Islamic History: history of places where Muslims have been in power.

Relates to history of
Muslims: wherever they are, have been and what was important to them.

• Al-Tabari : purely religious concerns in mind. Begins study of history with God's creation of world
600 before Prophet Muhammad's birth.
• Some books talk about end of time.
• Hijra from Mecca to Madinah in 622 marks starting of Muslim calendar.

Writing Islamic History

Science of biography, hadith and Isnad (for religious and legal purposes).
World history: focus on chronology , political and military history. Al-Tabari in his History of Prophets
and Kings.
Cultural History: al-Biruni wrote on India's cultural, scientific, social and religious history.
Philosophy of History: Ibn Khaldun detailed scientific study of history. He is regarded as father of
philosophy of history.
Key phases of Islamic History
1. Rashidun Caliphate: Four Rightly-Guided Caliphs (632-661) Capital of Muslims: Medina.
2. Umayyad Caliphate(661-750) Damascus
3. Abbasid Caliphate(750-1258) Golden age of civilization Baghdad
4. Mamluk Sultanate(1250-1517) Cairo
5. Ottoman Empire(1299-1923) Istanbul

Rashidun Caliphate
Period from migration of Prophet which marks establishment of first Islamic society in Medina, to his
death and caliphate of the first 4 caliphs. Era to which Muslims have looked for guidance throughout
their later history.

Prophet's Death set of 2 chain reactions :

(1) Islamic sects Beginning of an era for those Muslims who submitted to rule of caliph/successor
(who acceded leadership of the Ummah).
(2) emergence of An end of era for tribes whose conversion to Islam was inextricably linked to
an Islamic Prophet Mohammed, and saw his death made their contract with him as void. Thus
empire. these groups either retained their religious identity but didn’t pay taxes and hold
allegiance to ummah or reverted to pre-Islamic religions.

These groups were deemed to be political and religious apostates. 'Wars of

Apostasy' (Ridda) succeeded in creating momentum and need for conquests
beyond Arabian Peninsula.

4 Caliphs: Rashidun : 4-rightly-guided Caliphs

Abu Bakr(2 years) He was acknowledged by several leaders as first caliph or successor.
[632-634 CE] Considered to be man of great sanctity and piety, whose political rule
marked by religious considerations.
Capital: Medina
He was faced with Arab tribalism, which threatened political unity of Arabia
Rule ended as he died created by the Prophet.
due to an illness. Main contribution was he put an end to tribal uprising and his attempt to
preserve unity in the political entity In Medina.
Umar ibn al-Khattab He insisted on a strong center to preserve unity of Islamic state. He lived a
(10 years) life of simplicity and austerity; model of piety.
[634-644 CE]
During his rule, Muslims captured Jerusalem and showed great respect for
Capital: Jerusalem houses of worship of Jews and Christians.

His rule ended when he His rule witnessed the establishment of many administrative
was assassinated. Practices and institutions that became permanent features of later Islamic
society. (justice, military, treasury, police, taxation, education etc.)
Uthman ibn Affan Succeeded Uthman by Consensus of elders of community, like all Rashidun.
(12 years)
[644-656 CE] His rule saw influx of wealth into Medina and rest of Arabia from conquests in
the provinces. Also saw Tensions and Tribal uprisings.
He was assassinated.
Was criticized for favoritism. Opposition against him caused an uprising which
resulted in his death. Mu'awiyah (Uthman's nephew) would move against
Uthman's successor, Ali.
Ali ibn Abi Talib Faced civil strife and war on many fronts. Rule ended when he was
(5 years) Assassinated.
[656-661 CE]
His followers battled Quraysh tribe on one hand & on the other battled
Capital: Kufa, Iraq Prophets' Companion (Talhah and Zubayr) who joined with Prophet's wife
Aisha.

Battle of Siffin
• The Battle was between Ali and Mu’awiyah in the year 36 AH at site called Siffin.
• Mu’awiyah had his army enter the battlefield with Quran on their spears, asking that the Quran
arbitrate between the two sides.
• A line was drawn between two camps, giving member of either camps to choose a side, depending
on who had a better argument or represented the truth the most.
• Ali accepted arbitration in which his side lost to the much more astute representative of
Mu’awiyah.
• Ali returned to Kufa, where, in 40/661, a member of a group that opposed arbitration in principle
and considered both sides in the battle to have deviated from the earlier norms of Islam killed Ali
and ended the rule of the Rashidun.

Sunnis, Shi'a and Khawarji

From battle of Siffin distinction was marked amongst these groups. Due to Ali, moving capital to Iraq,
political & cultural center of Islamic World was permanently outside Arabia. Religious center remained
in Hejaz.
Spread of Islam
Under Abu Bakr and his successor Umar , the tribes, who had begun to fall away on the death of the
Prophet, were Reunited under the banner of Islam and converted into a formidable military and
ideological force.

• The Arabs broke out of the peninsula, conquering two thirds of the Byzantine provinces as well as
defeating the armies of Sasanian Persia, and brought the empire to an end.
• Tribal Arabians bought a new religious message to people of Near East.
• Neither Byzantine rulers in the West nor Sassanid rulers in the East want it. Their subjects
however, were receptive to either the religion or the Muslim political hegemony.
• In Conquests of Near East both conquerors and the conquered were certain that God's hand must
have been guiding events. (i) Muslims interpreted success as God's reward to them for following
his will. (ii) Some Christians were certain that their failures were God' s retribution for their sins.
(iii) Some Jews saw Islam as a fulfilment of b expectations.

Ctesiphon, Persian capital, Jerusalem in 638 Whole of Egypt Cyprus in 649 Rhodes in
fell in 637CE (end of Persian (crucial part of came under 654 Arabs conducted
empire) Byzantium) Uthman's rule seaborne raid

Umayyad Dynasty
Year of Congregation or unity: Ali's son Hassan appointed himself Caliph at Madinah. To establish peace
he gave up his position and paid allegiance to Mu'awiyah. Majority of Muslims gave their pledge of
allegiance to Mu'awiyah I, bringing an end to civil war.

• Bloody rivalry that led to Mu'awiyah's accession came to be known as the first Civil War or fitnah
(strife) in Islamic History.

Mu'awiyah is from the noble tribe of Quraysh. He and the Prophet shared same great-great-grand
father. He worked as a scribe for the Prophet. Appointed by Umar as governor of Syria. He proved to be
a very competent leader.

Significant changes under Mu'awiya:

1. Moved capital to Damascus.
2.established principle of hereditary succession- designated
son Yazid as successor, he was criticized for it.
3.Tranfer of power through descent and not consensus.

Yazid's troubled times:

His succession was opposed by many Muslims:
• Most notably by Ali's son Hussain.
• Caliph in Hijaz: Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr started an
insurgency. Umayyad forces tried to end rebellion.
Yazid's sudden death ended the campaign and threw the caliphate into disarray and civil war.
• Political rivalry led to military confrontation where Hussain would be killed at Karbala (Iraq)
Restoring power:
Reign of Abd al-Malik restored the Umayyad sovereignty.
Contributions to Islamic civilization:
Control over provinces made tighter Decentralized, tribal traditions led to better-organized imperial
ones
Arabic and Islamic identity developed Imposed Arabic as official administrative language in Islamic
and impose lands (Spain, Morocco, Pakistan and Central Asia.)
Replaced Greek, Persian & Coptic in Dome of the Rock was constructed in Jerusalem
administrative bureaus. – completed in 691.

Islamic coins minted. Building Omayyad Mosque.

Why did the Umayyad Dynasty fall?

Religious scholars: Umayyad couldn’t Prejudice: Sectarian division: Bad image:
gain support of religious scholars; they Resentment Protest took place Umayyads were
rejected Omayyad claim to religious grew amongst under banner of increasingly
authority. They believed no one knew the Non-Arabs, Shi’ism especially unpopular and were
more about Quran and what could be who had after death of distanced from their
inferred from Prophet’s own statements embraced Islam Husayn ibn Ali subjects due to the
and actions than the ‘ulama’ themselves, in greater during the existence of many
thus thought religious authority should numbers. caliphate of Yazid. competing political
rest with them. agendas.

Opposition turns into large-scale uprising:

The opposition was kept at bay by strong governors, but it gradually spread farther east until in
Khurasan, under the leadership of the Persian general Abu Muslim of Khorasan, an uprising began with
the purpose of returning the caliphate to its religious
origin and the family of the Prophet.

The Abbasids
• Golden age of Islamic Civilization.
• Known for: 1. Strengthening Islamic empire; preserving unity
• Islamizing various institutions
• Spreading further use of Arabic
 • Persian Language developed and became 2nd language of Islamic world.
• Capital moved to Baghdad. Became center of Islamic world.
• Harun al-Rashid and al Ma'mun, patrons of the arts and sciences established House of
Wisdom.

Rise of Turks
▪ Due internal political unrest and
rivalries between Arabs and Persians,
Caliphs surrounded themselves with
Turkic guards, thus Islamic world to 3rd
major ethnic group.
▪ Abbasids began to replace army with
Turkish slave soldiers (mamluk).
▪ They didn't mind importing Turks in
large numbers since they were not
concerned with local allegiances since
they were loyal to caliph. Second they
were excellent mounted archers who
had military advantages. Third they
could never claim Caliphal office.
▪ New capital at Samarra created to
house them and keep them away from population of Baghdad.

Shia Buyids Sunni Seljuks Crusades

Mid-10 century Abbasid • The Buyids ruled Iraq and western Iran for In 1095, armies of Christians from
caliphs had only little power over a century (945–1055), and were ousted Western Europe, responded to Pope
in Iraq. by the Sunni Saljuks. Urban II's plea to go on holy war
Arrival of Shiite Buyids • The Seljuqs a Turkish dynasty against Muslim forces in Holy land.
revived some on Sasanid ruled for more than two centuries, from
traditions but kept Abbasids about 426/1035 to 656/1258. After First Crusade captured
on the throne. At best • They reunified western Asia once again, Jerusalem in 1099, they set up
Abbasid caliphs were preserving the Abbasid caliphate, but only as several Latin Christian states.
spiritual heads of Islamic a symbol of Sunni rule, which they avidly
world. supported.

Ayyubids
Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi or Saladin was a Kurdish general from Aleppo who established the Ayyubid dynasty, –Ended
Fatimid Shi’I rule →united Egypt, Palestine, and Syria under Sunni rule, –Revived the economic life of the region after
the long struggle of the Crusades, –Set the background for the Mamluks –who would be the superpower of post-
Abbasid Islam.

•Saladin’s greatest triumph over the European Crusaders came at the Battle of Hattin. After the victory of the Muslims
in the Battle of Hattin, almost all the cities and citadels of the kingdom of Jerusalem were conquered by the Muslim
army led by Saladin.
Mongol Invasion
• Though lands of Islam were unaffected, eastern lands were devastated by descendants of
Chingiz Khan who captured first
Central Asia, Persia, Iraq, Syria, Palestine and were stopped by Mamluks in Sinai Peninsula.
• Mongols put an end to 'Abbasid' caliphate, bringing major change In political landscape of
Islamic world. Conquest of Baghdad and killing of last Abbasid caliph 656/1258.
• The Grand Library of Baghdad , containing countless precious historical documents and books
on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy, was destroyed –survivors said that the
waters of the Tigris ran black with ink from the enormous quantities of books flung into the
river and red from the blood of the scientists and philosophers killed.
• Mongols killed in abundance, sparing neither women nor children –Estimate more than
200,000 local citizens murdered
• The Mongols looted and then destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and
hospitals. Grand buildings that had been the work of generations were burned to the
ground.
• Hulagu had to move his camp upwind of the city, due to the stench of decay from the ruined
city. ?

Mamluk Dynasty
Saladin's successors in Ayyubid dynasty entered strategic truces with Crusaders and Turkish slave
soldiers (mamluks). These Mamluks overthrew the Ayyubids and ruled a large region that included
Egypt, Syria and parts of Iraq, Arabia and North and East Africa.
• Mamluk defeat the Mongols in the Battle of Ain Julat on 3rd September 1260 the
southeastern Galilee, Palestine.
Putting a stop to Mongol expansion westwards.
• The Mamluks were Sunni Muslims who emphasized their Sunni affiliation.
•
They were great patrons Produced finest examples of Islamic Masterpieces of Quranic
of the arts. architecture calligraphy
• Known for: Able to establish a powerful, Stable state, which usually included Egypt, Palestine
and Syria. The state lasted for well over two centuries, from 648/1250 to 923/1517, when it
was integrated into the Ottoman Empire.

Ottoman Dynasty
Established in Anatolia by Turkic tribes who migrated westward from Central Asia through Persia.
Created last powerful Islamic empire that stood up to West and colonial powers till 20th century.
Ottoman legacy: Arab Near East & Turkey are heirs to over 6 centuries of Ottoman rule. Includes
areas of Muslims in:
Balkans- Albania Bosnia-Herzegovina Kosova Macedonia.

• Osman, leader of Turkish frontier warriors in western Anatolia managed to carve out an
independent Muslim state in the region.
• The state, named after its founder expanded rapidly at the expense of the Byzantine empire.

Mehmed al-Fatih (the Conqueror) Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih(1432 –1481)

• At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople(modern-day Istanbul) and brought an end to the
Eastern Roman Empire.
• He continued his conquests in Anatolia with its reunification and in Southeast Europe as far west as
Bosnia.

Suleiman al-Qanunui (LawGiver) the Magnificent

• Tenth and the longest reigning sultan from Ottoman Empire from 1520-1566 (46 years).
• Under his rule: Ottoman territory doubled in size, transformed army and judicial system,
constructed great buildings still in good condition today (Suleymaniye complex in Istanbul includes
mosque, library, university and hospital built 480 years ago.)
• He was an accomplished poet and goldsmith.

• Within a century, Ottomans would take Jerusalem, Mecca, and Medina from the Mamluk Sultanate
(which they conquered in 1517) and Baghdad from the Safavids in 1534, while expanding
westwards into Europe, adding Belgrade and Hungary to their realms, and besieging Vienna in 1529.
• By the mid-16th century, the Ottomans had created a strong, centralized, and cosmopolitan empire
that incorporated some of Islam’s
–and the world’s –greatest cities and resources, with footholds in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Trade
and culture in Ottoman cities were boosted through multiculturalism.

Fall of the Ottoman empire

Foreign soldiers Sects and religions
Ottoman military machine comprised of Ruled over significant population of Varied ethnic
Christian youths ('Janissaries or new Shiites and Sufis as well as various composition
soldiers in Turkish) groups of Christians. Housed Jewish
refugees from Spanish Inquisition as
well.
• Multiculturalism led to Nationalism thereby leading to local Independence and Weakness of
Ottoman rule.
• By end of 19th century, was very little to unite the populations. Ended on 3rd March 1924.

Sykes-Picot Agreement
May 16 1916 representatives of Great Britain and France [Francois Georges-Picot and Sir Mark
Sykes] secretly agreed to divide Arab lands (which were under rule of Ottoman Empire) into British
and French spheres of influence.

Britain France
Central and southern Mesopotamia Syrian coast ; modern day
around Baghdad and Basra Lebanon
provinces.
▪ Palestine would have international administration,
as other Christian powers like Russia was interested as well.