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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC LEVITATION

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1.1 MAGNETIC LEVITATION

Magnetic levitation, maglev, or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is suspended above another object with no support other than magnetic field .The electromagnetic force is used to counteract the effects of the gravitational force. A substance which is diamagnetic repels a magnetic field. All materials have diamagnetic properties, but the effect is very weak, and usually overcome by the object's paramagnetic or ferromagnetic properties, which act in the opposite manner. Any material in which the diamagnetic component is strongest will be repelled by a magnet, though this force is not usually very large. Diamagnetic levitation can be used to levitate very light pieces of pyrolytic graphite or bismuth above a moderately strong permanent magnet. As water is predominantly diamagnetic, this technique has been used to levitate water droplets. The minimum criterion for diamagnetic levitation is,

..(1) Where:

is the magnetic susceptibility is the density of the material g is the local gravitational acceleration (-9.8 m/s2 on Earth) 0 is the permeability of free space B is the magnetic field
is the rate of change of the magnetic field along the vertical axis. Assuming ideal conditions along the z-direction of solenoid magnet: Water levitates at 2

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Graphite at

Fig.No.1

1.2 MAGLEV METHODS

Repulsion between like poles of permanent magnets or electromagnets. Repulsion between a magnet and a metallic conductor induced by relative motion. Repulsion between a metallic conductor and an AC electromagnet. Repulsion between a magnetic field and a diamagnetic substance. Repulsion between a magnet and a superconductor. Attraction between unlike poles of permanent magnets or electromagnets. Attraction between the open core of an electromagnetic solenoid and a piece of iron or a magnet. Attraction between a permanent magnet or electromagnet and a piece of iron. Attraction between an electromagnet and a piece of iron or a magnet, with sensors and active control of the current to the electromagnet used to maintain some distance between them. Repulsion between an electromagnet and a magnet, with sensors and active control of the current to the electromagnet used to maintain some distance between them. 3

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CHAPTER 2 SCIENCE OF MAGLEV TRAINS

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Basically the construction of the maglev train depends on 3 different working forces. They are, LEVITATION FORCE PROPULSION FORCE LATERAL GUIDING FORCE

2.1 LEVITATION FORCE

The first thing a maglev system must do is get off the ground, and then stay suspended off the ground. This is achieved by the electromagnetic levitation system. The levitating force is the upward thrust which lifts the vehicle in the air. There are 2 types of levitating systems A. Electromagnetic Suspension (EMS) System B. Electrodynamic Suspension System (EDS) System 2.1.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC SUSPENSION (EMS) SYSTEM MAGLEV concept using EMS employs attractive force. In EMS system the electromagnets are attached on the inside bottom of the casing that extend below and then curves back up to the ferromagnetic rail or track. The rail is in the shape of T.When current is passed, the electromagnet is switched on, there is attraction between the electromagnet and rail, and raise up to meet the rail. This levitates about 1/3 of an inch (1 cm) above the guideway and keeps the train levitated even when its not moving. Other embedded guidance magnet keeps the train moving from side to side. The electromagnet use feedback control to maintain a train at a constant distance from the track, by controlling the attractive force by varying the current. There is no need of wheels. Levitation Systems Power Supply Batteries on the train power the system, and therefore it still functions without propulsion. The batteries can levitate the train for 30 minutes without any additional energy.

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Linear generators in the magnets on board the train use the motion of the train to recharge the batteries.

Fig.No.2 Germany developed MAGLEV Train based on similar concept called Transrapid. Germany has demonstrated that the maglev train can reach 300 mph with people onboard.

2.1.2 ELECTRODYNAMIC SUSPENSION (EDS) SYSTEM

In the EDS-repulsive system, the superconducting magnets (SCMs), which do the levitating of the vehicle, are at the bottom of the vehicle, but above the track. The track or roadway is either an aluminum guideway or a set of conductive coils. The magnetic field of the superconducting magnets aboard the maglev vehicle induces an eddy current in the guideway. The polarity of the eddy current is same as the polarity of the SCMs onboard the vehicle. Repulsion results, "pushing" the vehicle away and thus up from the track. The gap between vehicle and guideway in the EDS-system is nearly 4 inches (10 cm), and is also regulated (by a null-flux system). . One potential drawback in using the EDS system is that maglev trains must roll on rubber tires until they reach a liftoff speed of about 62 mph (100 kph). Japanese engineers say the wheels are an advantage if a power 6

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failure caused a shutdown of the system. Germany's Transrapid train is equipped with an emergency battery power supply. The Japanese said that the EMS-attractive system gap was too narrow to account for the hilly terrain of Japan, and Japan's occasional earthquakes.

Fig.No.3 A more advanced EDS-repulsive system, worked on by the Japanese (and Americans), utilizes a U-shaped guideway, in which the vehicle nestles in between the Ushaped guideway (this makes the vehicle very stable; it can't overturn). Coils are implanted in the walls of the U- shaped guideway, called guidewalls. Thus, the guideway is not below, but out to the sides. Now the repulsion goes perpendicularly outward from the vehicle to the coils in the guidewalls. The perpendicular repulsion still provides lift.

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Fig.No.4

INDUCTRACK
The Inductrack is a newer type of EDS that uses permanent room-temperature magnets to produce the magnetic fields instead of powered electromagnets or cooled superconducting magnets. Inductrack uses a power source to accelerate the train only until begins to levitate. If the power fails, the train can slow down gradually and stop on its auxiliary wheels. The inductrack guide way would contain two rows of tightly packed levitation coils, which would act as the rails. Each of these rails would be lined by two Halbach arrays carried underneath the maglev vehicle: one positioned directly above the rail and one along the inner side of the rail. The Halbach arrays above the coils would provide levitation while the Halbach arrays on the sides would provide lateral guidance that keeps the train in a fixed position on the track.

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Fig.No.5 There are two Inductrack designs: Inductrack I and Inductrack II. Inductrack I is designed for high speeds, while Inductrack II is suited for slow speeds. Inductrack trains could levitate higher with greater stability. As long as it's moving a few miles per hour, an Inductrack train will levitate nearly an inch (2.54 cm) above the track. A greater gap above the track means that the train would not require complex sensing systems to maintain stability. Permanent magnets had not been used before because scientists thought that they would not create enough levitating force. The Inductrack design bypasses this problem by arranging the magnets in a Halbach array. The magnets are configured so that the intensity of the magnetic field concentrates above the array instead of below it. They are made from a newer material comprising a neodymium-iron-boron alloy, which generates a higher magnetic field. The Inductrack II design incorporates two Halbach arrays to generate a stronger magnetic field at lower speeds. Dr. Richard Post at the Livermore National Laboratory in California came up with this concept in response to safety and cost concerns. The prototype tests caught the attention of NASA, which awarded a contract to Dr. Post and his team to explore the possibility of using the Inductrack system to launch satellites into orbit. 2.1.3 BENAFITS OF EMS-ATTRACTIVE AND EDS REPULSIVE SYSTEMS There are different benefits to the EMS-attractive and the EDS-repulsive system. The EMS-attractive system has had more testing, and appears more ready to go. It also does not require a secondary suspension system, which the EDS-repulsive system does. But there are two features of the EDS system, which make it very attractive and promising. First, the EDS-repulsive system employs superconducting magnets (SCMs), so there is no resistance means no loss of energy through heat dissipation. It has been estimated that superconducting magnets for maglev will only have to be recharged after about 400 hours of use, or every 2 weeks, if the vehicle ran continually. By contrast, 9

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electromagnets of the EMS-attractive system require a continuous input of current to create the magnetic fields. However, the cryogenic system uses to cool the coils can be expensive. Also, passengers with pacemakers would have to be shielded from the magnetic fields generated by the superconducting electromagnets. Second advantage of EDS-maglev is that it has a larger air gap than EMS-maglev, meaning that the system should handle wind- gusts, or hilly terrain, or earthquakes, or other disturbances, much more smoothly. It is also believed, that hypothetically, EDSmaglev will be able to attain higher speeds in the long-run.

2.2 PROPULSION FORCE

This is a horizontal force which causes the movement of train. It requires 3 parameters. Large electric power supply Metal coil lining, a guide way or track. Large magnet attached under the vehicle

2.2.1 PRINCIPLE OF LINEAR MOTOR However, this raises a frequently asked question: where is the motor or engine in the maglev system? There is a motor. The motor of a maglev system is the interaction between the electromagnets/superconducting magnets (SCMs) and the guideway; the package of the two, and their interaction is what constitutes the motor. Otherwise, there is no standing motor aboard, as in the case of train locomotive or automobile engine. In a normal conventional motor, there are two principal parts: the stator, which is stationary; and the rotor, which can rotate as a result of action from the stator. But whatever the motor, in a maglev system, it is linearized, meaning that it is opened up, unwound, and stretched out, for as long as the track extends. Usually, the straightened stators, whether they be long or short, are embedded in the track, and the rotors are embedded in the electromagnetic system onboard the vehicle; but on occasion, in some systems, the roles can be reversed. This becomes important in the propulsion system. 10

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Maglev vehicles are propelled primarily by one of the following options: 1. A Linear Synchronous Motor (LSM): In which coils in the guideway are excited by a three phase winding to produce a traveling wave at the speed desired. 2. A Linear Induction Motor (LIM): In which an electromagnet underneath the vehicle induces current in an aluminum sheet on the guideway.

Fig.No.6

2.2.2 PROPULSION OF EMS SYSTEM

In the attractive-EMS system, electromagnetic attraction is also used to power the train vehicle forward, but it uses a electromagnetic system dedicated for propulsion and separate from the electromagnetic system used for levitation. For propulsion purposes, there are ferromagnetic stator packets (with three-phase mobile field windings) attached to the guideway. When activated, they attract the electromagnet onboard the maglev. A three-phase current, of varying frequency, is used, and generated through different stators in different segments of the track. The stators that are excited are always just in front of the maglev vehicle. As the stators are excited sequentially, the electromagnets onboard 'chase' the current forward along the track, providing forward motion, or propulsion. The EMS-attractive system maglev surfs with its support magnets on the alternating magnetic field generated in the roadway. The created electromagnetic wave is actually a

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mobile or traveling electromagnetic wave. The EMS-attractive system is sometimes labeled a "pull" system: the vehicle is pulled forward. Braking is done by reversing the magnetic field. Some trains also have air flaps, like airplanes, to slow down, as well as wheels that extend downward or outward to the guideway for emergency braking in the unlikely event that everything else fails.

Fig.No.7

2.2.3 PROPULSION OF EMS SYSTEM

The propulsion of the EDS-repulsive system can be described as "pull- then neutral- then push." (EDS-repulsive also usually uses a linear synchronous motor or a locally commutated motor). In the EDS system, coils or an aluminum sheet in the guideway are used for providing drive, although they also are different than the coils dedicated for the function of levitation. The coils in the guideway are excited by an alternating, three-phase current. This produces an alternating magnetic field, or standing magnetic wave. As with EMSattraction, sections of the guideway are excited sequentially, with the excited section being immediately in front of the maglev vehicle. Superconducting magnets onboard the 12

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maglev vehicle are attracted to the section of the guideway immediately ahead of it, pulling the vehicle forward. Then, when the vehicle is directly overhead, the direction of the current (and thus the polarity) of the particular guideway segment is changed. During the fraction of a section in which the polarity is being changed, there is effectively neither an attractive nor repulsive interaction. But once the change in polarity occurs, and while the front of the vehicle is moving forward to the next excited portion of the guideway, a repulsive force is created, pushing the vehicle from behind. This occurs-- the vehicle's movement-- in coherence with the alternating magnetic field.

Fig.No.8 So, if the EMS-attractive drive system is a "pull system," the EDS-repulsive drive system is a "pull-neutral-then push system". Only the section of the track where the train is traveling is needed to be electrified.

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Fig.No.9

2.3 LATERAL GUIDING FORCE

Guidance or steering refers to the sideward forces that are required to make the vehicle follow the guideway. The necessary forces are supplied in an exactly analogous fashion to the suspension forces, either attractive or repulsive. The same magnets on board the vehicle, which supply lift, can be used concurrently for guidance or separate guidance magnets can be used. The levitation coils facing each other are connected under the guideway, constituting a loop. When a running Maglev vehicle, that is a superconducting magnet, displaces laterally, an electric current is induced in the loop, resulting in a repulsive force acting on the levitation coils of the side near the train and attractive force acting on the levitation coils of the side farther apart from the train. Thus, a running train is always located at the center of the guideway.

Fig.No.10

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CHAPTER 3 HISTORICAL MAGLEV SYSTEMS

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3.1 FIRST PATENTS

High speed transportation patents would be granted to various inventors throughout the world. Early United States patents for a linear motor propelled train in which the motor, below the steel track, carried some but not all of the weight of the train were awarded to the inventor, Alfred Zehden (German) in 1907. In 1910, French engineer Emile Bachelet applied for a patent on a rail car which for purposes of levitation would use alternating-current electromagnets, and for purposes of propulsion would use solenoids at intervals along a road-bed. A series of German patents for magnetic levitation trains propelled by linear motors were awarded to Hermann Kemper between 1937 and 1941.He demonstrated that levitation must be achievable with economical power output. Maglev technology began to be worked on, in a serious way, during the 1970s. The most advanced work is largely done in Germany and Japan. But it was in 1972, that the Germans conceived and began pursuing an experimental maglev vehicle, called Transrapid 02, on the basis of the electromagnetic (attractive) system. Hamburg, Germany 1979 In 1979 a 908 m track was open in Hamburg for the first International Transportation Exhibition. There was so much interest that operation had to be extended three months after exhibition finished, after carrying more than 50,000 passengers. Meanwhile, the Japanese concentrated primarily on electrodynamic (repulsion) system. In 1979, Japan's Railway System, which runs its EDS maglev system, ran an unmanned experimental vehicle using this system at a record speed of 310 miles per hour. Birmingham, England 19841995 The world's first commercial automated system was a low-speed maglev shuttle that ran from the airport terminal of Birmingham International Airport (UK) to the nearby Birmingham International railway station from 1984 to 1995. Based on experimental

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work commissioned by the British government at the British Rail Research Division laboratory at Derby, the length of the track was 600 m, and trains "flew" at an altitude of

15 mm. It was in operation for nearly eleven years, but obsolescence problems with the electronic systems made it unreliable in its later years and it has now been replaced with a cable-drawn system. By 1988, on a 6 mile straight test track in Lathen, Germany, the Transrapid 06 achieved a speed of 250 miles per hour. During the last two decades there are many developments in the field of maglev by Germany and Japan. During the last decade, America has completed some impressive concept design work, but is hampered by the lack of a test track.

3.2 EXISTING MAGLEV SYSTEMS

Emsland, Germany Transrapid, a German maglev company, has a test track in Emsland with a total length of 31.5 km (19.6 mi). The single track line runs between Drpen and Lathen with turning loops at each end. The trains regularly run at up to 420 km/h (260 mph). The construction of the test facility began in 1980 and finished in 1984. JR-Maglev, Japan Japan has a demonstration line in Yamanashi developed by the Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) and Kawasaki Heavy Industries are currently the fastest trains in the world, achieving a record speed of 581 km/h on December 2, 2003. Shanghai Maglev Train Transrapid, in Germany, constructed the first operational high-speed conventional maglev railway in the world, the Shanghai Maglev Train from downtown Shanghai (Shanghai Metro) to the Pudong International Airport. It was inaugurated in 2002. The highest speed achieved on the Shanghai track has been 501 km/h (311 mph), over a track length of 30 km. Construction of an extension to Hangzhou is planned to begin in 2010. Linimo (Tobu Kyuryo Line, Japan)

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The world's first commercial automated "Urban Maglev" system commenced operation in March 2005 in Aichi, Japan. This is the nine-station 8.9 km long Tobukyuryo Line, otherwise known as the Linimo. The linear-motor magnetic-levitated train has a top speed of 100 km/h

3.3 PROPOSED SYSTEMS

Many maglev systems have been proposed in various nations of North America, Asia, and Europe. Many are still in the early planning stages, or even mere speculation, as with the transatlantic tunnel. But a few of the following examples have progressed beyond that point. Melbourne Maglev Proposal, Australia The proposed Melbourne Maglev connecting the city of Geelong through Metropolitan Melbourne's outer suburban growth corridors, Tullamarine and Avalon domestic in and international terminals in under 20 mins and on to Frankston, Victoria in under 30 minutes. London Glasgow, United Kingdom A maglev line has recently been proposed in the United Kingdom from London to Glasgow, and is reported to be under favorable consideration by the government. A further high speed link is also being planned between Glasgow to Edinburgh. Tokyo Nagoya Osaka, Japan This project is using the Superconductive Magnetically Levitated Train, which connects Tokyo and Osaka by way of Nagoya, the capital city of Aichi, in approximately one hour at a speed of 500 km/h. In April 2007, JR Central President Masayuki Matsumoto said that JR Central aims to begin commercial maglev service between Tokyo and Nagoya in the year 2025. Mumbai Delhi, India A maglev line project was presented to India's railway minister Lalu Prasad Yadav by an American company. If approved, this line would serve between the cities of Mumbai and Delhi; the Prime Minister Manmohan Singh said that if the line project is

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successful the Indian government would build lines between other cities and also between Mumbai centre and Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport The State of Maharashtra has also approved a feasibility study for a Maglev train between Mumbai (the commercial capital of India as well as the State government capital) and Nagpur (the second State capital) about 1000 km away. It plans to connect the developed area of Mumbai and Pune with Nagpur via underdeveloped hinterland via Ahmednagar, Beed, Latur, Nanded and Yavatmal.

Los Angeles, Southern California Las Vegas, United States High-speed maglev lines between major cities of southern California and Las Vegas are also being studied. Originally, this plan was supposed to be part of an I-5 or I15 expansion plan. Baltimore Washington, D.C., United States A 64 km project has been proposed linking Camden Yards in Baltimore and Baltimore-Washington International Airport to Union Station in Washington, D.C. It is in demand for the area due to its current traffic congestion problems. 3.4 HISTORY OF MAXIMUM SPEED RECORDS DURING TRIAL RUNS 1971 - West Germany - Prinzipfahrzeug - 90km/h 1971 - West Germany - TR-02 - 164km/h 1972 - Japan - ML100 - 60km/h - (manned) 1973 - West Germany - TR04 250km/h manned) 1975 - West Germany - Komet - 401.3km/h by steam rocket propulsion. (Unmanned) 1978 - Japan-307.8km/h by Supporting Rockets propulsion, made in Nissan. (Unmanned) 1978 - Japan - HSST02 - 110km/h (manned) 1979 - Japan - ML500 - 517km/h (unmanned) It succeeds in operation over 500km/h for the first time in the world. 1987 - West Germany - TR06 - 406km/h manned) 1987 - Japan - MLU001 - 400.8km/h manned) 1988 - West Germany - TR-06 - 412.6km/h (manned) 1989 - West Germany - TR-07 - 436km/h (manned) 19

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1993 - Germany - TR-07 - 450km/h manned) 1994 - Japan - MLU002N-431km/h unmanned) 1997 - Japan - MLX01 - 531km/h (manned) 1997 - Japan - MLX01 - 550km/h (unmanned) 1999 - Japan - MLX01 - 548km/h (unmanned) 1999 - Japan - MLX01 - 552km/h (manned/Five formation). Guinness authorization. 2003 - Germany - TR-08 - 501km/h (manned) 2003 - Japan - MLX01 - 581km/h (manned/Three formation). Guinness authorization.

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CHAPTER 4 APPLICATION INFORMATION

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4.1 Safety
The trains are virtually impossible to derail because the train is wrapped around the track. Collisions between trains are unlikely because computers are controlling the trains movements.

4.2 Maintenance
There is very little maintenance because Due to the lack of physical contact between the track and the vehicle, there is no rolling friction, leaving only air resistance

4.3 Economic Efficiency

The powerful magnets demand a large amount of electricity to function so the train levitates. What makes the maglev trains much more expensive to build . Very costly to operate since it needs large magnets and a very advanced technology and huge amount of electrical power Operating expenses are half of that of other railroads. The linear generators produce electricity for the cabin of the train.

4.4 Environment
No burning of fossil fuel, so no pollution, and the electricity needed will be nuclear or solar It uses less energy than existing transportation systems. For every seat on a 300 km trip with 3 stops, the gasoline used per 100 miles varies with the speed. At 200 km/h it is 1 liter, at 300 km/h it is 1.5 liters and at 400 km/h it is 2 liters. This is 1/3 the energy used by cars and 1/5 the energy used by jets per mile. 22

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The tracks have less impact on the environment because the elevated models (50ft in the air) allows all animals to pass, low models (5-10 ft) allow small animals to pass, they use less land than conventional trains, and they can follow the landscape better than regular trains since it can climb 10% gradients (while other trains can only climb 4 gradients) and can handle tighter turns.

4.5 Speed
The highest speed achieved on the Shanghai track has been 501 km/h (311 mph). The highest speed achieved on the JR-Maglev has reached 581 km/h (367 mph). The highest speed achieved by any wheeled trains, the current TGV speed record is 574.8 km/h, 357.0 mph.

4.6 Comfort
The ride is smooth while not accelerating. But passengers traveling in a 250-mile-per-hour MAGLEV train will feel much stronger gravitational forces in rounding an interstate curve than will passengers in a car moving at 65 mi (105 km) per hour.

4.7 Noise
Because the major source of noise of a maglev train comes from displaced air, maglev trains produce less noise than a conventional train at equivalent speeds. Initial tests suggest that MAGLEV vehicles may produce a high level of noise when they operate at top speed. Tests have shown that sound levels of 100 decibels at a distance of 80 ft (24 m) from the guide way may be possible. Such levels of sound are, however, unacceptably high for any inhabited area.

4.8 Accidents
In Japan test train was completely consumed in a fire in Miyazaki. As a result, the political opposition claimed maglev was a waste of public money. New designs were made. On August 11, 2006 a fire broke out on the Shanghai commercial Transrapid, shortly after leaving the terminal in Longyang. On September 22, 2006 an elevated Transrapid train collided with a maintenance vehicle on a test run in Lathen (Lower Saxony / north-western Germany). 23

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Twenty-three people were killed and ten were injured. These were the first fatalities resulting from a Maglev train accident. The accident was caused by a security concept without tolerance for human error.

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CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION

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5.1 FUTURE EXPANSIONS

In the far future Maglev technology are hoped to be used to transport vast volumes of water to far regions at a greater speed eliminating droughts. Far more, space is an open door to maglev trains to propel space shuttle and cargo into space at a lower cost. Artists illustration of Star Tram, a magnetically levitated low-pressure tube, which can guide spacecraft into the upper atmosphere.

Fig.No.11 Scientists hope future technologies can get the train to operate at a 6000km/h, since theoretically the speed limit is limitless. But still its a long way to go. Toshiba Elevator and Building Systems Corp have developed the worlds first elevators controlled by magnetic levitation available as early as 2008.Using maglev technology capable of suspending objects in mid-air through the combination of magnetic attraction and repulsion they promise quieter and more comfortable travel at up to 300m per-minute, some 700m per-minute.

5.2 CONCLUSION
Its no longer science fiction, maglev trains are the new way of transportation in the near future, just some obstacles are in the way, but with some researches nothing is impossible. With no engine, no wheels, no pollution, new source of energy, floating on air, the concept has token tens of years to develop, just recently its true capacities has

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been realized. Competing planes with speed, boats with efficiency, traditional trains with safety, and cars with comfort, it seems like it isn't a fair fight...

CHAPTER 6 REFERENCE

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6.1 REFERENCE
1. http://science.howstuffworks.com 2. http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com 3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maglev 4. http://future.wikia.com/wiki/Maglev_train 5. http://american_almanac.tripod.com/

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