the Central Nervous System: A Case Study Approach. New York, NY: Raven; 1993:11-21. 23. Niendorf HP, Haustein J, Cornelius I, Alhassan A, Clauss W. Safety of gadolinium-DTPA: extended clinical experience. Magn Reson Med 1991; 22:222-228; discussion 229-232. 24. Nyman U, Elmstahl B, Leander P, Nilsson M, Golman K, Almen T. Are gadolinium-based contrast media really safer than iodinated media for digital subtraction angiography in patients with azotemia? Radiology 2002; 223:311-318; discussion 328-319. 25. Olukotun AY, Parker JR, Meeks MJ, Lucas MA, Fowler DR, Lucas TR. Safety of gadoteridol injection: U.S. clinical trial experience. J Magn Reson Imaging 1995; 5:17-25. 26. Omohundro JE, Elderbrook MK, Ringer TV. Laryngospasm after administration of gadopentetate dimeglumine. J Magn Reson Imaging 1992; 2:729-730. 27. Runge VM. Safety of approved MR contrast media for intravenous injection. J Magn Reson Imaging 2000; 12:205-213. 28. Runge VM. Safety of magnetic resonance contrast media. Top Magn Reson Imaging 2001; 12:309-314. 29. Runge VM, Bradley WG, Brant-Zawadzki MN, et al. Clinical safety and efficacy of gadoteridol: a study in 411 patients with suspected intracranial and spinal disease. Radiology 1991; 181:701-709. 30. Salonen OL. Case of anaphylaxis and four cases of allergic reaction following Gd-DTPA administration. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1990; 14:912-913. 31. Shellock FG, Hahn HP, Mink JH, Itskovich E. Adverse reaction to intravenous gadoteridol. Radiology 1993; 189:151-152. 32. Spinosa DJ, Kaufmann JA, Hartwell GD. Gadolinium chelates in angiography and interventional radiology: a useful alternative to iodinated contrast media for angiography. Radiology 2002; 223:319-325; discussion 326-317. 33. Takebayashi S, Sugiyama M, Nagase M, Matsubara S. Severe adverse reaction to iv gadopentetate dimeglumine. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993; 160:659. 34. Tardy B, Guy C, Barral G, Page Y, Ollagnier M, Bertrand JC. Anaphylactic shock induced by intravenous gadopentetate dimeglumine. Lancet 1992; 339:494. 35. Thomsen HS. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: A serious late adverse reaction to gadodiamide. Eur Radiol 2006; 16:2619-2621. 36. Tishler S, Hoffman JC, Jr. Anaphylactoid reactions to i.v. gadopentetate dimeglumine. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1990; 11:1167; discussion 1168-1169. 37. Weiss KL. Severe anaphylactoid reaction after i.v. Gd-DTPA. Magn Reson Imaging 1990; 8:817-818. 38. Witte RJ, Anzai LL. Life-threatening anaphylactoid reaction after intravenous gadoteridol administration in a patient who had previously received gadopentetate dimeglumine. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1994; 15:523-524.
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Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis (NSF)

Definition
Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) is a fibrosing disease, primarily involving the skin and subcutaneous tissues but also known to involve other organs, such as the lungs, esophagus, heart, and skeletal muscles. Initial symptoms typically include skin thickening and/or pruritis. Symptoms and signs may develop and progress rapidly, with some affected patients developing contractures and joint immobility. In some patients, the disease may be fatal.
Associations
Gadolinium-based contrast agent (GBCA) administration
When first described in 2000, NSF was noted to occur predominantly in patients with end-stage chronic kidney disease (CKD), particularly in patients on dialysis. In 2006 several groups noted a strong association between gadolinium-based contrast agent (GBCA) administration in patients with advanced renal disease and the development of NSF [1,2], and it is now generally accepted that GBCA exposure is a necessary factor in the development of NSF. The time between injection of GBCA and the onset of NSF symptoms occurs within days to months in the vast majority of patients [1-6]; however, in rare cases, symptoms have appeared years after the last reported exposure [5]. While the association between NSF development and exposure to GBCAs is well accepted, the precise relationship between NSF and different formulations of GBCAs is controversial and incompletely understood. Some GBCAs have been associated with few, if any, confirmed cases of NSF, and most unconfounded cases have been reported after exposure to gadodiamide, gadopentetate dimeglumine, and/or gadoversetamide. If the prevailing hypothesis is true that the development of NSF is related to the release of gadolinium from the chelates that constitute GBCAs the differences in number of reported cases may, in part, be explained by differences in chemical properties of different GBCAs. However, a combination of other factors, including market share, number of years that the agent has been in use, and possible reporting bias, also may contribute to differences in number of reported cases associated with the various GBCAs. Utilizing both empirical data and theoretical lines of reasoning, the ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media, the European Medicines Agency (EMEA), and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) all have classified GBCAs into different groups (see Table at end of chapter) based on reported associations with NSF in vulnerable patients, although the scheme used by each is not identical [7,8].
Chronic kidney disease

Based upon current knowledge, it is estimated that patients with end-stage CKD (CKD5, eGFR <15 ml/ min/1.73 m2) and severe CKD (CKD4, eGFR 15 to 29 ml/min/1.73 m2) have a 1% to 7% chance of developing NSF after one or more exposures to at least some GBCAs [1-6,9]. However, most patients who developed NSF had end-stage kidney disease and were on dialysis at the time of exposure. Moreover, among patients with severe CKD (CKD4) that developed NSF (approximately 3% of all reported NSF cases), most had an eGFR closer to 15 ml/min/1.73 m2 than to 30 ml/min/1.73 m2. There has been only one published case report of a patient with eGFR values above 30 ml/min/1.73 m2 [10].
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Acute kidney injury (AKI)

Between 12% and 20% of confirmed cases of NSF have occurred in patients with AKI, often superimposed upon CKD [11,12]. Some cases of NSF have developed in patients with AKI without underlying CKD [13]. Hence, AKI alone is also a risk factor for NSF development in the consensus opinion of the ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media.
High-dose and multiple exposures

Cases of NSF have occurred following a single exposure to a GBCA, including a single exposure to a standard (0.1 mmol/kg) single dose [5,14]. A few cases of NSF also have been reported in patients with no known GBCA exposure [15]. In some of these cases, subsequent tissue biopsy evaluation revealed elevated gadolinium levels in the tissues of these patients, suggesting that at least some of these patients had prior unknown GBCA exposure [16]. Nevertheless, NSF is believed to occur most commonly in patients who have received high doses of GBCA, either as a single administration or cumulatively in multiple administrations over months to years [6,17]. Thus, the reported frequency of associations with the various types of GBCAs may be skewed if specific agents were preferentially used at higher doses or more often than others, especially in vulnerable patients. Importantly, most patients with severe CKD exposed to high doses and/or many doses of GBCAs have not developed NSF [5]. One study [18] described 30 patients who had an eGFR of under 30 ml/min/1.73 m2 and who were exposed to high doses of gadodiamide (median dose of 90 ml and range of 40 to 200 ml). One of the 30 patients subsequently developed NSF, an observed incidence of about 3%.
Other possible risk factors

It is not understood why some patients with severe CKD or AKI develop NSF following exposure to GBCAs and others do not, but a number of possible co-factors have been postulated to play a role. These include metabolic acidosis or medications that predispose patients to acidosis [1,19]; elevated iron, calcium, and/or phosphate levels [19,20]; high-dose erythropoietin therapy [11]; immunosuppression [6]; vasculopathy [21]; and infection [22] or other acute pro-inflammatory events [4,23]. However, none of these have been consistently confirmed as true co-factors. As a result, routine screening for them prior to GBCA administration is not recommended, although such screening may be performed on an optional basis.
Hepatic insufficiency / hepatorenal syndrome

Initially, a number of researchers observed that a disproportionate number of affected patients had concomitant severe liver and renal dysfunction [4,5], prompting the FDA to warn against the use of GBCAs in patients with acute renal insufficiency of any severity due to the hepatorenal syndrome or in the perioperative liver transplantation period [24]. However, most data do not support this conclusion. For example, in one study, a review of the literature found that of 291 NSF patients, 34 (12%) had concomitant liver disease [25]; however, all but one of these patients also had known severe renal insufficiency (eGFR of <30 ml/min/1.73 m2) prior to GBCA administration. Thus, hepatic disease in and of itself, in the absence of AKI or severe CKD, is no longer considered a risk factor for NSF.
Postulated Mechanism
The exact mechanism of NSF causation is unknown. The most widely held hypothesis is that gadolinium ions dissociate from the chelates in GBCAs in patients with significantly degraded renal function due to the
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prolonged clearance times of the GBCAs, as well as to other metabolic factors associated with this level of renal disease. The free gadolinium then binds with an anion such as phosphate, and the resulting insoluble precipitate is deposited in various tissues [9,26]. A fibrotic reaction ensues, involving the activation of circulating fibrocytes [26,27]. This hypothesis is supported by the greater presence of gadolinium in affected tissues of NSF patients relative to unaffected tissues [28]. Nevertheless, the detection of gadolinium in tissues is complicated and is not considered a requirement for diagnosis of NSF. If the propensity for gadolinium to dissociate from various chelates is eventually proved to contribute to, or be primarily responsible for, the development of NSF, it may help explain, at least in part, why the various GBCAs differ in their apparent NSF safety profiles in at-risk patients [29].
Patients at Risk for NSF

Based on the above, the ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media believes that patients receiving any GBCA should be considered at risk of developing NSF if any of the following conditions applies: on dialysis (of any form) severe or end-stage CKD (CKD 4 or 5, eGFR <30 ml/min/1.73 m2) without dialysis eGFR 30 to 40 ml/min/1.73 m2 without dialysis* AKI [30,31] *As further discussed below (see Patients with CKD 3 [eGFR 30 to 59 ml/min/1.73 m2]), patients with eGFR 30 to 40 ml/min/1.73 m2 should also be considered at risk because eGFR levels may fluctuate (e.g., from the 30 to 40 ml/min/1.73 m2 range one day to below <30 ml/min/1.73 m2 on another day).
Identifying Patients at Risk for NSF Prior to Any GBCA Injection

It is important to identify patients at risk of developing NSF, as defined above, prior to any GBCA injection. The method used to identify such patients may differ for outpatients and inpatients.
Identifying At-Risk Outpatients

Regardless of the GBCA employed, outpatients should be screened for conditions and other factors that may be associated with renal function impairment. Simply asking patients if they have a problem with their kidneys is not considered an effective screening tool, as this has been shown to fail to detect many patients with chronic kidney disease, regardless of severity [32]. A more reliable method to identify outpatients who may have renal function impairment is to utilize a panel of questions that includes risk factors for compromised renal function. The following is a suggested list of risk factors that warrants pre-administration eGFR calculation in individuals scheduled to receive any GBCA injection. This list should not be considered comprehensive and represents a blend of published data [33,34] and expert opinion: Age >60 History of renal disease, including: o Dialysis o Kidney transplant o Single kidney o Kidney surgery o History of known cancer involving the kidney(s) History of hypertension requiring medical therapy History of diabetes mellitus
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Many additional factors may have deleterious effects on renal function, including multiple myeloma, systemic lupus erythematosis, urinary tract infection, and some medications (e.g., non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs, diuretics, amino-glycosides, cyclosporine A, amphotericin, and others); however, the ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media currently does not recommend routinely screening for these additional possible risk factors, since the incremental benefit in patient safety from such screening has not been established and is considered to be low by the Committee. Once an outpatient is identified as being at risk for having reduced renal function based on screening, renal function should be assessed by laboratory testing (checking results of prior laboratory tests performed within an acceptable time window and ordering new laboratory tests only if necessary) and calculation of eGFR. However, if the patient is on dialysis, laboratory testing and calculation of eGFR is not useful. For adults, eGFR calculation should be performed using the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) equation. The four-variable MDRD equation takes into account age, race, gender, and serum creatinine level. Commercially available point-of-service devices may facilitate this in an outpatient setting. The updated Schwartz equation should be used for children (also see Chapter on Contrast Media in Children).
MDRD equation:
eGFR (ml/min/1.73 m2) = 175 (serum creatinine in mg/dl)1.154 (age in years)0.203 (0.742 if female) (1.212 if African American)
Updated Schwartz equation:

eGFR (ml/min/1.73 m2) = (0.413 height in cm) / serum creatinine in mg/dl. A number of websites and point of service tools are available which can calculate eGFR values in adults and children.
When eGFR is recommended in Outpatients with Risk Factor(s) for Compromised Renal Function
There is no high-level scientific evidence to guide the time interval prior to GBCA injection with which an eGFR should be obtained in patients identified by screening to have one or more risk factor for compromised renal function. However, based on expert opinion and a need to maintain patient safety while minimizing the costs and burdens associated with additional laboratory testing, the ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media recommends a new eGFR be obtained with the time intervals listed in the Chart below in outpatients who are identified by screening as at increased risk. The following guidelines are suggested: (See next page)
When a new eGFR should be obtained in outpatients with risk factor(s) for compromised renal function Prior eGFR level (ml/min/1.73 m2) None available >60 >60 >60 3059 <30 On dialysis When was the last eGFR before MRI? Not applicable >6 months <6 months (stable state*) <6 months (possibly unstable state**) >2 weeks >1 week Not applicable When should new eGFR be obtained prior to MRI? Within 6 weeks Within 6 weeks New eGFR not needed Within 2 weeks Within 2 weeks Within 1 week New eGFR not needed
* = patient does not have a known condition that might result in acute deterioration of renal function ** = patient has a known condition that might result in acute deterioration of renal function. Such conditions include severe dehydration, febrile illness, sepsis, heart failure, recent hospitalization, advanced liver disease, abdominal surgery
If no risk factors for reduced renal function were identified at screening, new laboratory testing for eGFR does not need to be done.
Identifying At-Risk Inpatients

For all inpatients, eGFR level should be obtained within two days prior to any GBCA administration. In addition, the ordering health professional should assess inpatients for the possibility of AKI, as eGFR calculation alone has limited sensitivity for the detection of AKI.
General Recommendations for Imaging Patients at Risk for NSF

Once a patient at risk for NSF is identified, alternative diagnostic examinations that do not employ a GBCA should be considered. In nonemergent or nonurgent cases if the potential benefits of a GBCAenhanced MRI are felt to outweigh the risk of NSF in an individual patient and there is no suitable alternative, the referring physician and patient should be informed of the risks of GBCA administration, and both should agree with the decision to proceed. In emergent or urgent cases it may not always be possible to inform the patient or referring physician prior to GBCA administration. If the decision is made to administer a GBCA to a patient at increased risk for developing NSF, the supervising radiologist (including the name) should document the reason for the examination and the rationale for use of intravenous GBCA. Group I agents (see Table 1), the GBCAs that have been most often associated with NSF, have been contraindicated by the FDA in these patients [24]. Alternative agents should be used. The lowest possible dose of GBCA required to obtain the needed clinical information should be used, and it should generally not exceed the recommended single dose. (Note: the lowest diagnostic dose has not been thoroughly investigated for many indications and caution should be exercised so as not to administer a dose that is too low to provide the diagnostic information sought from the examination).
Exceptions to the above recommendation may be made at the discretion of the supervising radiologist, such as in the rare instance of an acute, life-threatening condition, and after consultation with the referring health care professional. However, the rationale for the exception must be documented by the supervising radiologist. Precautions such as these have already had a dramatic effect in reducing or even eliminating the number of NSF cases being encountered [35]. It must be remembered that the risks of administering GBCA to a given high-risk patient must always be balanced against the often substantial risks of not performing a needed contrast-enhanced imaging procedure.
Additional Specific Recommendations for Specific Groups of Patients Patients with end-stage renal disease on chronic dialysis
If a contrast-enhanced cross-sectional imaging study is required in an anuric patient with no residual renal function, it would be reasonable to consider administering iodinated contrast media and performing a CT rather than an MRI. If a contrast-enhanced MR examination must be performed in a patient with end-stage renal disease on chronic dialysis, injection of group I agents (see Table 1 at end of Chapter) is contraindicated. Also, use of the lowest possible dose needed to obtain a diagnostic study is recommended and is appropriate. The ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media also recommend that GBCA-enhanced MRI examinations be performed as closely before hemodialysis as is possible, as prompt post-procedural hemodialysis, although unproven to date, may reduce the likelihood that NSF will develop. Because it may be difficult for a dialysis center to alter dialysis schedules at the request of imaging departments, it may be more feasible for elective imaging studies to be timed to precede a scheduled dialysis session. While it is possible that multiple dialysis sessions may be more protective than merely a single session, this possible incremental benefit remains speculative. Some experts recommend several dialysis sessions following GBCA administration, with use of prolonged dialysis times and increased flow rates and volumes to facilitate GBCA clearance. Peritoneal dialysis probably provides less potential NSF risk reduction compared to hemodialysis and should not be considered protective.
Patients with CKD 4 or 5 (eGFR <30 ml/min/1.73 m 2) not on chronic dialysis

The correct course of action in this patient group is problematic, as administration of iodinated contrast media for CT may lead to further deterioration of renal function, while administration of GBCA for MRI could result in NSF. It is recommended that any GBCA be avoided in this patient group. However if GBCA enhanced MRI is deemed essential, use of the lowest possible dose needed to obtain a diagnostic study is recommended (note: for many MRI examinations, the lowest diagnostic dose has not been determined, and care should be taken not to lower the dose below diagnostic levels). Although there is no absolute proof that any GBCA is completely safe in this patient group, group I agents (see Table 1 at end of Chapter) have been contraindicated by the FDA. Further, it may be prudent to avoid readministration of GBCA for several days to a week (with the precise duration of delay balanced with the severity of renal disease and medical urgency in a particular patient).
Patients with CKD 3 (eGFR 30 to 59 ml/min/1.73 m 2)

NSF developing after GBCA administration to patients with eGFR >30 ml/min/1.73 m2 is exceedingly rare. However, eGFR determinations may fluctuate from one day to the next (with an eGFR level just above 30 on one day changing to an eGFR below 30 on another day). It is for this reason that the precautions described above for CKD4 and CKD5 patients are also recommended for inpatients with an eGFR <40 ml min/1.73 m2. In comparison, no special precautions are required in patients with an eGFR of 40 to 59 ml/ min/1.73 m2 [36,37].
Patients with CKD 1 or 2 (eGFR 60 to 119 ml/min/1.73 m 2)

There is no evidence that patients in these groups are at increased risk of developing NSF. Current consensus is that any GBCA can be administered safely to these patients.
Patients with acute kidney injury (AKI)

Patients with AKI who have been exposed to GBCA are at risk for developing NSF [15]. Due to the temporal lag between eGFR (which is calculated using serum creatinine values) and actual glomerular filtration rates, it is not possible to determine whether a given patient has AKI based on a single eGFR determination. Accordingly, caution should be exercised in use of GBCA in patients with known or suspected AKI regardless of measured serum creatinine or calculated eGFR values. GBCA should only be administered to these patients if absolutely necessary. When GBCA administration is required, agents associated with the greatest apparent NSF-associated risk (Group I agents, see Table 1 at end of Chapter) should be avoided.
Children
At this time (August 2011) few pediatric cases of NSF have been reported, and no cases have been reported in children under the age of 6 years. Nevertheless, there is not enough data to demonstrate that NSF is less likely to occur in children than in adults with similarly significant renal disease. Therefore, it is prudent to follow the same guidelines for adult and pediatric patients as described in the remainder of this document. It should be noted, however, that eGFR values in certain premature infants and neonates may be <30 ml/min/1.73 m2 simply due to immature renal function (and not due to pathologic renal impairment). In these individuals, the ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media believes that caution should still be used when administering GBCAs, although an eGFR value <30 ml/min/1.73 m2 should not be considered an absolute contraindication to GBCA administration.
Caveat
Information on NSF and its relationship to GBCA administration is still evolving, and the summary included here represents only the most recent opinions of the ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media (as of January 2012). As additional information becomes available, our understanding of causative events leading to NSF and recommendations for preventing it may change, leading to further revisions of this document.
Table 1
Group I: Agents associated with the greatest number of NSF cases: Gadodiamide (Omniscan GE Healthcare) Gadopentetate dimeglumine (Magnevist Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals) Gadoversetamide (OptiMARK Covidien) Group II: Agents associated with few, if any, unconfounded cases of NSF: Gadobenate dimeglumine (MultiHance Bracco Diagnostics) Gadoteridol (ProHance Bracco Diagnostics) Gadoteric acid (Dotarem Guerbet as of this writing not FDA-approved for use in the U.S.) Gadobutrol (Gadavist Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals) Group III: Agents which have only recently appeared on the market in the US: Gadofosveset (Ablavar Lantheus Medical Imaging) Gadoxetic acid (Eovist Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals) There is limited data for Group III agents, although, to date, few, if any, unconfounded cases of NSF have been reported.
References
1. Grobner T. Gadolinium--a specific trigger for the development of nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006;21:1104-1108. 2. Marckmann P, Skov L, Rossen K, et al. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: suspected causative role of gadodiamide used for contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:2359-2362. 3. Broome DR, Girguis MS, Baron PW, Cottrell AC, Kjellin I, Kirk GA. Gadodiamide-associated nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: why radiologists should be concerned. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007;188:586-592. 4. Sadowski EA, Bennett LK, Chan MR, et al. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: risk factors and incidence estimation. Radiology 2007;243:148-157. 5. Shabana WM, Cohan RH, Ellis JH, et al. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: a report of 29 cases. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008;190:736-741. 6. Wertman R, Altun E, Martin DR, et al. Risk of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: evaluation of gadolinium chelate contrast agents at four American universities. Radiology 2008;248:799-806. 7. Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents & Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis FDA Briefing Document. Joint Meeting of the Cardiovascular and Renal Drugs and Drug Safety and Risk Management Advisory Committee [http://www.fda.gov/downloads/ Advisory Committees/CommitteesMeetingMaterials/Drugs/DrugSafetyandRiskManagementAdvisoryCommittee/UCM190850. pdf. Accessed Sept. 20, 2011. 8. European Medicines Agency. Questions and answers on the review of gadolinium-containing contrast agents. Doc. Ref. EMEA/727399/2009 rev. EMEA/H/A-31/1097 [http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Referrals_document/ gadolinium_31/WC500015635.pdf 9. Collidge TA, Thomson PC, Mark PB, et al. Gadolinium-enhanced MR imaging and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: retrospective study of a renal replacement therapy cohort. Radiology 2007;245:168-175. 10. Shibui K, Kataoka H, Sato N, Watanabe Y, Kohara M, Mochizuki T. A case of NSF attributable to conrast MRI repeated in a patient witrh Stage 3 CKD at a renal function of eGFR > 30 ml/min/1.73 m2. Japanese Journal of Nephrology 2009; 51:676. 11. Abu-Alfa AK. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis and gadolinium-based contrast agents. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2011;18:188-198. 12. Prince MR, Zhang H, Morris M, et al. Incidence of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis at two large medical centers. Radiology 2008;248:807-816. 13. Kalb RE, Helm TN, Sperry H, Thakral C, Abraham JL, Kanal E. Gadolinium-induced nephrogenic systemic fibrosis in a patient with an acute and transient kidney injury. Br J Dermatol 2008;158:607-610. 14. Pryor JG, Scott GA. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: a clinicopathologic study of 6 cases. J Am Acad Dermatol 2007;57:902-903. 15. Wahba IM, Simpson EL, White K. Gadolinium is not the only trigger for nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: insights from two cases and review of the recent literature. Am J Transplant 2007;7:2425-2432. 16. Weiss AS, Lucia MS, Teitelbaum I. A case of nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy/nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2007;3:111-115.
17. Kallen AJ, Jhung MA, Cheng S, et al. Gadolinium-containing magnetic resonance imaging contrast and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: a case-control study. Am J Kidney Dis 2008;51:966-975. 18. Bridges MD, St Amant BS, McNeil RB, Cernigliaro JG, Dwyer JP, Fitzpatrick PM. High-dose gadodiamide for catheter angiography and CT in patients with varying degrees of renal insufficiency: Prevalence of subsequent nephrogenic systemic fibrosis and decline in renal function. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2009;192:1538-1543. 19. Peak AS, Sheller A. Risk factors for developing gadolinium-induced nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Ann Pharmacother 2007;41:1481-1485. 20. High WA, Ayers RA, Chandler J, Zito G, Cowper SE. Gadolinium is detectable within the tissue of patients with nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2007;56:21-26. 21. Swartz RD, Crofford LJ, Phan SH, Ike RW, Su LD. Nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy: a novel cutaneous fibrosing disorder in patients with renal failure. Am J Med 2003;114:563-572. 22. Golding LP, Provenzale JM. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: possible association with a predisposing infection. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 190:1069-1075. 23. Wiginton CD, Kelly B, Oto A, et al. Gadolinium-based contrast exposure, nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, and gadolinium detection in tissue. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008;190:1060-1068. 24. US Food and Drug Administration. Information for healthcare professionals: Gadolinium-based contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging (marketed as Magnevist, MultiHance, Omniscan, OptiMARK, ProHance). http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/ DrugSafety/ PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm142884.htm. Accessed Sept. 20, 2011. 25. Mazhar SM, Shiehmorteza M, Kohl CA, Allen J, Middleton MS, Sirlin CB. Is chronic liver disease an independent risk factor for nephrogenic systemic fibrosis? A comprehensive literature review. Paper presented at: 16th Annual Meeting of the International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine (ISMRM); May 3-9, 2009; Toronto, Canada. 26. Abraham JL, Thakral C, Skov L, Rossen K, Marckmann P. Dermal inorganic gadolinium concentrations: evidence for in vivo transmetallation and long-term persistence in nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Br J Dermatol 2008;158:273-280. 27. Rosenkranz AR, Grobner T, Mayer GJ. Conventional or Gadolinium containing contrast media: the choice between acute renal failure or Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis? Wien Klin Wochenschr 2007;119:271-275. 28. Christensen K, Lee CU, Hanley M, et al. Quantification of gadolinium in fresh skin and serum samples from patients with nephrogenci systemic fibrosis. Paper presented at: 2009 Annual Meeting of the Radiological Society of North America (RSNA); Dec. 1, 2009; Chicago, IL. 29. Rofsky NM, Sherry AD, Lenkinski RE. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: a chemical perspective. Radiology 2008; 247:608-612. 30. Kanal E, Barkovich AJ, Bell C, et al. ACR guidance document for safe MR practices: 2007. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007;188:1447-1474. 31. Kuo PH, Kanal E, Abu-Alfa AK, Cowper SE. Gadolinium-based MR contrast agents and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Radiology 2007;242:647-649. 32. Coresh J, Byrd-Holt D, Astor BC, et al. Chronic kidney disease awareness, prevalence, and trends among U.S. adults, 1999 to 2000. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005; 16:180-188. 33. Choyke PL, Cady J, DePollar SL, Austin H. Determination of serum creatinine prior to iodinated contrast media: is it necessary in all patients? Tech Urol 1998; 4:65-69. 34. Tippins RB, Torres WE, Baumgartner BR, Baumgarten DA. Are screening serum creatinine levels necessary prior to outpatient CT examinations? Radiology 2000; 216:481-484. 35. Altun E, Martin DR, Wertman R, Lugo-Somolinos A, Fuller ER, 3rd, Semelka RC. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: change in incidence following a switch in gadolinium agents and adoption of a gadolinium policy report from two U.S. universities. Radiology 2009;253:689-696. 36. Poggio ED, Nef PC, Wang X, et al. Performance of the Cockcroft-Gault and modification of diet in renal disease equations in estimating GFR in ill hospitalized patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2005;46:242-252. 37. Skluzacek PA, Szewc RG, Nolan CR, 3rd, Riley DJ, Lee S, Pergola PE. Prediction of GFR in liver transplant candidates. Am J Kidney Dis 2003;42:1169-1176.
Treatment of Contrast Reactions

Optimal treatment of contrast media reactions starts with a well-designed plan of action and a properly trained staff. In addition to basic cardiac life support and/or advanced life support, on-site personnel should be trained in the rapid recognition, assessment, and diagnosis of contrast reactions as well as treatment strategies. In evaluating a patient for a potential contrast reaction, five important immediate assessments should be made: How does the patient look? Can the patient speak? How does the patients voice sound? How is the patients breathing? What is the patients pulse strength and rate? What is the patients blood pressure? The level of consciousness, the appearance of the skin, quality of phonation, lung auscultation, blood pressure and heart rate assessment will allow the responding physician to quickly determine the severity of a reaction. These findings also allow for the proper diagnosis of the reaction including urticaria, facial or laryngeal edema, bronchospasm, hemodynamic instability, vagal reaction, seizures, and pulmonary edema. Once identified, effective treatment can be rapidly and effectively administered (see Tables 4 and 5). Staff should be aware of how to activate the emergency system to elevate the level of care if needed in extreme cases; for example, calling 911 for emergency medical personnel assistance in an outpatient medical center setting. Facilities should be equipped with basic emergency equipment and medications needed to treat allergic reactions. This includes, but is not limited to, equipment needed to assess a patient such as stethoscope, blood pressure/pulse monitor, and a pulse oximeter, as well as medications and equipment needed to treat a patient, such as sterile saline for intravenous injection, diphenhydramine, beta agonist inhaler (e.g., albuterol), epinephrine, atropine, oxygen, intubation equipment, and a cardiac defibrillator (see Table 6). A periodic monitoring program to ensure equipment functionality and medication shelf life is recommended. Ongoing quality assurance and quality improvement programs with in-service training and review sessions are very helpful in ensuring that responses to contrast reactions are prompt and appropriate. These would include training of onsite health care providers in cardiopulmonary resuscitation techniques, including basic life support or advanced cardiac life support whenever possible.
References
1. Barach EM, Nowak RM, Lee TG, Tomlanovich MC. Epinephrine for treatment of anaphylactic shock. JAMA 1984; 251:2118-2122. 2. Bennett MJ, Hirshman CA. Epinephrine for anaphylactic shock. JAMA 1985; 253:510-511. 3. Berg RA, et al. Part 5: adult basic life support: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardio-pulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation 2010; 22:15):S685-S705. 4. Braddom RL, Rocco JF. Autonomic dysreflexia. A survey of current treatment. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1991; 70:234-241. 5. Brown JH. Atropine, scopolamine, and antimuscarinic drugs. In: Gilman AG, Rall TW, Nies AS, et al, ed. The pharmaceutical basis of therapeutics. New York, NY: Pergamon; 1990:150-165. 6. Bush WH, Swanson DP. Acute reactions to intravascular contrast media: types, risk factors, recognition, and specific treatment. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1991;157:1153-1161. 7. Bush WH. Treatment of acute contrast reactions. In: Bush WH, King B, Krecke K, ed. Radiology Life Support (RAD-LS). London: Hodder Arnold Publishers; 1999. 8. Chamberlain DA, Turner P, Sneddon JM. Effects of atropine on heart-rate in healthy man. Lancet 1967; 2:12-15. 9. Cohan RH, Leder RA, Ellis JH. Treatment of adverse reactions to radiographic contrast media in adults. Radiol Clin North Am 1996; 34:1055-1076. 10. Collins MS, Hunt CH, Hartman RP. Use of IV epinephrine for treatment of patients with contrast reactions: lessons learned from a 5-year experience. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2009;192:455-461.
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11. Field JM, Hazinski MF, Sayre MR, et al. Part 1: executive summary: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation 2010;122:S640-S656. 12. Grauer K, Cavallaro D. ACLS: certification preparation and a comprehensive review. Vol I and II. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby; 1993. 13. Guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiac care. Emergency Cardiac Care Committee and Subcommittees, American Heart Association. Part III. Adult advanced cardiac life support. JAMA 1992; 268:2199-2241. 14. Hoffmann BB, Lefkowitz RJ. Catecholamines and sympathomimetic drugs. In: Gilman AG, Rall TW, Nies AS, et al, ed. The pharmacological basis of therapeutics. New York, NY: Pergamon; 1990:192-198. 15. McClennan BL. Adverse reactions to iodinated contrast media. Recognition and response. Invest Radiol 1994; 29 Suppl 1:S46-50. 16. Neumar RW, Otto CW, Link MS, et al. Part 8: adult advanced cardiovascular life support: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardio-pulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation 2010;122:S729-S767. 17. Runge JW, Martinez JC, Caravati EM, Williamson SG, Hartsell SC. Histamine antagonists in the treatment of acute allergic reactions. Ann Emerg Med 1992; 21:237-242. 18. Segal AJ, Bush WH, Jr. Avoidable errors in dealing with anaphylactoid reactions to iodinated contrast media. Invest Radiol 2011; 46:147-151. 19. Swanson DP, Chilton HM, Thrall JH, ed. Pharmaceuticals in medical imaging. New York, NY: Macmillan; 1990. 20. Travers AH, Rea TD, Bobrow BJ, et al. Part 4: CPR overview: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation 2010;122:S676-S684. 21. vanSonnenberg E, Neff CC, Pfister RC. Life-threatening hypotensive reactions to contrast media administration: comparison of pharmacologic and fluid therapy. Radiology 1987; 162:15-19.
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Administration of Contrast Media to Pregnant or Potentially Pregnant Patients

Studies of low-molecular weight water-soluble extracellular substances such as iodinated diagnostic and gadolinium-based magnetic resonance (MR) contrast media in pregnancy have been limited, and their effects on the human embryo or fetus are incompletely understood. Iodinated diagnostic contrast media have been shown to cross the human placenta and enter the fetus in measurable quantities [1,2]. A standard gadolinium-based MR contrast medium has been shown to cross the placenta in primates and appear within the fetal bladder within 11 minutes after intravenous administration [3]. It must be assumed that all iodinated and gadolinium-based contrast media behave in a similar fashion and cross the blood-placental barrier into the fetus. After entering the fetal blood stream, these agents will be excreted via the urine into the amniotic fluid and be subsequently swallowed by the fetus [4]. It is then possible that a small amount will be absorbed from the gut of the fetus and the rest eliminated back into the amniotic fluid, the entire cycle being repeated innumerable times. In the study in primates, placental enhancement could be detected up to 2 hours following the intravenous (IV) administration of gadopentetate dimeglumine. When gadopentetate dimeglumine was injected directly into the amniotic cavity, it was still conspicuous at 1 hour after administration [3]. There are no data available to assess the rate of clearance of contrast media from the amniotic fluid.
Iodinated X-Ray Contrast Media (Ionic and Nonionic)

Diagnostic iodinated contrast media have been shown to cross the human placenta and enter the fetus when given in usual clinical doses. In-vivo tests in animals have shown no evidence of either mutagenic or teratogenic effects with low-osmolality contrast media (LOCM). No adequate and well-controlled teratogenic studies of the effects of these media in pregnant women have been performed. In conjunction with the existing ACR policy for the use of ionizing radiation in pregnant women, we recommend that all imaging facilities should have polices and procedures to attempt to identify pregnant patients prior to the performance of any examination involving ionizing radiation to determine the medical necessity for the administration of iodinated contrast media. If a patient is known to be pregnant, both the potential radiation risk and the potential added risks of contrast media should be considered before proceeding with the study. While it is not possible to conclude that iodinated contrast media present a definite risk to the fetus, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that they pose no risk. Consequently, the Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media recommends the following: A. The radiologist should confer with the referring physician and document in the radiology report or the patients medical record the following: 1. That the information requested cannot be acquired without contrast administration or via another image modality (e.g., ultrasonography). 2. That the information needed affects the care of the patient and fetus during the pregnancy. 3. That the referring physician is of the opinion that it is not prudent to wait to obtain this information until after the patient is no longer pregnant.
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B. It is recommended that pregnant patients undergoing a diagnostic imaging exam-ination with ionizing radiation and iodinated contrast media provide informed consent to document that they understand the risk and benefits of the procedure to be performed and the alternative diagnostic options available to them (if any), and that they wish to proceed.
Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents

It is known that gadolinium-based MR contrast media cross the human placenta and into the fetus when given in clinical dose ranges. No adequate and well-controlled teratogenic studies of the effects of these media in pregnant women have been performed. A single cohort study of 26 women exposed to gadolinium chelates during the first trimester of pregnancy showed no evidence of teratogenesis or mutagenesis in their progeny. Gadolinium chelates may accumulate in the amniotic fluid and remain there for an indefinite period of time, with potential dissociation of the toxic free gadolinium ion from the chelate; the significance of this exposure to the fetus is uncertain, and its potential association with nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) in the child or mother is unknown. Therefore, gadolinium chelates should not be routinely used in pregnant patients. The ACR Guidance Document for Safe MR Practices [2] also covers use of MR contrast media in pregnant patients, and its recommendations are consistent with those in this Manual. See also the preceding Chapter on NSF. Because it is unclear how gadolinium-based contrast agents will affect the fetus, these agents should be administered only with extreme caution. Each case should be reviewed carefully and gadolinium-based contrast agent administered only when there is a potential overwhelming benefit to the patient or fetus that outweighs the possible risk of exposure of the fetus to free gadolinium ions. The radiologist should confer with the referring physician and document the following in the radiology report or the patients medical record: 1. That information requested from the MR study cannot be acquired without the use of IV contrast or by using other imaging modalities. 2. That the information needed affects the care of the patient and fetus during the pregnancy. 3. That the referring physician is of the opinion that it is not prudent to wait to obtain this information until after the patient is no longer pregnant. It is recommended that the pregnant patient undergoing an MR examination provide informed consent to document that she understands the risk and benefits of the MR procedure to be performed, and the alternative diagnostic options available to her (if any), and that she wishes to proceed.
References
1. Dean PB. Fetal uptake of an intravascular radiologic contrast medium. Rofo 1977; 127:267-270. 2. Kanal E, Barkovich AJ, Bell C, et al. ACR guidance document for safe MR practices: 2007. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 188:1447-1474. 3. Moon AJ, Katzberg RW, Sherman MP. Transplacental passage of iohexol. J Pediatr 2000; 136:548-549. 4. Panigel M, Wolf G, Zeleznick A. Magnetic resonance imaging of the placenta in rhesus monkeys, Macaca mulatta. J Med Primatol 1988; 17:3-18.
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5. De Santis M, Straface G, Cavaliere AF, Carducci B, Caruso A. Gadolinium periconceptional exposure: pregnancy and neonatal outcome. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2007; 86:99-101. 6. Donandieu AM, Idee JM, Doucet D, et al. Toxicologic profile of iobitridol, a new nonionic low-osmolality contrast medium. Acta Radiol Suppl 1996; 400:17-24. 7. Etling N, Gehin-Fouque F, Vielh JP, Gautray JP. The iodine content of amniotic fluid and placental transfer of iodinated drugs. Obstet Gynecol 1979; 53:376-380. 8. Heglund IF, Michelet AA, Blazak WF, Furuhama K, Holtz E. Preclinical pharmacokinetics and general toxicology of iodixanol. Acta Radiol Suppl 1995; 399:69-82. 9. Kelleher J, Feczko PJ, Radkowski MA, Griscom NT. Neonatal intestinal opacification secondary to transplacental passage of urographic contrast medium. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1979; 132:63-65. 10. Morisetti A, Tirone P, Luzzani F, de Haen C. Toxicological safety assessment of iomeprol, a new X-ray contrast agent. Eur J Radiol 1994; 18 Suppl 1:S21-31. 11. Webb JA, Thomsen HS, Morcos SK. The use of iodinated and gadolinium contrast media during pregnancy and lactation. Eur Radiol 2005; 15:1234-1240.
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Administration of Contrast Media to Breast-Feeding Mothers

Administration of either an iodinated or a gadolinium-based contrast media occasionally is indicated for an imaging study on a woman who is breast-feeding. Both the patient and the patients physician may have concerns regarding potential toxicity to the infant from contrast media that is excreted into the breast milk. The literature on the excretion into breast milk of iodinated and gadolinium-based contrast media and the gastrointestinal absorption of these agents from breast milk is very limited; however, several studies have shown that 1) less than 1% of the administered maternal dose of contrast medium is excreted into breast milk; and 2) less than 1% of the contrast medium in breast milk ingested by an infant is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, the expected dose of contrast medium absorbed by an infant from ingested breast milk is extremely low.
Iodinated X-ray Contrast Media (Ionic and Nonionic)

Background
The plasma half-life of intravenously administered iodinated contrast medium is approximately 2 hours, with nearly 100% of the media cleared from the bloodstream within 24 hours. Because of its low lipid solubility, less than 1% of the administered maternal dose of iodinated contrast medium is excreted into the breast milk in the first 24 hours [1,2]. Because less than 1% of the contrast medium ingested by the infant is absorbed from its gastrointestinal tract [3], the expected dose absorbed by the infant from the breast milk is less than 0.01% of the intravascular dose given to the mother. This amount represents less than 1% of the recommended dose for an infant undergoing an imaging study, which is 2 ml/kg. The potential risks to the infant include direct toxicity and allergic sensitization or reaction, which are theoretical concerns but have not been reported.
Recommendation
Mothers who are breast-feeding should be given the opportunity to make an informed decision as to whether to continue or temporarily abstain from breast-feeding after receiving intravascularly administered iodinated contrast media. Because of the very small percentage of iodinated contrast medium that is excreted into the breast milk and absorbed by the infants gut, we believe that the available data suggest that it is safe for the mother and infant to continue breast-feeding after receiving such an agent. If the mother remains concerned about any potential ill effects to the infant, she may abstain from breast-feeding for 24 hours with active expression and discarding of breast milk from both breasts during that period. In anticipation of this, she may wish to use a breast pump to obtain milk before the contrast study to feed the infant during the 24-hour period following the examination.
Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents

Background
Gadolinium compounds are safe and useful as magnetic resonance imaging contrast media. Although free gadolinium is neurotoxic, when complexed to one of a variety of chelates it is safe for use in most adults and children. These hydrophilic gadolinium chelate agents have pharmacokinetic properties very similar to those of iodinated X-ray contrast media. Like iodinated contrast media, gadolinium contrast media have a plasma half-life of approximately 2 hours and are nearly completely cleared from the bloodstream within 24 hours.
Constrast Medium to Breast-Feeding Mothers / 79
Less than 0.04% of the intravascular dose given to the mother is excreted into the breast milk in the first 24 hours [4-6]. Because less than 1% of the contrast medium ingested by the infant is absorbed from its gastrointestinal tract [7], the expected dose absorbed by the infant from the breast milk is less than 0.0004% of the intravascular dose given to the mother. Even in the extreme circumstance of a mother weighing 150 kg and receiving a dose of 0.2 mmol/kg, the absolute amount of gadolinium excreted in the breast milk in the first 24-hours after administration would be no more than 0.012 mmol. Thus, the dose of gadolinium absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract of a breast-feeding infant weighing 1,500 grams or more would be no more than 0.00008 mmol/kg, or 0.04% (four ten-thousandths) of the permitted adult or pediatric (2 years of age or older) intravenous dose of 0.2 mmol/kg. The potential risks to the infant include direct toxicity (including toxicity from free gadolinium, because it is unknown how much, if any, of the gadolinium in breast milk is in the unchelated form) and allergic sensitization or reaction, which are theoretical concerns but have not been reported.
Recommendation
Review of the literature shows no evidence to suggest that oral ingestion by an infant of the tiny amount of gadolinium contrast medium excreted into breast milk would cause toxic effects [8]. We believe, therefore, that the available data suggest that it is safe for the mother and infant to continue breast-feeding after receiving such an agent. If the mother remains concerned about any potential ill effects, she should be given the opportunity to make an informed decision as to whether to continue or temporarily abstain from breast-feeding after receiving a gadolinium contrast medium. If the mother so desires, she may abstain from breast-feeding for 24 hours with active expression and discarding of breast milk from both breasts during that period. In anticipation of this, she may wish to use a breast pump to obtain milk before the contrast study to feed the infant during the 24-hour period following the examination.
References
1. Ilett KF, Hackett LP, Paterson JW, McCormick CC. Excretion of metrizamide in milk. Br J Radiol 1981; 54:537-538. 2. Johansen JG. Assessment of a non-ionic contrast medium (Amipaque) in the gastrointestinal tract. Invest Radiol 1978; 13:523527. 3. Kubik-Huch RA, Gottstein-Aalame NM, Frenzel T, et al. Gadopentetate dimeglumine excretion into human breast milk during lactation. Radiology 2000; 216:555-558. 4. Nielsen ST, Matheson I, Rasmussen JN, Skinnemoen K, Andrew E, Hafsahl G. Excretion of iohexol and metrizoate in human breast milk. Acta Radiol 1987; 28:523-526. 5. Rofsky NM, Weinreb JC, Litt AW. Quantitative analysis of gadopentetate dimeglumine excreted in breast milk. J Magn Reson Imaging 1993; 3:131-132. 6. Schmiedl U, Maravilla KR, Gerlach R, Dowling CA. Excretion of gadopentetate dimeglumine in human breast milk. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1990; 154:1305-1306. 7. Weinmann HJ, Brasch RC, Press WR, Wesbey GE. Characteristics of gadolinium-DTPA complex: a potential NMR contrast agent. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1984; 142:619-624. 8. Hylton NM. Suspension of breast-feeding following gadopentetate dimeglumine administration. Radiology 2000; 216:325-326.
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Table 1: Indications for use of iodinated contrast media

Intravascular Intravenous Computed tomography Digital subtraction angiography Intravenous urography Venography (phlebography) Inferior vena cava and its tributaries Superior vena cava and its tributaries Extremities Other venous sites Epidural venography Intra-arterial Angiocardiography Computed tomography Coronary and pulmonary angiography Aortography Visceral and peripheral arteriography Digital subtraction angiography Central nervous system Cerebral, vertebral, and spinal angiography Intrathecal (Use U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved contrast media only) Myelography (myelographic nonionic only) Cysternography (myelographic nonionic only) Other Oral, rectal, or ostomy gastrointestinal tract Conventional fluoroscopy Computed tomography Therapeutic uses Body cavity use Herniography Peritoneography Vaginography Hysterosalpingography Arthrography Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography Cholangiography Nephrostography Pyelography antegrade, retrograde Urethrography voiding, retrograde Cystography Sialography Ductography (breast) Miscellaneous Sinus tract injection Cavity delineation (including urinary diversions, such as loop and pouch) Catheter localization studies
Table 1 / 81
Table 2: Organ and system-specific adverse effects from the administration of iodine-based or gadolinium-based contrast agents
Individual organs can manifest isolated adverse effects caused by the administration of contrast media. Adrenal Glands Hypertension (in patients with pheochromocytoma after intra-arterial injection) Brain Headache Confusion Dizziness Seizure Rigors Lost or diminished consciousness Lost or diminished vision Gastrointestinal Tract Nausea Vomiting Diarrhea Intestinal cramping Heart Hypotension Dysrhythmia (asystole, ventricular fibrillation/ventricular tachycardia) Pulseless electrical activity (PEA) Acute congestive heart failure Kidney Oliguria Hypertension Contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN) Pancreas Swelling / pancreatitis Respiratory System Laryngeal edema Bronchospasm Pulmonary edema Salivary Glands Swelling/parotitis Skin and Soft Tissues Pain Edema Flushing Erythema Urticaria Pruritus Compartment syndrome (from extravasation) Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis (NSF) Thyroid Exacerbation of thyrotoxicosis Vascular System Hemorrhage (due to direct vascular trauma from contrast injection or from the reduction in clotting ability) Thrombophlebitis
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Table 3: Categories of reactions

Classification of severity and manifestations of adverse reactions to contrast media Mild Signs and symptoms appear self-limited without evidence of progression (e.g., limited urticaria with mild pruritis, transient nausea, one episode of emesis) and include: Nausea, vomiting Cough Warmth Headache Dizziness Shaking Altered taste Itching Pallor Flushing Chills Sweats Rash, hives Nasal stuffiness Swelling: eyes, face Anxiety
Treatment: Requires observation to confirm resolution and/or lack of progression but usually no treatment. Patient reassurance is usually helpful. Moderate Signs and symptoms are more pronounced. Moderate degree of clinically evident focal or systemic signs or symptoms, including: Tachycardia/bradycardia Hypertension Generalized or diffuse erythema Dyspnea Bronchospasm, wheezing Laryngeal edema Mild hypotension
Treatment: Clinical findings in moderate reactions frequently require prompt treatment. These situations require close, careful observation for possible progression to a life-threatening event. Severe Signs and symptoms are often life-threatening, including: Laryngeal edema (severe or rapidly progressing) Unresponsiveness Cardiopulmonary arrest Convulsions Profound hypotension Clinically manifest arrhythmias
Treatment: Requires prompt recognition and aggressive treatment; manifestations and treatment frequently require hospitalization.
Note: The above classifications (mild, moderate, severe) do not attempt to distinguish between allergic-like and non-allergiclike reactions. Rather, they encompass the spectrum of adverse events that can be seen following the intravascular injection of contrast media.
Table 3 / 83
Table 4: Management of acute reactions in children

Urticaria 1. No treatment needed in most cases. 2. For moderate itching, consider H1-receptor blocker: diphenhydramine (Benadryl) PO/IM or slow IV push 12 mg/kg, up to 50 mg. 3. If severe itching or widely disseminated, consider alpha agonist: epinephrine IV (1:10,000) 0.1 mL/kg slow push over 25 minutes, up to 3 mL. Facial Edema 1. Secure airway and give O2 610 liters/min (via mask, face tent, or blow-by stream). Monitor: electrocardiogram, O2 saturation (pulse oximeter), and blood pressure. 2. Give alpha-agonist: epinephrine IV (1:10,000) 0.1 mL/kg slow push over 25 minutes, up to 3 mL/dose. Repeat in 530 minutes as needed. 3. Consider H1-receptor blocker: diphenhydramine (Benadryl) IM or slow IV push 12 mg/kg, up to 50 mg. 4. Note, if facial edema is mild and there is no reaction progression, observation alone may be appropriate. If not responsive to therapy, call for assistance (e.g., cardiopulmonary arrest response team, call 911, etc.). Bronchospasm 1. Secure airway and give O2 610 liters/min (via mask, face tent, or blow-by stream). Monitor: electrocardiogram, O2 saturation (pulse oximeter), and blood pressure. 2. Give inhaled beta-agonist (bronchiolar dilator, such as albuterol [Proventil or Ventolin]), 23 puffs from metered dose inhaler. Repeat as necessary. 3. If bronchospasm progresses, give epinephrine (1:10,000) IV 0.1 mL/kg slow push over 2 to 5 minutes, maximum 3 mL/dose. Repeat in 530 minutes as needed. If not responsive to therapy, call for assistance (e.g., cardiopulmonary arrest response team, call 911, etc.) for severe bronchospasm or if O2 saturation <88% persists. Laryngeal Edema 1. Secure airway and give O2 610 liters/min (via mask, face tent, or blow-by stream). Monitor: electrocardiogram, O2 saturation (pulse oximeter), and blood pressure. 2. Give epinephrine (1:10,000) IV 0.1 mL/kg slow push over 25 minutes, maximum 3 mL/dose. Repeat in 530 minutes as needed. If not promptly responsive to initial therapy, call for assistance (e.g., cardiopulmonary arrest response team, call 911, etc.). Pulmonary Edema 1. Secure airway and give O2 610 liters/min (via mask, face tent, or blow-by stream). Monitor: electrocardiogram, O2 saturation (pulse oximeter), and blood pressure. 2. Give diuretic: furosemide (Lasix) IV 12 mg/kg. If not responsive to therapy, call for assistance (e.g., cardiopulmonary arrest response team, call 911, etc.).
84 / Table 4
Hypotension with Tachycardia (Anaphylactic Shock) 1. Secure airway and give O2 610 liters/min (via mask). Monitor: electrocardiogram, O2 saturation (pulse oximeter), and blood pressure. 2. Legs elevated 60 or more (preferred) or Trendelenburg position. 3. Keep patient warm. 4. Give rapid infusion of IV or IO normal saline or Ringers lactate. 5. If severe, give alpha-agonist: epinephrine IV (1:10,000) 0.1 mL/kg slow push over 25 minutes, up to 3 mL/ dose. Repeat in 530 minutes as needed. If not responsive to therapy, call for assistance (e.g., cardiopulmonary arrest response team, call 911, etc.). Hypotension with Bradycardia (Vagal Reaction) 1. Secure airway and give O2 610 liters/min (via mask). Monitor: electrocardiogram, O2 saturation (pulse oximeter), and blood pressure. 2. Legs elevated 60 or more (preferred) or Trendelenburg position. 3. Keep patient warm. 4. Give rapid infusion of IV or IO normal saline or Ringers lactate. Caution should be used to avoid hypervolemia in children with myocardial dysfunction. 5. Give atropine IV 0.02 mg/kg if patient does not respond quickly to steps 2, 3, and 4. Minimum initial dose of 0.1 mg. Maximum initial dose of 0.5 mg (infant/child), 1.0 mg (adolescent). May repeat every 35 minutes up to maximum dose up to 1.0 mg (infant/child), 2.0 mg (adolescent). If not responsive to therapy, call for assistance (e.g., cardiopulmonary arrest response team, call 911, etc.). Abbreviations: IM = intramuscular IO = intraosseous IV = intravenous PO = orally
Table 4 / 85
Table 5: Management of acute reactions in adults

Urticaria 1. Discontinue injection if not completed 2. No treatment needed in most cases 3. Give H1-receptor blocker: diphenhydramine (Benadryl) PO/IM/IV 2550 mg. If severe or widely disseminated: give alpha-agonist (arteriolar and venous constriction): epinephrine SC (1:1,000) 0.10.3 ml (= 0.10.3 mg) (if no cardiac contraindications). Facial or Laryngeal Edema 1. Give O2 610 liters/min (via mask). 2. Give alpha agonist (arteriolar and venous constriction): epinephrine SC or IM (1:1,000) 0.10.3 ml (= 0.10.3 mg) or, especially if hypotension evident, epinephrine (1:10,000) slowly IV 3 ml (= 0.10.3 mg). Repeat as needed up to a maximum of 1 mg. If not responsive to therapy or if there is obvious acute laryngeal edema, seek appropriate assistance (e.g., cardiopulmonary arrest response team). Bronchospasm 1. Give O2 610 liters/min (via mask). Monitor: electrocardiogram, O2 saturation (pulse oximeter), and blood pressure. 2. Give beta-agonist inhalers (bronchiolar dilators, such as metaproterenol [Alupent], terbutaline [Brethaire], or albuterol [Proventil or Ventolin]) 2 to 3 puffs; repeat as necessary. If unresponsive to inhalers, use SC, IM, or IV epinephrine. 3. Give epinephrine SC or IM (1:1,000) 0.10.3 ml (= 0.10.3 mg) or, especially if hypotension evident, epinephrine (1:10,000) slowly IV 13 ml (= 0.10.3 mg). Repeat as needed up to a maximum of 1 mg. Call for assistance (e.g., cardiopulmonary arrest response team) for severe bronchospasm or if O2 saturation <88% persists. Hypotension with Tachycardia 1. Legs elevated 60o or more (preferred) or Trendelenburg position. 2. Monitor: electrocardiogram, pulse oximeter, blood pressure. 3. Give O2 610 liters/min (via mask). 4. Rapid intravenous administration of large volumes of Ringers lactate or normal saline. If poorly responsive: epinephrine (1:10,000) slowly IV 1 ml (= 0.1 mg) Repeat as needed up to a maximum of 1 mg If still poorly responsive seek appropriate assistance (e.g., cardiopulmonary arrest response team).
86 / Table 5
Hypotension with Bradycardia (Vagal Reaction) 1 Secure airway: give O2 610 liters/min (via mask) 2. Monitor vital signs. 3. Legs elevated 60o or more (preferred) or Trendelenburg position. 4. Secure IV access: rapid administration of Ringers lactate or normal saline. 5. Give atropine 0.61 mg IV slowly if patient does not respond quickly to steps 24. 6. Repeat atropine up to a total dose of 0.04 mg/kg (23 mg) in adult. 7. Ensure complete resolution of hypotension and bradycardia prior to discharge. Hypertension, Severe 1. Give O2 610 liters/min (via mask). 2. Monitor electrocardiogram, pulse oximeter, blood pressure. 3. Give nitroglycerine 0.4-mg tablet, sublingual (may repeat 3); or, topical 2% ointment, apply 1-inch strip. 4. If no response, consider labetalol 20 mg IV, then 20 to 80 mg IV every 10 minutes up to 300 mg. 5. Transfer to intensive care unit or emergency department. 6. For pheochromocytoma: phentolamine 5 mg IV (may use labetalol if phentolamine is not available). Seizures or Convulsions 1. Give O2 610 liters/min (via mask). 2. Consider diazepam (Valium) 5 mg IV (or more, as appropriate) or midazolam (Versed) 0.5 to 1 mg IV. 3. If longer effect needed, obtain consultation; consider phenytoin (Dilantin) infusion 1518 mg/kg at 50 mg/min. 4. Careful monitoring of vital signs required, particularly of pO2 because of risk to respiratory depression with benzodiazepine administration. 5. Consider using cardiopulmonary arrest response team for intubation if needed. Pulmonary Edema 1. Give O2 610 liters/min (via mask). 2. Elevate torso. 3. Give diuretics: furosemide (Lasix) 2040 mg IV, slow push. 4. Consider giving morphine (13 mg IV). 5. Transfer to intensive care unit or emergency department. Abbreviations: IM = intramuscular IV = intravenous SC = subcutaneous PO = orally
Table 5 / 87
Table 6: Equipment for emergency carts*

The contact number of the cardiopulmonary arrest response team phone should be clearly posted. Oxygen cylinders, flow valve, nasal prongs, tubing, partial non-rebreather oxygen masks** (adult and pediatric sizes). Suction: wall-mounted or portable; tubing and catheters. Oral airways: rubber/plastic; and/or protective breathing barriers. Ambu-type bag valve mask and mouth mask (adult and pediatric sizes) with protective barrier. Endotracheal tubes: laryngoscopes (adult and pediatric sizes). Stethoscope; sphygmomanometer, tourniquets, tongue depressor. Intravenous solutions and tubing. Normal saline, Ringers lactate. Syringes: variety of sizes. Needles: variety of sizes, including cardiac needle. Tracheostomy set, cut-down trays with sterile instruments. Necessary drugs and medication. The following items should be on the emergency cart or immediately available: Defibrillator. Electrocardiogram. Blood pressure/pulse monitor. Pulse oximeter (optional). Medications: Epinephrine 1:10,000, 10-ml preloaded syringe (for IV injection). Epinephrine 1:1,000, 1 ml (for SC/IM injection) optional, or Epinephrine IM auto-injector (injects 0.15 mg or 0.3 ml of 1:2000 [EpiPen Jr***] or 0.3 mg or 0.3 ml of 1:1,000 [EpiPen***] optional. Atropine 1 mg in 10-ml preloaded syringe. Beta-agonist inhaler. Diphenhydramine for IM/IV injection. Nitroglycerin (NTG) 0.4 mg tabs, sublingual. Aspirin 325 mg.
* If in a hospital or clinic, the emergency cart should conform with hospital or departmental policies and procedures but usually includes these listed items. ** Although oxygen can be administered in a variety of ways, use of partial non-rebreather masks is preferred because of their ability to deliver more oxygen to the patient. *** Dey, L.P., Napa, CA
88 / Table 6
Appendix A Contrast Media Specifications

Product INTRAVASCULAR Omnipaque 140 (GE Healthcare) Conray 30 (Covidien) Ultravist 150 (Bayer Healthcare) Isovue-200 (Bracco) Conray 43 (Covidien) Omnipaque 240 (GE Healthcare) Optiray 240 (Covidien) Ultravist 240 (Bayer Healthcare) Isovue -250 (Bracco) Visipaque 270 (GE Healthcare) Conray (Covidien) Isovue-300 (Bracco) Omnipaque-300 (GE Healthcare) Optiray 300 (Covidien) Oxilan 300 (Guerbet) Ultravist 300 (Bayer Healthcare) Hexabrix (Covidien) Optiray 320 (Covidien) Visipaque-320 (GE Healthcare) Optiray 350 (Covidien) Omnipaque-350 (GE Healthcare) Oxilan 350 (Guerbet) Isovue-370 (Bracco) MD-76 R (Covidien) Ultravist 370 (Bayer Healthcare) Cholografin (Bracco) GASTROINTESTINAL Oral Contrast Gastrografin (Bracco) MD-Gastroview (Covidien) Omnipaque 180 (GE Healthcare) Omnipaque 240 (GE Heathcare) Omnipaque 300 (GE Healthcare) Omnipaque 350 (GE Healthcare) URORADIOLOGICAL Cystografin (Bracco) Cystografin Dilute (Bracco) Cysto-Conray II (Covidien) Ionic Ionic Ionic Diatrizoate Diatrizoate Iothalamate Meglumine Meglumine Meglumine 30 18 17.2 141 85 81 2.0 1.4 1.5 1.1 556 349 ~400 Ionic Ionic Iohexol Pediatric Oral Use Iohexol Iohexol Iohexol Diatrizoate Diatrizoate Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Meglumine Sodium Meglumine Sodium Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic 66 10 66 10 None None None None 370 36.7 180 240 300 350 3.1* 5.8* 11.8* 20.4* 2.0 3.4 6.3 10.4 8.4 1,940 2,000 331 520 672 844 Iohexol 302 mg Ionic Iopromide Iopamidol 40.8% Ionic Iohexol 518 mg Ioversol 51% Iopromide Iopamidol 51% Iodixanol 550 mg Ionic Iopamidol 61.2% Iohexol 647 mg Ioversol 64% Ioxilan 62.3% Iopromide Ionic Ioversol 68% Iodixanol 652 mg Ioversol 74% Iohexol 755 mg Ioxilan 72.7% Iopamidol 75.5% Ionic Iopromide Ionic Nonionic Iothalamate Nonionic Nonionic Iothalamate Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Iothalamate Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Ioxaglate Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Diatrizoate Nonionic Iodipamide Nonionic Meglumine Nonionic Nonionic Meglumine Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Meglumine Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Meglumine Sodium Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Meglumine Sodium Nonionic Meglumine None 30 <0.1 None 43 None None <0.1 None None 60 None None None None <0.1 39.3 19.6 None None None None None None 66 10 <0.1 52 140 141 150 200 202 240 240 240 250 270 282 300 300 300 300 300 320 320 320 350 350 350 370 370 370 257 2.3* 2 2.3* 3.3* 3 5.8* 4.6 4.9* 5.1* 12.7* 6 8.8* 11.8* 8.2 9.4* 9.2* 15.7* 9.9 26.6 14.3 20.4* 16.3* 20.9* 16.4 22.0* 6.6 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2 3.4 3.0 2.8 3.0 6.3 4 4.7 6.3 5.5 5.1 4.9 7.5 5.8 11.8 9.0 10.4 8.1 9.4 10.5 10.0 5.6 322 600 328 413 1,000 520 502 483 524 290 1,400 616 672 651 610 607 600 702 290 792 844 721 796 1,551 774 664 Chemical Structure Anion Cation % Salt Concentration Iodine+ (mg l/ml) Viscosity+ 25C (cps) Viscosity+ 37 C (cps) Osmolality (mOsm/kg H2O)
(Instill for retrograde cystography and cystourethrography) 3 5.8* 11.8* 20.4* 12.7* 26.6 2 3.4 6.3 10.4 6.3 11.8
Conray 43 (Covidien) Omnipaque 240 (GE Healthcare) Omnipaque 300 (GE Healthcare) Omnipaque 350 (GE Healthcare) Visipaque 270 (GE Heathcare) Visipaque 320 (GE Healthcare)
Ionic Nonionic Iohexol Nonionic Iohexol Iohexol Iodixanol Iodixanol
Iothalamate Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic
Meglumine Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic
43 None None None None None
202 240 300 350 270 320
1,000 520 672 844 290 290
Appendix A continues on next page
Appendix A / 89
Appendix A Contrast Media Specifications (continued)

Product INTRATHECAL Omnipaque 180 (GE Healthcare) Omnipaque 240 (GE Healthcare) Omnipaque 300 (GE Healthcare) Isovue-M 200 (Bracco) Isovue-M 300 BODY CAVITY Onmipaque 180 (GE Healthcare) Omnipaque 240 (GE Healthcare) Omnipaque 300 (GE Healthcare) Omnipaque 350 (GE Healthcare) MR CONTRAST MEDIA Magnevist (Bayer Healthcare) Prohance (Bracco) Ionic Linear Nonionic GD-HP-DOTA Gadoteridol Ionic Linear GD-DTPA-BMA Linear Nonionic GD-DTPA-BMEA Gadoversetamide Ionic Linear Nonionic Ferrousferric oxide ferumoxsil Macrocyclic Gadopentetate Gadoteridol Dimeglumine Calteridol calcium Dimeglumine Nonionic None 4.9* 2.0* 2.9 1.3 1,960 630 Iohexol Iohexol Iohexol Iohexol Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic None None None None None None None None 180 240 300 350 3.1* 5.8* 11.8* 20.4* 2.0 3.4 6.3 10.4 408 520 672 844 Iohexol Iohexol Iohexol Iopamidol Iopamidol Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic Nonionic None None None None None 180 240 300 200 300 3.1* 5.8* 11.8* 3.3* 8.8* 2.0 3.4 6.3 2.0 4.7 408 520 672 413 616 Chemical Structure Anion Cation % Salt Concentration Iodine+ (mg l/ml) Viscosity+ 25C (cps) Viscosity+ 37C (cps) Osmolality (mOsm/kg H2O)
Multihance (Bracco) Omniscan (GE Healthcare) Optimark (Covidien)
Gadobenate Nonionic None
9.2* 2.0 2.8**
5.3 1.4 2.0
1,970 789 1,110
EOVIST (Bayer Healthcare) Gastromark (Covidien) Oral Suspension Gadavist (Bayer Healthcare) + * ** *** o
Gadoxetate None
Disodium None
n/a
1.19
688
4.96
1603
Data from product package inserts, product brochures, or technical information services. Measured at 20C. Data on file with Covidien Hexabrix is licensed by a registered trademark of Guerbet, S.A. and is co-marketed in the U.S. by Guerbert LLC and Covidien Viscosities of most products intended for oral administration are not reported by manufacturers.
90 / Appendix A

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ACR Manual on Contrast Media

2012 ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8

Copyright 2012 American College of Radiology

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies

Risk Factors for Adverse Intravenous Contrast Material Reactions

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies / 5

6 / Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

8 / Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

Specific Recommended Premedication Regimens

Emergency Premedication (In Decreasing Order of Desirability)

Changing the Contrast Agent to be Injected

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies / 9

10 / Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

Patient Selection and Preparation Strategies / 11

Injection of Contrast Media

Mechanical Injection of Intravenous Contrast Media

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

Injection of Contrast Media / 13

14 / Injection of Contrast Media

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

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Injection of Contrast Media / 15

Extravasation of Contrast Media

Initial Signs and Symptoms

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

Extravasation of Contrast Media / 17

Patients at Increased Risk for Extravasations

18 / Extravasation of Contrast Media

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

Extravasation of Contrast Media / 19

Adverse Events After Intravascular Iodinated Contrast Media Administration

Acute Adverse Events to Iodinated Contrast Media

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Adverse Events of Iodinated Contrast Media / 21

Frequency of acute adverse events

22 / Adverse Events of Iodinated Contrast Media

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

Common Risk Factors for Acute Contrast Reactions

24 / Adverse Events of Iodinated Contrast Media

ACR Manual on Contrast Media Version 8, 2012

Other risk factors

Delayed Adverse Events to Iodinated Contrast Media

Other rare delayed adverse events

Recurrence rates and prophylaxis

26 / Adverse Events of Iodinated Contrast Media

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Adverse Events of Iodinated Contrast Media / 27