1.

TITLE The measurement of drag coefficient of spheres.

2.0

OBJECTIVE To measure the drag coefficients of spheres over several decades of particle Reynolds number.

3.0

INTRODUCTION 3.1 Definition of Drag Coefficient for Flow Past Immersed Objects. The flow of fluids outside bodies appears in many engineering applications and other processing applications. This occurs, for example, in flow past spheres in settling, flow through packed beds in drying and filtration, flow past tubes in heat exchangers and others. It is useful to be able to predict the frictional losses and/or the force on the submerged objects in these various applications. In the examples of fluid friction inside conduits that we considered, the transfer of momentum perpendicular to the surface resulted in a tangential shear stress or drag on the smooth surface parallel to the direction flow. This force exerted by the fluid on the solid in the direction of flow is called skin or wall drag. For any surface in contact with a flowing fluid, skin friction will exist. In addition to skin friction, if the fluid is not flowing parallel to the surface but must change directions to pass around a solid body such as a sphere, significant additional frictional losses will occur and this is called form drag.

3.1.1

Drag Coefficient In treating fluid flow through pipes and channels, a friction factor, defined as the ratio of the shear stress to the product of the velocity head and density, was shown to be used. An analogous factor, called the drag coefficient, is used for immersed solids. Consider a smooth sphere immersed in a flowing fluid and at a distance from the solid boundary of the stream sufficient for the approaching stream to be at a uniform velocity. Define the projected area of the solid body as the area obtained by projecting the body on a plane perpendicular to the direction of flow. Denote the projected area by area is that of a great circle, or ( ) , where . For a sphere, the projected is the diameter. If is the

total drag, the average drag per unit projected area is friction factor f is defined as the ratio of

. Just as the

to the product of the density of the is defined as the ratio of

fluid and the velocity head, so the drag coefficient to this same product or

Where

is the velocity of the approaching stream. For particles having

shapes other than spherical, it is necessary to specify the size and geometric form of the body and its orientation with respect to the direction of flow of the fluid. One major dimension is chosen as the characteristic length, and the other important dimensions are given as ratios to the chosen one. For cylinders the diameter D is taken as the defining dimensions, and the length expressed as the L/D ratio. The orientation between the particle and the stream is also specified. For a cylinder, the angle formed by the axis of the cylinder and the
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direction of flow is sufficient. Then the projected area is can be determined as , where L is the length of the cylinder. For a cylinder with its axis parallel to the direction f flow, diameter. From dimension analysis, the drag coefficient of a smooth solid in an incompressible fluid depends upon a Reynolds number and the necessary shape ratios. For given shape ( ) , the same as for sphere of the same

The Reynolds number for a particle in a fluid is defined as

Where

A different

versus

relation exists for each shape and orientation. The

relation must in general be determined experimentally, although a wellsubstantiated theoretical equation exists for smooth spheres at low Reynolds numbers. Drag coefficients for compressible fluids increase with an increase in the Mach number when the latter becomes greater than about 0.6. Coefficients in supersonic flow are generally greater than in subsonic flow.

4.0

APPARATUS

1. 2. 3. 4.

Glass tubes. Drain valves, V1 & V2 Knob Ball valves, V3 & V4

Glass tubes

Knob

Drain valves Ball valves

5.0

METHOD The Instructions Methods The two glass tubes is filled with cooking oil and another one is filled up with detergent.

1. Fill the two glass tubes with clear liquids of different viscosities (cooking oil and detergent). 2. Mild steel sphere with diameter 3.175mm are dropped one at a time from the top of the tubes and allowed to fall to the bottom. 3. The passage between the 1m marks on the wall of the tubes being timed with a stop watch and recorded. 4. When each sphere arrives at the recess in

Start the experiment with diameter of 3.175mm by dropping it at one time from top of the tubes and allowed to fall to bottom. Time is recorded by watching at the passage between 1m marks on the wall.

The sphere is removed from the base of the

the base of the tubes, it is removed by turning tubes by rotating the knob at the bottom of the valve through 180 by rotating the knob at the bottom of the glass tube, then open the ball valve, V3 or V4. 5. After ejecting the sphere, the ball valve The sphere is ejected and returned the knob the glass tube, and then only open the ball valve.

and knobs should be returned to the operating to the operating position. position. 6. Repeat the experiment for step 2 until 5 with different dimension and material of the sphere. 7. Calculate viscosity of liquid used. The experiment is repeated by changing the diameter size of the sphere and the material of the sphere. The viscosity of the liquid used is calculated.

6.0

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

RESULTS

Fluid : Cooking Oil Object shape Material Length/diameter (mm) 3.175 5.000 6.350 8.000 9.525 3.175 5.000 6.350 8.000 9.525 Mass (kg) 0.000142 0.000526 0.001050 0.002040 0.003530 0.000142 0.000525 0.001040 0.002048 0.003527 Time taken (s) 1 3.50 1.90 1.40 1.10 0.95 3.81 1.91 1.62 1.12 1.08 2 3.50 2.00 1.50 1.10 0.95 3.84 1.99 1.58 1.11 0.99 3 3.60 1.80 1.40 1.10 0.98 3.59 2.00 1.53 1.26 0.99 Average 3.53 1.90 1.43 1.10 0.96 3.75 1.97 1.58 1.16 1.02 Drag coefficient oil 4.2559 3.8893 1.2709 0.9338 0.8546 4.8022 4.1811 1.5345 1.0443 0.9648 Reynolds No Re oil 5.59 2.97 18.74 25.70 27.87 4.96 2.76 15.52 22.98 24.68 Viscosity (kg/sm) 0.1460 0.8054 0.2152 0.2570 0.3233 0.1551 0.8351 0.2352 0.2725 0.3435

Mild steel Sphere Stainless steel

Fluid : Detergent Object shape Material Length/diameter (mm) 3.175 5.000 6.350 8.000 9.525 3.175 5.000 6.350 8.000 9.525 Mass (kg) 0.000142 0.000526 0.001050 0.002040 0.003530 0.000142 0.000525 0.001040 0.002048 0.003527 Time taken (s) 1 1.00 0.68 0.62 0.50 0.48 0.98 0.83 0.73 0.60 0.53 2 1.10 0.75 0.60 0.53 0.47 1.10 0.80 0.68 0.59 0.55 3 1.20 0.72 0.61 0.52 0.49 1.02 0.86 0.69 0.57 0.54 Average 1.10 0.72 0.61 0.52 0.48 1.03 0.83 0.70 0.59 0.54 Drag coefficient det 0.4292 0.5800 0.2402 0.2168 0.2220 0.3763 0.7707 0.3129 0.2807 0.2809 Reynolds No Re det 55.45 19.89 99.13 110.72 107.28 63.24 14.97 76.15 85.52 84.77 Viscosity (kg/sm) 0.0457 0.3065 0.0922 0.1220 0.1624 0.0428 0.3533 0.1046 0.1392 0.1827

Mild steel Sphere Stainless steel

Additional info Material

: Oil Weight (N) 0.0014 0.0052 0.0103 0.0200 0.0346 0.0014 0.0052 0.0102 0.0201 0.0346 ( 81599.35 79449.96 75040.07 74604.60 74689.69 81599.35 79449.96 74311.53 74977.62 74689.69 ) ( 8907.48 8907.48 8907.48 8907.48 8907.48 8907.48 8907.48 8907.48 8907.48 8907.48 ) v (m/s) 0.2833 0.5263 0.6993 0.9091 1.0417 0.2667 0.5076 0.6329 0.8621 0.9804 (Ns/ 0.1460 0.8054 0.2152 0.2570 0.3233 0.1551 0.8351 0.2352 0.2725 0.3435 ) V( r (m) 0.0016 0.0052 0.0032 0.0040 0.0048 0.0016 0.0052 0.0032 0.0040 0.0048

Mild steel

Stainless steel

Additional info Material

: Detergent Weight (N) 0.0014 0.0052 0.0103 0.0200 0.0346 0.0014 0.0052 0.0102 0.0201 0.0346 ( 81599.35 79449.96 75040.07 74604.60 74689.69 81599.35 79449.96 74311.53 74977.62 74689.69 ) ( 8613.18 8613.18 8613.18 8613.18 8613.18 8613.18 8613.18 8613.18 8613.18 8613.18 ) v (m/s) 0.9091 1.3889 1.6393 1.9231 2.0833 0.9709 1.2048 1.4286 1.6949 1.8519 (Ns/ 0.0457 0.3065 0.0922 0.1220 0.1624 0.0428 0.3533 0.1046 0.1392 0.1827 ) V( r (m) 0.0016 0.0052 0.0032 0.0040 0.0048 0.0016 0.0052 0.0032 0.0040 0.0048

Mild steel

Stainless steel

Drag Coefficient 4.5

Mild Steel Sphere in Oil

3.5

2.5

Mild Steel Sphere in Oil

1.5

0.5 Reynold's Number 0 5.59 2.97 18.74 25.7 27.87

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Drag Coefficient 0.7

Mild Steel Sphere in Detergent

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

Mild Steel Sphere in Detergent

0.2

0.1 Reynold's Number 55.45 19.89 99.13 110.72 107.28

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Drag Coefficient 6

Stainless Steel Sphere in Oil

3 Stainless Steel Sphere in Oil 2

Reynold's Number

0 4.96 2.76 15.52 22.98 24.68

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Drag Coefficient 0.9

Stainless Steel Sphere in Detergent

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

Stainless Steel Sphere in Detergent

0.3

0.2 Reynold's Number

0.1

0
63.24 14.97 76.15 85.52 84.77

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DISCUSSION

1. Drag force exerted on the solid which move in a fluid is due to viscosity of the fluid. It is made up of two components, surface drag and form drag. 2. Relationship of the drag force with the coefficient is

3. The resultant force on the sphere must equal to the specific weight difference times the volume of the displaced liquid, strokes expression,

4. The measurement of the drag coefficients of spheres are as follows:

5. Reynolds number

6. The fall velocity of a sphere V is calculated as 1/T, where T is the take time taken by the sphere to fall between the 1m marks. So, in order to calculate the Re, we need to find and determine the viscosity first. Stokes law can be used to find as long as Re < 1. The procedure is to select the smallest sphere of the lightest material provided, measure T, calculate V and use this value to find viscosity from following equation.

7. From the above equation we can find the Reynolds number

8. It is possible to measure the value of T for the remaining spheres, and calculate the drag coefficient and the Reynolds number. To get the accurate reading, it is advisable to average the number of T obtained over repeated drops of the sphere.

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7.0

CONCLUSION

A measurement technique was developed enabling time measurement of spheres falling in fluids with great accuracy. A proposed mathematical model that includes a new drag coefficient correction factor enables more precise evaluation of drag coefficients.

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