MIDDLE EAST CUISINE

During the first decades of the seventh century, Muhammad, a merchant from Mecca,
converted many of his fellow Arabs to a new religion, Islam, which was conceived as the
continuation and fulfillment of the Judeo-Christian tradition (see Islam , ch. 2). By 629
the religious fervor and pressures of an expanding population impelled Muslim Arab
tribes to invade lands to the north of the Arabian Peninsula. They called these lands bilad
al sham, the country or land of Sham--the name Arabs often used to designate Damascus.
The word sham derives from the Arabic word for dignity, indicating the high regard most
Arabs have had for Damascus. Arabs, including Syrians, have referred to Syria by this
name ever since, and call Syrians Shammis.
In 635 Damascus surrendered to the great Muslim general, Khalid ibn al Walid.
Undermined by Persian incursions, religious schisms, and rebellions in the provinces
caused by harsh rule, Byzantium could offer little resistance to Islam.

In succeeding centuries, Muslims extended and consolidated their rule in many areas,
and by 1200 they controlled lands from the Atlantic to the Bay of Bengal, from central
Russia to the Gulf of Aden. Wherever they went, they built mosques, tombs, forts, and
beautiful cities. The ruins of such structures are found widely in Greater Syria, a
heartland of Islamic and Arab culture.

Muhammad made Medina his first capital, and it was here that he died. Leadership of
the faithful fell to Abu Bakr (632-634), Muhammad's father-in-law and the first of the
four orthodox caliphs, or temporal leaders of the Muslims. Umar followed him (634-644)
and organized the government of captured provinces. The third caliph was Uthman (644-
656) under whose administration the compilation of the Quran was accomplished. Among
the aspirants to the caliphate was Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, whose
supporters felt he should be the Prophet's successor. Upon the murder of Uthman, Ali
became caliph (656-661). After a civil war with other aspirants to the caliphate, Ali
moved his capital to Mesopotamia and was later assassinated at Al Kufah. Ali's early
followers established the first of Islam's dissident sects, the Shia (from Shiat Ali, party of
Ali). Those who had accepted the before and after Ali successions remained the orthodox
of Islam; they are called Sunnis--from the word sunnia meaning orthodox

North Africa
Unlike the invasions of previous religions and cultures, the coming of Islam, which
was spread by Arabs, was to have pervasive and longlasting effects on the Maghrib. The
new faith, in its various forms, would penetrate nearly all segments of society, bringing
with it armies, learned men, and fervent mystics, and in large part replacing tribal
practices and loyalties with new social norms and political idioms.
Nonetheless, the Islamization and arabization of the region were complicated and
lengthy processes. Whereas nomadic Berbers were quick to convert and assist the Arab
invaders, not until the twelfth century under the Almohad Dynasty did the Christian and
Jewish communities become totally marginalized.

641.5 K.Rajshekhar. November- 04. No.18 (02) BSc H& HA. Page 1 of 6
The first Arab military expeditions into the Maghrib, between 642 and 669, resulted in
the spread of Islam. These early forays from a base in Egypt occurred under local
initiative rather than under orders from the central caliphate. When the seat of the
caliphate moved from Medina to Damascus, however, the Umayyads (a Muslim dynasty
ruling from 661 to 750) recognized that the strategic necessity of dominating the
Mediterranean dictated a concerted military effort on the North African front. In 670,
therefore, an Arab army under Uqba ibn Nafi established the town of Al Qayrawan about
160 kilometers south of present-day Tunis and used it as a base for further operations.
Abu al Muhajir Dina, Uqba's successor, pushed westward into Algeria and eventually
worked out a modus vivendi with Kusayla, the ruler of an extensive confederation of
Christian Berbers. Kusayla, who had been based in Tilimsan (Tlemcen), became a
Muslim and moved his headquarters to Takirwan, near Al Qayrawan.
This harmony was short-lived, however. Arab and Berber forces controlled the region
in turn until 697. By 711 Umayyad forces helped by Berber converts to Islam had
conquered all of North Africa. Governors appointed by the Umayyad caliphs ruled from
Al Qayrawan, the new wilaya (province) of Ifriqiya, which covered Tripolitania (the
western part of present-day Libya), Tunisia, and eastern Algeria.
Paradoxically, the spread of Islam among the Berbers did not guarantee their support
for the Arab-dominated caliphate. The ruling Arabs alienated the Berbers by taxing them
heavily; treating converts as second-class Muslims; and, at worst, by enslaving them. As
a result, widespread opposition took the form of open revolt in 739-40 under the banner
of Kharijite Islam. The Kharijites objected to Ali, the fourth caliph, making peace with
the Umayyads in 657 and left Ali's camp (khariji means "those who leave"). The
Kharijites had been fighting Umayyad rule in the East, and many Berbers were attracted
by the sect's egalitarian precepts. For example, according to Kharijism, any suitable
Muslim candidate could be elected caliph without regard to race, station, or descent from
the Prophet Muhammad.
After the revolt, Kharijites established a number of theocratic tribal kingdoms, most of
which had short and troubled histories. Others, however, like Sijilmasa and Tilimsan,
which straddled the principal trade routes, proved more viable and prospered. In 750 the
Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads as Muslim rulers, moved the caliphate to
Baghdad and reestablished caliphal authority in Ifriqiya, appointing Ibrahim ibn Al
Aghlab as governor in Al Qayrawan. Although nominally serving at the caliph's pleasure,
Al Aghlab and his successors ruled independently until 909, presiding over a court that
became a center for learning and culture.
Just to the west of Aghlabid lands, Abd ar Rahman ibn Rustum ruled most of the
central Maghrib from Tahirt, southwest of Algiers. The rulers of the Rustumid imamate,
which lasted from 761 to 909, each an Ibadi (see Glossary) Kharijite imam (see
Glossary), were elected by leading citizens. The imams gained a reputation for honesty,
piety, and justice. The court at Tahirt was noted for its support of scholarship in
mathematics, astronomy, and astrology, as well as theology and law. The Rustumid
imams, however, failed, by choice or by neglect, to organize a reliable standing army.
This important factor, accompanied by the dynasty's eventual collapse into decadence,
opened the way for Tahirt's demise under the assault of the Fatimids.

641.5 K.Rajshekhar. November- 04. No.18 (02) BSc H& HA. Page 2 of 6
The Persian Gulf: THE FIVE COUNTRIES covered in this volume--Kuwait,
Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman--are all Arab states on the Persian
Gulf that share certain characteristics. But they are not the only countries that border the
gulf. Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia share the coastline as well, and they too shared in the
historical development of the area. Of the five states covered in this volume, Oman has a
particular culture and history that distinguish it from its neighbors. It also is the state with
the shortest coastline along the Persian Gulf. Most of Oman lies along the Gulf of Oman
and the Arabian Sea
The main element that unites these countries is the nature of their involvement with
people and nations beyond the region. The gulf has been an important waterway since
ancient times, bringing the people who live on its shores into early contact with other
civilizations. In the ancient world, the gulf peoples established trade connections with
India; in the Middle Ages, they went as far as China; and in the modern era, they became
involved with the European powers that sailed into the Indian Ocean and around
Southeast Asia. In the twentieth century, the discovery of massive oil deposits in the gulf
made the area once again a crossroads for the modern world.
Other factors also bring these countries together. The people are mostly Arabs and,
with the exception of Oman and Bahrain, are mostly Sunni (see Glossary) Muslims.
Because they live in basically tribal societies, family and clan connections underlie most
political and economic activity. The discovery of oil and the increasing contact with the
West has led to tremendous material and social changes.
Important distinctions exist, however, among the five countries. Bahrain is an island
with historical connections to the Persian Empire. Kuwait is separated from the others by
Saudi Arabia. In Oman high mountain ranges effectively cut off the country's hinterland
from the rest of the region (see fig. 2). Moreover, various tribal loyalties throughout the
region are frequently divisive and are exacerbated by religious differences that involve
the major sects of Islam-- Sunni and Shia (see Glossary)--and the smaller Kharijite sect as
well as Muslim legal procedures.
The rich traditions of twenty-two Arab countries fill our Cultural Village. There you
can drift on the words of poets as you have your name written in beautiful Arabic
Calligraphy. Admire the photography exhibit highlighting Arab architecture and
Arabesque. Acquaint yourself with the Arab age of enlightment, from the 8th to the 14th
century AD, and Arab contributions to sciences, philosophy, mathematics, and astrology.
Relax to the gentle melodies of the nai and oud as elaborate exhibits take you on a
journey through ancient and modern Arabic history. Discover the magnificent Arab
fashions from the exquisite embroidery of Palestine to the silken dresses of Saudi Arabia.
Look ahead for more info on Arab Culture.
Delicious Middle Eastern food prepared by renowned gourmet chefs will whet your
appetite. The aroma of spicy Shish Kabab spread on exquisite Middle Eastern hot rice
decorated with raisins will surely entice you to visit our food court, where you can
sample Arabian delicacies. Enjoy our luscious salads of Hummus and Bavaghanouj. And
remember to save room for our world celebrated Baklava deserts decorated with almonds
and stuffed with pistachios. Ahead are links for more information and recipes of various
Arab foods and how you can bring your restaurant or cafe to Arabian Fest this year!

641.5 K.Rajshekhar. November- 04. No.18 (02) BSc H& HA. Page 3 of 6
 Arabic cuisine has its roots in tent cookery. Nomadic tribes could use only
transportable foods such as rice and dates, or ambulatory stock like sheep and camels in
their recipes - which tended to be rough sketches rather than strict formulae.
As the caravans journeyed throughout the Middle East, new seasonings and vegetables
were discovered and added to the existing repertoire. Each new discovery was
incorporated into the diet in quantities palatable to a particular tribe - a fact that many
cooks believe is responsible for the anomalies found in some Arabic dishes today.
The nomadic Bedouin influence is broadened by other cuisines from the Arab world,
notably from Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Egypt, resulting in a highly diverse food and
drink culture.
Lebanese contributions have been the greatest influence on modern Middle Eastern
cuisine, in no small part due to the entrepreneurship of the Lebanese that has helped to
spread Arabic cuisine throughout the world from its centre in the Levant in such areas as
Aleppo, Damascus, Beirut and Nablus. Lebanese culinary influence and business skills
provide the framework for the exotic cuisine recognised internationally as Arabic.
Hospitality in the Arab world is second to none, and nowhere is it better expressed than
in the age-old custom of serving freshly-brewed coffee or mint tea to every guest,
whether the gathering be business or social.
The foreigner who takes time to learn and experiment with this excellent cuisine will be
immediately won over and rewarded with many wonderful surprises. Arabic food can
rival any international gastronomy for originality and good taste, and, because it basically
comprises simple, natural and easily digested foodstuffs, it ranks high in nutritional value
with today's fitness-conscious society.

Glossary of Arabic Cuisine

Arabic Bread (Khubz Arabi, pita): Flat, round bread, which can be easily split to make
a sandwich, or broken apart and used as a utensil for scooping food
Arayess: Deep-fried lamb sandwich
Ataif (gatayef, kataif): Small pancakes stuffed with nuts or cheese and doused with
syrup
Baba Ghanoush: Char-grilled eggplant, tahina, olive oil, lemon juice and garlic purée -
served as a dip
Baharat (bjar): Arabic mixed spices
Bamia: Baby okra and lamb in tomato stew
Baklawa (baklava): Dessert of layered pastry filled with nuts and steeped in honey-
lemon syrup - usually cut into triangular or diamond shapes
Basboosa: Semolina tart soaked with syrup
Bukhari Rice:Lamb and rice stir-fried with onion, lemon, carrot and tomato paste
Burghul (bulghur wheat, bulgar):Parboiled and dried wheat kernels processed into
grain, used in tabbouleh and mixed with lamb in kibbeh
Cardamom: Aromatic spice, member of the ginger family, used to flavour Arabic coffee,
yoghurt and stews
Coriander (cilantro): Lacy, green-leaf relative of the parsley family with an extremely
pungent flavour akin to a combination of lemon, sage and caraway.
Ejje: Arabic omelette
Falafel: Small deep-fried patties made of highly-spiced ground chick-peas
641.5 K.Rajshekhar. November- 04. No.18 (02) BSc H& HA. Page 4 of 6
Fatayer: Pastry pockets filled with spinach, meat or cheese
Fattoush: Salad of toasted croutons, cucumbers, tomatoes and mint
Foul (ful): Slow-cooked mash of brown beans and red lentils, dressed with lemon, olive
oil and cumin
Gahwa (kahwa): Coffee
Haleeb: Milk
Halwa (halva): Sesame paste sweet, usually made in a slab and studded with fruit and
nuts
Hamour: Red Sea fish of the grouper family
Hommus: Purée of chickpeas, tahina, lemon and garlic - served as a dip with Arabic
bread
Jarish:Crushed wheat and yoghurt casserole
Jebne: White cheese
Kabsa: Classic Arabian dish of meat mixed with rice
Kebab: Skewered chunks of meat or fish cooked over charcoal
Kamareddine:Apricot nectar used to break fast during Ramadan
Khubz Marcook: Thin, dome-shaped Arabic bread
Kunafi (kunafah)
Shoelace pastry dessert stuffed with sweet white cheese, nuts and syrup
Kibbeh (kibbe):Oval-shaped nuggets of ground lamb and burghul
Kibbeh Naye:Raw kibbeh, eaten like steak tartar
Koshary: Cooked dish of pasta, rice and lentils to which, onions, chillis and tomato paste
are added
Kouzi: Whole lamb baked over rice so that rice absorbs the juice of the meat
Kufta (kofta): Fingers, balls or a flat cake of minced meat and spices that can be baked
or charcoal-grilled on skewers
Laban: Tangy-tasting sour milk drink widely used in cooking as a substitute for milk
Labenah: Thick creamy cheese, often spiced and used as a dip
Lahma Bi Ajeen: Arabic pizza
Loubia (fassulya): Green beans cooked in tomato sauce
Ma'amul: Date cookies shaped in a wooden mould called a tabi
Makloubeh: Meat or fish with rice, broad beans and cauliflower
Mai: Water
Mantou: Dumplings stuffed with minced lamb
Markok: Lamb and pumpkin stew
Mehshi: Means stuffed - aubergines, courgettes, vine leaves or cabbage may be stuffed
with a mixture of minced meat, rice and onions
Melokhiyyah: Green, spinach-like vegetable
Mezze (mezza, meze, mezzah): The Arabic word for appetiser
Mish mish: Apricots
Mouhammara: Mixture of ground nuts, olive oil, cumin and chillis, eaten with Arabic
bread
Moutabel: Eggplant dip made with tahina, olive oil and lemon juice
Mubassal: Onion pancakes
Muhalabiyyah: Silky textured semolina pudding served cold
Musakhan: Chicken casserole with sumac
641.5 K.Rajshekhar. November- 04. No.18 (02) BSc H& HA. Page 5 of 6
Mutabak: Sweet or savoury pastry turnovers usually stuffed with cheese, banana or meat
Najil: Saddle-back grouper
Rocca: Aromatic salad green with a peppery mustard flavour, used in salads or mixed
with hot yoghurt
Sambusek: Triangular pies filled with meat, cheese or spinach
Sayyadiya: Delicately-spiced fish dish served on a bed of rice
Seleek:Lamb and rice dish where the rice is cooked in milk rather than the juice of the
meat
Shai (chai): Tea
Shaour: Red Sea fish from the emperor family
Shawerma: A cone of pressed lamb, chicken or beef roasted on a vertical spit where the
meat is shaved off from the outside as the spit keeps turning. Saudi Arabia's most popular
sandwich is Arabic bread filled with shawerma meat, salad, hot sauce and tahina
Sheesha (hubbly bubbly): Pipe for smoking tobacco leaves or dried fruit through a
water filter
Shish Taouk: Skewered chicken pieces cooked over charcoal
Shourba: Soup
Snober: Pine nuts
Sukkar: Sugar
Sumac: Ground powder from the cashew family, used as a seasoning
Tabbouleh: Salad of burghul, tomato, mint and parsley
Taklia: Spice consisting of ground coriander and garlic
Tahina: An oily paste made from ground sesame seeds, used in hommus, moutabel and
baba ghanoush
Tamr: Dates
Taratour: A thick mayonnaise of puréed pine nuts, garlic and lemon, used as a sauce or
dip
Um Ali: 'Ali's mother' is a pastry pudding with raisins and coconut steeped in milk
Warak Enab (warak dawali): Stuffed vine leaves
Yansoon: Hot spiced tea, used for medicinal purposes
Zatoon: Olives
Zattar: Blend of spices including thyme, marjoram, sumac and salt

.
********************

641.5 K.Rajshekhar. November- 04. No.18 (02) BSc H& HA. Page 6 of 6