Guideline for Isolation

Precautions:
Preventing Transmission
of Infectious Agents in
Healthcare Settings 2007
Jane D. Siegel, MD; Emily Rhinehart, RN MPH CIC; Marguerite Jackson, PhD;
Linda Chiarello, RN MS; the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory
Committee

Acknowledgement: The authors and HICPAC gratefully acknowledge Dr. Larry Strausbaugh
for his many contributions and valued guidance in the preparation of this guideline.

Suggested citation: Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello L, and the Healthcare Infection
Control Practices Advisory Committee, 2007 Guideline for Isolation Precautions: Preventing
Transmission of Ifnectious Agents in Healthcare Settings, June 2007
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/isolation2007.pdf

Healthcare Infection Control Practices PERROTTA, Dennis M. PhD., CIC

Advisory Committee (HICPAC): Adjunct Associate Professor of
Epidemiology
Chair University of Texas School of Public Health
Patrick J. Brennan, MD Texas A&M University School of Rural
Professor of Medicine Public
Division of Infectious Diseases Health
University of Pennsylvania Medical School
PITT, Harriett M., MS, CIC, RN
Executive Secretary Director, Epidemiology
Michael Bell, MD Long Beach Memorial Medical Center
Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion
National Center for Infectious Diseases RAMSEY, Keith M., MD
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Professor of Medicine
Medical Director of Infection Control
Members The Brody School of Medicine at East
BRINSKO, Vicki L., RN, BA Carolina
Infection Control Coordinator University
Vanderbilt University Medical Center
SINGH, Nalini, MD, MPH
DELLINGER, E. Patchen., MD Professor of Pediatrics
Professor of Surgery Epidemiology and International Health
University of Washington School of The George Washington University
Medicine Childrens National
Medical Center
ENGEL, Jeffrey, MD
Head General Communicable Disease STEVENSON, Kurt Brown, MD, MPH
Control Division of Infectious Diseases
Branch Department of Internal Medicine
North Carolina State Epidemiologist The Ohio State University Medical Center

GORDON, Steven M., MD SMITH, Philip W., MD

Chairman, Department of Infections Chief, Section of Infectious Diseases
Diseases Department of Internal Medicine
Hospital Epidemiologist University of Nebraska Medical Center
Cleveland Clinic Foundation
Department of Infectious Disease
HICPAC membership (past)
HARRELL, Lizzie J., PhD, D(ABMM)
Research Professor of Molecular Genetics, Robert A. Weinstein, MD (Chair)
Microbiology and Pathology Cook County Hospital
Associate Director, Clinical Microbiology Chicago, IL
Duke University Medical Center
Jane D. Siegel, MD (Co-Chair)
OBOYLE, Carol, PhD, RN University of Texas Southwestern Medical
Assistant Professor, School of Nursing Center
University of Minnesota Dallas, TX

PEGUES, David Alexander, MD Michele L. Pearson, MD

Division of Infectious Diseases (Executive Secretary)
David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Atlanta, GA

Raymond Y.W. Chinn, MD

Sharp Memorial Hospital Lorine J. Jay MPH, RN, CPHQ
San Diego, CA Liaison to Healthcare Resources Services
Administration
Alfred DeMaria, Jr, MD
Massachusetts Department of Public Health Stephen F. Jencks, MD, MPH
Jamaica Plain, MA Liaison to Center for Medicare and Medicaid
Services
James T. Lee, MD, PhD
University of Minnesota Sheila A. Murphey, MD
Minneapolis, MN Liaison to Food and Drug Administration

William A. Rutala, PhD, MPH Mark Russi, MD, MPH

University of North Carolina Health Care Liaison to American College of Occupational
System and
Chapel Hill, NC Environmental Medicine

William E. Scheckler, MD Rachel L. Stricof, MPH

University of Wisconsin Liaison to Advisory Committee on
Madison, WI Elimination of
Tuberculosis
Beth H. Stover, RN
Kosair Childrens Hospital Michael L. Tapper, MD
Louisville, KY Liaison to Society for Healthcare
Epidemiology of
Marjorie A. Underwood, RN, BSN CIC America
Mt. Diablo Medical Center
Concord, CA Robert A. Wise, MD
Liaison to Joint Commission on the
HICPAC Liaisons Accreditation of
William B. Baine, MD Healthcare Organizations
Liaison to Agency for Healthcare Quality
Research Authors Associations
Jane D. Siegel, MD
Joan Blanchard, RN, MSN, CNOR Professor of Pediatrics
Liaison to Association of periOperative Department of Pediatrics
Registered Nurses University of Texas Southwestern Medical
Center
Patrick J. Brennan, MD
Liaison to Board of Scientific Counselors Emily Rhinehart RN MPH CIC CPHQ
Vice President
Nancy Bjerke, RN, MPH, CIC AIG Consultants, Inc.
Liaison to Association of Professionals in
Infection Prevention and Control Marguerite Jackson, RN PhD CIC
Director, Administrative Unit, National
Jeffrey P. Engel, MD Tuberculosis
Liaison to Advisory Committee on Curriculum Consortium,Department of
Elimination of Medicine
Tuberculosis University of California San Diego

David Henderson, MD Linda Chiarello, RN MS

Liaison to National Institutes of Health Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion
National Center for Infectious Diseases,
CDC

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary .7

Abbreviations11

Part I: Review of the Scientific Data Regarding Transmission of Infectious Agents in

Healthcare Settings............................................................................................................. 12

I.A. Evolution of the 2007 document ..................................................................................... 12

I.B. Rationale for Standard and Transmission-Based Precautions in healthcare settings ..... 14

I.B.1. Source of infectious agents.................................................................................... 14

I.B.2. Susceptible hosts................................................................................................... 14

I.B.3. Modes of transmission .......................................................................................... 15

I.B.3.a. Contact transmission.................................................................................. 15

I.B.3.a.i. Direct contact transmission ......................................................... 16

I.B.3.a.ii. Indirect contact transmission ...................................................... 16

I.B.3.b. Droplet transmission ................................................................................. 17

I.B.3.c. Airborne transmission................................................................................ 18

I.B.3.d. Emerging issues and controversies concerning bioaerosols and airborne

transmission of infectious agents.................................................................................19

I.B.3.d.i. Transmission from patients.....19

I.B.3.d.ii. Transmission from the environment.20

I.B.3.e. Other sources of infection ...........................20

I.C. Infectious agents of special infection control interest for healthcare settings.................. 20

I.C.1. Epidemiologically important organisms..21

I.C.1.a. Clostridium difficile ..................................................................................... 21

I.C.1.b. Multidrug-resistant organisms(MDROs)....22

I.C.2. Agents of bioterrorism............................................................................................ 23

I.C.3. Prions ................................................................................................................... 24

I.C.4. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) .......................................................... 26

I.C.5. Monkeypox ............................................................................................................ 28

I.C.6. Noroviruses............................................................................................................ 28

I.C.7. Hemorrhagic fever viruses ..................................................................................... 29

I.D. Transmission risks associated with specific types of healthcare settings ....................... 31

I.D.1. Hospitals ............................................................................................................... 31

I.D.1.a. Intensive care units ................................................................................... 31

I.D.1.b. Burn units.................................................................................................. 32

I.D.1.c. Pediatrics .................................................................................................. 33

I.D.2. Non-acute care settings.......................................................................... 34

I.D.2.a. Long term care ......................................................................................... 34

I.D.2.b. Ambulatory care settings .......................................................................... 35

I.D.2.c. Home care ................................................................................................ 36

I.D.2.d. Other sites of healthcare delivery ............................................................ 37

I.E. Transmission risks associated with special patient populations.................................... 38

I.E.1. Immunocompromised patients .............................................................................. 38

I.E.2. Cystic fibrosis patients .......................................................................................... 39

 I.F. New therapies with potential transmissible infectious agents........................................ 39

I.F.1. Gene therapy ........................................................................................................ 39

I.F.2. Infections Transmitted through Blood, Organs and Tissues................................ . 40

I.F.3. Xenotransplantation and tissue allografts ............................................................. 40

Part II. Fundamental Elements to Prevent Transmission of Infectious Agents in

Healthcare Settings............................................................................................................. 41

II.A. Healthcare system components that influence the effectiveness of

precautions to prevent transmission ........................................................................... 41

II.A.1. Administrative measures..................................................................................... 41

II.A.1.a. Scope of Work and Staffing Needs for Infection Control Professionals (ICP) ..................................42

II.A.1.a.i. Infection Control Liaison Nurse .................................................. 43

II.A.1.b. Bedside nurse staffing................................................................................ 43

II.A.1.c. Clinical microbiology laboratory support.................................................... .43

II.A.2. Institutional safety culture and organizational characteristics............................. 45

II.A.3. Adherence of healthcare personnel to recommended guidelines ..................... .45

II.B. Surveillance for healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) ............................................ 46

II.C. Education of healthcare workers, patients, and families .............................................. 47

II.D. Hand hygiene............................................................................................................... 49

II.E. Personal protective equipment for healthcare personnel ............................................. 49

II.E.1. Gloves................................................................................................................ 50

II.E.2. Isolation gowns .................................................................................................. 51

II.E.3. Face protection: masks, goggles, face shields................................................... 52

II.E.3.a. Masks.................................................................................................... 52

II.E.3.b. Goggles, face shields............................................................................ 52

II.E.4. Respiratory protection ........................................................................................ 53

II.F. Safe work practices to prevent HCW exposure to bloodborne pathogens ................. 55

II.F.1. Prevention of needlesticks and other sharps-related injuries ............................. 55

II.F.2. Prevention of mucous membrane contact .......................................................... 56

II.F.2.a. Precautions during aerosol-generating procedures............................... 56

II.G. Patient placement....................................................................................................... 56

II.G.1. Hospitals and long-term care settings ............................................................... 56

II.G.2. Ambulatory care settings ................................................................................... 58

II.G.3. Home care ......................................................................................................... 59

II.H. Transport of patients................................................................................................... 59

II.I. Environmental measures.............................................................................................. 60

II.J. Patient care equipment, instruments/devices .............................................................. 61

II.K. Textiles and laundry.................................................................................................... 61

II.L. Solid waste .................................................................................................................. 62

II.M. Dishware and eating utensils...................................................................................... 62

II.N. Adjunctive measures .................................................................................................. 63

II.N.1. Chemoprophylaxis ............................................................................................. 63

II.N.2. Immunoprophylaxis............................................................................................ 63

II.N.3. Management of visitors...................................................................................... 64

 II.N.3.a. Visitors as sources of infection ............................................................. 64

II.N.3.b. Use of barrier precautions by visitors.................................................... 65

Part III. HICPAC Precautions to Prevent Transmission of Infectious Agents ................ 66

III.A. Standard Precautions ................................................................................................ 66

III.A.1.New Standard Precautions for patients.............................................................. 67

III.A.1.a. Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette ........................................................ 67

III.A.1.b. Safe Injection Practices.............................................................................. 68

III.A.1.c. Infection Control Practices for Special Lumbar Puncture Procedures ........ 69

III.B. Transmission-Based Precautions .............................................................................. 69

III.B.1. Contact Precautions.......................................................................................... 70

III.B.2. Droplet Precautions .......................................................................................... 70

III.B.3. Airborne Infection Isolation Precautions............................................................ 71

III.C. Syndromic or empiric application of Transmission-Based Precautions...................... 71

III.D. Discontinuation of precautions................................................................................... 72

III.E. Application of Transmission-Based Precautions in ambulatory and home care

settings.................................................................................................................................. 72

III.F. Protective environment (PE) ...................................................................................... 73

Part IV: Recommendations................................................................................................. 74

Appendix A.Type and duration of precautions needed for selected infections and

conditions ......................................................................................................... 93

Tables
Table 1. Recent history of guidelines for prevention of healthcare-associated infections117

Table 2. Clinical syndromes or conditions warranting additional empiric transmission-

based precautions pending confirmation of diagnosis ...................................... 119

Table 3. Infection control considerations for high-priority (CDC Category A) diseases that

may result from bioterrorist attacks or are considered to be bioterrorist threats123

Table 4. Recommendations for application of Standard Precautions for the care of all

patients in all healthcare settings...................................................................... 129

Table 5. Components of a Protective Environment ........................................................ 131

Figure Sequence for donning and removing PPE ............................................................. 133

Glossary............................................................................................................................. 135

References......................................................................................................................... 143

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Guideline for Isolation Precautions: Preventing Transmission of Infectious Agents in

Healthcare Settings 2007 updates and expands the 1996 Guideline for Isolation Precautions
in Hospitals. The following developments led to revision of the 1996 guideline:
1. The transition of healthcare delivery from primarily acute care hospitals to other
healthcare settings (e.g., home care, ambulatory care, free-standing specialty
care sites, long-term care) created a need for recommendations that can be
applied in all healthcare settings using common principles of infection control
practice, yet can be modified to reflect setting-specific needs. Accordingly, the
revised guideline addresses the spectrum of healthcare delivery settings.
Furthermore, the term nosocomial infections is replaced by healthcare
associated infections (HAIs) to reflect the changing patterns in healthcare
delivery and difficulty in determining the geographic site of exposure to an
infectious agent and/or acquisition of infection.
2. The emergence of new pathogens (e.g., SARS-CoV associated with the severe
acute respiratory syndrome [SARS], Avian influenza in humans), renewed
concern for evolving known pathogens (e.g., C. difficile, noroviruses, community-
associated MRSA [CA-MRSA]), development of new therapies (e.g., gene
therapy), and increasing concern for the threat of bioweapons attacks, established
a need to address a broader scope of issues than in previous isolation guidelines.
3. The successful experience with Standard Precautions, first recommended in the
1996 guideline, has led to a reaffirmation of this approach as the foundation for
preventing transmission of infectious agents in all healthcare settings. New
additions to the recommendations for Standard Precautions are Respiratory
Hygiene/Cough Etiquette and safe injection practices, including the use of a mask
when performing certain high-risk, prolonged procedures involving spinal canal
punctures (e.g., myelography, epidural anesthesia). The need for a
recommendation for Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette grew out of
observations during the SARS outbreaks where failure to implement simple
source control measures with patients, visitors, and healthcare personnel with
respiratory symptoms may have contributed to SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV)
transmission. The recommended practices have a strong evidence base. The
continued occurrence of outbreaks of hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses in
ambulatory settings indicated a need to re-iterate safe injection practice
recommendations as part of Standard Precautions. The addition of a mask for
certain spinal injections grew from recent evidence of an associated risk for
developing meningitis caused by respiratory flora.
4. The accumulated evidence that environmental controls decrease the risk of life-
threatening fungal infections in the most severely immunocompromised patients
(allogeneic hematopoietic stem-cell transplant patients) led to the update on the
components of the Protective Environment (PE).
5. Evidence that organizational characteristics (e.g., nurse staffing levels and
composition, establishment of a safety culture) influence healthcare personnel
adherence to recommended infection control practices, and therefore are
important factors in preventing transmission of infectious agents, led to a new

 emphasis and recommendations for administrative involvement in the

development and support of infection control programs.
6. Continued increase in the incidence of HAIs caused by multidrug-resistant
organisms (MDROs) in all healthcare settings and the expanded body of
knowledge concerning prevention of transmission of MDROs created a need for
more specific recommendations for surveillance and control of these pathogens
that would be practical and effective in various types of healthcare settings.

This document is intended for use by infection control staff, healthcare epidemiologists,
healthcare administrators, nurses, other healthcare providers, and persons responsible for
developing, implementing, and evaluating infection control programs for healthcare settings
across the continuum of care. The reader is referred to other guidelines and websites for
more detailed information and for recommendations concerning specialized infection control
problems.

Parts I - III: Review of the Scientific Data Regarding Transmission of Infectious

Agents in Healthcare Settings Part I reviews the relevant scientific literature that
supports the recommended prevention and control practices. As with the 1996 guideline,
the modes and factors that influence transmission risks are described in detail. New to the
section on transmission are discussions of bioaerosols and of how droplet and airborne
transmission may contribute to infection transmission. This became a concern during the
SARS outbreaks of 2003, when transmission associated with aerosol-generating
procedures was observed. Also new is a definition of epidemiologically important
organisms that was developed to assist in the identification of clusters of infections that
require investigation (i.e. multidrug-resistant organisms, C. difficile). Several other
pathogens that hold special infection control interest (i.e., norovirus, SARS, Category A
bioterrorist agents, prions, monkeypox, and the hemorrhagic fever viruses) also are
discussed to present new information and infection control lessons learned from experience
with these agents. This section of the guideline also presents information on infection risks
associated with specific healthcare settings and patient populations.

Part II updates information on the basic principles of hand hygiene, barrier precautions, safe
work practices and isolation practices that were included in previous guidelines. However,
new to this guideline, is important information on healthcare system components that
influence transmission risks, including those under the influence of healthcare
administrators. An important administrative priority that is described is the need for
appropriate infection control staffing to meet the ever-expanding role of infection control
professionals in the modern, complex healthcare system. Evidence presented also
demonstrates another administrative concern, the importance of nurse staffing levels,
including numbers of appropriately trained nurses in ICUs for preventing HAIs. The role of
the clinical microbiology laboratory in supporting infection control is described to emphasize
the need for this service in healthcare facilites. Other factors that influence transmission
risks are discussed i.e., healthcare worker adherence to recommended infection control
practices, organizational safety culture or climate, education and training
Discussed for the first time in an isolation guideline is surveillance of healthcare-associated
infections. The information presented will be useful to new infection control professionals as

well as persons involved in designing or responding to state programs for public reporting of
HAI rates.

Part III describes each of the categories of precautions developed by the Healthcare
Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC) and the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) and provides guidance for their application in various
healthcare settings. The categories of Transmission-Based Precautions are unchanged
from those in the 1996 guideline: Contact, Droplet, and Airborne. One important change is
the recommendation to don the indicated personal protective equipment (gowns, gloves,
mask) upon entry into the patients room for patients who are on Contact and/or Droplet
Precautions since the nature of the interaction with the patient cannot be predicted with
certainty and contaminated environmental surfaces are important sources for transmission
of pathogens.
In addition, the Protective Environment (PE) for allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell
transplant patients, described in previous guidelines, has been updated.

Tables, Appendices, and other Information

There are several tables that summarize important information: 1) a summary of the
evolution of this document; 2) guidance on using empiric isolation precautions according to
a clinical syndrome; 3) a summary of infection control recommendations for category A
agents of bioterrorism; 4) components of Standard Precautions and recommendations for
their application; 5) components of the Protective Environment; and 6) a glossary of
definitions used in this guideline. New in this guideline is a figure that shows a
recommended sequence for donning and removing personal protective equipment used for
isolation precautions to optimize safety and prevent self-contamination during removal.

Appendix A: Type and Duration of Precautions Recommended for Selected Infections

and Conditions
Appendix A consists of an updated alphabetical list of most infectious agents and clinical
conditions for which isolation precautions are recommended. A preamble to the Appendix
provides a rationale for recommending the use of one or more Transmission-Based
Precautions, in addition to Standard Precautions, based on a review of the literature and
evidence demonstrating a real or potential risk for person-to-person transmission in
healthcare settings.The type and duration of recommended precautions are presented with
additional comments concerning the use of adjunctive measures or other relevant
considerations to prevent transmission of the specific agent. Relevant citations are included.

Pre- Publication of the Guideline on Preventing Transmission of MDROs

New to this guideline is a comprehensive review and detailed recommendations for
prevention of transmission of MDROs. This portion of the guideline was published
electronically in October 2006 and updated in November, 2006 (Siegel JD, Rhinehart E,
Jackson M, Chiarello L and HICPAC. Management of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms in
Healthcare Settings 2006 www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/ar/mdroGuideline2006.pdf), and is
considered a part of the Guideline for Isolation Precautions. This section provides a detailed
review of the complex topic of MDRO control in healthcare settings and is intended to
provide a context for evaluation of MDRO at individual healthcare settings. A rationale and

institutional requirements for developing an effective MDRO control program are

summarized. Although the focus of this guideline is on measures to prevent transmission of
MDROs in healthcare settings, information concerning the judicious use of antimicrobial
agents is presented since such practices are intricately related to the size of the reservoir of
MDROs which in turn influences transmission (e.g. colonization pressure). There are two
tables that summarize recommended prevention and control practices using the following
seven categories of interventions to control MDROs: administrative measures, education of
healthcare personnel, judicious antimicrobial use, surveillance, infection control precautions,
environmental measures, and decolonization. Recommendations for each category apply
to and are adapted for the various healthcare settings. With the increasing incidence and
prevalence of MDROs, all healthcare facilities must prioritize effective control of MDRO
transmission. Facilities should identify prevalent MDROs at the facility, implement control
measures, assess the effectiveness of control programs, and demonstrate decreasing
MDRO rates. A set of intensified MDRO prevention interventions is presented to be added
1) if the incidence of transmission of a target MDRO is NOT decreasing despite
implementation of basic MDRO infection control measures, and 2) when the first case(s) of
an epidemiologically important MDRO is identified within a healthcare facility.

Summary
This updated guideline responds to changes in healthcare delivery and addresses new
concerns about transmission of infectious agents to patients and healthcare workers in the
United States and infection control. The primary objective of the guideline is to improve the
safety of the nations healthcare delivery system by reducing the rates of HAIs.

10

Abbreviations Used in the Guideline

AIIR Airborne infection isolation room

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CF Cystic fibrosis
CJD Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease
CLSI Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute
ESBL Extended spectrum beta-lactamases
FDA Food and Drug Administration
HAI Healthcare-associated infections
HBV Hepatitis B virus
HCV Hepatitis C virus
HEPA High efficiency particulate air [filtration]
HICPAC Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
HCW Healthcare worker
HSCT Hematopoetic stem-cell transplant
ICU Intensive care unit
LTCF Long-term care facility
MDRO Multidrug-resistant organism
MDR-GNB Multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacilli
MRSA Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
NCCLS National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards
NICU Neonatal intensive care unit
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, CDC
NNIS National Nosocomial Infection Surveillance
NSSP Nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PICU Pediatric intensive care unit
PPE Personal protective equipment
RSV Respiratory syncytial virus
SARS Severe acquired respiratory syndrome
vCJD variant Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease
VRE Vancomycin-resistant enterococci
WHO World Health Organization

11

Part I:
Review of Scientific Data Regarding Transmission of Infectious
Agents in Healthcare Settings

I.A. Evolution of the 2007 Document

The Guideline for Isolation Precautions: Preventing Transmission of Infectious
Agents in Healthcare Settings 2007 builds upon a series of isolation and infection
prevention documents promulgated since 1970. These previous documents are
summarized and referenced in Table 1 and in Part I of the 1996 Guideline for
Isolation Precautions in Hospitals 1.
Objectives and methods The objectives of this guideline are to 1) provide
infection control recommendations for all components of the healthcare delivery
system, including hospitals, long-term care facilities, ambulatory care, home care
and hospice; 2) reaffirm Standard Precautions as the foundation for preventing
transmission during patient care in all healthcare settings; 3) reaffirm the
importance of implementing Transmission-Based Precautions based on the
clinical presentation or syndrome and likely pathogens until the infectious
etiology has been determined (Table 2); and 4) provide epidemiologically sound
and, whenever possible, evidence-based recommendations.
This guideline is designed for use by individuals who are charged with
administering infection control programs in hospitals and other healthcare
settings. The information also will be useful for other healthcare personnel,
healthcare administrators, and anyone needing information about infection
control measures to prevent transmission of infectious agents. Commonly used
abbreviations are provided on page 11 and terms used in the guideline are
defined in the Glossary (page 137).
Med-line and Pub Med were used to search for relevant studies published in
English, focusing on those published since 1996. Much of the evidence cited for
preventing transmission of infectious agents in healthcare settings is derived
from studies that used quasi-experimental designs, also referred to as
nonrandomized, pre- post-intervention study designs 2. Although these types of
studies can provide valuable information regarding the effectiveness of various
interventions, several factors decrease the certainty of attributing improved
outcome to a specific intervention. These include: difficulties in controlling for
important confounding variables; the use of multiple interventions during an
outbreak; and results that are explained by the statistical principle of regression
to the mean, (e.g., improvement over time without any intervention) 3.
Observational studies remain relevant and have been used to evaluate infection
control interventions 4, 5. The quality of studies, consistency of results and
correlation with results from randomized, controlled trials when available were
considered during the literature review and assignment of evidence-based
categories (See Part IV: Recommendations) to the recommendations in this
guideline. Several authors have summarized properties to consider when
evaluating studies for the purpose of determining if the results should change
practice or in designing new studies 2, 6, 7.

12

Changes or clarifications in terminology This guideline contains four

changes in terminology from the 1996 guideline:
The term nosocomial infection is retained to refer only to infections
acquired in hospitals. The term healthcare-associated infection (HAI) is
used to refer to infections associated with healthcare delivery in any
setting (e.g., hospitals, long-term care facilities, ambulatory settings, home
care). This term reflects the inability to determine with certainty where the
pathogen is acquired since patients may be colonized with or exposed to
potential pathogens outside of the healthcare setting, before receiving
health care, or may develop infections caused by those pathogens when
exposed to the conditions associated with delivery of healthcare.
Additionally, patients frequently move among the various settings within a
healthcare system 8.
A new addition to the practice recommendations for Standard Precautions
is Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette. While Standard Precautions
generally apply to the recommended practices of healthcare personnel
during patient care, Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette applies broadly
to all persons who enter a healthcare setting, including healthcare
personnel, patients and visitors. These recommendations evolved from
observations during the SARS epidemic that failure to implement basic
source control measures with patients, visitors, and healthcare personnel
with signs and symptoms of respiratory tract infection may have
contributed to SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) transmission. This concept
has been incorporated into CDC planning documents for SARS and
pandemic influenza 9, 10.
The term Airborne Precautions has been supplemented with the term
Airborne Infection Isolation Room (AIIR) for consistency with the
Guidelines for Environmental Infection Control in Healthcare Facilities 11,
the Guidelines for Preventing the Transmission of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis in Health-Care Settings 200512 and the American Institute of
Architects (AIA) guidelines for design and construction of hospitals, 2006
13

A set of prevention measures termed Protective Environment has been

added to the precautions used to prevent HAIs. These measures, which
have been defined in other guidelines , consist of engineering and design
interventions that decrease the risk of exposure to environmental fungi for
severely immunocompromised allogeneic hematiopoietic stem cell
transplant (HSCT) patients during their highest risk phase, usually the first
100 days post transplant, or longer in the presence of graft-versus-host
disease 11, 13-15. Recommendations for a Protective Environment apply
only to acute care hospitals that provide care to HSCT patients.

Scope This guideline, like its predecessors, focuses primarily on interactions

between patients and healthcare providers. The Guidelines for the Prevention of
MDRO Infection were published separately in November 2006, and are available
online at www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/index.html. Several other HICPAC

13

guidelines to prevent transmission of infectious agents associated with

healthcare delivery are cited; e.g., Guideline for Hand Hygiene, Guideline for
Environmental Infection Control, Guideline for Prevention of Healthcare-
Associated Pneumonia, and Guideline for Infection Control in Healthcare
Personnel 11, 14, 16, 17. In combination, these provide comprehensive guidance on
the primary infection control measures for ensuring a safe environment for
patients and healthcare personnel.

This guideline does not discuss in detail specialized infection control issues in
defined populations that are addressed elsewhere, (e.g., Recommendations for
Preventing Transmission of Infections among Chronic Hemodialysis Patients ,
Guidelines for Preventing the Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in
Health-Care Facilities 2005, Guidelines for Infection Control in Dental Health-
Care Settings and Infection Control Recommendations for Patients with Cystic
Fibrosis 12, 18-20. An exception has been made by including abbreviated guidance
for a Protective Environment used for allogeneic HSCT recipients because
components of the Protective Environment have been more completely defined
since publication of the Guidelines for Preventing Opportunistic Infections Among
HSCT Recipients in 2000 and the Guideline for Environmental Infection Control
in Healthcare Facilities 11, 15.

I.B. Rationale for Standard and Transmission-Based Precautions in

healthcare settings

Transmission of infectious agents within a healthcare setting requires three

elements: a source (or reservoir) of infectious agents, a susceptible host with a
portal of entry receptive to the agent, and a mode of transmission for the agent.
This section describes the interrelationship of these elements in the epidemiology
of HAIs.

I.B.1. Sources of infectious agents Infectious agents transmitted during

healthcare derive primarily from human sources but inanimate environmental
sources also are implicated in transmission. Human reservoirs include patients
20-28
, healthcare personnel 29-35 17, 36-39, and household members and other
visitors 40-45. Such source individuals may have active infections, may be in the
asymptomatic and/or incubation period of an infectious disease, or may be
transiently or chronically colonized with pathogenic microorganisms, particularly
in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. The endogenous flora of patients
(e.g., bacteria residing in the respiratory or gastrointestinal tract) also are the
source of HAIs 46-54.

I.B.2. Susceptible hosts Infection is the result of a complex interrelationship

between a potential host and an infectious agent. Most of the factors that
influence infection and the occurrence and severity of disease are related to the
host. However, characteristics of the host-agent interaction as it relates to

14

pathogenicity, virulence and antigenicity are also important, as are the infectious
dose, mechanisms of disease production and route of exposure 55. There is a
spectrum of possible outcomes following exposure to an infectious agent. Some
persons exposed to pathogenic microorganisms never develop symptomatic
disease while others become severely ill and even die. Some individuals are
prone to becoming transiently or permanently colonized but remain
asymptomatic. Still others progress from colonization to symptomatic disease
either immediately following exposure, or after a period of asymptomatic
colonization. The immune state at the time of exposure to an infectious agent,
interaction between pathogens, and virulence factors intrinsic to the agent are
important predictors of an individuals outcome. Host factors such as extremes of
age and underlying disease (e.g. diabetes 56, 57), human immunodeficiency
virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome [HIV/AIDS] 58, 59, malignancy, and
transplants 18, 60, 61 can increase susceptibility to infection as do a variety of
medications that alter the normal flora (e.g., antimicrobial agents, gastric acid
suppressants, corticosteroids, antirejection drugs, antineoplastic agents, and
immunosuppressive drugs). Surgical procedures and radiation therapy impair
defenses of the skin and other involved organ systems. Indwelling devices such
as urinary catheters, endotracheal tubes, central venous and arterial catheters 62
64
and synthetic implants facilitate development of HAIs by allowing potential
pathogens to bypass local defenses that would ordinarily impede their invasion
and by providing surfaces for development of bioflms that may facilitate
adherence of microorganisms and protect from antimicrobial activity 65. Some
infections associated with invasive procedures result from transmission within the
healthcare facility; others arise from the patients endogenous flora 46-50. High-risk
patient populations with noteworthy risk factors for infection are discussed further
in Sections I.D, I.E., and I.F.

I.B.3. Modes of transmission Several classes of pathogens can cause

infection, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and prions. The modes of
transmission vary by type of organism and some infectious agents may be
transmitted by more than one route: some are transmitted primarily by direct or
indirect contact, (e.g., Herpes simplex virus [HSV], respiratory syncytial virus,
Staphylococcus aureus), others by the droplet, (e.g., influenza virus, B. pertussis)
or airborne routes (e.g., M. tuberculosis). Other infectious agents, such as
bloodborne viruses (e.g., hepatitis B and C viruses [HBV, HCV] and HIV are
transmitted rarely in healthcare settings, via percutaneous or mucous membrane
exposure. Importantly, not all infectious agents are transmitted from person to
person. These are distinguished in Appendix A. The three principal routes of
transmission are summarized below.

I.B.3.a. Contact transmission The most common mode of transmission,

contact transmission is divided into two subgroups: direct contact and indirect
contact.

15

I.B.3.a.i. Direct contact transmission Direct transmission occurs when

microorganisms are transferred from one infected person to another person
without a contaminated intermediate object or person. Opportunities for direct
contact transmission between patients and healthcare personnel have been
summarized in the Guideline for Infection Control in Healthcare Personnel, 1998
17
and include:
blood or other blood-containing body fluids from a patient directly
enters a caregivers body through contact with a mucous membrane 66
or breaks (i.e., cuts, abrasions) in the skin 67.
mites from a scabies-infested patient are transferred to the skin of a
caregiver while he/she is having direct ungloved contact with the
patients skin 68, 69.
a healthcare provider develops herpetic whitlow on a finger after
contact with HSV when providing oral care to a patient without using
gloves or HSV is transmitted to a patient from a herpetic whitlow on an
ungloved hand of a healthcare worker (HCW) 70, 71.

I.B.3.a.ii. Indirect contact transmission Indirect transmission involves the

transfer of an infectious agent through a contaminated intermediate object or
person. In the absence of a point-source outbreak, it is difficult to determine how
indirect transmission occurs. However, extensive evidence cited in the Guideline
for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care Settings suggests that the contaminated hands
of healthcare personnel are important contributors to indirect contact
transmission 16. Examples of opportunities for indirect contact transmission
include:
Hands of healthcare personnel may transmit pathogens after touching
an infected or colonized body site on one patient or a contaminated
inanimate object, if hand hygiene is not performed before touching
another patient.72, 73.
Patient-care devices (e.g., electronic thermometers, glucose
monitoring devices) may transmit pathogens if devices contaminated
with blood or body fluids are shared between patients without cleaning
and disinfecting between patients74 75-77.
Shared toys may become a vehicle for transmitting respiratory viruses
(e.g., respiratory syncytial virus 24, 78, 79 or pathogenic bacteria (e.g.,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 80) among pediatric patients.
Instruments that are inadequately cleaned between patients before
disinfection or sterilization (e.g., endoscopes or surgical instruments)
81-85
or that have manufacturing defects that interfere with the
effectiveness of reprocessing 86, 87 may transmit bacterial and viral
pathogens.
Clothing, uniforms, laboratory coats, or isolation gowns used as personal
protective equipment (PPE), may become contaminated with potential pathogens
after care of a patient colonized or infected with an infectious agent, (e.g., MRSA
88
, VRE 89, and C. difficile 90. Although contaminated clothing has not been

16

implicated directly in transmission, the potential exists for soiled garments to

transfer infectious agents to successive patients.

I.B.3.b. Droplet transmission Droplet transmission is, technically, a form of

contact transmission, and some infectious agents transmitted by the droplet route
also may be transmitted by the direct and indirect contact routes. However, in
contrast to contact transmission, respiratory droplets carrying infectious
pathogens transmit infection when they travel directly from the respiratory tract of
the infectious individual to susceptible mucosal surfaces of the recipient,
generally over short distances, necessitating facial protection. Respiratory
droplets are generated when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks 91, 92
or during procedures such as suctioning, endotracheal intubation, 93-96, cough
induction by chest physiotherapy 97 and cardiopulmonary resuscitation 98, 99.
Evidence for droplet transmission comes from epidemiological studies of disease
outbreaks 100-103, experimental studies 104 and from information on aerosol
dynamics 91, 105. Studies have shown that the nasal mucosa, conjunctivae and
less frequently the mouth, are susceptible portals of entry for respiratory viruses
106
. The maximum distance for droplet transmission is currently unresolved,
although pathogens transmitted by the droplet route have not been transmitted
through the air over long distances, in contrast to the airborne pathogens
discussed below. Historically, the area of defined risk has been a distance of <3
feet around the patient and is based on epidemiologic and simulated studies of
selected infections 103, 104. Using this distance for donning masks has been
effective in preventing transmission of infectious agents via the droplet route.
However, experimental studies with smallpox 107, 108 and investigations during the
global SARS outbreaks of 2003 101 suggest that droplets from patients with these
two infections could reach persons located 6 feet or more from their source. It is
likely that the distance droplets travel depends on the velocity and mechanism by
which respiratory droplets are propelled from the source, the density of
respiratory secretions, environmental factors such as temperature and humidity,
and the ability of the pathogen to maintain infectivity over that distance 105. Thus,
a distance of <3 feet around the patient is best viewed as an example of what is
meant by a short distance from a patient and should not be used as the sole
criterion for deciding when a mask should be donned to protect from droplet
exposure. Based on these considerations, it may be prudent to don a mask when
within 6 to 10 feet of the patient or upon entry into the patients room, especially
when exposure to emerging or highly virulent pathogens is likely. More studies
are needed to improve understanding of droplet transmission under various
circumstances.

Droplet size is another variable under discussion. Droplets traditionally have

been defined as being >5 m in size. Droplet nuclei, particles arising from
desiccation of suspended droplets, have been associated with airborne
transmission and defined as <5 m in size 105 , a reflection of the pathogenesis of
pulmonary tuberculosis which is not generalizeable to other organisms.
Observations of particle dynamics have demonstrated that a range of droplet
sizes, including those with diameters of 30m or greater, can remain suspended

17

in the air 109 . The behavior of droplets and droplet nuclei affect
recommendations for preventing transmission. Whereas fine airborne particles
containing pathogens that are able to remain infective may transmit infections
over long distances, requiring AIIR to prevent its dissemination within a facility;
organisms transmitted by the droplet route do not remain infective over long
distances, and therefore do not require special air handling and ventilation.
Examples of infectious agents that are transmitted via the droplet route include
Bordetella pertussis 110, influenza virus 23, adenovirus 111 , rhinovirus 104,
Mycoplasma pneumoniae 112, SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) 21, 96,
113
, group A streptococcus 114, and Neisseria meningitidis 95, 103, 115. Although
respiratory syncytial virus may be transmitted by the droplet route, direct contact
with infected respiratory secretions is the most important determinant of
transmission and consistent adherence to Standard plus Contact Precautions
prevents transmission in healthcare settings 24, 116, 117.

Rarely, pathogens that are not transmitted routinely by the droplet route are
dispersed into the air over short distances. For example, although S. aureus is
transmitted most frequently by the contact route, viral upper respiratory tract
infection has been associated with increased dispersal of S. aureus from the
nose into the air for a distance of 4 feet under both outbreak and experimental
conditions and is known as the cloud baby and cloud adult phenomenon118-120.

I.B.3.c. Airborne transmission Airborne transmission occurs by

dissemination of either airborne droplet nuclei or small particles in the respirable
size range containing infectious agents that remain infective over time and
distance (e.g., spores of Aspergillus spp, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis).
Microorganisms carried in this manner may be dispersed over long distances by
air currents and may be inhaled by susceptible individuals who have not had
face-to-face contact with (or been in the same room with) the infectious individual
121-124
. Preventing the spread of pathogens that are transmitted by the airborne
route requires the use of special air handling and ventilation systems (e.g., AIIRs)
to contain and then safely remove the infectious agent 11, 12. Infectious agents to
which this applies include Mycobacterium tuberculosis 124-127, rubeola virus
(measles) 122, and varicella-zoster virus (chickenpox) 123. In addition, published
data suggest the possibility that variola virus (smallpox) may be transmitted over
long distances through the air under unusual circumstances and AIIRs are
recommended for this agent as well; however, droplet and contact routes are the
more frequent routes of transmission for smallpox 108, 128, 129. In addition to AIIRs,
respiratory protection with NIOSH certified N95 or higher level respirator is
recommended for healthcare personnel entering the AIIR to prevent acquisition
of airborne infectious agents such as M. tuberculosis 12.

For certain other respiratory infectious agents, such as influenza 130, 131 and
rhinovirus 104, and even some gastrointestinal viruses (e.g., norovirus 132 and
rotavirus 133 ) there is some evidence that the pathogen may be transmitted via
small-particle aerosols, under natural and experimental conditions. Such
transmission has occurred over distances longer than 3 feet but within a defined

18

airspace (e.g., patient room), suggesting that it is unlikely that these agents
remain viable on air currents that travel long distances. AIIRs are not required
routinely to prevent transmission of these agents. Additional issues concerning
examples of small particle aerosol transmission of agents that are most
frequently transmitted by the droplet route are discussed below.

I.B.3.d. Emerging issues concerning airborne transmission of infectious

agents.

I.B.3.d.i. Transmission from patients The emergence of SARS in 2002, the

importation of monkeypox into the United States in 2003, and the emergence of
avian influenza present challenges to the assignment of isolation categories
because of conflicting information and uncertainty about possible routes of
transmission. Although SARS-CoV is transmitted primarily by contact and/or
droplet routes, airborne transmission over a limited distance (e.g. within a room),
has been suggested, though not proven 134-141. This is true of other infectious
agents such as influenza virus 130 and noroviruses 132, 142, 143. Influenza viruses
are transmitted primarily by close contact with respiratory droplets 23, 102 and
acquisition by healthcare personnel has been prevented by Droplet Precautions,
even when positive pressure rooms were used in one center 144 However,
inhalational transmission could not be excluded in an outbreak of influenza in the
passengers and crew of a single aircraft 130. Observations of a protective effect
of UV lights in preventing influenza among patients with tuberculosis during the
influenza pandemic of 1957-58 have been used to suggest airborne
transmission 145, 146.
In contrast to the strict interpretation of an airborne route for transmission (i.e.,
long distances beyond the patient room environment), short distance
transmission by small particle aerosols generated under specific circumstances
(e.g., during endotracheal intubation) to persons in the immediate area near the
patient has been demonstrated. Also, aerosolized particles <100 m can remain
suspended in air when room air current velocities exceed the terminal settling
velocities of the particles 109. SARS-CoV transmission has been associated with
endotracheal intubation, noninvasive positive pressure ventilation, and cardio
pulmonary resuscitation 93, 94, 96, 98, 141. Although the most frequent routes of
transmission of noroviruses are contact and food and waterborne routes, several
reports suggest that noroviruses may be transmitted through aerosolization of
infectious particles from vomitus or fecal material 142, 143, 147, 148. It is hypothesized
that the aerosolized particles are inhaled and subsequently swallowed.

Roy and Milton proposed a new classification for aerosol transmission when
evaluating routes of SARS transmission: 1) obligate: under natural conditions,
disease occurs following transmission of the agent only through inhalation of
small particle aerosols (e.g., tuberculosis); 2) preferential: natural infection results
from transmission through multiple routes, but small particle aerosols are the
predominant route (e.g. measles, varicella); and 3) opportunistic: agents that
naturally cause disease through other routes, but under special circumstances

19

may be transmitted via fine particle aerosols 149. This conceptual framework can
explain rare occurrences of airborne transmission of agents that are transmitted
most frequently by other routes (e.g., smallpox, SARS, influenza, noroviruses).
Concerns about unknown or possible routes of transmission of agents associated
with severe disease and no known treatment often result in more extreme
prevention strategies than may be necessary; therefore, recommended
precautions could change as the epidemiology of an emerging infection is
defined and controversial issues are resolved.

I.B.3.d.ii. Transmission from the environment Some airborne infectious

agents are derived from the environment and do not usually involve person-to
person transmission. For example, anthrax spores present in a finely milled
powdered preparation can be aerosolized from contaminated environmental
surfaces and inhaled into the respiratory tract 150, 151. Spores of environmental
fungi (e.g., Aspergillus spp.) are ubiquitous in the environment and may cause
disease in immunocompromised patients who inhale aerosolized (e.g., via
construction dust) spores 152, 153. As a rule, neither of these organisms is
subsequently transmitted from infected patients. However, there is one well-
documented report of person-to-person transmission of Aspergillus sp. in the ICU
setting that was most likey due to the aerosolization of spores during wound
debridement 154. A Protective Environment refers to isolation practices designed
to decrease the risk of exposure to environmental fungal agents in allogeneic
HSCT patients 11, 14, 15, 155-158.
Environmental sources of respiratory pathogens (eg. Legionella) transmitted to
humans through a common aerosol source is distinct from direct patient-to
patient transmission.

I.B.3.e. Other sources of infection Transmission of infection from sources

other than infectious individuals include those associated with common
environmental sources or vehicles (e.g. contaminated food, water, or medications
(e.g. intravenous fluids). Although Aspergillus spp. have been recovered from
hospital water systems 159, the role of water as a reservoir for
immunosuppressed patients remains uncertain. Vectorborne transmission of
infectious agents from mosquitoes, flies, rats, and other vermin also can occur in
healthcare settings. Prevention of vector borne transmission is not addressed in
this document.

I.C. Infectious agents of special infection control interest for healthcare

settings

Several infectious agents with important infection control implications that either
were not discussed extensively in previous isolation guidelines or have emerged
recently are discussed below. These are epidemiologically important organisms
(e.g., C. difficile), agents of bioterrorism, prions, SARS-CoV, monkeypox,
noroviruses, and the hemorrhagic fever viruses. Experience with these agents
has broadened the understanding of modes of transmission and effective

20

preventive measures. These agents are included for purposes of information

and, for some (i.e., SARS-CoV, monkeypox), because of the lessons that have
been learned about preparedness planning and responding effectively to new
infectious agents.

I.C.1. Epidemiologically important organisms Any infectious agents

transmitted in healthcare settings may, under defined conditions, become
targeted for control because it is or has become epidemiologically important. C.
difficile is specifically discussed below because of wide recognition of its current
importance in U.S. healthcare facilities. In determining what constitutes an
epidemiologically important organism, the following characteristics apply:
A propensity for transmission within healthcare facilities based on
published reports and the occurrence of temporal or geographic clusters
of > 2 patients, (e.g., C.difficile, norovirus, respiratory syncytial virus
(RSV), influenza, rotavirus, Enterobacter spp; Serratia spp., group A
streptococcus). A single case of healthcare-associated invasive disease
caused by certain pathogens (e.g., group A streptococcus post-operatively
160
, in burn units 161, or in a LTCF 162; Legionella sp. 14, 163, Aspergillus sp.
164
) is generally considered a trigger for investigation and enhanced
control measures because of the risk of additional cases and severity of
illness associated with these infections. Antimicrobial resistance
Resistance to first-line therapies (e.g., MRSA, VISA, VRSA, VRE, ESBL-
producing organisms).
Common and uncommon microorganisms with unusual patterns of
resistance within a facility (e.g., the first isolate of Burkholderia cepacia
complex or Ralstonia spp. in non-CF patients or a quinolone-resistant
strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a facility).
Difficult to treat because of innate or acquired resistance to multiple
classes of antimicrobial agents (e.g., Stenotrophomonas maltophilia,
Acinetobacter spp.).
Association with serious clinical disease, increased morbidity and mortality
(e.g., MRSA and MSSA, group A streptococcus)
A newly discovered or reemerging pathogen

I.C.1.a. C.difficile C. difficile is a spore-forming gram positive anaerobic bacillus

that was first isolated from stools of neonates in 1935 165 and identified as the
most commonly identified causative agent of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and
pseudomembranous colitis in 1977 166. This pathogen is a major cause of
healthcare-associated diarrhea and has been responsible for many large
outbreaks in healthcare settings that were extremely difficult to control. Important
factors that contribute to healthcare-associated outbreaks include environmental
contamination, persistence of spores for prolonged periods of time, resistance of
spores to routinely used disinfectants and antiseptics, hand carriage by
healthcare personnel to other patients, and exposure of patients to frequent
courses of antimicrobial agents 167 . Antimicrobials most frequently associated

21

with increased risk of C. difficile include third generation cephalosporins,

clindamycin, vancomycin, and fluoroquinolones.

Since 2001, outbreaks and sporadic cases of C. difficile with increased morbidity
and mortality have been observed in several U.S. states, Canada, England and
the Netherlands 168-172. The same strain of C. difficile has been implicated in
these outbreaks 173. This strain, toxinotype III, North American PFGE type 1, and
PCR-ribotype 027 (NAP1/027). has been found to hyperproduce toxin A (16 fold
increase) and toxin B (23 fold increase) compared with isolates from 12 different
pulsed-field gel electrophoresisPFGE types. A recent survey of U.S. infectious
disease physicians found that 40% perceived recent increases in the incidence
and severity of C. difficile disease174. Standardization of testing methodology and
surveillance definitions is needed for accurate comparisons of trends in rates
among hospitals 175. It is hypothesized that the incidence of disease and
apparent heightened transmissibility of this new strain may be due, at least in
part, to the greater production of toxins A and B, increasing the severity of
diarrhea and resulting in more environmental contamination. Considering the
greater morbidity, mortality, length of stay, and costs associated with C. difficile
disease in both acute care and long term care facilities, control of this pathogen
is now even more important than previously. Prevention of transmission focuses
on syndromic application of Contact Precautions for patients with diarrhea,
accurate identification of patients, environmental measures (e.g., rigorous
cleaning of patient rooms) and consistent hand hygiene. Use of soap and water,
rather than alcohol based handrubs, for mechanical removal of spores from
hands, and a bleach-containing disinfectant (5000 ppm) for environmental
disinfection, may be valuable when there is transmission in a healthcare facility.
See Appendix A for specific recommendations.

I.C.1. b. Multidrug-Resistant Organisms (MDROs) In general, MDROs are

defined as microorganisms predominantly bacteria that are resistant to one or
more classes of antimicrobial agents176. Although the names of certain MDROs
suggest resistance to only one agent (e.g., methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus [MRSA], vancomycin resistant enterococcus [VRE]), these pathogens are
usually resistant to all but a few commercially available antimicrobial agents. This
latter feature defines MDROs that are considered to be epidemiologically
important and deserve special attention in healthcare facilities177. Other MDROs
of current concern include multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae
(MDRSP) which is resistant to penicillin and other broad-spectrum agents such
as macrolides and fluroquinolones, multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacilli
(MDR- GNB), especially those producing extended spectrum beta-lactamases
(ESBLs); and strains of S. aureus that are intermediate or resistant to
vancomycin (i.e., VISA and VRSA)178-197 198.

MDROs are transmitted by the same routes as antimicrobial susceptible

infectious agents. Patient-to-patient transmission in healthcare settings, usually
via hands of HCWs, has been a major factor accounting for the increase in
MDRO incidence and prevalence, especially for MRSA and VRE in acute care

22

facilities199-201. Preventing the emergence and transmission of these pathogens

requires a comprehensive approach that includes administrative involvement and
measures (e.g., nurse staffing, communication systems, performance
improvement processes to ensure adherence to recommended infection control
measures), education and training of medical and other healthcare personnel,
judicious antibiotic use, comprehensive surveillance for targeted MDROs,
application of infection control precautions during patient care, environmental
measures (e.g., cleaning and disinfection of the patient care environment and
equipment, dedicated single-patient-use of non-critical equipment), and
decolonization therapy when appropriate.

The prevention and control of MDROs is a national priority - one that requires
that all healthcare facilities and agencies assume responsibility and participate in
community-wide control programs176, 177. A detailed discussion of this topic and
recommendations for prevention was published in 2006 may be found at
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/ar/mdroGuideline2006.pdf

I.C.2. Agents of bioterrorism CDC has designated the agents that cause
anthrax, smallpox, plague, tularemia, viral hemorrhagic fevers, and botulism as
Category A (high priority) because these agents can be easily disseminated
environmentally and/or transmitted from person to person; can cause high
mortality and have the potential for major public health impact; might cause
public panic and social disruption; and require special action for public health
preparedness202. General information relevant to infection control in healthcare
settings for Category A agents of bioterrorism is summarized in Table 3. Consult
www.bt.cdc.gov for additional, updated Category A agent information as well as
information concerning Category B and C agents of bioterrorism and updates.
Category B and C agents are important but are not as readily disseminated and
cause less morbidity and mortality than Category A agents.

Healthcare facilities confront a different set of issues when dealing with a

suspected bioterrorism event as compared with other communicable diseases.
An understanding of the epidemiology, modes of transmission, and clinical
course of each disease, as well as carefully drafted plans that provide an
approach and relevant websites and other resources for disease-specific
guidance to healthcare, administrative, and support personnel, are essential for
responding to and managing a bioterrorism event. Infection control issues to be
addressed include: 1) identifying persons who may be exposed or infected; 2)
preventing transmission among patients, healthcare personnel, and visitors; 3)
providing treatment, chemoprophylaxis or vaccine to potentially large numbers of
people; 4) protecting the environment including the logistical aspects of securing
sufficient numbers of AIIRs or designating areas for patient cohorts when there
are an insufficient number of AIIRs available;5) providing adequate quantities of
appropriate personal protective equipment; and 6) identifying appropriate staff to
care for potentially infectious patients (e.g., vaccinated healthcare personnel for

23

care of patients with smallpox). The response is likely to differ for exposures
resulting from an intentional release compared with naturally occurring disease
because of the large number persons that can be exposed at the same time and
possible differences in pathogenicity.

A variety of sources offer guidance for the management of persons exposed to

the most likely agents of bioterrorism. Federal agency websites (e.g.,
http://www.usamriid.army.mil/publicationspage.html , www.bt.cdc.gov ) and state
and county health department web sites should be consulted for the most up-to
date information. Sources of information on specific agents include: anthrax 203;
smallpox 204-206; plague 207, 208; botulinum toxin 209; tularemia 210; and
hemorrhagic fever viruses: 211, 212.

I.C.2.a. Pre-event administration of smallpox (vaccinia) vaccine to

healthcare personnel Vaccination of personnel in preparation for a possible
smallpox exposure has important infection control implications 213-215. These
include the need for meticulous screening for vaccine contraindications in
persons who are at increased risk for adverse vaccinia events; containment and
monitoring of the vaccination site to prevent transmission in the healthcare
setting and at home; and the management of patients with vaccinia-related
adverse events 216, 217. The pre-event U.S. smallpox vaccination program of 2003
is an example of the effectiveness of carefully developed recommendations for
both screening potential vaccinees for contraindications and vaccination site care
and monitoring. Approximately 760,000 individuals were vaccinated in the
Department of Defense and 40,000 in the civilian or public health populations
from December 2002 to February 2005, including approximately 70,000 who
worked in healthcare settings. There were no cases of eczema vaccinatum,
progressive vaccinia, fetal vaccinia, or contact transfer of vaccinia in healthcare
settings or in military workplaces 218, 219. Outside the healthcare setting, there
were 53 cases of contact transfer from military vaccinees to close personal
contacts (e.g., bed partners or contacts during participation in sports such as
wrestling 220). All contact transfers were from individuals who were not following
recommendations to cover their vaccination sites. Vaccinia virus was confirmed
by culture or PCR in 30 cases, and two of the confirmed cases resulted from
tertiary transfer. All recipients, including one breast-fed infant, recovered without
complication. Subsequent studies using viral culture and PCR techniques have
confirmed the effectiveness of semipermeable dressings to contain vaccinia 221
224
. This experience emphasizes the importance of ensuring that newly
vaccinated healthcare personnel adhere to recommended vaccination-site care,
especially if they are to care for high-risk patients. Recommendations for pre-
event smallpox vaccination of healthcare personnel and vaccinia-related infection
control recommendations are published in the MMWR 216, 225 with updates posted
on the CDC bioterrorism web site 205.

I.C.3. Prions Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a rapidly progressive,

degenerative, neurologic disorder of humans with an incidence in the United
States of approximately 1 person/million population/year 226, 227

24

(http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/cjd/). CJD is believed to be caused by a

transmissible proteinaceous infectious agent termed a prion. Infectious prions are
isoforms of a host-encoded glycoprotein known as the prion protein. The
incubation period (i.e., time between exposure and and onset of symptoms)
varies from two years to many decades. However, death typically occurs within 1
year of the onset of symptoms. Approximately 85% of CJD cases occur
sporadically with no known environmental source of infection and 10% are
familial. Iatrogenic transmission has occurred with most resulting from treatment
with human cadaveric pituitary-derived growth hormone or gonadotropin 228, 229,
from implantation of contaminated human dura mater grafts 230 or from corneal
transplants 231). Transmission has been linked to the use of contaminated
neurosurgical instruments or stereotactic electroencephalogram electrodes 232,
233 , 234 , 235
.

Prion diseases in animals include scrapie in sheep and goats, bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE, or mad cow disease) in cattle, and chronic wasting
disease in deer and elk 236. BSE, first recognized in the United Kingdom (UK) in
1986, was associated with a major epidemic among cattle that had consumed
contaminated meat and bone meal.

The possible transmission of BSE to humans causing variant CJD (vCJD) was
first described in 1996 and subsequently found to be associated with
consumption of BSE-contaminated cattle products primarily in the United
Kingdom. There is strong epidemiologic and laboratory evidence for a causal
association between the causative agent of BSE and vCJD 237. Although most
cases of vCJD have been reported from the UK, a few cases also have been
reported from Europe, Japan, Canada, and the United States. Most vCJD cases
worldwide lived in or visited the UK during the years of a large outbreak of BSE
(1980-96) and may have consumed contaminated cattle products during that
time (http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/bse/index.htm). Although there has been
no indigenously acquired vCJD in the United States, the sporadic occurrence of
BSE in cattle in North America has heightened awareness of the possibility that
such infections could occur and have led to increased surveillance activities.
Updated information may be found on the following website:
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/vcjd/index.htm. The public health impact of prion
diseases has been reviewed 238.

vCJD in humans has different clinical and pathologic characteristics from

sporadic or classic CJD 239, including the following: 1) younger median age at
death: 28 (range 16-48) vs. 68 years; 2) longer duration of illness: median 14
months vs. 4-6 months; 3) increased frequency of sensory symptoms and early
psychiatric symptoms with delayed onset of frank neurologic signs; and 4)
detection of prions in tonsillar and other lymphoid tissues from vCJD patients but
not from sporadic CJD patients 240. Similar to sporadic CJD, there have been no
reported cases of direct human-to-human transmission of vCJD by casual or
environmental contact, droplet, or airborne routes. Ongoing blood safety
surveillance in the U.S. has not detected sporadic CJD transmission through

25

blood transfusion 241-243. However, bloodborne transmission of vCJD is believed

to have occurred in two UK patients 244, 245. The following FDA websites provide
information on steps that are being taken in the US to protect the blood supply
from CJD and vCJD: http://www.fda.gov/cber/gdlns/cjdvcjd.htm;

http://www.fda.gov/cber/gdlns/cjdvcjdq&a.htm.

Standard Precautions are used when caring for patients with suspected or
confirmed CJD or vCJD. However, special precautions are recommended for
tissue handling in the histology laboratory and for conducting an autopsy,
embalming, and for contact with a body that has undergone autopsy 246.
Recommendations for reprocessing surgical instruments to prevent transmission
of CJD in healthcare settings have been published by the World Health
Organization (WHO) and are currently under review at CDC.

Questions concerning notification of patients potentially exposed to CJD or vCJD

through contaminated instruments and blood products from patients with CJD or
vCJD or at risk of having vCJD may arise. The risk of transmission associated
with such exposures is believed to be extremely low but may vary based on the
specific circumstance. Therefore consultation on appropriate options is advised.
The United Kingdom has developed several documents that clinicians and
patients in the US may find useful
(http://www.hpa.org.uk/infections/topics_az/cjd/information_documents.htm).

I.C.4. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) SARS is a newly

discovered respiratory disease that emerged in China late in 2002 and spread to
several countries 135, 140; Mainland China, Hong Kong, Hanoi, Singapore, and
Toronto were affected significantly. SARS is caused by SARS CoV, a previously
unrecognized member of the coronavirus family 247, 248. The incubation period
from exposure to the onset of symptoms is 2 to 7 days but can be as long as 10
days and uncommonly even longer 249. The illness is initially difficult to
distinguish from other common respiratory infections. Signs and symptoms
usually include fever >38.0oC and chills and rigors, sometimes accompanied by
headache, myalgia, and mild to severe respiratory symptoms. Radiographic
finding of atypical pneumonia is an important clinical indicator of possible SARS.
Compared with adults, children have been affected less frequently, have milder
disease, and are less likely to transmit SARS-CoV 135, 249-251. The overall case
fatality rate is approximately 6.0%; underlying disease and advanced age
increase the risk of mortality (www.who.int/csr/sarsarchive/2003_05_07a/en/).

Outbreaks in healthcare settings, with transmission to large numbers of

healthcare personnel and patients have been a striking feature of SARS;
undiagnosed, infectious patients and visitors were important initiators of these
outbreaks 21, 252-254. The relative contribution of potential modes of transmission is
not precisely known. There is ample evidence for droplet and contact
transmission 96, 101, 113; however, opportunistic airborne transmission cannot be
excluded 101, 135-139, 149, 255. For example, exposure to aerosol-generating

26

procedures (e.g., endotracheal intubation, suctioning) was associated with

transmission of infection to large numbers of healthcare personnel outside of the
United States 93, 94, 96, 98, 253.Therefore, aerosolization of small infectious particles
generated during these and other similar procedures could be a risk factor for
transmission to others within a multi-bed room or shared airspace. A review of
the infection control literature generated from the SARS outbreaks of 2003
concluded that the greatest risk of transmission is to those who have close
contact, are not properly trained in use of protective infection control procedures,
do not consistently use PPE; and that N95 or higher respirators may offer
additional protection to those exposed to aerosol- generating procedures and
high risk activities 256, 257. Organizational and individual factors that affected
adherence to infection control practices for SARS also were identified 257.

Control of SARS requires a coordinated, dynamic response by multiple

disciplines in a healthcare setting 9. Early detection of cases is accomplished by
screening persons with symptoms of a respiratory infection for history of travel to
areas experiencing community transmission or contact with SARS patients,
followed by implementation of Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette (i.e., placing
a mask over the patients nose and mouth) and physical separation from other
patients in common waiting areas.The precise combination of precautions to
protect healthcare personnel has not been determined. At the time of this
publication, CDC recommends Standard Precautions, with emphasis on the use
of hand hygiene, Contact Precautions with emphasis on environmental cleaning
due to the detection of SARS CoV RNA by PCR on surfaces in rooms occupied
by SARS patients 138, 254, 258, Airborne Precautions, including use of fit-tested
NIOSH-approved N95 or higher level respirators, and eye protection 259. In Hong
Kong, the use of Droplet and Contact Precautions, which included use of a mask
but not a respirator, was effective in protecting healthcare personnel113. However,
in Toronto, consistent use of an N95 respirator was slightly more protective than
a mask 93. It is noteworthy that there was no transmission of SARS-CoV to public
hospital workers in Vietnam despite inconsistent use of infection control
measures, including use of PPE, which suggests other factors (e.g., severity of
disease, frequency of high risk procedures or events, environmental features)
may influence opportunities for transmission 260.

SARS-CoV also has been transmitted in the laboratory setting through breaches
in recommended laboratory practices. Research laboratories where SARS-CoV
was under investigation were the source of most cases reported after the first
series of outbreaks in the winter and spring of 2003 261, 262. Studies of the SARS
outbreaks of 2003 and transmissions that occurred in the laboratory re-affirm the
effectiveness of recommended infection control precautions and highlight the
importance of consistent adherence to these measures.

Lessons from the SARS outbreaks are useful for planning to respond to future
public health crises, such as pandemic influenza and bioterrorism events.
Surveillance for cases among patients and healthcare personnel, ensuring
availability of adequate supplies and staffing, and limiting access to healthcare

27

facilities were important factors in the response to SARS that have been
summarized 9. Guidance for infection control precautions in various settings is
available at www.cdc.gov/ncidod/sars.

I.C.5. Monkeypox Monkeypox is a rare viral disease found mostly in the rain
forest countries of Central and West Africa. The disease is caused by an
orthopoxvirus that is similar in appearance to smallpox but causes a milder
disease. The only recognized outbreak of human monkeypox in the United
States was detected in June 2003 after several people became ill following
contact with sick pet prairie dogs. Infection in the prairie dogs was subsequently
traced to their contact with a shipment of animals from Africa, including giant
Gambian rats 263. This outbreak demonstrates the importance of recognition and
prompt reporting of unusual disease presentations by clinicians to enable prompt
identification of the etiology; and the potential of epizootic diseases to spread
from animal reservoirs to humans through personal and occupational exposure
264
.

Limited data on transmission of monkeypox are available. Transmission from

infected animals and humans is believed to occur primarily through direct contact
with lesions and respiratory secretions; airborne transmission from animals to
humans is unlikely but cannot be excluded, and may have occurred in veterinary
practices (e.g., during administration of nebulized medications to ill prairie dogs
265
). Among humans, four instances of monkeypox transmission within hospitals
have been reported in Africa among children, usually related to sharing the same
ward or bed 266, 267. Additional recent literature documents transmission of Congo
Basin monkeypox in a hospital compound for an extended number of generations
268
.

There has been no evidence of airborne or any other person-to-person

transmission of monkeypox in the United States, and no new cases of
monkeypox have been identified since the outbreak in June 2003 269. The
outbreak strain is a clade of monkeypox distinct from the Congo Basin clade and
may have different epidemiologic properties (including human-to-human
transmission potential) from monkeypox strains of the Congo Basin 270; this
awaits further study. Smallpox vaccine is 85% protective against Congo Basin
monkeypox 271. Since there is an associated case fatality rate of <10%,
administration of smallpox vaccine within 4 days to individuals who have had
direct exposure to patients or animals with monkeypox is a reasonable
consideration 272. For the most current information on monkeypox, see
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/monkeypox/clinicians.htm.

I.C.6. Noroviruses Noroviruses, formerly referred to as Norwalk-like viruses, are

members of the Caliciviridae family. These agents are transmitted via
contaminated food or water and from person-to-person, causing explosive
outbreaks of gastrointestinal disease 273. Environmental contamination also has
been documented as a contributing factor in ongoing transmission during
outbreaks 274, 275. Although noroviruses cannot be propagated in cell culture,

28

DNA detection by molecular diagnostic techniques has facilitated a greater

appreciation of their role in outbreaks of gastrointestinal disease 276. Reported
outbreaks in hospitals 132, 142, 277, nursing homes 275, 278-283, cruise ships 284, 285,
hotels 143, 147, schools 148, and large crowded shelters established for hurricane
evacuees 286, demonstrate their highly contagious nature, the disruptive impact
they have in healthcare facilities and the community, and the difficulty of
controlling outbreaks in settings where people share common facilites and
space. Of note, there is nearly a 5 fold increase in the risk to patients in
outbreaks where a patient is the index case compared with exposure of patients
during outbreaks where a staff member is the index case 287.

The average incubation period for gastroenteritis caused by noroviruses is 12-48

hours and the clinical course lasts 12-60 hours 273. Illness is characterized by
acute onset of nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and/or diarrhea. The
disease is largely self-limited; rarely, death caused by severe dehydration can
occur, particularly among the elderly with debilitating health conditions.

The epidemiology of norovirus outbreaks shows that even though primary cases
may result from exposure to a fecally-contaminated food or water, secondary and
tertiary cases often result from person-to-person transmission that is facilitated
by contamination of fomites 273, 288 and dissemination of infectious particles,
especially during the process of vomiting 132, 142, 143, 147, 148, 273, 279, 280. Widespread,
persistent and inapparent contamination of the environment and fomites can
make outbreaks extremely difficult to control 147, 275, 284.These clinical
observations and the detection of norovirus DNA on horizontal surfaces 5 feet
above the level that might be touched normally suggest that, under certain
circumstances, aerosolized particles may travel distances beyond 3 feet 147. It is
hypothesized that infectious particles may be aerosolized from vomitus, inhaled,
and swallowed. In addition, individuals who are responsible for cleaning the
environment may be at increased risk of infection. Development of disease and
transmission may be facilitated by the low infectious dose (i.e., <100 viral
particles) 289 and the resistance of these viruses to the usual cleaning and
disinfection agents (i.e., may survive < 10 ppm chlorine) 290-292. An alternate
phenolic agent that was shown to be effective against feline calicivirus was used
for environmental cleaning in one outbreak 275, 293. There are insufficient data to
determine the efficacy of alcohol-based hand rubs against noroviruses when the
hands are not visibly soiled 294. Absence of disease in certain individuals during
an outbreak may be explained by protection from infection conferred by the B
histo-blood group antigen 295. Consultation on outbreaks of gastroenteritis is
available through CDCs Division of Viral and Rickettsial Diseases 296.

I.C.7. Hemorrhagic fever viruses (HFV) The hemorrhagic fever viruses are a
mixed group of viruses that cause serious disease with high fever, skin rash,
bleeding diathesis, and in some cases, high mortality; the disease caused is
referred to as viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF). Among the more commonly known
HFVs are Ebola and Marburg viruses (Filoviridae), Lassa virus (Arenaviridae),
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever and Rift Valley Fever virus (Bunyaviridae),

29

and Dengue and Yellow fever viruses (Flaviviridae) 212, 297. These viruses are
transmitted to humans via contact with infected animals or via arthropod vectors.
While none of these viruses is endemic in the United States, outbreaks in
affected countries provide potential opportunities for importation by infected
humans and animals. Furthermore, there are concerns that some of these agents
could be used as bioweapons 212. Person-to-person transmission is documented
for Ebola, Marburg, Lassa and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever viruses. In
resource-limited healthcare settings, transmission of these agents to healthcare
personnel, patients and visitors has been described and in some outbreaks has
accounted for a large proportion of cases 298-300. Transmissions within
households also have occurred among individuals who had direct contact with ill
persons or their body fluids, but not to those who did not have such contact 301.

Evidence concerning the transmission of HFVs has been summarized 212, 302.
Person-to-person transmission is associated primarily with direct blood and body
fluid contact. Percutaneous exposure to contaminated blood carries a particularly
high risk for transmission and increased mortality 303, 304. The finding of large
numbers of Ebola viral particles in the skin and the lumina of sweat glands has
raised concern that transmission could occur from direct contact with intact skin
though epidemiologic evidence to support this is lacking 305. Postmortem
handling of infected bodies is an important risk for transmission 301, 306, 307. In rare
situations, cases in which the mode of transmission was unexplained among
individuals with no known direct contact , have led to speculation that airborne
transmission could have occurred 298. However, airborne transmission of
naturally occurring HFVs in humans has not been seen. In one study of airplane
passengers exposed to an in-flight index case of Lassa fever, there was no
transmission to any passengers308.

In the laboratory setting, animals have been infected experimentally with Marburg
or Ebola viruses via direct inoculation of the nose, mouth and/or conjunctiva 309,
310
and by using mechanically generated virus-containing aerosols 311, 312.
Transmission of Ebola virus among laboratory primates in an animal facility has
been described 313. Secondarily infected animals were in individual cages and
separated by approximately 3 meters. Although the possibility of airborne
transmission was suggested, the authors were not able to exclude droplet or
indirect contact transmission in this incidental observation.

Guidance on infection control precautions for HVFs that are transmitted person-
to-person have been published by CDC 1, 211 and by the Johns Hopkins Center
for Civilian Biodefense Strategies 212. The most recent recommendations at the
time of publication of this document were posted on the CDC website on 5/19/05
314
. Inconsistencies among the various recommendations have raised questions
about the appropriate precautions to use in U.S. hospitals. In less developed
countries, outbreaks of HFVs have been controlled with basic hygiene, barrier
precautions, safe injection practices, and safe burial practices 299, 306. The
preponderance of evidence on HFV transmission indicates that Standard,
Contact and Droplet Precautions with eye protection are effective in protecting

30

healthcare personnel and visitors who may attend an infected patient. Single
gloves are adequate for routine patient care; double-gloving is advised during
invasive procedures (e.g., surgery) that pose an increased risk for blood
exposure. Routine eye protection (i.e. goggles or face shield) is particularly
important. Fluid-resistant gowns should be worn for all patient contact. Airborne
Precautions are not required for routine patient care; however, use of AIIRs is
prudent when procedures that could generate infectious aerosols are performed
(e.g., endotracheal intubation, bronchoscopy, suctioning, autopsy procedures
involving oscillating saws). N95 or higher level respirators may provide added
protection for individuals in a room during aerosol-generating procedures (Table
3, Appendix A). When a patient with a syndrome consistent with hemorrhagic
fever also has a history of travel to an endemic area, precautions are initiated
upon presentation and then modified as more information is obtained (Table 2).
Patients with hemorrhagic fever syndrome in the setting of a suspected
bioweapon attack should be managed using Airborne Precautions, including
AIIRs, since the epidemiology of a potentially weaponized hemorrhagic fever
virus is unpredictable.

I.D. Transmission risks associated with specific types of healthcare

settings

Numerous factors influence differences in transmission risks among the various

healthcare settings. These include the population characteristics (e.g., increased
susceptibility to infections, type and prevalence of indwelling devices), intensity of
care, exposure to environmental sources, length of stay, and frequency of
interaction between patients/residents with each other and with HCWs. These
factors, as well as organizational priorities, goals, and resources, influence how
different healthcare settings adapt transmission prevention guidelines to meet
their specific needs 315, 316. Infection control management decisions are informed
by data regarding institutional experience/epidemiology, trends in community and
institutional HAIs, local, regional, and national epidemiology, and emerging
infectious disease threats.

I.D.1. Hospitals Infection transmission risks are present in all hospital settings.
However, certain hospital settings and patient populations have unique
conditions that predispose patients to infection and merit special mention. These
are often sentinel sites for the emergence of new transmission risks that may be
unique to that setting or present opportunities for transmission to other settings in
the hospital.

I.D.1.a. Intensive Care Units Intensive care units (ICUs) serve patients who are
immunocompromised by disease state and/or by treatment modalities, as well as
patients with major trauma, respiratory failure and other life-threatening
conditions (e.g., myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, overdoses,
strokes, gastrointestinal bleeding, renal failure, hepatic failure, multi-organ
system failure, and the extremes of age). Although ICUs account for a relatively

31

small proportion of hospitalized patients, infections acquired in these units

accounted for >20% of all HAIs 317. In the National Nosocomial Infection
Surveillance (NNIS) system, 26.6% of HAIs were reported from ICU and high risk
nursery (NICU) patients in 2002 (NNIS, unpublished data). This patient
population has increased susceptibility to colonization and infection, especially
with MDROs and Candida sp. 318, 319, because of underlying diseases and
conditions, the invasive medical devices and technology used in their care (e.g.
central venous catheters and other intravascular devices, mechanical ventilators,
extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), hemodialysis/-filtration,
pacemakers, implantable left ventricular assist devices), the frequency of contact
with healthcare personnel, prolonged length of stay, and prolonged exposure to
antimicrobial agents 320-331. Furthermore, adverse patient outcomes in this setting
are more severe and are associated with a higher mortality 332. Outbreaks
associated with a variety of bacterial, fungal and viral pathogens due to common-
source and person-to-person transmissions are frequent in adult and pediatric
ICUs 31, 333-336, 337 , 338 .

I.D.1.b. Burn Units Burn wounds can provide optimal conditions for
colonization, infection, and transmission of pathogens; infection acquired by burn
patients is a frequent cause of morbidity and mortality 320, 339, 340. In patients with
a burn injury involving >30% of the total body surface area (TBSA), the risk of
invasive burn wound infection is particularly high 341, 342. Infections that occur in
patients with burn injury involving <30% TBSA are usually associated with the
use of invasive devices. Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA,
enterococci, including VRE, gram-negative bacteria, and candida are prevalent
pathogens in burn infections 53, 340, 343-350 and outbreaks of these organisms have
been reported 351-354. Shifts over time in the predominance of pathogens causing
infections among burn patients often lead to changes in burn care practices 343,
355-358
. Burn wound infections caused by Aspergillus sp. or other environmental
molds may result from exposure to supplies contaminated during construction 359
or to dust generated during construction or other environmental disruption 360.

Hydrotherapy equipment is an important environmental reservoir of gram-

negative organisms. Its use for burn care is discouraged based on demonstrated
associations between use of contaminated hydrotherapy equipment and
infections. Burn wound infections and colonization, as well as bloodstream
infections, caused by multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa 361, A. baumannii 362, and
MRSA 352 have been associated with hydrotherapy; excision of burn wounds in
operating rooms is preferred.

Advances in burn care, specifically early excision and grafting of the burn wound,
use of topical antimicrobial agents, and institution of early enteral feeding, have
led to decreased infectious complications. Other advances have included
prophylactic antimicrobial usage, selective digestive decontamination (SDD), and
use of antimicrobial-coated catheters (ACC), but few epidemiologic studies and
no efficacy studies have been performed to show the relative benefit of these
measures 357.

32

There is no consensus on the most effective infection control practices to prevent

transmission of infections to and from patients with serious burns (e.g., single-
bed rooms 358, laminar flow 363 and high efficiency particulate air filtration [HEPA]
360
or maintaining burn patients in a separate unit without exposure to patients or
equipment from other units 364). There also is controversy regarding the need for
and type of barrier precautions for routine care of burn patients. One
retrospective study demonstrated efficacy and cost effectiveness of a simplified
barrier isolation protocol for wound colonization, emphasizing handwashing and
use of gloves, caps, masks and plastic impermeable aprons (rather than isolation
gowns) for direct patient contact 365. However, there have been no studies that
define the most effective combination of infection control precautions for use in
burn settings. Prospective studies in this area are needed.

I.D.1.c. Pediatrics Studies of the epidemiology of HAIs in children have

identified unique infection control issues in this population 63, 64, 366-370. Pediatric
intensive care unit (PICU) patients and the lowest birthweight babies in the high-
risk nursery (HRN) monitored in the NNIS system have had high rates of central
venous catheter-associated bloodstream infections 64, 320, 369-372. Additionally,
there is a high prevalence of community-acquired infections among hospitalized
infants and young children who have not yet become immune either by
vaccination or by natural infection. The result is more patients and their sibling
visitors with transmissible infections present in pediatric healthcare settings,
especially during seasonal epidemics (e.g., pertussis 36, 40, 41, respiratory viral
infections including those caused by RSV 24, influenza viruses 373, parainfluenza
virus 374, human metapneumovirus 375, and adenoviruses 376; rubeola [measles]
34
, varicella [chickenpox] 377, and rotavirus 38, 378).

Close physical contact between healthcare personnel and infants and young
children (eg. cuddling, feeding, playing, changing soiled diapers, and cleaning
copious uncontrolled respiratory secretions) provides abundant opportunities for
transmission of infectious material. Practices and behaviors such as
congregation of children in play areas where toys and bodily secretions are easily
shared and family members rooming-in with pediatric patients can further
increase the risk of transmission. Pathogenic bacteria have been recovered from
toys used by hospitalized patients 379; contaminated bath toys were implicated in
an outbreak of multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa on a pediatric oncology unit 80.
In addition, several patient factors increase the likelihood that infection will result
from exposure to pathogens in healthcare settings (e.g., immaturity of the
neonatal immune system, lack of previous natural infection and resulting
immunity, prevalence of patients with congenital or acquired immune
deficiencies, congenital anatomic anomalies, and use of life-saving invasive
devices in neontal and pediatric intensive care units) 63. There are theoretical
concerns that infection risk will increase in association with innovative practices
used in the NICU for the purpose of improving developmental outcomes, Such
factors include co-bedding 380 and kangaroo care 381 that may increase
opportunity for skin-to-skin exposure of multiple gestation infants to each other
and to their mothers, respectively; although infection risk smay actually be

33

reduced among infants receiving kangaroo care 382. Children who attend child
care centers 383, 384 and pediatric rehabilitation units 385 may increase the overall
burden of antimicrobial resistance (eg. by contributing to the reservoir of
community-associated MRSA [CA-MRSA]) 386-391. Patients in chronic care
facilities may have increased rates of colonization with resistant GNBs and may
be sources of introduction of resistant organisms to acute care settings 50.

I.D.2. Non-acute healthcare settings Healthcare is provided in various settings

outside of hospitals including facilities, such as long-term care facilities (LTCF)
(e.g. nursing homes), homes for the developmentally disabled, settings where
behavioral health services are provided, rehabilitation centers and hospices392.
In addition, healthcare may be provided in nonhealthcare settings such as
workplaces with occupational health clinics, adult day care centers, assisted
living facilities, homeless shelters, jails and prisons, school clinics and
infirmaries. Each of these settings has unique circumstances and population
risks to consider when designing and implementing an infection control program.
Several of the most common settings and their particular challenges are
discussed below. While this Guideline does not address each setting, the
principles and strategies provided may be adapted and applied as appropriate.

I.D.2.a. Long-term care The designation LTCF applies to a diverse group of

residential settings, ranging from institutions for the developmentally disabled to
nursing homes for the elderly and pediatric chronic-care facilities 393-395. Nursing
homes for the elderly predominate numerically and frequently represent long-
term care as a group of facilities. Approximately 1.8 million Americans reside in
the nations 16,500 nursing homes 396. Estimates of HAI rates of 1.8 to 13.5 per
1000 resident-care days have been reported with a range of 3 to 7 per 1000
resident-care days in the more rigorous studies 397-401. The infrastructure
described in the Department of Veterans Affairs nursing home care units is a
promising example for the development of a nationwide HAI surveillance system
for LTCFs 402.

LCTFs are different from other healthcare settings in that elderly patients at
increased risk for infection are brought together in one setting and remain in the
facility for extended periods of time; for most residents, it is their home. An
atmosphere of community is fostered and residents share common eating and
living areas, and participate in various facility-sponsored activities 403, 404. Since
able residents interact freely with each other, controlling transmission of infection
in this setting is challenging 405. Residents who are colonized or infected with
certain microorganisms are, in some cases, restricted to their room. However,
because of the psychosocial risks associated with such restriction, it has been
recommended that psychosocial needs be balanced with infection control needs
in the LTCF setting 406-409. Documented LTCF outbreaks have been caused by
various viruses (e.g., influenza virus 35, 410-412, rhinovirus 413, adenovirus
(conjunctivitis) 414, norovirus 278, 279 275, 281) and bacteria, including group A
streptococcus 162, B. pertussis 415, non-susceptible S. pneumoniae 197, 198, other
MDROs, and Clostridium difficile 416) These pathogens can lead to substantial

34

morbidity and mortality, and increased medical costs; prompt detection and
implementation of effective control measures are required.

Risk factors for infection are prevalent among LTCF residents 395, 417, 418. Age-
related declines in immunity may affect responses to immunizations for influenza
and other infectious agents, and increase susceptibility to tuberculosis.
Immobility, incontinence, dysphagia, underlying chronic diseases, poor functional
status, and age-related skin changes increase susceptibility to urinary,
respiratory and cutaneous and soft tissue infections, while malnutrition can impair
wound healing 419-423. Medications (e.g., drugs that affect level of consciousness,
immune function, gastric acid secretions, and normal flora, including antimicrobial
therapy) and invasive devices (e.g., urinary catheters and feeding tubes)
heighten susceptibility to infection and colonization in LTCF residents 424-426.
Finally, limited functional status and total dependence on healthcare personnel
for activities of daily living have been identified as independent risk factors for
infection 401, 417, 427 and for colonization with MRSA 428, 429 and ESBL-producing K.
pneumoniae 430. Several position papers and review articles have been published
that provide guidance on various aspects of infection control and antimicrobial
resistance in LTCFs 406-408, 431-436. The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid
Services (CMS) have established regulations for the prevention of infection in
LTCFs 437.

Because residents of LTCFs are hospitalized frequently, they can transfer

pathogens between LTCFs and healthcare facilities in which they receive care 8,
438-441
. This is also true for pediatric long-term care populations. Pediatric chronic
care facilities have been associated with importing extended-spectrum
cephalosporin-resistant, gram-negative bacilli into one PICU 50. Children from
pediatric rehabilitation units may contribute to the reservoir of community-
associated MRSA 385, 389-391.

I.D.2.b. Ambulatory Care In the past decade, healthcare delivery in the United
States has shifted from the acute, inpatient hospital to a variety of ambulatory
and community-based settings, including the home. Ambulatory care is provided
in hospital-based outpatient clinics, nonhospital-based clinics and physician
offices, public health clinics, free-standing dialysis centers, ambulatory surgical
centers, urgent care centers, and many others. In 2000, there were 83 million
visits to hospital outpatient clinics and more than 823 million visits to physician
offices 442; ambulatory care now accounts for most patient encounters with the
health care system 443. In these settings, adapting transmission prevention
guidelines is challenging because patients remain in common areas for
prolonged periods waiting to be seen by a healthcare provider or awaiting
admission to the hospital, examination or treatment rooms are turned around
quickly with limited cleaning, and infectious patients may not be recognized
immediately. Furthermore, immunocompromised patients often receive
chemotherapy in infusion rooms where they stay for extended periods of time
along with other types of patients.

35

There are few data on the risk of HAIs in ambulatory care settings, with the
exception of hemodialysis centers 18 , 444, 445. Transmission of infections in
outpatient settings has been reviewed in three publications 446-448. Goodman and
Solomon summarized 53 clusters of infections associated with the outpatient
setting from 1961-1990 446. Overall, 29 clusters were associated with common
source transmission from contaminated solutions or equipment, 14 with person-
to-person transmission from or involving healthcare personnel and ten
associated with airborne or droplet transmission among patients and healthcare
workers. Transmission of bloodborne pathogens (i.e., hepatitis B and C viruses
and, rarely, HIV) in outbreaks, sometimes involving hundreds of patients,
continues to occur in ambulatory settings. These outbreaks often are related to
common source exposures, usually a contaminated medical device, multi-dose
vial, or intravenous solution 82, 449-453. In all cases, transmission has been
attributed to failure to adhere to fundamental infection control principles, including
safe injection practices and aseptic technique.This subject has been reviewed
and recommended infection control and safe injection practices summarized 454.

Airborne transmission of M.tuberculosis and measles in ambulatory settings,

most frequently emergency departments, has been reported 34, 127, 446, 448, 455-457.
Measles virus was transmitted in physician offices and other outpatient settings
during an era when immunization rates were low and measles outbreaks in the
community were occurring regularly 34, 122, 458. Rubella has been transmitted in
the outpatient obstetric setting 33; there are no published reports of varicella
transmission in the outpatient setting. In the ophthalmology setting, adenovirus
type 8 epidemic keratoconjunctivitis has been transmitted via incompletely
disinfected ophthalmology equipment and/or from healthcare workers to patients,
presumably by contaminated hands 17, 446, 448, 459-462.

If transmission in outpatient settings is to be prevented, screening for potentially

infectious symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals, especially those who may
be at risk for transmitting airborne infectious agents (e.g., M. tuberculosis,
varicella-zoster virus, rubeola [measles]), is necessary at the start of the initial
patient encounter. Upon identification of a potentially infectious patient,
implementation of prevention measures, including prompt separation of
potentially infectious patients and implementation of appropriate control
measures (e.g., Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette and Transmission-Based
Precautions) can decrease transmission risks 9, 12. Transmission of MRSA and
VRE in outpatient settings has not been reported, but the association of CA
MRSA in healthcare personnel working in an outpatient HIV clinic with
environmental CA-MRSA contamination in that clinic, suggests the possibility of
transmission in that setting 463. Patient-to-patient transmission of Burkholderia
species and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in outpatient clinics for adults and
children with cystic fibrosis has been confirmed 464, 465.

I.D.2.c. Home Care Home care in the United States is delivered by over 20,000
provider agencies that include home health agencies, hospices, durable medical
equipment providers, home infusion therapy services, and personal care and

36

support services providers. Home care is provided to patients of all ages with
both acute and chronic conditions. The scope of services ranges from assistance
with activities of daily living and physical and occupational therapy to the care of
wounds, infusion therapy, and chronic ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD).

The incidence of infection in home care patients, other than those associated
with infusion therapy is not well studied 466-471. However, data collection and
calculation of infection rates have been accomplished for central venous
catheter-associated bloodstream infections in patients receiving home infusion
therapy 470-474 and for the risk of blood contact through percutaneous or mucosal
exposures, demonstrating that surveillance can be performed in this setting 475.
Draft definitions for home care associated infections have been developed 476.

Transmission risks during home care are presumed to be minimal. The main
transmission risks to home care patients are from an infectious healthcare
provider or contaminated equipment; providers also can be exposed to an
infectious patient during home visits. Since home care involves patient care by a
limited number of personnel in settings without multiple patients or shared
equipment, the potential reservoir of pathogens is reduced. Infections of home
care providers, that could pose a risk to home care patients include infections
transmitted by the airborne or droplet routes (e.g., chickenpox, tuberculosis,
influenza), and skin infestations (e.g., scabies 69 and lice) and infections
(e.g.,impetigo) transmitted by direct or indirect contact. There are no published
data on indirect transmission of MDROs from one home care patient to another,
although this is theoretically possible if contaminated equipment is transported
from an infected or colonized patient and used on another patient. Of note,
investigation of the first case of VISA in homecare 186 and the first 2 reported
cases of VRSA 178, 180, 181, 183 found no evidence of transmission of VISA or
VRSA to other home care recipients. Home health care also may contribute to
antimicrobial resistance; a review of outpatient vancomycin use found 39% of
recipients did not receive the antibiotic according to recommended guidelines 477.

Although most home care agencies implement policies and procedures to

prevent transmission of organisms, the current approach is based on the
adaptation of the 1996 Guideline for Isolation Precautions in Hospitals 1 as well
as other professional guidance 478, 479. This issue has been very challenging in
the home care industry and practice has been inconsistent and frequently not
evidence-based. For example, many home health agencies continue to observe
nursing bag technique, a practice that prescribes the use of barriers between
the nursing bag and environmental surfaces in the home 480. While the home
environment may not always appear clean, the use of barriers between two non
critical surfaces has been questioned 481, 482. Opportunites exist to conduct
research in home care related to infection transmission risks 483.

I.D.2.d. Other sites of healthcare delivery Facilities that are not primarily
healthcare settings but in which healthcare is delivered include clinics in
correctional facilities and shelters. Both settings can have suboptimal features,

37

such as crowded conditions and poor ventilation. Economically disadvantaged

individuals who may have chronic illnesses and healthcare problems related to
alcoholism, injection drug use, poor nutrition, and/or inadequate shelter often
receive their primary healthcare at sites such as these 484. Infectious diseases of
special concern for transmission include tuberculosis, scabies, respiratory
infections (e.g., N. meningitides, S. pneumoniae), sexually transmitted and
bloodborne diseases (e.g.,HIV, HBV, HCV, syphilis, gonorrhea), hepatitis A virus
(HAV), diarrheal agents such as norovirus, and foodborne diseases 286, 485-488. A
high index of suspicion for tuberculosis and CA-MRSA in these populations is
needed as outbreaks in these settings or among the populations they serve have
been reported 489-497.

Patient encounters in these types of facilities provide an opportunity to deliver

recommended immunizations and screen for M. tuberculosis infection in addition
to diagnosing and treating acute illnesses 498. Recommended infection control
measures in these non-traditional areas designated for healthcare delivery are
the same as for other ambulatory care settings. Therefore, these settings must
be equipped to observe Standard Precautions and, when indicated,
Transmission-Based Precautions.

I.E. Transmission risks associated with special patient populations

As new treatments emerge for complex diseases, unique infection control

challenges associated with special patient populations need to be addressed.

I.E.1. Immunocompromised patients Patients who have congenital primary

immune deficiencies or acquired disease (eg. treatment-induced immune
deficiencies) are at increased risk for numerous types of infections while
receiving healthcare and may be located throughout the healthcare facility. The
specific defects of the immune system determine the types of infections that are
most likely to be acquired (e.g., viral infections are associated with T-cell defects
and fungal and bacterial infections occur in patients who are neutropenic). As a
general group, immunocompromised patients can be cared for in the same
environment as other patients; however, it is always advisable to minimize
exposure to other patients with transmissible infections such as influenza and
other respiratory viruses 499, 500. The use of more intense chemotherapy
regimens for treatment of childhood leukemia may be associated with prolonged
periods of neutropenia and suppression of other components of the immune
system, extending the period of infection risk and raising the concern that
additional precautions may be indicated for select groups 501, 502. With the
application of newer and more intense immunosuppressive therapies for a variety
of medical conditions (e.g., rheumatologic disease 503, 504, inflammatory bowel
disease 505), immunosuppressed patients are likely to be more widely distributed
throughout a healthcare facility rather than localized to single patient units (e.g.

38

hematology-oncology). Guidelines for preventing infections in certain groups of

immunocompromised patients have been published 15, 506, 507.

Published data provide evidence to support placing allogeneic HSCT patients in

a Protective Environment 15, 157, 158. Also, three guidelines have been developed
that address the special requirements of these immunocompromised patients,
including use of antimicrobial prophylaxis and engineering controls to create a
Protective Environment for the prevention of infections caused by Aspergillus
spp. and other environmental fungi 11, 14, 15. As more intense chemotherapy
regimens associated with prolonged periods of neutropenia or graft-versus-host
disease are implemented, the period of risk and duration of environmental
protection may need to be prolonged beyond the traditional 100 days 508.

I.E.2. Cystic fibrosis patients Patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) require special
consideration when developing infection control guidelines. Compared to other
patients, CF patients require additional protection to prevent transmission from
contaminated respiratory therapy equipment 509-513. Infectious agents such as
Burkholderia cepacia complex and P. aeruginosa 464, 465, 514, 515 have unique
clinical and prognostic significance. In CF patients, B. cepacia infection has been
associated with increased morbidity and mortality 516-518, while delayed
acquisition of chronic P.aeruginosa infection may be associated with an improved
long-term clinical outcome 519, 520.

Person-to-person transmission of B. cepacia complex has been demonstrated

among children 517 and adults 521 with CF in healthcare settings 464, 522, during
various social contacts 523, most notably attendance at camps for patients with
CF 524, and among siblings with CF 525. Successful infection control measures
used to prevent transmission of respiratory secretions include segregation of CF
patients from each other in ambulatory and hospital settings (including use of
private rooms with separate showers), environmental decontamination of
surfaces and equipment contaminated with respiratory secretions, elimination of
group chest physiotherapy sessions, and disbanding of CF camps 97, 526. The
Cystic Fibrosis Foundation published a consensus document with evidence-
based recommendations for infection control practices for CF patients 20.

I.F. New therapies associated with potentially transmissible infectious

agents

I.F.1. Gene therapy Gene therapy has has been attempted using a number of
different viral vectors, including nonreplicating retroviruses, adenoviruses, adeno
associated viruses, and replication-competent strains of poxviruses. Unexpected
adverse events have restricted the prevalence of gene therapy protocols.

The infectious hazards of gene therapy are theoretical at this time, but require
meticulous surveillance due to the possible occurrence of in vivo recombination

39

and the subsequent emergence of a transmissible genetically altered pathogen.

Greatest concern attends the use of replication-competent viruses, especially
vaccinia. As of the time of publication, no reports have described transmission of
a vector virus from a gene therapy recipient to another individual, but surveillance
is ongoing. Recommendations for monitoring infection control issues throughout
the course of gene therapy trials have been published 527-529.

I.F.2. Infections transmitted through blood, organs and other tissues The
potential hazard of transmitting infectious pathogens through biologic products is
a small but ever present risk, despite donor screening. Reported infections
transmitted by transfusion or transplantation include West Nile Virus infection 530
cytomegalovirus infection 531, Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease 230, hepatitis C 532,
infections with Clostridium spp. 533 and group A streptococcus 534, malaria 535,
babesiosis 536, Chagas disease 537, lymphocytic choriomeningitis 538, and rabies
539, 540
. Therefore, it is important to consider receipt of biologic products when
evaluating patients for potential sources of infection.

I.F.3. Xenotransplantation The transplantation of nonhuman cells, tissues, and

organs into humans potentially exposes patients to zoonotic pathogens.
Transmission of known zoonotic infections (e.g., trichinosis from porcine tissue),
constitutes one concern, but also of concern is the possibility that transplantation
of nonhuman cells, tissues, or organs may transmit previously unknown zoonotic
infections (xenozoonoses) to immunosuppressed human recipients. Potential
infections that might accompany transplantation of porcine organs have been
described 541. Guidelines from the U.S. Public Health Service address many
infectious diseases and infection control issues that surround the developing field
of xenotransplantation 542); work in this area is ongoing.

40

Part II:
Fundamental elements needed to prevent transmission
of infectious agents in healthcare settings

II.A. Healthcare system components that influence the effectiveness of

precautions to prevent transmission

II.A.1. Administrative measures Healthcare organizations can demonstrate a

commitment to preventing transmission of infectious agents by incorporating
infection control into the objectives of the organizations patient and occupational
safety programs 543-547. An infrastructure to guide, support, and monitor
adherence to Standard and Transmission-Based Precautions 434, 548, 549 will
facilitate fulfillment of the organizations mission and achievement of the Joint
Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations patient safety goal to
decrease HAIs 550. Policies and procedures that explain how Standard and
Transmission-Based Precautions are applied, including systems used to identify
and communicate information about patients with potentially transmissible
infectious agents, are essential to ensure the success of these measures and
may vary according to the characteristics of the organization.

A key administrative measure is provision of fiscal and human resources for

maintaining infection control and occupational health programs that are
responsive to emerging needs. Specific components include bedside nurse 551
and infection prevention and control professional (ICP) staffing levels 552,
inclusion of ICPs in facility construction and design decisions 11, clinical
microbiology laboratory support 553, 554, adequate supplies and equipment
including facility ventilation systems 11, adherence monitoring 555, assessment
and correction of system failures that contribute to transmission 556, 557, and
provision of feedback to healthcare personnel and senior administrators 434, 548,
549, 558
. The positive influence of institutional leadership has been demonstrated
repeatedly in studies of HCW adherence to recommended hand hygiene
practices 176, 177, 434, 548, 549, 559-564. Healthcare administrator involvement in
infection control processes can improve administrators awareness of the
rationale and resource requirements for following recommended infection control
practices.

Several administrative factors may affect the transmission of infectious agents in

healthcare settings: institutional culture, individual worker behavior, and the work
environment. Each of these areas is suitable for performance improvement
monitoring and incorporation into the organizations patient safety goals 543, 544,
546, 565
.

41

II.A.1.a.Scope of work and staffing needs for infection control professionals

The effectiveness of infection surveillance and control programs in preventing
nosocomial infections in United States hospitals was assessed by the CDC
through the Study on the Efficacy of Nosocomial Infection Control (SENIC
Project) conducted 1970-76 566. In a representative sample of US general
hospitals, those with a trained infection control physician or microbiologist
involved in an infection control program, and at least one infection control nurse
per 250 beds, were associated with a 32% lower rate of four infections studied
(CVC-associated bloodstream infections, ventilator-associated pneumonias,
catheter-related urinary tract infections, and surgical site infections).

Since that landmark study was published, responsibilities of ICPs have expanded
commensurate with the growing complexity of the healthcare system, the patient
populations served, and the increasing numbers of medical procedures and
devices used in all types of healthcare settings. The scope of work of ICPs was
first assessed in 1982 567-569 by the Certification Board of Infection Control
(CBIC), and has been re-assessed every five years since that time 558, 570-572. The
findings of these task analyses have been used to develop and update the
Infection Control Certification Examination, offered for the first time in 1983. With
each survey, it is apparent that the role of the ICP is growing in complexity and
scope, beyond traditional infection control activities in acute care hospitals.
Activities currently assigned to ICPs in response to emerging challenges include:
1) surveillance and infection prevention at facilities other than acute care
hospitals e.g., ambulatory clinics, day surgery centers, long term care facilities,
rehabilitation centers, home care; 2) oversight of employee health services
related to infection prevention, e.g. assessment of risk and administration of
recommended treatment following exposure to infectious agents, tuberculosis
screening, influenza vaccination, respiratory protection fit testing, and
administration of other vaccines as indicated, such as smallpox vaccine in 2003;
3) preparedness planning for annual influenza outbreaks, pandemic influenza,
SARS, bioweapons attacks; 4) adherence monitoring for selected infection
control practices; 5) oversight of risk assessment and implementation of
prevention measures associated with construction and renovation; 6) prevention
of transmission of MDROs; 7) evaluation of new medical products that could be
associated with increased infection risk. e.g.,intravenous infusion materials; 9)
communication with the public, facility staff, and state and local health
departments concerning infection control-related issues; and 10) participation in
local and multi-center research projects 434, 549, 552, 558, 573, 574.

None of the CBIC job analyses addressed specific staffing requirements for the
identified tasks, although the surveys did include information about hours
worked; the 2001 survey included the number of ICPs assigned to the
responding facilities 558. There is agreement in the literature that 1 ICP per 250
acute care beds is no longer adequate to meet current infection control needs; a
Delphi project that assessed staffing needs of infection control programs in the
21st century concluded that a ratio of 0.8 to 1.0 ICP per 100 occupied acute care
beds is an appropriate level of staffing 552. A survey of participants in the National

42

Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) system found the average daily

census per ICP was 115 316. Results of other studies have been similar: 3 per
500 beds for large acute care hospitals, 1 per 150-250 beds in long term care
facilities, and 1.56 per 250 in small rural hospitals 573, 575. The foregoing
demonstrates that infection control staffing can no longer be based on patient
census alone, but rather must be determined by the scope of the program,
characteristics of the patient population, complexity of the healthcare system,
tools available to assist personnel to perform essential tasks (e.g., electronic
tracking and laboratory support for surveillance), and unique or urgent needs of
the institution and community 552. Furthermore, appropriate training is required to
optimize the quality of work performed 558, 572, 576.

II.A.1.a.i. Infection Control Nurse Liaison Designating a bedside nurse on a

patient care unit as an infection control liaison or link nurse is reported to be an
effective adjunct to enhance infection control at the unit level 577-582. Such
individuals receive training in basic infection control and have frequent
communication with the ICPs, but maintain their primary role as bedside
caregiver on their units. The infection control nurse liaison increases the
awareness of infection control at the unit level. He or she is especially effective in
implementation of new policies or control interventions because of the rapport
with individuals on the unit, an understanding of unit-specific challenges, and
ability to promote strategies that are most likely to be successful in that unit. This
position is an adjunct to, not a replacement for, fully trained ICPs. Furthermore,
the infection control liaison nurses should not be counted when considering ICP
staffing.

II.A.1.b. Bedside nurse staffing There is increasing evidence that the level of
bedside nurse-staffing influences the quality of patient care 583, 584. If there are
adequate nursing staff, it is more likely that infection control practices, including
hand hygiene and Standard and Transmission-Based Precautions, will be given
appropriate attention and applied correctly and consistently 552. A national
multicenter study reported strong and consistent inverse relationships between
nurse staffing and five adverse outcomes in medical patients, two of which were
HAIs: urinary tract infections and pneumonia 583. The association of nursing staff
shortages with increased rates of HAIs has been demonstrated in several
outbreaks in hospitals and long term care settings, and with increased
transmission of hepatitis C virus in dialysis units 22, 418, 551, 585-597. In most cases,
when staffing improved as part of a comprehensive control intervention, the
outbreak ended or the HAI rate declined. In two studies 590, 596, the composition of
the nursing staff (pool or float vs. regular staff nurses) influenced the rate of
primary bloodstream infections, with an increased infection rate occurring when
the proportion of regular nurses decreased and pool nurses increased.

II.A.1.c. Clinical microbiology laboratory support The critical role of the

clinical microbiology laboratory in infection control and healthcare epidemiology
is described well 553, 554, 598-600 and is supported by the Infectious Disease Society

43

of America policy statement on consolidation of clinical microbiology laboratories

published in 2001 553. The clinical microbiology laboratory contributes to
preventing transmission of infectious diseases in healthcare settings by promptly
detecting and reporting epidemiologically important organisms, identifying
emerging patterns of antimicrobial resistance, and assisting in assessment of the
effectiveness of recommended precautions to limit transmission during outbreaks
598
. Outbreaks of infections may be recognized first by laboratorians 162.
Healthcare organizations need to ensure the availability of the recommended
scope and quality of laboratory services, a sufficient number of appropriately
trained laboratory staff members, and systems to promptly communicate
epidemiologically important results to those who will take action (e.g., providers
of clinical care, infection control staff, healthcare epidemiologists, and infectious
disease consultants) 601. As concerns about emerging pathogens and
bioterrorism grow, the role of the clinical microbiology laboratory takes on even
greater importance. For healthcare organizations that outsource microbiology
laboratory services (e.g., ambulatory care, home care, LTCFs, smaller acute care
hospitals), it is important to specify by contract the types of services (e.g.,
periodic institution-specific aggregate susceptibility reports) required to support
infection control.

Several key functions of the clinical microbiology laboratory are relevant to this
guideline:
Antimicrobial susceptibility by testing and interpretation in accordance with
current guidelines developed by the National Committee for Clinical
Laboratory Standards (NCCLS), known as the Clinical and Laboratory
Standards Institute (CLSI) since 2005 602, for the detection of emerging
resistance patterns 603, 604, and for the preparation, analysis, and
distribution of periodic cumulative antimicrobial susceptibility summary
reports 605-607. While not required, clinical laboratories ideally should have
access to rapid genotypic identification of bacteria and their antibiotic
resistance genes 608.
Performance of surveillance cultures when appropriate (including retention
of isolates for analysis) to assess patterns of infection transmission and
effectiveness of infection control interventions at the facility or
organization. Microbiologists assist in decisions concerning the
indications for initiating and discontinuing active surveillance programs
and optimize the use of laboratory resources.
Molecular typing, on-site or outsourced, in order to investigate and control
healthcare-associated outbreaks 609.
Application of rapid diagnostic tests to support clinical decisions involving
patient treatment, room selection, and implementation of control measures
including barrier precautions and use of vaccine or chemoprophylaxis
agents (e.g., influenza 610-612, B. pertussis 613, RSV 614, 615, and
enteroviruses 616). The microbiologist provides guidance to limit rapid
testing to clinical situations in which rapid results influence patient

44

 management decisions, as well as providing oversight of point-of-care

testing performed by non-laboratory healthcare workers 617.
Detection and rapid reporting of epidemiologically important organisms,
including those that are reportable to public health agencies.
Implementation of a quality control program that ensures testing services
are appropriate for the population served, and stringently evaluated for
sensitivity, specificity, applicability, and feasibility.
Participation in a multidisciplinary team to develop and maintain an
effective institutional program for the judicious use of antimicrobial agents
618, 619
.

II.A.2. Institutional safety culture and organizational characteristics Safety

culture (or safety climate) refers to a work environment where a shared
commitment to safety on the part of management and the workforce is
understood and followed 557, 620, 621. The authors of the Institute of Medicine
Report, To Err is Human 543, acknowledge that causes of medical error are
multifaceted but emphasize repeatedly the pivotal role of system failures and the
benefits of a safety culture. A safety culture is created through 1) the actions
management takes to improve patient and worker safety; 2) worker participation
in safety planning; 3) the availability of appropriate protective equipment; 4)
influence of group norms regarding acceptable safety practices; and 5) the
organizations socialization process for new personnel. Safety and patient
outcomes can be enhanced by improving or creating organizational
characteristics within patient care units as demonstrated by studies of surgical
ICUs 622, 623. Each of these factors has a direct bearing on adherence to
transmission prevention recommendations 257. Measurement of an institutional
culture of safety is useful for designing improvements in healthcare 624, 625.
Several hospital-based studies have linked measures of safety culture with both
employee adherence to safe practices and reduced exposures to blood and body
fluids 626-632. One study of hand hygiene practices concluded that improved
adherence requires integration of infection control into the organizations safety
culture 561. Several hospitals that are part of the Veterans Administration
Healthcare System have taken specific steps toward improving the safety culture,
including error reporting mechanisms, performing root cause analysis on
problems identified, providing safety incentives, and employee education. 633-635.

II.A.3. Adherence of healthcare personnel to recommended guidelines

Adherence to recommended infection control practices decreases transmission
of infectious agents in healthcare settings 116, 562, 636-640. However, several
observational studies have shown limited adherence to recommended practices
by healthcare personnel 559, 640-657. Observed adherence to universal precautions
ranged from 43% to 89% 641, 642, 649, 651, 652. However, the degree of adherence
depended frequently on the practice that was assessed and, for glove use, the
circumstance in which they were used. Appropriate glove use has ranged from a
low of 15% 645 to a high of 82% 650. However, 92% and 98% adherence with
glove use have been reported during arterial blood gas collection and

45

resuscitation, respectively, procedures where there may be considerable blood

contact 643, 656. Differences in observed adherence have been reported among
occupational groups in the same healthcare facility 641 and between experienced
and nonexperienced professionals 645. In surveys of healthcare personnel, self-
reported adherence was generally higher than that reported in observational
studies. Furthermore, where an observational component was included with a
self-reported survey, self-perceived adherence was often greater than observed
adherence 657. Among nurses and physicians, increasing years of experience is a
negative predictor of adherence 645, 651. Education to improve adherence is the
primary intervention that has been studied. While positive changes in knowledge
and attitude have been demonstrated, 640, 658, there often has been limited or no
accompanying change in behavior 642, 644. Self-reported adherence is higher in
groups that have received an educational intervention 630, 659. Educational
interventions that incorporated videotaping and performance feedback were
successful in improving adherence during the period of study; the long-term
effect of these interventions is not known 654.The use of videotape also served to
identify system problems (e.g., communication and access to personal protective
equipment) that otherwise may not have been recognized.
Use of engineering controls and facility design concepts for improving adherence
is gaining interest. While introduction of automated sinks had a negative impact
on consistent adherence to hand washing 660, use of electronic monitoring and
voice prompts to remind healthcare workers to perform hand hygiene, and
improving accessibility to hand hygiene products, increased adherence and
contributed to a decrease in HAIs in one study 661. More information is needed
regarding how technology might improve adherence.
Improving adherence to infection control practices requires a multifaceted
approach that incorporates continuous assessment of both the individual and the
work environment 559, 561. Using several behavioral theories, Kretzer and Larson
concluded that a single intervention (e.g., a handwashing campaign or putting up
new posters about transmission precautions) would likely be ineffective in
improving healthcare personnel adherence 662. Improvement requires that the
organizational leadership make prevention an institutional priority and integrate
infection control practices into the organizations safety culture 561. A recent
review of the literature concluded that variations in organizational factors (e.g.,
safety climate, policies and procedures, education and training) and individual
factors (e.g., knowledge, perceptions of risk, past experience) were determinants
of adherence to infection control guidelines for protection against SARS and
other respiratory pathogens 257.

II.B. Surveillance for healthcare-associated infections (HAIs)

Surveillance is an essential tool for case-finding of single patients or clusters of

patients who are infected or colonized with epidemiologically important
organisms (e.g., susceptible bacteria such as S. aureus, S. pyogenes [Group A
streptococcus] or Enterobacter-Klebsiella spp; MRSA, VRE, and other MDROs;
C. difficile; RSV; influenza virus) for which transmission-based precautions may

46

be required. Surveillance is defined as the ongoing, systematic collection,

analysis, interpretation, and dissemination of data regarding a health-related
event for use in public health action to reduce morbidity and mortality and to
improve health 663. The work of Ignaz Semmelweis that described the role of
person-to-person transmission in puerperal sepsis is the earliest example of the
use of surveillance data to reduce transmission of infectious agents 664.
Surveillance of both process measures and the infection rates to which they are
linked are important for evaluating the effectiveness of infection prevention efforts
and identifying indications for change 555, 665-668.

The Study on the Efficacy of Nosocomial Infection Control (SENIC) found that
different combinations of infection control practices resulted in reduced rates of
nosocomial surgical site infections, pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and
bacteremia in acute care hospitals 566; however, surveillance was the only
component essential for reducing all four types of HAIs. Although a similar study
has not been conducted in other healthcare settings, a role for surveillance and
the need for novel strategies have been described in LTCFs 398, 434, 669, 670 and in
home care 470-473. The essential elements of a surveillance system are: 1)
standardized definitions; 2) identification of patient populations at risk for
infection; 3) statistical analysis (e.g. risk-adjustment, calculation of rates using
appropriate denominators, trend analysis using methods such as statistical
process control charts); and 4) feedback of results to the primary caregivers 671
676
. Data gathered through surveillance of high-risk populations, device use,
procedures, and/or facility locations (e.g., ICUs) are useful for detecting
transmission trends 671-673. Identification of clusters of infections should be
followed by a systematic epidemiologic investigation to determine commonalities
in persons, places, and time; and guide implementation of interventions and
evaluation of the effectiveness of those interventions.

Targeted surveillance based on the highest risk areas or patients has been
preferred over facility-wide surveillance for the most effective use of resources
673, 676
. However, surveillance for certain epidemiologically important organisms
may need to be facility-wide. Surveillance methods will continue to evolve as
healthcare delivery systems change 392, 677 and user-friendly electronic tools
become more widely available for electronic tracking and trend analysis 674, 678,
679
. Individuals with experience in healthcare epidemiology and infection control
should be involved in selecting software packages for data aggregation and
analysis to assure that the need for efficient and accurate HAI surveillance will be
met. Effective surveillance is increasingly important as legislation requiring
public reporting of HAI rates is passed and states work to develop effective
systems to support such legislation 680.

II.C. Education of HCWs, patients, and families

Education and training of healthcare personnel are a prerequisite for ensuring

that policies and procedures for Standard and Transmission-Based Precautions
are understood and practiced. Understanding the scientific rationale for the

47

precautions will allow HCWs to apply procedures correctly, as well as safely

modify precautions based on changing requirements, resources, or healthcare
settings 14, 655, 681-688. In one study, the likelihood of HCWs developing SARS was
strongly associated with less than 2 hours of infection control training and lack of
understanding of infection control procedures 689. Education about the important
role of vaccines (e.g., influenza, measles, varicella, pertussis, pneumococcal) in
protecting healthcare personnel, their patients, and family members can help
improve vaccination rates 690-693.

Education on the principles and practices for preventing transmission of

infectious agents should begin during training in the health professions and be
provided to anyone who has an opportunity for contact with patients or medical
equipment (e.g., nursing and medical staff; therapists and technicians, including
respiratory, physical, occupational, radiology, and cardiology personnel;
phlebotomists; housekeeping and maintenance staff; and students). In
healthcare facilities, education and training on Standard and Transmission-Based
Precautions are typically provided at the time of orientation and should be
repeated as necessary to maintain competency; updated education and training
are necessary when policies and procedures are revised or when there is a
special circumstance, such as an outbreak that requires modification of current
practice or adoption of new recommendations. Education and training materials
and methods appropriate to the HCWs level of responsibility, individual learning
habits, and language needs, can improve the learning experience 658, 694-702.

Education programs for healthcare personnel have been associated with

sustained improvement in adherence to best practices and a related decrease in
device-associated HAIs in teaching and non-teaching settings 639, 703 and in
medical and surgical ICUs {Coopersmith, 2002 #2149; Babcock, 2004 #2126;
Berenholtz, 2004 #2289; www.ihi.org/IHI/Programs/Campaign, #2563}. Several
studies have shown that, in addition to targeted education to improve specific
practices, periodic assessment and feedback of the HCWs knowledge,and
adherence to recommended practices are necessary to achieve the desired
changes and to identify continuing education needs 562, 704-708. Effectiveness of
this approach for isolation practices has been demonstrated for control of RSV
116, 684
.

Patients, family members, and visitors can be partners in preventing transmission

of infections in healthcare settings 9, 42, 709-711. Information about Standard
Precautions, especially hand hygiene, Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette,
vaccination (especially against influenza) and other routine infection prevention
strategies may be incorporated into patient information materials that are
provided upon admission to the healthcare facility. Additional information about
Transmission-Based Precautions is best provided at the time they are initiated.
Fact sheets, pamphlets, and other printed material may include information on
the rationale for the additional precautions, risks to household members, room
assignment for Transmission-Based Precautions purposes, explanation about
the use of personal protective equipment by HCWs, and directions for use of

48

such equipment by family members and visitors. Such information may be

particularly helpful in the home environment where household members often
have primary responsibility for adherence to recommended infection control
practices. Healthcare personnel must be available and prepared to explain this
material and answer questions as needed.

II.D. Hand hygiene

Hand hygiene has been cited frequently as the single most important practice to
reduce the transmission of infectious agents in healthcare settings 559, 712, 713 and
is an essential element of Standard Precautions. The term hand hygiene
includes both handwashing with either plain or antiseptic-containing soap and
water, and use of alcohol-based products (gels, rinses, foams) that do not require
the use of water. In the absence of visible soiling of hands, approved alcohol-
based products for hand disinfection are preferred over antimicrobial or plain
soap and water because of their superior microbiocidal activity, reduced drying of
the skin, and convenience 559. Improved hand hygiene practices have been
associated with a sustained decrease in the incidence of MRSA and VRE
infections primarily in the ICU 561, 562, 714-717. The scientific rationale, indications,
methods, and products for hand hygiene are summarized in other publications
559, 717
.

The effectiveness of hand hygiene can be reduced by the type and length of
fingernails 559, 718, 719. Individuals wearing artifical nails have been shown to
harbor more pathogenic organisms, especially gram negative bacilli and yeasts,
on the nails and in the subungual area than those with native nails 720, 721. In
2002, CDC/HICPAC recommended (Category IA) that artificial fingernails and
extenders not be worn by healthcare personnel who have contact with high-risk
patients (e.g., those in ICUs, ORs) due to the association with outbreaks of gram-
negative bacillus and candidal infections as confirmed by molecular typing of
isolates 30, 31, 559, 722-725.The need to restrict the wearing of artificial fingernails by
all healthcare personnel who provide direct patient care or by healthcare
personnel who have contact with other high risk groups (e.g., oncology, cystic
fibrosis patients), has not been studied, but has been recommended by some
experts 20. At this time such decisions are at the discretion of an individual
facilitys infection control program. There is less evidence that jewelry affects the
quality of hand hygiene. Although hand contamination with potential pathogens
is increased with ring-wearing 559, 726, no studies have related this practice to
HCW-to-patient transmission of pathogens.

II.E. Personal protective equipment (PPE) for healthcare personnel

PPE refers to a variety of barriers and respirators used alone or in combination to

protect mucous membranes, airways, skin, and clothing from contact with
infectious agents. The selection of PPE is based on the nature of the patient

49

interaction and/or the likely mode(s) of transmission. Guidance on the use of

PPE is discussed in Part III. A suggested procedure for donning and removing
PPE that will prevent skin or clothing contamination is presented in the Figure.
Designated containers for used disposable or reusable PPE should be placed in
a location that is convenient to the site of removal to facilitate disposal and
containment of contaminated materials. Hand hygiene is always the final step
after removing and disposing of PPE. The following sections highlight the primary
uses and methods for selecting this equipment.

II.E.1. Gloves Gloves are used to prevent contamination of healthcare

personnel hands when 1) anticipating direct contact with blood or body fluids,
mucous membranes, nonintact skin and other potentially infectious material; 2)
having direct contact with patients who are colonized or infected with pathogens
transmitted by the contact route e.g., VRE, MRSA, RSV 559, 727, 728; or 3) handling
or touching visibly or potentially contaminated patient care equipment and
environmental surfaces 72, 73, 559. Gloves can protect both patients and healthcare
personnel from exposure to infectious material that may be carried on hands 73.
The extent to which gloves will protect healthcare personnel from transmission of
bloodborne pathogens (e.g., HIV, HBV, HCV) following a needlestick or other
pucture that penetrates the glove barrier has not been determined. Although
gloves may reduce the volume of blood on the external surface of a sharp by 46
86% 729, the residual blood in the lumen of a hollowbore needle would not be
affected; therefore, the effect on transmission risk is unknown.
Gloves manufactured for healthcare purposes are subject to FDA evaluation and
clearance 730. Nonsterile disposable medical gloves made of a variety of
materials (e.g., latex, vinyl, nitrile) are available for routine patient care 731. The
selection of glove type for non-surgical use is based on a number of factors,
including the task that is to be performed, anticipated contact with chemicals and
chemotherapeutic agents, latex sensitivity, sizing, and facility policies for creating
a latex-free environment 17, 732-734. For contact with blood and body fluids during
non-surgical patient care, a single pair of gloves generally provides adequate
barrier protection 734. However, there is considerable variability among gloves;
both the quality of the manufacturing process and type of material influence their
barrier effectiveness 735. While there is little difference in the barrier properties of
unused intact gloves 736, studies have shown repeatedly that vinyl gloves have
higher failure rates than latex or nitrile gloves when tested under simulated and
actual clinical conditions 731, 735-738. For this reason either latex or nitrile gloves
are preferable for clinical procedures that require manual dexterity and/or will
involve more than brief patient contact. It may be necessary to stock gloves in
several sizes. Heavier, reusable utility gloves are indicated for non-patient care
activities, such as handling or cleaning contaminated equipment or surfaces 11, 14,
739
.
During patient care, transmission of infectious organisms can be reduced by
adhering to the principles of working from clean to dirty, and confining or
limiting contamination to surfaces that are directly needed for patient care. It may
be necessary to change gloves during the care of a single patient to prevent

50

cross-contamination of body sites 559, 740. It also may be necessary to change

gloves if the patient interaction also involves touching portable computer
keyboards or other mobile equipment that is transported from room to room.
Discarding gloves between patients is necessary to prevent transmission of
infectious material. Gloves must not be washed for subsequent reuse because
microorganisms cannot be removed reliably from glove surfaces and continued
glove integrity cannot be ensured. Furthermore, glove reuse has been associated
with transmission of MRSA and gram-negative bacilli 741-743.
When gloves are worn in combination with other PPE, they are put on last.
Gloves that fit snugly around the wrist are preferred for use with an isolation
gown because they will cover the gown cuff and provide a more reliable
continuous barrier for the arms, wrists, and hands. Gloves that are removed
properly will prevent hand contamination (Figure). Hand hygiene following glove
removal further ensures that the hands will not carry potentially infectious
material that might have penetrated through unrecognized tears or that could
contaminate the hands during glove removal 559, 728, 741.

II.E.2. Isolation gowns Isolation gowns are used as specified by Standard and
Transmission-Based Precautions, to protect the HCWs arms and exposed body
areas and prevent contamination of clothing with blood, body fluids, and other
potentially infectious material 24, 88, 262, 744-746. The need for and type of isolation
gown selected is based on the nature of the patient interaction, including the
anticipated degree of contact with infectious material and potential for blood and
body fluid penetration of the barrier. The wearing of isolation gowns and other
protective apparel is mandated by the OSHA Bloodborne Pathogens Standard
739
. Clinical and laboratory coats or jackets worn over personal clothing for
comfort and/or purposes of identity are not considered PPE.
When applying Standard Precautions, an isolation gown is worn only if contact
with blood or body fluid is anticipated. However, when Contact Precautions are
used (i.e., to prevent transmission of an infectious agent that is not interrupted by
Standard Precautions alone and that is associated with environmental
contamination), donning of both gown and gloves upon room entry is indicated to
address unintentional contact with contaminated environmental surfaces 54, 72, 73,
88
. The routine donning of isolation gowns upon entry into an intensive care unit
or other high-risk area does not prevent or influence potential colonization or
infection of patients in those areas365, 747-750.

Isolation gowns are always worn in combination with gloves, and with other PPE
when indicated. Gowns are usually the first piece of PPE to be donned. Full
coverage of the arms and body front, from neck to the mid-thigh or below will
ensure that clothing and exposed upper body areas are protected. Several gown
sizes should be available in a healthcare facility to ensure appropriate coverage
for staff members. Isolation gowns should be removed before leaving the patient
care area to prevent possible contamination of the environment outside the
patients room. Isolation gowns should be removed in a manner that prevents
contamination of clothing or skin (Figure). The outer, contaminated, side of the

51

gown is turned inward and rolled into a bundle, and then discarded into a
designated container for waste or linen to contain contamination.

II.E.3. Face protection: masks, goggles, face shields

II.E.3.a. Masks Masks are used for three primary purposes in healthcare
settings: 1) placed on healthcare personnel to protect them from contact with
infectious material from patients e.g., respiratory secretions and sprays of blood
or body fluids, consistent with Standard Precautions and Droplet Precautions; 2)
placed on healthcare personnel when engaged in procedures requiring sterile
technique to protect patients from exposure to infectious agents carried in a
healthcare workers mouth or nose, and 3) placed on coughing patients to limit
potential dissemination of infectious respiratory secretions from the patient to
others (i.e., Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette). Masks may be used in
combination with goggles to protect the mouth, nose and eyes, or a face shield
may be used instead of a mask and goggles, to provide more complete
protection for the face, as discussed below. Masks should not be confused
with particulate respirators that are used to prevent inhalation of small
particles that may contain infectious agents transmitted via the airborne
route as described below.
The mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and eyes are susceptible portals of
entry for infectious agents, as can be other skin surfaces if skin integrity is
compromised (e.g., by acne, dermatitis) 66, 751-754. Therefore, use of PPE to
protect these body sites is an important component of Standard Precautions. The
protective effect of masks for exposed healthcare personnel has been
demonstrated 93, 113, 755, 756. Procedures that generate splashes or sprays of
blood, body fluids, secretions, or excretions (e.g., endotracheal suctioning,
bronchoscopy, invasive vascular procedures) require either a face shield
(disposable or reusable) or mask and goggles 93-95, 96 , 113, 115, 262, 739, 757 .The
wearing of masks, eye protection, and face shields in specified circumstances
when blood or body fluid exposures are likely to occur is mandated by the OSHA
Bloodborne Pathogens Standard 739. Appropriate PPE should be selected based
on the anticipated level of exposure.
Two mask types are available for use in healthcare settings: surgical masks that
are cleared by the FDA and required to have fluid-resistant properties, and
procedure or isolation masks 758 #2688. No studies have been published that
compare mask types to determine whether one mask type provides better
protection than another. Since procedure/isolation masks are not regulated by
the FDA, there may be more variability in quality and performance than with
surgical masks. Masks come in various shapes (e.g., molded and non-molded),
sizes, filtration efficiency, and method of attachment (e.g., ties, elastic, ear
loops). Healthcare facilities may find that different types of masks are needed to
meet individual healthcare personnel needs.

II.E.3.b. Goggles, face shields Guidance on eye protection for infection control
has been published 759. The eye protection chosen for specific work situations
(e.g., goggles or face shield) depends upon the circumstances of exposure, other

52

PPE used, and personal vision needs. Personal eyeglasses and contact lenses
are NOT considered adequate eye protection
(www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/eye/eye-infectious.html). NIOSH states that, eye
protection must be comfortable, allow for sufficient peripheral vision, and must be
adjustable to ensure a secure fit. It may be necessary to provide several
different types, styles, and sizes of protective equipment. Indirectly-vented
goggles with a manufacturers anti-fog coating may provide the most reliable
practical eye protection from splashes, sprays, and respiratory droplets from
multiple angles. Newer styles of goggles may provide better indirect airflow
properties to reduce fogging, as well as better peripheral vision and more size
options for fitting goggles to different workers. Many styles of goggles fit
adequately over prescription glasses with minimal gaps. While effective as eye
protection, goggles do not provide splash or spray protection to other parts of the
face.
The role of goggles, in addition to a mask, in preventing exposure to infectious
agents transmitted via respiratory droplets has been studied only for RSV.
Reports published in the mid-1980s demonstrated that eye protection reduced
occupational transmission of RSV 760, 761. Whether this was due to preventing
hand-eye contact or respiratory droplet-eye contact has not been determined.
However, subsequent studies demonstrated that RSV transmission is effectively
prevented by adherence to Standard plus Contact Precations and that for this
virus routine use of goggles is not necessary 24, 116, 117, 684, 762. It is important to
remind healthcare personnel that even if Droplet Precautions are not
recommended for a specific respiratory tract pathogen, protection for the eyes,
nose and mouth by using a mask and goggles, or face shield alone, is necessary
when it is likely that there will be a splash or spray of any respiratory secretions
or other body fluids as defined in Standard Precautions
Disposable or non-disposable face shields may be used as an alternative to
goggles 759. As compared with goggles, a face shield can provide protection to
other facial areas in addition to the eyes. Face shields extending from chin to
crown provide better face and eye protection from splashes and sprays; face
shields that wrap around the sides may reduce splashes around the edge of the
shield.
Removal of a face shield, goggles and mask can be performed safely after
gloves have been removed, and hand hygiene performed. The ties, ear pieces
and/or headband used to secure the equipment to the head are considered
clean and therefore safe to touch with bare hands. The front of a mask, goggles
and face shield are considered contaminated (Figure).

II.E.4. Respiratory protection The subject of respiratory protection as it applies

to preventing transmission of airborne infectious agents, including the need for
and frequency of fit-testing is under scientific review and was the subject of a
CDC workshop in 2004 763. Respiratory protection currently requires the use of a
respirator with N95 or higher filtration to prevent inhalation of infectious particles.
Information about respirators and respiratory protection programs is summarized

53

in the Guideline for Preventing Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in

Health-care Settings, 2005 (CDC.MMWR 2005; 54: RR-17 12).
Respiratory protection is broadly regulated by OSHA under the general industry
standard for respiratory protection (29CFR1910.134)764 which requires that U.S.
employers in all employment settings implement a program to protect employees
from inhalation of toxic materials. OSHA program components include medical
clearance to wear a respirator; provision and use of appropriate respirators,
including fit-tested NIOSH-certified N95 and higher particulate filtering
respirators; education on respirator use and periodic re-evaluation of the
respiratory protection program. When selecting particulate respirators, models
with inherently good fit characteristics (i.e., those expected to provide protection
factors of 10 or more to 95% of wearers) are preferred and could theoretically
relieve the need for fit testing 765, 766. Issues pertaining to respiratory protection
remain the subject of ongoing debate. Information on various types of respirators
may be found at www.cdc.gov/niosh/npptl/respirators/respsars.html and in
published studies 765, 767, 768. A user-seal check (formerly called a fit check)
should be performed by the wearer of a respirator each time a respirator is
donned to minimize air leakage around the facepiece 769. The optimal frequency
of fit-testng has not been determined; re-testing may be indicated if there is a
change in facial features of the wearer, onset of a medical condition that would
affect respiratory function in the wearer, or a change in the model or size of the
initially assigned respirator 12.
Respiratory protection was first recommended for protection of preventing U.S.
healthcare personnel from exposure to M. tuberculosis in 1989. That
recommendation has been maintained in two successive revisions of the
Guidelines for Prevention of Transmission of Tuberculosis in Hospitals and other
Healthcare Settings 12, 126. The incremental benefit from respirator use, in
addition to administrative and engineering controls (i.e., AIIRs, early recognition
of patients likely to have tuberculosis and prompt placement in an AIIR, and
maintenance of a patient with suspected tuberculosis in an AIIR until no longer
infectious), for preventing transmission of airborne infectious agents (e.g., M.
tuberculosis) is undetermined. Although some studies have demonstrated
effective prevention of M. tuberculosis transmission in hospitals where surgical
masks, instead of respirators, were used in conjunction with other administrative
and engineering controls 637, 770, 771, CDC currently recommends N95 or higher
level respirators for personnel exposed to patients with suspected or confirmed
tuberculosis. Currently this is also true for other diseases that could be
transmitted through the airborne route, including SARS 262 and smallpox 108, 129,
772
, until inhalational transmission is better defined or healthcare-specific
protective equipment more suitable for for preventing infection are developed.
Respirators are also currently recommended to be worn during the performance
of aerosol-generating procedures (e.g., intubation, bronchoscopy, suctioning) on
patients withSARS Co-V infection, avian influenza and pandemic influenza (See
Appendix A).
Although Airborne Precautions are recommended for preventing airborne
transmission of measles and varicella-zoster viruses, there are no data upon

54

which to base a recommendation for respiratory protection to protect susceptible

personnel against these two infections; transmission of varicella-zoster virus has
been prevented among pediatric patients using negative pressure isolation alone
773
. Whether respiratory protection (i.e., wearing a particulate respirator) would
enhance protection from these viruses has not been studied. Since the majority
of healthcare personnel have natural or acquired immunity to these viruses, only
immune personnel generally care for patients with these infections 774-777.
Although there is no evidence to suggest that masks are not adequate to protect
healthcare personnel in these settings, for purposes of consistency and
simplicity, or because of difficulties in ascertaining immunity, some facilities may
require the use of respirators for entry into all AIIRs, regardless of the specific
infectious agent.

Procedures for safe removal of respirators are provided (Figure). In some

healthcare settings, particulate respirators used to provide care for patients with
M. tuberculosis are reused by the same HCW. This is an acceptable practice
providing the respirator is not damaged or soiled, the fit is not compromised by
change in shape, and the respirator has not been contaminated with blood or
body fluids. There are no data on which to base a recommendation for the length
of time a respirator may be reused.

II.F. Safe work practices to prevent HCW exposure to bloodborne

pathogens

II.F.1. Prevention of needlesticks and other sharps-related injuries Injuries

due to needles and other sharps have been associated with transmission of
HBV, HCV and HIV to healthcare personnel 778, 779. The prevention of sharps
injuries has always been an essential element of Universal and now Standard
Precautions 1, 780. These include measures to handle needles and other sharp
devices in a manner that will prevent injury to the user and to others who may
encounter the device during or after a procedure. These measures apply to
routine patient care and do not address the prevention of sharps injuries and
other blood exposures during surgical and other invasive procedures that are
addressed elsewhere 781-785.
Since 1991, when OSHA first issued its Bloodborne Pathogens Standard to
protect healthcare personnel from blood exposure, the focus of regulatory and
legislative activity has been on implementing a hierarchy of control
measures. This has included focusing attention on removing sharps hazards
through the development and use of engineering controls. The federal
Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act signed into law in November, 2000
authorized OSHA's revision of its Bloodborne Pathogens Standard to more
explicitly require the use of safety-engineered sharp devices 786. CDC has
provided guidance on sharps injury prevention 787, 788, including for the design,
implementation and evaluation of a comprehensive sharps injury prevention
program 789.

55

II.F.2. Prevention of mucous membrane contact Exposure of mucous

membranes of the eyes, nose and mouth to blood and body fluids has been
associated with the transmission of bloodborne viruses and other infectious
agents to healthcare personnel 66, 752, 754, 779. The prevention of mucous
membrane exposures has always been an element of Universal and now
Standard Precautions for routine patient care 1, 753 and is subject to OSHA
bloodborne pathogen regulations. Safe work practices, in addition to wearing
PPE, are used to protect mucous membranes and non-intact skin from contact
with potentially infectious material. These include keeping gloved and ungloved
hands that are contaminated from touching the mouth, nose, eyes, or face; and
positioning patients to direct sprays and splatter away from the face of the
caregiver. Careful placement of PPE before patient contact will help avoid the
need to make PPE adjustments and possible face or mucous membrane
contamination during use.
In areas where the need for resuscitation is unpredictable, mouthpieces, pocket
resuscitation masks with one-way valves, and other ventilation devices provide
an alternative to mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, preventing exposure of the
caregivers nose and mouth to oral and respiratory fluids during the procedure.

II.F.2.a. Precautions during aerosol-generating procedures The performance

of procedures that can generate small particle aerosols (aerosol-generating
procedures), such as bronchoscopy, endotracheal intubation, and open
suctioning of the respiratory tract, have been associated with transmission of
infectious agents to healthcare personnel, including M. tuberculosis 790, SARS-
CoV 93, 94, 98 and N. meningitidis 95. Protection of the eyes, nose and mouth, in
addition to gown and gloves, is recommended during performance of these
procedures in accordance with Standard Precautions. Use of a particulate
respirator is recommended during aerosol-generating procedures when the
aerosol is likely to contain M. tuberculosis, SARS-CoV, or avian or pandemic
influenza viruses.

II.G. Patient placement

II.G.1. Hospitals and long-term care settings Options for patient placement
include single patient rooms, two patient rooms, and multi-bed wards. Of these,
single patient rooms are prefered when there is a concern about transmission of
an infectious agent. Although some studies have failed to demonstrate the
efficacy of single patient rooms to prevent HAIs 791, other published studies,
including one commissioned by the American Institute of Architects and the
Facility Guidelines Institute, have documented a beneficial relationship between
private rooms and reduction in infectious and noninfectious adverse patient
outcomes 792, 793. The AIA notes that private rooms are the trend in hospital
planning and design. However, most hospitals and long-term care facilities have
multi-bed rooms and must consider many competing priorities when determining
the appropriate room placement for patients (e.g., reason for admission; patient
characteristics, such as age, gender, mental status; staffing needs; family

56

requests; psychosocial factors; reimbursement concerns). In the absence of

obvious infectious diseases that require specified airborne infection isolation
rooms (e.g., tuberculosis, SARS, chickenpox), the risk of transmission of
infectious agents is not always considered when making placement decisions.
When there are only a limited number of single-patient rooms, it is prudent to
prioritize them for those patients who have conditions that facilitate transmission
of infectious material to other patients (e.g., draining wounds, stool incontinence,
uncontained secretions) and for those who are at increased risk of acquisition
and adverse outcomes resulting from HAI (e.g., immunosuppression, open
wounds, indwelling catheters, anticipated prolonged length of stay, total
dependence on HCWs for activities of daily living) 15, 24, 43, 430, 794, 795.
Single-patient rooms are always indicated for patients placed on Airborne
Precautions and in a Protective Environment and are preferred for patients who
require Contact or Droplet Precautions 23, 24, 410, 435, 796, 797. During a suspected or
proven outbreak caused by a pathogen whose reservoir is the gastrointestinal
tract, use of single patient rooms with private bathrooms limits opportunities for
transmission, especially when the colonized or infected patient has poor personal
hygiene habits, fecal incontinence, or cannot be expected to assist in maintaining
procedures that prevent transmission of microorganisms (e.g., infants, children,
and patients with altered mental status or developmental delay). In the absence
of continued transmission, it is not necessary to provide a private bathroom for
patients colonized or infected with enteric pathogens as long as personal hygiene
practices and Standard Precautions, especially hand hygiene and appropriate
environmental cleaning, are maintained. Assignment of a dedicated commode to
a patient,and cleaning and disinfecting fixtures and equipment that may have
fecal contamination (e.g., bathrooms, commodes 798, scales used for weighing
diapers) and the adjacent surfaces with appropriate agents may be especially
important when a single-patient room can not be used since environmental
contamination with intestinal tract pathogens is likely from both continent and
incontinent patients 54, 799. Results of several studies to determine the benefit of a
single-patient room to prevent transmission of Clostridium difficile are
inconclusive 167, 800-802. Some studies have shown that being in the same room
with a colonized or infected patient is not necessarily a risk factor for
transmission 791, 803-805. However, for children, the risk of healthcare-associated
diarrhea is increased with the increased number of patients per room 806. Thus,
patient factors are important determinants of infection transmission risks, and the
need for a single-patient room and/or private bathroom for any patient is best
determined on a case-by-case basis.
Cohorting is the practice of grouping together patients who are colonized or
infected with the same organism to confine their care to one area and prevent
contact with other patients. Cohorts are created based on clinical diagnosis,
microbiologic confirmation when available, epidemiology, and mode of
transmission of the infectious agent. It is generally preferred not to place severely
immunosuppressed patients in rooms with other patients. Cohorting has been
used extensively for managing outbreaks of MDROs including MRSA 22, 807, VRE
638, 808, 809
, MDR-ESBLs 810; Pseudomonas aeruginosa 29; methicillin-susceptible

57

Staphylococcus aureus 811; RSV 812, 813; adenovirus keratoconjunctivitis 814;

rotavirus 815; and SARS 816. Modeling studies provide additional support for
cohorting patients to control outbreaks Talon 817-819. However, cohorting often is
implemented only after routine infection control measures have failed to control
an outbreak.
Assigning or cohorting healthcare personnel to care only for patients infected or
colonized with a single target pathogen limits further transmission of the target
pathogen to uninfected patients 740, 819 but is difficult to achieve in the face of
current staffing shortages in hospitals 583 and residential healthcare sites 820-822.
However, when continued transmission is occurring after implementing routine
infection control measures and creating patient cohorts, cohorting of healthcare
personnel may be beneficial.

During the seasons when RSV, human metapneumovirus 823, parainfluenza,

influenza, other respiratory viruses 824, and rotavirus are circulating in the
community, cohorting based on the presenting clinical syndrome is often a
priority in facilities that care for infants and young children 825. For example,
during the respiratory virus season, infants may be cohorted based soley on the
clinical diagnosis of bronchiolitis due to the logistical difficulties and costs
associated with requiring microbiologic confirmation prior to room placement, and
the predominance of RSV during most of the season. However, when available,
single patient rooms are always preferred since a common clinical presentation
(e.g., bronchiolitis), can be caused by more than one infectious agent 823, 824, 826.
Furthermore, the inability of infants and children to contain body fluids, and the
close physical contact that occurs during their care, increases infection
transmission risks for patients and personnel in this setting 24, 795.

II.G.2. Ambulatory settings Patients actively infected with or incubating

transmissible infectious diseases are seen frequently in ambulatory settings (e.g.,
outpatient clinics, physicians offices, emergency departments) and potentially
expose healthcare personnel and other patients, family members and visitors 21,
34, 127, 135, 142, 827
. In response to the global outbreak of SARS in 2003 and in
preparation for pandemic influenza, healthcare providers working in outpatient
settings are urged to implement source containment measures (e.g., asking
couging patients to wear a surgical mask or cover their coughs with tissues) to
prevent transmission of respiratory infections, beginning at the point of initial
patient encounter 9, 262, 828 as described below in section III.A.1.a. Signs can be
posted at the entrance to facilities or at the reception or registration desk
requesting that the patient or individuals accompanying the patient promptly
inform the receptionist if there are symptoms of a respiratory infection (e.g.,
cough, flu-like illness, increased production of respiratory secretions). The
presence of diarrhea, skin rash, or known or suspected exposure to a
transmissible disease (e.g., measles, pertussis, chickenpox, tuberculosis) also
could be added. Placement of potentially infectious patients without delay in an
examination room limits the number of exposed individuals, e.g., in the common
waiting area.

58

In waiting areas, maintaining a distance between symptomatic and non-

symptomatic patients (e.g., >3 feet), in addition to source control measures, may
limit exposures. However, infections transmitted via the airborne route (e.g., M
tuberculosis, measles, chickenpox) require additional precautions 12, 125, 829.
Patients suspected of having such an infection can wear a surgical mask for
source containment, if tolerated, and should be placed in an examination room,
preferably an AIIR, as soon as possible. If this is not possible, having the patient
wear a mask and segregate him/herself from other patients in the waiting area
will reduce opportunities to expose others. Since the person(s) accompanying
the patient also may be infectious, application of the same infection control
precautions may need to be extended to these persons if they are symptomatic
21, 252, 830
. For example, family members accompanying children admitted with
suspected M. tuberculosis have been found to have unsuspected pulmonary
tuberculosis with cavitary lesions, even when asymptomatic 42, 831.
Patients with underlying conditions that increase their susceptibility to infection
(e.g., those who are immunocompromised 43, 44 or have cystic fibrosis 20) require
special efforts to protect them from exposures to infected patients in common
waiting areas. By informing the receptionist of their infection risk upon arrival,
appropriate steps may be taken to further protect them from infection. In some
cystic fibrosis clinics, in order to avoid exposure to other patients who could be
colonized with B. cepacia, patients have been given beepers upon registration so
that they may leave the area and receive notification to return when an
examination room becomes available 832.

II.G.3. Home care In home care, the patient placement concerns focus on
protecting others in the home from exposure to an infectious household member.
For individuals who are especially vulnerable to adverse outcomes associated
with certain infections, it may be beneficial to either remove them from the home
or segregate them within the home. Persons who are not part of the household
may need to be prohibited from visiting during the period of infectivity. For
example, if a patient with pulmonary tuberculosis is contagious and being cared
for at home, very young children (<4 years of age) 833 and immunocompromised
persons who have not yet been infected should be removed or excluded from the
household. During the SARS outbreak of 2003, segregation of infected persons
during the communicable phase of the illness was beneficial in preventing
household transmission 249, 834.

II.H. Transport of patients

Several principles are used to guide transport of patients requiring Transmission-
Based Precautions. In the inpatient and residential settings these include 1)
limiting transport of such patients to essential purposes, such as diagnostic and
therapeutic procedures that cannot be performed in the patients room; 2) when
transport is necessary, using appropriate barriers on the patient (e.g., mask,
gown, wrapping in sheets or use of impervious dressings to cover the affected
area(s) when infectious skin lesions or drainage are present, consistent with the
route and risk of transmission; 3) notifying healthcare personnel in the receiving

59

area of the impending arrival of the patient and of the precautions necessary to
prevent transmission; and 4) for patients being transported outside the facility,
informing the receiving facility and the medi-van or emergency vehicle personnel
in advance about the type of Transmission-Based Precautions being used. For
tuberculosis, additional precautions may be needed in a small shared air space
such as in an ambulance 12.

II.I. Environmental measures

Cleaning and disinfecting non-critical surfaces in patient-care areas are part of
Standard Precautions. In general, these procedures do not need to be changed
for patients on Transmission-Based Precautions. The cleaning and disinfection of
all patient-care areas is important for frequently touched surfaces, especially
those closest to the patient, that are most likely to be contaminated (e.g.,
bedrails, bedside tables, commodes, doorknobs, sinks, surfaces and equipment
in close proximity to the patient) 11, 72, 73, 835. The frequency or intensity of cleaning
may need to change based on the patients level of hygiene and the degree of
environmental contamination and for certain for infectious agents whose
reservoir is the intestinal tract 54. This may be especially true in LTCFs and
pediatric facilities where patients with stool and urine incontinence are
encountered more frequently. Also, increased frequency of cleaning may be
needed in a Protective Environment to minimize dust accumulation 11. Special
recommendations for cleaning and disinfecting environmental surfaces in dialysis
centers have been published 18. In all healthcare settings, administrative, staffing
and scheduling activities should prioritize the proper cleaning and disinfection of
surfaces that could be implicated in transmission. During a suspected or proven
outbreak where an environmental reservoir is suspected, routine cleaning
procedures should be reviewed, and the need for additional trained cleaning staff
should be assessed. Adherence should be monitored and reinforced to promote
consistent and correct cleaning is performed.

EPA-registered disinfectants or detergents/disinfectants that best meet the

overall needs of the healthcare facility for routine cleaning and disinfection should
be selected 11, 836. In general, use of the existing facility detergent/disinfectant
according to the manufacturers recommendations for amount, dilution, and
contact time is sufficient to remove pathogens from surfaces of rooms where
colonized or infected individuals were housed. This includes those pathogens
that are resistant to multiple classes of antimicrobial agents (e.g., C. difficile,
VRE, MRSA, MDR-GNB 11, 24, 88, 435, 746, 796, 837). Most often, environmental
reservoirs of pathogens during outbreaks are related to a failure to follow
recommended procedures for cleaning and disinfection rather than the specific
cleaning and disinfectant agents used838-841.
Certain pathogens (e.g., rotavirus, noroviruses, C. difficile) may be resistant to
some routinely used hospital disinfectants 275, 292, 842-847.The role of specific
disinfectants in limiting transmission of rotavirus has been demonstrated
experimentally 842. Also, since C. difficile may display increased levels of spore
production when exposed to non-chlorine-based cleaning agents, and the spores
are more resistant than vegetative cells to commonly used surface disinfectants,

60

some investigators have recommended the use of a 1:10 dilution of 5.25%

sodium hypochlorite (household bleach) and water for routine environmental
disinfection of rooms of patients with C. difficile when there is continued
transmission 844, 848. In one study, the use of a hypochlorite solution was
associated with a decrease in rates of C. difficile infections 847. The need to
change disinfectants based on the presence of these organisms can be
determined in consultation with the infection control committee 11, 847, 848.
Detailed recommendations for disinfection and sterilization of surfaces and
medical equipment that have been in contact with prion-containing tissue or high
risk body fluids, and for cleaning of blood and body substance spills, are
available in the Guidelines for Environmental Infection Control in Health-Care
Facilities 11 and in the Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization 848.

II.J. Patient care equipment and instruments/devices

Medical equipment and instruments/devices must be cleaned and maintained
according to the manufacturers instructions to prevent patient-to-patient
transmission of infectious agents 86, 87, 325, 849. Cleaning to remove organic
material must always precede high level disinfection and sterilization of critical
and semi-critical instruments and devices because residual proteinacous material
reduces the effectiveness of the disinfection and sterilization processes 836, 848.
Noncritical equipment, such as commodes, intravenous pumps, and ventilators,
must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before use on another patient. All
such equipment and devices should be handled in a manner that will prevent
HCW and environmental contact with potentially infectious material. It is
important to include computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs) used in
patient care in policies for cleaning and disinfection of non-critical items. The
literature on contamination of computers with pathogens has been summarized
850
and two reports have linked computer contamination to colonization and
infections in patients 851, 852. Although keyboard covers and washable keyboards
that can be easily disinfected are in use, the infection control benefit of those
items and optimal management have not been determined.

In all healthcare settings, providing patients who are on Transmission-Based

Precautions with dedicated noncritical medical equipment (e.g., stethoscope,
blood pressure cuff, electronic thermometer) has been beneficial for preventing
transmission 74, 89, 740, 853, 854. When this is not possible, disinfection after use is
recommended. Consult other guidelines for detailed guidance in developing
specific protocols for cleaning and reprocessing medical equipment and patient
care items in both routine and special circumstances 11, 14, 18, 20, 740, 836, 848.
In home care, it is preferable to remove visible blood or body fluids from durable
medical equipment before it leaves the home. Equipment can be cleaned on-site
using a detergent/disinfectant and, when possible, should be placed in a single
plastic bag for transport to the reprocessing location 20, 739.

II.K. Textiles and laundry

Soiled textiles, including bedding, towels, and patient or resident clothing may be
contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms. However, the risk of disease

61

transmission is negligible if they are handled, transported, and laundered in a

safe manner 11, 855, 856. Key principles for handling soiled laundry are 1) not
shaking the items or handling them in any way that may aerosolize infectious
agents; 2) avoiding contact of ones body and personal clothing with the soiled
items being handled; and 3) containing soiled items in a laundry bag or
designated bin. When laundry chutes are used, they must be maintained to
minimize dispersion of aerosols from contaminated items 11. The methods for
handling, transporting, and laundering soiled textiles are determined by
organizational policy and any applicable regulations 739; guidance is provided in
the Guidelines for Environmental Infection Control 11. Rather than rigid rules and
regulations, hygienic and common sense storage and processing of clean textiles
is recommended 11, 857. When laundering occurs outside of a healthcare facility,
the clean items must be packaged or completely covered and placed in an
enclosed space during transport to prevent contamination with outside air or
construction dust that could contain infectious fungal spores that are a risk for
immunocompromised patients 11.
Institutions are required to launder garments used as personal protective
equipment and uniforms visibly soiled with blood or infective material 739. There
are few data to determine the safety of home laundering of HCW uniforms, but
no increase in infection rates was observed in the one published study 858 and no
pathogens were recovered from home- or hospital-laundered scrubs in another
study 859. In the home, textiles and laundry from patients with potentially
transmissible infectious pathogens do not require special handling or separate
laundering, and may be washed with warm water and detergent 11, 858, 859.

II.L. Solid waste

The management of solid waste emanating from the healthcare environment is
subject to federal and state regulations for medical and non-medical waste 860,
861
. No additional precautions are needed for non-medical solid waste that is
being removed from rooms of patients on Transmission-Based Precautions. Solid
waste may be contained in a single bag (as compared to using two bags) of
sufficient strength. 862.

II.M. Dishware and eating utensils

The combination of hot water and detergents used in dishwashers is sufficient to
decontaminate dishware and eating utensils. Therefore, no special precautions
are needed for dishware (e.g., dishes, glasses, cups) or eating utensils; reusable
dishware and utensils may be used for patients requiring Transmission-Based
Precautions. In the home and other communal settings, eating utensils and
drinking vessels that are being used should not be shared, consistent with
principles of good personal hygiene and for the purpose of preventing
transmission of respiratory viruses, Herpes simplex virus, and infectious agents
that infect the gastrointestinal tract and are transmitted by the fecal/oral route
(e.g., hepatitis A virus, noroviruses). If adequate resources for cleaning utensils
and dishes are not available, disposable products may be used.

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II.N. Adjunctive measures

Important adjunctive measures that are not considered primary components of
programs to prevent transmission of infectious agents, but improve the
effectiveness of such programs, include 1) antimicrobial management programs;
2) postexposure chemoprophylaxis with antiviral or antibacterial agents; 3)
vaccines used both for pre and postexposure prevention; and 4) screening and
restricting visitors with signs of transmissible infections. Detailed discussion of
judicious use of antimicrobial agents is beyond the scope of this document;
however the topic is addressed in the MDRO section (Management of Multidrug-
Resistant Organisms in Healthcare Settings 2006.
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/ar/mdroGuideline2006.pdf).

II.N.1. Chemoprophylaxis Antimicrobial agents and topical antiseptics may be

used to prevent infection and potential outbreaks of selected agents. Infections
for which postexposure chemoprophylaxis is recommended under defined
conditions include B. pertussis 17, 863, N. meningitidis 864, B. anthracis after
environmental exposure to aeosolizable material865, influenza virus611, HIV 866,
and group A streptococcus 160. Orally administered antimicrobials may also be
used under defined circumstances for MRSA decolonization of patients or
healthcare personnel 867.
Another form of chemoprophylaxis is the use of topical antiseptic agents. For
example, triple dye is used routinely on the umbilical cords of term newborns to
reduce the risk of colonization, skin infections, and omphalitis caused by S.
aureus, including MRSA, and group A streptococcus 868, 869. Extension of the use
of triple dye to low birth weight infants in the NICU was one component of a
program that controlled one longstanding MRSA outbreak 22. Topical antiseptics
are also used for decolonization of healthcare personnel or selected patients
colonized with MRSA, using mupirocin as discussed in the MDRO guideline870
867, 871-873
.

II.N.2. Immunoprophylaxis Certain immunizations recommended for

susceptible healthcare personnel have decreased the risk of infection and the
potential for transmission in healthcare facilities 17, 874. The OSHA mandate that
requires employers to offer hepatitis B vaccination to HCWs played a substantial
role in the sharp decline in incidence of occupational HBV infection 778, 875. The
use of varicella vaccine in healthcare personnel has decreased the need to place
susceptible HCWs on administrative leave following exposure to patients with
varicella 775. Also, reports of healthcare-associated transmission of rubella in
obstetrical clinics 33, 876 and measles in acute care settings 34 demonstrate the
importance of immunization of susceptible healthcare personnel against
childhood diseases. Many states have requirements for HCW vaccination for
measles and rubella in the absence of evidence of immunity. Annual influenza
vaccine campaigns targeted to patients and healthcare personnel in LTCFs and
acute-care settings have been instrumental in preventing or limiting institutional

63

outbreaks and increasing attention is being directed toward improving influenza

vaccination rates in healthcare personnel 35 , 611, 690, 877, 878 , 879.
Transmission of B. pertussis in healthcare facilities has been associated with
large and costly outbreaks that include both healthcare personnel and patients 17,
36, 41, 100, 683, 827, 880, 881
. HCWs who have close contact with infants with pertussis
are at particularly high risk because of waning immunity and, until 2005, the
absence of a vaccine that could be used in adults. However, two acellular
pertussis vaccines were licensed in the United States in 2005, one for use in
individuals aged 11-18 and one for use in ages 10-64 years 882. Provisional
ACIP recommendations at the time of publication of this document include
adolescents and adults, especially those with contact with infants < 12 months of
age and healthcare personnel with direct patient contact 883 884.
Immunization of children and adults will help prevent the introduction of vaccine-
preventable diseases into healthcare settings. The recommended immunization
schedule for children is published annually in the January issues of the Morbidity
Mortality Weekly Report with interim updates as needed 885, 886. An adult
immunization schedule also is available for healthy adults and those with special
immunization needs due to high risk medical conditions 887.
Some vaccines are also used for postexposure prophylaxis of susceptible
individuals, including varicella 888, influenza 611, hepatitis B 778, and smallpox 225
vaccines 17, 874. In the future, administration of a newly developed S. aureus
conjugate vaccine (still under investigation) to selected patients may provide a
novel method of preventing healthcare-associated S. aureus, including MRSA,
infections in high-risk groups (e.g., hemodialysis patients and candidates for
selected surgical procedures) 889, 890.
Immune globulin preparations also are used for postexposure prophylaxis of
certain infectious agents under specified circumstances (e.g., varicella-zoster
virus [VZIG], hepatitis B virus [HBIG], rabies [RIG], measles and hepatitis A virus
[IG] 17, 833, 874). The RSV monoclonal antibody preparation, Palivizumab, may
have contributed to controlling a nosocomial outbreak of RSV in one NICU , but
there is insufficient evidence to support a routine recommendation for its use in
this setting 891.

II.N. 3. Management of visitors

II.N.3.a. Visitors as sources of infection Visitors have been identified as the

source of several types of HAIs (e.g., pertussis 40, 41, M. tuberculosis 42, 892,
influenza, and other respiratory viruses 24, 43, 44, 373 and SARS 21, 252-254). However,
effective methods for visitor screening in healthcare settings have not been
studied. Visitor screening is especially important during community outbreaks of
infectious diseases and for high risk patient units. Sibling visits are often
encouraged in birthing centers, post partum rooms and in pediatric inpatient
units, ICUs, and in residential settings for children; in hospital settings, a child
visitor should visit only his or her own sibling. Screening of visiting siblings and
other children before they are allowed into clinical areas is necessary to prevent
the introduction of childhood illnesses and common respiratory infections.

64

Screening may be passive through the use of signs to alert family members and
visitors with signs and symptoms of communicable diseases not to enter clinical
areas. More active screening may include the completion of a screening tool or
questionnaire which elicits information related to recent exposures or current
symptoms. That information is reviewed by the facility staff and the visitor is
either permitted to visit or is excluded 833.
Family and household members visiting pediatric patients with pertussis and
tuberculosis may need to be screened for a history of exposure as well as signs
and symptoms of current infection. Potentially infectious visitors are excluded
until they receive appropriate medical screening, diagnosis, or treatment. If
exclusion is not considered to be in the best interest of the patient or family (i.e.,
primary family members of critically or terminally ill patients), then the
symptomatic visitor must wear a mask while in the healthcare facility and remain
in the patients room, avoiding exposure to others, especially in public waiting
areas and the cafeteria.
Visitor screening is used consistently on HSCT units 15, 43. However, considering
the experience during the 2003 SARS outbreaks and the potential for pandemic
influenza, developing effective visitor screening systems will be beneficial 9.
Education concerning Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette is a useful adjunct to
visitor screening.

II.N.3.b. Use of barrier precautions by visitors The use of gowns, gloves, or

masks by visitors in healthcare settings has not been addressed specifically in
the scientific literature. Some studies included the use of gowns and gloves by
visitors in the control of MDROs, but did not perform a separate analysis to
determine whether their use by visitors had a measurable impact 893-895. Family
members or visitors who are providing care or having very close patient contact
(e.g., feeding, holding) may have contact with other patients and could contribute
to transmission if barrier precautions are not used correctly. Specific
recommendations may vary by facility or by unit and should be determined by the
level of interaction.

65

Part III:

Precautions to Prevent Transmission of Infectious Agents

There are two tiers of HICPAC/CDC precautions to prevent transmission of

infectious agents, Standard Precautions and Transmission-Based Precautions.
Standard Precautions are intended to be applied to the care of all patients in all
healthcare settings, regardless of the suspected or confirmed presence of an
infectious agent. Implementation of Standard Precautions constitutes the
primary strategy for the prevention of healthcare-associated transmission
of infectious agents among patients and healthcare personnel.
Transmission-Based Precautions are for patients who are known or suspected to
be infected or colonized with infectious agents, including certain
epidemiologically important pathogens, which require additional control
measures to effectively prevent transmission. Since the infecting agent often is
not known at the time of admission to a healthcare facility, Transmission-Based
Precautions are used empirically, according to the clinical syndrome and the
likely etiologic agents at the time, and then modified when the pathogen is
identified or a transmissible infectious etiology is ruled out. Examples of this
syndromic approach are presented in Table 2. The HICPAC/CDC Guidelines
also include recommendations for creating a Protective Environment for
allogeneic HSCT patients.
The specific elements of Standard and Transmission-Based Precautions are
discussed in Part II of this guideline. In Part III, the circumstances in which
Standard Precautions, Transmission-Based Precautions, and a Protective
Environment are applied are discussed. See Tables 4 and 5 for summaries of
the key elements of these sets of precautions

III.A. Standard Precautions Standard Precautions combine the major features

of Universal Precautions (UP) 780, 896 and Body Substance Isolation (BSI) 640 and
are based on the principle that all blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions
except sweat, nonintact skin, and mucous membranes may contain transmissible
infectious agents. Standard Precautions include a group of infection prevention
practices that apply to all patients, regardless of suspected or confirmed infection
status, in any setting in which healthcare is delivered (Table 4). These include:
hand hygiene; use of gloves, gown, mask, eye protection, or face shield,
depending on the anticipated exposure; and safe injection practices. Also,
equipment or items in the patient environment likely to have been contaminated
with infectious body fluids must be handled in a manner to prevent transmission
of infectious agents (e.g. wear gloves for direct contact, contain heavily soiled
equipment, properly clean and disinfect or sterilize reusable equipment before
use on another patient).
The application of Standard Precautions during patient care is determined by the
nature of the HCW-patient interaction and the extent of anticipated blood, body
fluid, or pathogen exposure. For some interactions (e.g., performing
venipuncture), only gloves may be needed; during other interactions (e.g.,
intubation), use of gloves, gown, and face shield or mask and goggles is
necessary. Education and training on the principles and rationale for

66

recommended practices are critical elements of Standard Precautions because

they facilitate appropriate decision-making and promote adherence when HCWs
are faced with new circumstances 655, 681-686. An example of the importance of
the use of Standard Precautions is intubation, especially under emergency
circumstances when infectious agents may not be suspected, but later are
identified (e.g., SARS-CoV, N. meningitides). The application of Standard
Precautions is described below and summarized in Table 4. Guidance on
donning and removing gloves, gowns and other PPE is presented in the Figure.
Standard Precautions are also intended to protect patients by ensuring that
healthcare personnel do not carry infectious agents to patients on their hands or
via equipment used during patient care.

III.A.1. New Elements of Standard Precautions Infection control problems

that are identified in the course of outbreak investigations often indicate the need
for new recommendations or reinforcement of existing infection control
recommendations to protect patients. Because such recommendations are
considered a standard of care and may not be included in other guidelines, they
are added here to Standard Precautions. Three such areas of practice that have
been added are: Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette, safe injection practices,
and use of masks for insertion of catheters or injection of material into spinal or
epidural spaces via lumbar puncture procedures (e.g., myelogram, spinal or
epidural anesthesia). While most elements of Standard Precautions evolved from
Universal Precautions that were developed for protection of healthcare
personnel, these new elements of Standard Precautions focus on protection of
patients.

III.A.1.a. Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette The transmission of SARS-

CoV in emergency departments by patients and their family members during the
widespread SARS outbreaks in 2003 highlighted the need for vigilance and
prompt implementation of infection control measures at the first point of
encounter within a healthcare setting (e.g., reception and triage areas in
emergency departments, outpatient clinics, and physician offices) 21, 254, 897. The
strategy proposed has been termed Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette 9, 828
and is intended to be incorporated into infection control practices as a new
component of Standard Precautions. The strategy is targeted at patients and
accompanying family members and friends with undiagnosed transmissible
respiratory infections, and applies to any person with signs of illness including
cough, congestion, rhinorrhea, or increased production of respiratory secretions
when entering a healthcare facility 40, 41, 43. The term cough etiquette is derived
from recommended source control measures for M. tuberculosis 12, 126.
The elements of Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette include 1) education of
healthcare facility staff, patients, and visitors; 2) posted signs, in language(s)
appropriate to the population served, with instructions to patients and
accompanying family members or friends; 3) source control measures (e.g.,
covering the mouth/nose with a tissue when coughing and prompt disposal of
used tissues, using surgical masks on the coughing person when tolerated and

67

appropriate); 4) hand hygiene after contact with respiratory secretions; and 5)

spatial separation, ideally >3 feet, of persons with respiratory infections in
common waiting areas when possible. Covering sneezes and coughs and
placing masks on coughing patients are proven means of source containment
that prevent infected persons from dispersing respiratory secretions into the air
107, 145, 898, 899
. Masking may be difficult in some settings, (e.g., pediatrics, in which
case, the emphasis by necessity may be on cough etiquette 900. Physical
proximity of <3 feet has been associated with an increased risk for transmission
of infections via the droplet route (e.g., N. meningitidis 103 and group A
streptococcus 114 and therefore supports the practice of distancing infected
persons from others who are not infected. The effectiveness of good hygiene
practices, especially hand hygiene, in preventing transmission of viruses and
reducing the incidence of respiratory infections both within and outside 901-903
healthcare settings is summarized in several reviews 559, 717, 904.
These measures should be effective in decreasing the risk of transmission of
pathogens contained in large respiratory droplets (e.g., influenza virus 23,
adenovirus 111, B. pertussis 827 and Mycoplasma pneumoniae 112. Although fever
will be present in many respiratory infections, patients with pertussis and mild
upper respiratory tract infections are often afebrile. Therefore, the absence of
fever does not always exclude a respiratory infection. Patients who have asthma,
allergic rhinitis, or chronic obstructive lung disease also may be coughing and
sneezing. While these patients often are not infectious, cough etiquette
measures are prudent.
Healthcare personnel are advised to observe Droplet Precautions (i.e., wear a
mask) and hand hygiene when examining and caring for patients with signs and
symptoms of a respiratory infection. Healthcare personnel who have a respiratory
infection are advised to avoid direct patient contact, especially with high risk
patients. If this is not possible, then a mask should be worn while providing
patient care.

III.A.1.b. Safe Injection Practices The investigation of four large outbreaks of

HBV and HCV among patients in ambulatory care facilities in the United States
identified a need to define and reinforce safe injection practices 453. The four
outbreaks occurred in a private medical practice, a pain clinic, an endoscopy
clinic, and a hematology/oncology clinic. The primary breaches in infection
control practice that contributed to these outbreaks were 1) reinsertion of used
needles into a multiple-dose vial or solution container (e.g., saline bag) and 2)
use of a single needle/syringe to administer intravenous medication to multiple
patients. In one of these outbreaks, preparation of medications in the same
workspace where used needle/syringes were dismantled also may have been a
contributing factor. These and other outbreaks of viral hepatitis could have been
prevented by adherence to basic principles of aseptic technique for the
preparation and administration of parenteral medications 453, 454. These include
the use of a sterile, single-use, disposable needle and syringe for each injection
given and prevention of contamination of injection equipment and medication.

68

Whenever possible, use of single-dose vials is preferred over multiple-dose vials,

especially when medications will be administered to multiple patients.
Outbreaks related to unsafe injection practices indicate that some healthcare
personnel are unaware of, do not understand, or do not adhere to basic
principles of infection control and aseptic technique. A survey of US healthcare
workers who provide medication through injection found that 1% to 3% reused
the same needle and/or syringe on multiple patients 905. Among the deficiencies
identified in recent outbreaks were a lack of oversight of personnel and failure to
follow-up on reported breaches in infection control practices in ambulatory
settings. Therefore, to ensure that all healthcare workers understand and adhere
to recommended practices, principles of infection control and aseptic technique
need to be reinforced in training programs and incorporated into institutional
polices that are monitored for adherence 454.

III.A.1.c. Infection Control Practices for Special Lumbar Puncture

Procedues In 2004, CDC investigated eight cases of post-myelography
meningitis that either were reported to CDC or identified through a survey of the
Emerging Infections Network of the Infectious Disease Society of America.
Blood and/or cerebrospinal fluid of all eight cases yielded streptococcal species
consistent with oropharyngeal flora and there were changes in the CSF indices
and clinical status indicative of bacterial meningitis. Equipment and products
used during these procedures (e.g., contrast media) were excluded as probable
sources of contamination. Procedural details available for seven cases
determined that antiseptic skin preparations and sterile gloves had been used.
However, none of the clinicians wore a face mask, giving rise to the speculation
that droplet transmission of oralpharyngeal flora was the most likely explanation
for these infections. Bacterial meningitis following myelogram and other spinal
procedures (e.g., lumbar puncture, spinal and epidural anesthesia, intrathecal
chemotherapy) has been reported previously 906-915. As a result, the question of
whether face masks should be worn to prevent droplet spread of oral flora during
spinal procedures (e.g., myelogram, lumbar puncture, spinal anesthesia) has
been debated 916, 917. Face masks are effective in limiting the dispersal of
oropharyngeal droplets 918 and are recommended for the placement of central
venous catheters 919. In October 2005, the Healthcare Infection Control
Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC) reviewed the evidence and concluded
that there is sufficient experience to warrant the additional protection of a face
mask for the individual placing a catheter or injecting material into the spinal or
epidural space.

III.B. Transmission-Based Precautions There are three categories of

Transmission-Based Precautions: Contact Precautions, Droplet Precautions, and
Airborne Precautions. Transmission-Based Precautions are used when the
route(s) of transmission is (are) not completely interrupted using Standard
Precautions alone. For some diseases that have multiple routes of transmission
(e.g., SARS), more than one Transmission-Based Precautions category may be
used. When used either singly or in combination, they are always used in

69

addition to Standard Precautions. See Appendix A for recommended precautions

for specific infections. When Transmission-Based Precautions are indicated,
efforts must be made to counteract possible adverse effects on patients (i.e.,
anxiety, depression and other mood disturbances 920-922, perceptions of stigma
923
, reduced contact with clinical staff 924-926, and increases in preventable
adverse events 565 in order to improve acceptance by the patients and adherence
by HCWs.

III.B.1. Contact Precautions Contact Precautions are intended to prevent

transmission of infectious agents, including epidemiologically important
microorganisms, which are spread by direct or indirect contact with the patient or
the patients environment as described in I.B.3.a. The specific agents and
circumstance for which Contact Precautions are indicated are found in Appendix
A. The application of Contact Precautions for patients infected or colonized with
MDROs is described in the 2006 HICPAC/CDC MDRO guideline 927. Contact
Precautions also apply where the presence of excessive wound drainage, fecal
incontinence, or other discharges from the body suggest an increased potential
for extensive environmental contamination and risk of transmission. A single-
patient room is preferred for patients who require Contact Precautions. When a
single-patient room is not available, consultation with infection control personnel
is recommended to assess the various risks associated with other patient
placement options (e.g., cohorting, keeping the patient with an existing
roommate). In multi-patient rooms, >3 feet spatial separation between beds is
advised to reduce the opportunities for inadvertent sharing of items between the
infected/colonized patient and other patients. Healthcare personnel caring for
patients on Contact Precautions wear a gown and gloves for all interactions that
may involve contact with the patient or potentially contaminated areas in the
patients environment. Donning PPE upon room entry and discarding before
exiting the patient room is done to contain pathogens, especially those that have
been implicated in transmission through environmental contamination (e.g., VRE,
C. difficile, noroviruses and other intestinal tract pathogens; RSV) 54, 72, 73, 78, 274,
275, 740
.

III.B.2. Droplet Precautions Droplet Precautions are intended to prevent

transmission of pathogens spread through close respiratory or mucous
membrane contact with respiratory secretions as described in I.B.3.b. Because
these pathogens do not remain infectious over long distances in a healthcare
facility, special air handling and ventilation are not required to prevent droplet
transmission. Infectious agents for which Droplet Precautions are indicated are
found in Appendix A and include B. pertussis, influenza virus, adenovirus,
rhinovirus, N. meningitides, and group A streptococcus (for the first 24 hours of
antimicrobial therapy). A single patient room is preferred for patients who require
Droplet Precautions. When a single-patient room is not available, consultation
with infection control personnel is recommended to assess the various risks
associated with other patient placement options (e.g., cohorting, keeping the
patient with an existing roommate). Spatial separation of > 3 feet and drawing

70

the curtain between patient beds is especially important for patients in multi-bed
rooms with infections transmitted by the droplet route. Healthcare personnel wear
a mask (a respirator is not necessary) for close contact with infectious patient;
the mask is generally donned upon room entry. Patients on Droplet Precautions
who must be transported outside of the room should wear a mask if tolerated and
follow Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette.

III.B.3. Airborne Precautions Airborne Precautions prevent transmission of

infectious agents that remain infectious over long distances when suspended in
the air (e.g., rubeola virus [measles], varicella virus [chickenpox], M. tuberculosis,
and possibly SARS-CoV) as described in I.B.3.c and Appendix A. The preferred
placement for patients who require Airborne Precautions is in an airborne
infection isolation room (AIIR). An AIIR is a single-patient room that is equipped
with special air handling and ventilation capacity that meet the American Institute
of Architects/Facility Guidelines Institute (AIA/FGI) standards for AIIRs (i.e.,
monitored negative pressure relative to the surrounding area, 12 air exchanges
per hour for new construction and renovation and 6 air exchanges per hour for
existing facilities, air exhausted directly to the outside or recirculated through
HEPA filtration before return) 12, 13. Some states require the availability of such
rooms in hospitals, emergency departments, and nursing homes that care for
patients with M. tuberculosis. A respiratory protection program that includes
education about use of respirators, fit-testing, and user seal checks is required in
any facility with AIIRs. In settings where Airborne Precautions cannot be
implemented due to limited engineering resources (e.g., physician offices),
masking the patient, placing the patient in a private room (e.g., office examination
room) with the door closed, and providing N95 or higher level respirators or
masks if respirators are not available for healthcare personnel will reduce the
likelihood of airborne transmission until the patient is either transferred to a
facility with an AIIR or returned to the home environment, as deemed medically
appropriate. Healthcare personnel caring for patients on Airborne Precautions
wear a mask or respirator, depending on the disease-specific recommendations
(Respiratory Protection II.E.4, Table 2, and Appendix A), that is donned prior to
room entry. Whenever possible, non-immune HCWs should not care for patients
with vaccine-preventable airborne diseases (e.g., measles, chickenpox, and
smallpox).

III.C. Syndromic and empiric applications of Transmission-Based

Precautions Diagnosis of many infections requires laboratory confirmation.
Since laboratory tests, especially those that depend on culture techniques, often
require two or more days for completion, Transmission-Based Precautions must
be implemented while test results are pending based on the clinical presentation
and likely pathogens. Use of appropriate Transmission-Based Precautions at the
time a patient develops symptoms or signs of transmissible infection, or arrives at
a healthcare facility for care, reduces transmission opportunities. While it is not
possible to identify prospectively all patients needing Transmission-Based
Precautions, certain clinical syndromes and conditions carry a sufficiently high

71

risk to warrant their use empirically while confirmatory tests are pending (Table
2). Infection control professionals are encouraged to modify or adapt this table
according to local conditions.

III.D. Discontinuation of Transmission-Based Precautions Transmission-

Based Precautions remain in effect for limited periods of time (i.e., while the risk
for transmission of the infectious agent persists or for the duration of the illness
(Appendix A). For most infectious diseases, this duration reflects known patterns
of persistence and shedding of infectious agents associated with the natural
history of the infectious process and its treatment. For some diseases (e.g.,
pharyngeal or cutaneous diphtheria, RSV), Transmission-Based Precautions
remain in effect until culture or antigen-detection test results document
eradication of the pathogen and, for RSV, symptomatic disease is resolved. For
other diseases, (e.g., M. tuberculosis) state laws and regulations, and healthcare
facility policies, may dictate the duration of precautions12). In
immunocompromised patients, viral shedding can persist for prolonged periods
of time (many weeks to months) and transmission to others may occur during
that time; therefore, the duration of contact and/or droplet precautions may be
prolonged for many weeks 500, 928-933.
The duration of Contact Precautions for patients who are colonized or infected
with MDROs remains undefined. MRSA is the only MDRO for which effective
decolonization regimens are available 867. However, carriers of MRSA who have
negative nasal cultures after a course of systemic or topical therapy may resume
shedding MRSA in the weeks that follow therapy 934, 935. Although early
guidelines for VRE suggested discontinuation of Contact Precautions after three
stool cultures obtained at weekly intervals proved negative 740, subsequent
experiences have indicated that such screening may fail to detect colonization
that can persist for >1 year 27, 936-938. Likewise, available data indicate that
colonization with VRE, MRSA 939, and possibly MDR-GNB, can persist for many
months, especially in the presence of severe underlying disease, invasive
devices, and recurrent courses of antimicrobial agents.
It may be prudent to assume that MDRO carriers are colonized permanently and
manage them accordingly. Alternatively, an interval free of hospitalizations,
antimicrobial therapy, and invasive devices (e.g., 6 or 12 months) before
reculturing patients to document clearance of carriage may be used.
Determination of the best strategy awaits the results of additional studies. See
the 2006 HICPAC/CDC MDRO guideline 927 for discussion of possible criteria to
discontinue Contact Precautions for patients colonized or infected with MDROs.

III.E. Application of Transmission-Based Precautions in ambulatory and

home care settings Although Transmission-Based Precautions generally
apply in all healthcare settings, exceptions exist. For example, in home care,
AIIRs are not available. Furthermore, family members already exposed to
diseases such as varicella and tuberculosis would not use masks or respiratory
protection, but visiting HCWs would need to use such protection. Similarly,
management of patients colonized or infected with MDROs may necessitate

72

Contact Precautions in acute care hospitals and in some LTCFs when there is
continued transmission, but the risk of transmission in ambulatory care and home
care, has not been defined. Consistent use of Standard Precautions may suffice
in these settings, but more information is needed.

III.F. Protective Environment A Protective Environment is designed for

allogeneic HSCT patients to minimize fungal spore counts in the air and reduce
the risk of invasive environmental fungal infections (see Table 5 for
specifications) 11, 13-15. The need for such controls has been demonstrated in
studies of aspergillus outbreaks associated with construction 11, 14, 15, 157, 158. As
defined by the American Insitute of Architecture 13 and presented in detail in the
Guideline for Environmental Infection Control 2003 11, 861, air quality for HSCT
patients is improved through a combination of environmental controls that include
1) HEPA filtration of incoming air; 2) directed room air flow; 3) positive room air
pressure relative to the corridor; 4) well-sealed rooms (including sealed walls,
floors, ceilings, windows, electrical outlets) to prevent flow of air from the outside;
5) ventilation to provide >12 air changes per hour; 6) strategies to minimize dust
(e.g., scrubbable surfaces rather than upholstery 940 and carpet 941, and routinely
cleaning crevices and sprinkler heads); and 7) prohibiting dried and fresh flowers
and potted plants in the rooms of HSCT patients. The latter is based on
molecular typing studies that have found indistinguishable strains of Aspergillus
terreus in patients with hematologic malignancies and in potted plants in the
vicinity of the patients 942-944. The desired quality of air may be achieved without
incurring the inconvenience or expense of laminar airflow 15, 157. To prevent
inhalation of fungal spores during periods when construction, renovation, or other
dust-generating activities that may be ongoing in and around the health-care
facility, it has been advised that severely immunocompromised patients wear a
high-efficiency respiratory-protection device (e.g., an N95 respirator) when they
leave the Protective Environment 11, 14, 945). The use of masks or respirators by
HSCT patients when they are outside of the Protective Environment for
prevention of environmental fungal infections in the absence of construction has
not been evaluated. A Protective Environment does not include the use of barrier
precautions beyond those indicated for Standard and Transmission-Based
Precautions. No published reports support the benefit of placing solid organ
transplants or other immunocompromised patients in a Protective Environment.

73

Part IV:

Recommendations
These recommendations are designed to prevent transmission of infectious
agents among patients and healthcare personnel in all settings where healthcare
is delivered. As in other CDC/HICPAC guidelines, each recommendation is
categorized on the basis of existing scientific data, theoretical rationale,
applicability, and when possible, economic impact. The CDC/HICPAC system for
categorizing recommendations is as follows:
Category IA Strongly recommended for implementation and strongly supported
by well-designed experimental, clinical, or epidemiologic studies.
Category IB Strongly recommended for implementation and supported by some
experimental, clinical, or epidemiologic studies and a strong theoretical rationale.
Category IC Required for implementation, as mandated by federal and/or state
regulation or standard.
Category II Suggested for implementation and supported by suggestive clinical
or epidemiologic studies or a theoretical rationale.
No recommendation; unresolved issue. Practices for which insufficient
evidence or no consensus regarding efficacy exists.

I. Administrative Responsibilities
Healthcare organization administrators should ensure the implementation of
recommendations in this section.
I.A. Incorporate preventing transmission of infectious agents into the
objectives of the organizations patient and occupational safety programs
543-546, 561, 620, 626, 946
. Category IB/IC
I.B. Make preventing transmission of infectious agents a priority for the
healthcare organization. Provide administrative support, including fiscal
and human resources for maintaining infection control programs 434, 548, 549,
559, 561, 566, 662 552, 562-564, 946
. Category IB/IC
I.B.1. Assure that individuals with training in infection control are
employed by or are available by contract to all healthcare facilities
so that the infection control program is managed by one or more
qualified individuals 552, 566 316, 575, 947 573, 576, 946. Category IB/IC
I.B.1.a. Determine the specific infection control full-time equivalents
(FTEs) according to the scope of the infection control program,
the complexity of the healthcare facility or system, the
characteristics of the patient population, the unique or urgent
needs of the facility and community, and proposed staffing
levels based on survey results and recommendations from
professional organizations 434, 549 552, 566 316, 569, 573, 575 948 949.
Category IB
I.B.2. Include prevention of healthcare-associated infections (HAI) as one
determinant of bedside nurse staffing levels and composition,

74

 especially in high-risk units 585-589 590 592 593 551, 594, 595 418, 596, 597 583.
Category IB
I.B.3. Delegate authority to infection control personnel or their designees
(e.g., patient care unit charge nurses) for making infection control
decisions concerning patient placement and assignment of
Transmission-Based Precautions 549 434, 857, 946. Category IC
I.B.4. Involve infection control personnel in decisions on facility
construction and design, determination of AIIR and Protective
Environment capacity needs and environmental assessments 11, 13,
950 951 12
. Category IB/IC
I.B.4.a. Provide ventilation systems required for a sufficient number of
AIIRs (as determined by a risk assessment) and Protective
Environments in healthcare facilities that provide care to
patients for whom such rooms are indicated, according to
published recommendations 11-13, 15. Category IB/IC
I.B.5. Involve infection control personnel in the selection and post-
implementation evaluation of medical equipment and supplies and
changes in practice that could affect the risk of HAI 952, 953. Category
IC
I.B.6. Ensure availability of human and fiscal resources to provide clinical
microbiology laboratory support, including a sufficient number of
medical technologists trained in microbiology, appropriate to the
healthcare setting, for monitoring transmission of microorganisms,
planning and conducting epidemiologic investigations, and
detecting emerging pathogens. Identify resources for performing
surveillance cultures, rapid diagnostic testing for viral and other
selected pathogens, preparation of antimicrobial susceptibility
summary reports, trend analysis, and molecular typing of clustered
isolates (performed either on-site or in a reference laboratory) and
use these resources according to facility-specific epidemiologic
needs, in consultation with clinical microbiologists 553, 609, 610, 612, 617,
954 614 603, 615, 616 605 599 554 598, 606, 607
. Category IB
I.B.7. Provide human and fiscal resources to meet occupational health
needs related to infection control (e.g., healthcare personnel
immunization, post-exposure evaluation and care, evaluation and
management of healthcare personnel with communicable infections
739 12 17, 879-881, 955 134 690
. Category IB/IC
I.B.8. In all areas where healthcare is delivered, provide supplies and
equipment necessary for the consistent observance of Standard
Precautions, including hand hygiene products and personal
protective equipment (e.g., gloves, gowns, face and eye protection)
739 559 946
. Category IB/IC
I.B.9. Develop and implement policies and procedures to ensure that
reusable patient care equipment is cleaned and reprocessed
appropriately before use on another patient 11, 956 957, 958 959 836 87 11,
960 961
. Category IA/IC

75

I.C. Develop and implement processes to ensure oversight of infection control

activities appropriate to the healthcare setting and assign responsibility for
oversight of infection control activities to an individual or group within the
healthcare organization that is knowledgeable about infection control 434,
549, 566
. Category II
I.D. Develop and implement systems for early detection and management
(e.g., use of appropriate infection control measures, including isolation
precautions, PPE) of potentially infectious persons at initial points of
patient encounter in outpatient settings (e.g., triage areas, emergency
departments, outpatient clinics, physician offices) and at the time of
admission to hospitals and long-term care facilities (LTCF) 9, 122, 134, 253, 827.
Category IB
I.E. Develop and implement policies and procedures to limit patient visitation
by persons with signs or symptoms of a communicable infection. Screen
visitors to high-risk patient care areas (e.g., oncology units, hematopoietic
stem call transplant [HSCT] units, intensive care units, other severely
immunocompromised patients) for possible infection 43 24, 41, 962,
963
.Category IB
I.F. Identify performance indicators of the effectiveness of organization-
specific measures to prevent transmission of infectious agents (Standard
and Transmission-Based Precautions), establish processes to monitor
adherence to those performance measures and provide feedback to staff
members 704 739 705 708 666, 964 667 668 555. Category IB

II. Education and Training

II.A. Provide job- or task-specific education and training on preventing
transmission of infectious agents associated with healthcare during
orientation to the healthcare facility; update information periodically during
ongoing education programs. Target all healthcare personnel for
education and training, including but not limited to medical, nursing,
clinical technicians, laboratory staff; property service (housekeeping),
laundry, maintenance and dietary workers; students, contract staff and
volunteers. Document competency initially and repeatedly, as appropriate,
for the specific staff positions. Develop a system to ensure that healthcare
personnel employed by outside agencies meet these education and
training requirements through programs offered by the agencies or by
participation in the healthcare facilitys program designed for full-time
personnel 126, 559, 561, 562, 655, 681-684, 686, 688, 689, 702, 893, 919, 965. Category IB
II.A.1. Include in education and training programs, information concerning
use of vaccines as an adjunctive infection control measure 17, 611,
690, 874
. Category IB
II.A.2. Enhance education and training by applying principles of adult
learning, using reading level and language appropriate material for
the target audience, and using online educational tools available to
the institution 658, 694, 695, 697, 698, 700, 966. Category IB

76

II.B. Provide instructional materials for patients and visitors on recommended

hand hygiene and Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette practices and the
application of Transmission-Based Precautions 9, 709, 710, 963. Category II

III.Surveillance
III.A. Monitor the incidence of epidemiologically-important organisms and
targeted HAIs that have substantial impact on outcome and for which
effective preventive interventions are available; use information collected
through surveillance of high-risk populations, procedures, devices and
highly transmissible infectious agents to detect transmission of infectious
agents in the healthcare facility 566, 671, 672, 675, 687, 919, 967, 968 673 969 970.
Category IA
III.B. Apply the following epidemiologic principles of infection surveillance 671, 967
673 969 663 664
. Category IB
y Use standardized definitions of infection
y Use laboratory-based data (when available)
y Collect epidemiologically-important variables (e.g., patient locations
and/or clinical service in hospitals and other large multi-unit facilities,
population-specific risk factors [e.g., low birth-weight neonates],
underlying conditions that predispose to serious adverse outcomes)
y Analyze data to identify trends that may indicated increased rates of
transmission
y Feedback information on trends in the incidence and prevalence of
HAIs, probable risk factors, and prevention strategies and their impact
to the appropriate healthcare providers, organization administrators,
and as required by local and state health authorities
III.C. Develop and implement strategies to reduce risks for transmission and
evaluate effectiveness 566, 673, 684, 970 963 971. Category IB
III.D. When transmission of epidemiologically-important organisms continues
despite implementation and documented adherence to infection
prevention and control strategies, obtain consultation from persons
knowledgeable in infection control and healthcare epidemiology to review
the situation and recommend additional measures for control 566 247 687.
Category IB
III.E. Review periodically information on community or regional trends in the
incidence and prevalence of epidemiologically-important organisms (e.g.,
influenza, RSV, pertussis, invasive group A streptococcal disease, MRSA,
VRE) (including in other healthcare facilities) that may impact transmission
of organisms within the facility 398, 687, 972, 973 974. Category II

IV. Standard Precautions

Assume that every person is potentially infected or colonized with an
organism that could be transmitted in the healthcare setting and apply the
following infection control practices during the delivery of health care.
IV.A. Hand Hygiene

77

 IV.A.1. During the delivery of healthcare, avoid unnecessary touching of

surfaces in close proximity to the patient to prevent both
contamination of clean hands from environmental surfaces and
transmission of pathogens from contaminated hands to surfaces72,
73 739, 800, 975{CDC, 2001 #970
. Category IB/IC
IV.A.2. When hands are visibly dirty, contaminated with proteinaceous
material, or visibly soiled with blood or body fluids, wash hands with
either a nonantimicrobial soap and water or an antimicrobial soap
and water 559. Category IA
IV.A.3. If hands are not visibly soiled, or after removing visible material with
nonantimicrobial soap and water, decontaminate hands in the
clinical situations described in IV.A.2.a-f. The preferred method of
hand decontamination is with an alcohol-based hand rub 562, 978.
Alternatively, hands may be washed with an antimicrobial soap and
water. Frequent use of alcohol-based hand rub immediately
following handwashing with nonantimicrobial soap may increase
the frequency of dermatitis 559. Category IB
Perform hand hygiene:
IV.A.3.a. Before having direct contact with patients 664, 979. Category IB
IV.A.3.b. After contact with blood, body fluids or excretions, mucous
membranes, nonintact skin, or wound dressings 664. Category IA
IV.A.3.c. After contact with a patients intact skin (e.g., when taking a
pulse or blood pressure or lifting a patient) 167, 976, 979, 980.
Category IB
IV.A.3.d. If hands will be moving from a contaminated-body site to a
clean-body site during patient care. Category II
IV.A.3.e. After contact with inanimate objects (including medical
equipment) in the immediate vicinity of the patient 72, 73, 88, 800, 981
982
. Category II
IV.A.3.f. After removing gloves 728, 741, 742. Category IB
IV.A.4. Wash hands with non-antimicrobial soap and water or with
antimicrobial soap and water if contact with spores (e.g., C. difficile
or Bacillus anthracis) is likely to have occurred. The physical action
of washing and rinsing hands under such circumstances is
recommended because alcohols, chlorhexidine, iodophors, and
other antiseptic agents have poor activity against spores 559, 956, 983.
Category II
IV.A.5. Do not wear artificial fingernails or extenders if duties include direct
contact with patients at high risk for infection and associated
adverse outcomes (e.g., those in ICUs or operating rooms) 30, 31, 559,
722-724
. Category IA
IV.A.5.a. Develop an organizational policy on the wearing of non-natural
nails by healthcare personnel who have direct contact with
patients outside of the groups specified above 984. Category II
IV.B. Personal protective equipment (PPE) (see Figure)
IV.B.1. Observe the following principles of use:

78

 IV.B.1.a. Wear PPE, as described in IV.B.2-4,when the nature of the

anticipated patient interaction indicates that contact with blood
or body fluids may occur 739, 780, 896. Category IB/IC
IV.B.1.b. Prevent contamination of clothing and skin during the process of
removing PPE (see Figure). Category II
IV.B.1.c. Before leaving the patients room or cubicle, remove and
discard PPE 18, 739. Category IB/IC
IV.B.2. Gloves
IV.B.2.a. Wear gloves when it can be reasonably anticipated that contact
with blood or other potentially infectious materials, mucous
membranes, nonintact skin, or potentially contaminated intact
skin (e.g., of a patient incontinent of stool or urine) could occur
18, 728, 739, 741, 780, 985
. Category IB/IC
IV.B.2.b. Wear gloves with fit and durability appropriate to the task 559, 731,
732, 739, 986, 987
. Category IB
IV.B.2.b.i. Wear disposable medical examination gloves for
providing direct patient care.
IV.B.2.b.ii. Wear disposable medical examination gloves or reusable
utility gloves for cleaning the environment or medical
equipment.
IV.B.2.c. Remove gloves after contact with a patient and/or the
surrounding environment (including medical equipment) using
proper technique to prevent hand contamination (see Figure).
Do not wear the same pair of gloves for the care of more than
one patient. Do not wash gloves for the purpose of reuse since
this practice has been associated with transmission of
pathogens 559, 728, 741-743, 988. Category IB
IV.B.2.d. Change gloves during patient care if the hands will move from a
contaminated body-site (e.g., perineal area) to a clean body-site
(e.g., face). Category II
IV.B.3. Gowns
IV.B.3.a. Wear a gown, that is appropriate to the task, to protect skin and
prevent soiling or contamination of clothing during procedures
and patient-care activities when contact with blood, body fluids,
secretions, or excretions is anticipated 739, 780, 896. Category
IB/IC
IV.B.3.a.i. Wear a gown for direct patient contact if the patient has
uncontained secretions or excretions 24, 88, 89, 739, 744
Category IB/IC
IV.B.3.a.ii. Remove gown and perform hand hygiene before leaving
the patients environment 24, 88, 89, 739, 744 Category IB/IC
IV.B.3.b. Do not reuse gowns, even for repeated contacts with the same
patient. Category II
IV.B.3.c. Routine donning of gowns upon entrance into a high risk unit
(e.g., ICU, NICU, HSCT unit) is not indicated 365, 747-750. Category IB
IV.B.4. Mouth, nose, eye protection

79

 IV.B.4.a. Use PPE to protect the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose
and mouth during procedures and patient-care activities that are
likely to generate splashes or sprays of blood, body fluids,
secretions and excretions. Select masks, goggles, face shields,
and combinations of each according to the need anticipated by
the task performed 113, 739, 780, 896. Category IB/IC
IV.B.5. During aerosol-generating procedures (e.g., bronchoscopy,
suctioning of the respiratory tract [if not using in-line suction
catheters], endotracheal intubation) in patients who are not
suspected of being infected with an agent for which respiratory
protection is otherwise recommended (e.g., M. tuberculosis, SARS
or hemorrhagic fever viruses), wear one of the following: a face
shield that fully covers the front and sides of the face, a mask with
attached shield, or a mask and goggles (in addition to gloves and
gown) 95, 96, 113, 126 93 94, 134. Category IB
IV.C. Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette
IV.C.1. Educate healthcare personnel on the importance of source control
measures to contain respiratory secretions to prevent droplet and
fomite transmission of respiratory pathogens, especially during
seasonal outbreaks of viral respiratory tract infections (e.g.,
influenza, RSV, adenovirus, parainfluenza virus) in communities 14,
24, 684 10, 262
. Category IB
IV.C.2. Implement the following measures to contain respiratory secretions
in patients and accompanying individuals who have signs and
symptoms of a respiratory infection, beginning at the point of initial
encounter in a healthcare setting (e.g., triage, reception and waiting
areas in emergency departments, outpatient clinics and physician
offices) 20, 24, 145, 902, 989.
IV.C.2.a. Post signs at entrances and in strategic places (e.g., elevators,
cafeterias) within ambulatory and inpatient settings with
instructions to patients and other persons with symptoms of a
respiratory infection to cover their mouths/noses when coughing
or sneezing, use and dispose of tissues, and perform hand
hygiene after hands have been in contact with respiratory
secretions. Category II
IV.C.2.b. Provide tissues and no-touch receptacles (e.g.,foot-pedal
operated lid or open, plastic-lined waste basket) for disposal of
tissues 20. Category II
IV.C.2.c. Provide resources and instructions for performing hand hygiene
in or near waiting areas in ambulatory and inpatient settings;
provide conveniently-located dispensers of alcohol-based hand
rubs and, where sinks are available, supplies for handwashing
559, 903
. Category IB
IV.C.2.d. During periods of increased prevalence of respiratory infections
in the community (e.g., as indicated by increased school
absenteeism, increased number of patients seeking care for a

80

 respiratory infection), offer masks to coughing patients and

other symptomatic persons (e.g., persons who accompany ill
patients) upon entry into the facility or medical office 126, 899 898
and encourage them to maintain special separation, ideally a
distance of at least 3 feet, from others in common waiting areas
23, 103, 111, 114 20, 134
. Category IB
IV.C.2.d.i. Some facilities may find it logistically easier to institute
this recommendation year-round as a standard of
practice. Category II
IV.D. Patient placement
IV.D.1. Include the potential for transmission of infectious agents in patient-
placement decisions. Place patients who pose a risk for
transmission to others (e.g., uncontained secretions, excretions or
wound drainage; infants with suspected viral respiratory or
gastrointestinal infections) in a single-patient room when available
24, 430, 435, 796, 797, 806, 990 410, 793
. Category IB
IV.D.2. Determine patient placement based on the following principles:
y Route(s) of transmission of the known or suspected infectious
agent
y Risk factors for transmission in the infected patient
y Risk factors for adverse outcomes resulting from an HAI in other
patients in the area or room being considered for patient-
placement
y Availability of single-patient rooms
y Patient options for room-sharing (e.g., cohorting patients with
the same infection) Category II
IV.E. Patient-care equipment and instruments/devices 956
IV.E.1. Establish policies and procedures for containing, transporting, and
handling patient-care equipment and instruments/devices that may
be contaminated with blood or body fluids 18, 739, 975. Category IB/IC
IV.E.2. Remove organic material from critical and semi-critical
instrument/devices, using recommended cleaning agents before
high level disinfection and sterilization to enable effective
disinfection and sterilization processes 836 991, 992. Category IA
IV.E.3. Wear PPE (e.g., gloves, gown), according to the level of anticipated
contamination, when handling patient-care equipment and
instruments/devices that is visibly soiled or may have been in
contact with blood or body fluids 18, 739, 975. Category IB/IC
IV.F. Care of the environment 11
IV.F.1. Establish policies and procedures for routine and targeted cleaning
of environmental surfaces as indicated by the level of patient
contact and degree of soiling 11. Category II
IV.F.2. Clean and disinfect surfaces that are likely to be contaminated with
pathogens, including those that are in close proximity to the patient
(e.g., bed rails, over bed tables) and frequently-touched surfaces in
the patient care environment (e.g., door knobs, surfaces in and

81

 surrounding toilets in patients rooms) on a more frequent schedule

compared to that for other surfaces (e.g., horizontal surfaces in
waiting rooms) 11 73, 740, 746, 993, 994 72, 800, 835 995. Category IB
IV.F.3. Use EPA-registered disinfectants that have microbiocidal (i.e.,
killing) activity against the pathogens most likely to contaminate the
patient-care environment. Use in accordance with manufacturers
instructions 842-844, 956, 996. Category IB/IC
IV.F.3.a. Review the efficacy of in-use disinfectants when evidence of
continuing transmission of an infectious agent (e.g., rotavirus, C.
difficile, norovirus) may indicate resistance to the in-use product
and change to a more effective disinfectant as indicated 275, 842,
847
. Category II
IV.F.4. In facilities that provide health care to pediatric patients or have
waiting areas with child play toys (e.g., obstetric/gynecology offices
and clinics), establish policies and procedures for cleaning and
disinfecting toys at regular intervals 379 80. Category IB
Use the following principles in developing this policy and
procedures: Category II
y Select play toys that can be easily cleaned and disinfected
y Do not permit use of stuffed furry toys if they will be shared
y Clean and disinfect large stationary toys (e.g., climbing
equipment) at least weekly and whenever visibly soiled
y If toys are likely to be mouthed, rinse with water after
disinfection; alternatively wash in a dishwasher
y When a toy requires cleaning and disinfection, do so
immediately or store in a designated labeled container separate
from toys that are clean and ready for use
IV.F.5. Include multi-use electronic equipment in policies and procedures
for preventing contamination and for cleaning and disinfection,
especially those items that are used by patients, those used during
delivery of patient care, and mobile devices that are moved in and
out of patient rooms frequently (e.g., daily) 850 851, 852, 997. Category
IB
IV.F.5.a. No recommendation for use of removable protective covers or
washable keyboards. Unresolved issue
IV.G. Textiles and laundry
IV.G.1. Handle used textiles and fabrics with minimum agitation to avoid
contamination of air, surfaces and persons 739, 998, 999. Category
IB/IC
IV.G.2. If laundry chutes are used, ensure that they are properly designed,
maintained, and used in a manner to minimize dispersion of
aerosols from contaminated laundry 11, 13, 1000, 1001. Category IB/IC
IV.H. Safe injection practices
The following recommendations apply to the use of needles, cannulas that
replace needles, and, where applicable intravenous delivery systems 454

82

 IV.H.1. Use aseptic technique to avoid contamination of sterile injection

equipment 1002, 1003. Category IA
IV.H.2. Do not administer medications from a syringe to multiple patients,
even if the needle or cannula on the syringe is changed. Needles,
cannulae and syringes are sterile, single-use items; they should not
be reused for another patient nor to access a medication or solution
that might be used for a subsequent patient 453, 919, 1004, 1005.
Category IA
IV.H.3. Use fluid infusion and administration sets (i.e., intravenous bags,
tubing and connectors) for one patient only and dispose
appropriately after use. Consider a syringe or needle/cannula
contaminated once it has been used to enter or connect to a
patients intravenous infusion bag or administration set 453.
Category IB
IV.H.4. Use single-dose vials for parenteral medications whenever possible
453
. Category IA
IV.H.5. Do not administer medications from single-dose vials or ampules to
multiple patients or combine leftover contents for later use 369 453,
1005
. Category IA
IV.H.6. If multidose vials must be used, both the needle or cannula and
syringe used to access the multidose vial must be sterile 453, 1002.
Category IA
IV.H.7. Do not keep multidose vials in the immediate patient treatment area
and store in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations;
discard if sterility is compromised or questionable 453, 1003. Category
IA
IV.H.8. Do not use bags or bottles of intravenous solution as a common
source of supply for multiple patients 453, 1006. Category IB
IV.I. Infection control practices for special lumbar puncture procedures
Wear a surgical mask when placing a catheter or injecting material into the
spinal canal or subdural space (i.e., during myelograms, lumbar puncture
and spinal or epidural anesthesia 906 907-909 910, 911 912-914, 918 1007. Category
IB
IV.J. Worker safety
Adhere to federal and state requirements for protection of healthcare
personnel from exposure to bloodborne pathogens 739. Category IC

V. Transmission-Based Precautions
V.A. General principles
V.A.1. In addition to Standard Precautions, use Transmission-Based
Precautions for patients with documented or suspected infection or
colonization with highly transmissible or epidemiologically-important
pathogens for which additional precautions are needed to prevent
transmission (see Appendix A) 24, 93, 126, 141, 306, 806, 1008. Category IA
V.A.2. Extend duration of Transmission-Based Precautions, (e.g., Droplet,
Contact) for immunosuppressed patients with viral infections due to

83

 prolonged shedding of viral agents that may be transmitted to

others 928, 931-933, 1009-1011.
Category IA
V.B. Contact Precautions
V.B.1. Use Contact Precautions as recommended in Appendix A for
patients with known or suspected infections or evidence of
syndromes that represent an increased risk for contact
transmission. For specific recommendations for use of Contact
Precautions for colonization or infection with MDROs, go to the
MDRO guideline:
www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/pdf/ar/mdroGuideline2006.pdf 870.
V.B.2. Patient placement
V.B.2.a. In acute care hospitals, place patients who require Contact
Precautions in a single-patient room when available 24, 687, 793, 796,
797, 806, 837, 893, 1012, 1013
Category IB
When single-patient rooms are in short supply, apply the
following principles for making decisions on patient placement:
y Prioritize patients with conditions that may facilitate
transmission (e.g., uncontained drainage, stool incontinence)
for single-patient room placement. Category II
y Place together in the same room (cohort) patients who are
infected or colonized with the same pathogen and are
suitable roommates 29, 638, 808, 811-813, 815, 818, 819 Category IB
y If it becomes necessary to place a patient who requires
Contact Precautions in a room with a patient who is not
infected or colonized with the same infectious agent:
o Avoid placing patients on Contact Precautions in
the same room with patients who have conditions
that may increase the risk of adverse outcome
from infection or that may facilitate transmission
(e.g., those who are immunocompromised, have
open wounds, or have anticipated prolonged
lengths of stay). Category II
o Ensure that patients are physically separated (i.e.,
>3 feet apart) from each other. Draw the privacy
curtain between beds to minimize opportunities for
direct contact.) Category II
o Change protective attire and perform hand
hygiene between contact with patients in the same
room, regardless of whether one or both patients
are on Contact Precautions 728, 741, 742, 988, 1014, 1015.
Category IB
V.B.2.b. In long-term care and other residential settings, make decisions
regarding patient placement on a case-by-case basis, balancing
infection risks to other patients in the room, the presence of risk
factors that increase the likelihood of transmission, and the

84

 potential adverse psychological impact on the infected or

colonized patient 920, 921. Category II
V.B.2.c. In ambulatory settings, place patients who require Contact
Precautions in an examination room or cubicle as soon as
possible 20. Category II
V.B.3. Use of personal protective equipment
V.B.3.a. Gloves
Wear gloves whenever touching the patients intact skin 24, 89, 134, 559,
746, 837
or surfaces and articles in close proximity to the patient (e.g.,
medical equipment, bed rails) 72, 73, 88, 837. Don gloves upon entry
into the room or cubicle. Category IB
V.B.3.b. Gowns
V.B.3.b.i. Wear a gown whenever anticipating that clothing will
have direct contact with the patient or potentially
contaminated environmental surfaces or equipment in
close proximity to the patient. Don gown upon entry into
the room or cubicle. Remove gown and observe hand
hygiene before leaving the patient-care environment 24, 88,
134, 745, 837
. Category IB
V.B.3.b.ii. After gown removal, ensure that clothing and skin do not
contact potentially contaminated environmental surfaces
that could result in possible transfer of microorganism to
other patients or environmental surfaces 72, 73. Category II
V.B.4. Patient transport
V.B.4.a. In acute care hospitals and long-term care and other residential
settings, limit transport and movement of patients outside of the
room to medically-necessary purposes. Category II
V.B.4.b. When transport or movement in any healthcare setting is

necessary, ensure that infected or colonized areas of the

patients body are contained and covered. Category II

V.B.4.c. Remove and dispose of contaminated PPE and perform hand

hygiene prior to transporting patients on Contact Precautions.
Category II
V.B.4.d. Don clean PPE to handle the patient at the transport

destination. Category II

V.B.5. Patient-care equipment and instruments/devices

V.B.5.a. Handle patient-care equipment and instruments/devices

according to Standard Precautions 739, 836. Category IB/IC

V.B.5.b. In acute care hospitals and long-term care and other residential
settings, use disposable noncritical patient-care equipment
(e.g., blood pressure cuffs) or implement patient-dedicated use
of such equipment. If common use of equipment for multiple
patients is unavoidable, clean and disinfect such equipment
before use on another patient 24, 88, 796, 836, 837, 854, 1016. Category
IB
V.B.5.c. In home care settings

85

 V.B.5.c.i. Limit the amount of non-disposable patient-care

equipment brought into the home of patients on Contact
Precautions. Whenever possible, leave patient-care
equipment in the home until discharge from home care
services. Category II
V.B.5.c.ii. If noncritical patient-care equipment (e.g., stethoscope)
cannot remain in the home, clean and disinfect items
before taking them from the home using a low- to
intermediate-level disinfectant. Alternatively, place
contaminated reusable items in a plastic bag for transport
and subsequent cleaning and disinfection. Category II
V.B.5.d. In ambulatory settings, place contaminated reusable noncritical
patient-care equipment in a plastic bag for transport to a soiled
utility area for reprocessing. Category II
V.B.6. Environmental measures
Ensure that rooms of patients on Contact Precautions are
prioritized for frequent cleaning and disinfection (e.g., at least daily)
with a focus on frequently-touched surfaces (e.g., bed rails,
overbed table, bedside commode, lavatory surfaces in patient
bathrooms, doorknobs) and equipment in the immediate vicinity of
the patient 11, 24, 88, 746, 837. Category IB
V.B.7. Discontinue Contact Precautions after signs and symptoms of the
infection have resolved or according to pathogen-specific
recommendations in Appendix A. Category IB
V.C. Droplet Precautions
V.C.1. Use Droplet Precautions as recommended in Appendix A for
patients known or suspected to be infected with pathogens
transmitted by respiratory droplets (i.e., large-particle droplets >5
in size) that are generated by a patient who is coughing, sneezing
or talking 14, 23, Steinberg, 1969 #1708, 41, 95, 103, 111, 112, 755, 756, 989, 1017.
Category IB
V.C.2. Patient placement
V.C.2.a. In acute care hospitals, place patients who require Droplet
Precautions in a single-patient room when available Category II
When single-patient rooms are in short supply, apply the
following principles for making decisions on patient placement:
y Prioritize patients who have excessive cough and sputum
production for single-patient room placement Category II
y Place together in the same room (cohort) patients who are
infected the same pathogen and are suitable roommates 814
816
. Category IB
y If it becomes necessary to place patients who require
Droplet Precautions in a room with a patient who does not
have the same infection:
y Avoid placing patients on Droplet Precautions in the same
room with patients who have conditions that may increase

86

 the risk of adverse outcome from infection or that may

facilitate transmission (e.g., those who are
immunocompromised, have or have anticipated prolonged
lengths of stay). Category II
y Ensure that patients are physically separated (i.e., >3 feet
apart) from each other. Draw the privacy curtain between
beds to minimize opportunities for close contact 103, 104 410.
Category IB
y Change protective attire and perform hand hygiene between
contact with patients in the same room, regardless of
whether one patient or both patients are on Droplet
Precautions 741-743, 988, 1014, 1015. Category IB
V.C.2.b. In long-term care and other residential settings, make decisions
regarding patient placement on a case-by-case basis after
considering infection risks to other patients in the room and
available alternatives 410. Category II
V.C.2.c. In ambulatory settings, place patients who require Droplet
Precautions in an examination room or cubicle as soon as
possible. Instruct patients to follow recommendations for
Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette 447, 448 9, 828. Category II
V.C.3. Use of personal protective equipment
V.C.3.a. Don a mask upon entry into the patient room or cubicle 14, 23, 41,
103, 111, 113, 115, 827
. Category IB
V.C.3.b. No recommendation for routinely wearing eye protection (e.g.,
goggle or face shield), in addition to a mask, for close contact
with patients who require Droplet Precautions. Unresolved issue
V.C.3.c. For patients with suspected or proven SARS, avian influenza or
pandemic influenza, refer to the following websites for the most
current recommendations ( www.cdc.gov/ncidod/sars/ ;
134, 1018, 1019
www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/ ;www.pandemicflu.gov/)
V.C.4. Patient transport
V.C.4.a. In acute care hospitals and long-term care and other residential
settings, limit transport and movement of patients outside of the
room to medically-necessary purposes. Category II
V.C.4.b. If transport or movement in any healthcare setting is necessary,
instruct patient to wear a mask and follow Respiratory
Hygiene/Cough Etiquette
www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/infectioncontrol/resphygiene.htm)
. Category IB
V.C.4.c. No mask is required for persons transporting patients on Droplet
Precautions. Category II
V.C.4.d. Discontinue Droplet Precautions after signs and symptoms have
resolved or according to pathogen-specific recommendations in
Appendix A. Category IB
V.D. Airborne Precautions

87

V.D.1. Use Airborne Precautions as recommended in Appendix A for

patients known or suspected to be infected with infectious agents
transmitted person-to-person by the airborne route (e.g., M
tuberculosis 12, measles 34, 122, 1020, chickenpox 123, 773, 1021,
disseminated herpes zoster 1022. Category IA/IC
V.D.2. Patient placement
V.D.2.a. In acute care hospitals and long-term care settings, place
patients who require Airborne Precautions in an AIIR that has
been constructed in accordance with current guidelines 11-13.
Category IA/IC
V.D.2.a.i. Provide at least six (existing facility) or 12 (new
construction/renovation) air changes per hour.
V.D.2.a.ii. Direct exhaust of air to the outside. If it is not possible to
exhaust air from an AIIR directly to the outside, the air
may be returned to the air-handling system or adjacent
spaces if all air is directed through HEPA filters.
V.D.2.a.iii. Whenever an AIIR is in use for a patient on Airborne
Precautions, monitor air pressure daily with visual
indicators (e.g., smoke tubes, flutter strips), regardless of
the presence of differential pressure sensing devices
(e.g., manometers) 11, 12, 1023, 1024.
V.D.2.a.iv. Keep the AIIR door closed when not required for entry
and exit.
V.D.2.b. When an AIIR is not available, transfer the patient to a facility
that has an available AIIR 12. Category II
V.D.2.c. In the event of an outbreak or exposure involving large numbers
of patients who require Airborne Precautions:
y Consult infection control professionals before patient
placement to determine the safety of alternative room that do
not meet engineering requirements for an AIIR.
y Place together (cohort) patients who are presumed to have
the same infection( based on clinical presentation and
diagnosis when known) in areas of the facility that are away
from other patients, especially patients who are at increased
risk for infection (e.g., immunocompromised patients).
y Use temporary portable solutions (e.g., exhaust fan) to
create a negative pressure environment in the converted
area of the facility. Discharge air directly to the outside,away
from people and air intakes, or direct all the air through
HEPA filters before it is introduced to other air spaces 12
Category II
V.D.2.d. In ambulatory settings:
V.D.2.d.i. Develop systems (e.g., triage, signage) to identify
patients with known or suspected infections that require
Airborne Precautions upon entry into ambulatory settings
9, 12, 34, 127, 134
. Category IA

88

 V.D.2.d.ii. Place the patient in an AIIR as soon as possible. If an

AIIR is not available, place a surgical mask on the patient
and place him/her in an examination room. Once the
patient leaves, the room should remain vacant for the
appropriate time, generally one hour, to allow for a full
exchange of air 11, 12, 122. Category IB/IC
V.D.2.d.iii. Instruct patients with a known or suspected airborne
infection to wear a surgical mask and observe
Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette. Once in an AIIR,
the mask may be removed; the mask should remain on if
the patient is not in an AIIR 12, 107, 145, 899. Category IB/IC
V.D.3. Personnel restrictions
Restrict susceptible healthcare personnel from entering the rooms
of patients known or suspected to have measles (rubeola), varicella
(chickenpox), disseminated zoster, or smallpox if other immune
healthcare personnel are available 17, 775. Category IB
V.D.4. Use of PPE
V.D.4.a. Wear a fit-tested NIOSH-approved N95 or higher level respirator
for respiratory protection when entering the room or home of a
patient when the following diseases are suspected or confirmed:
y Infectious pulmonary or laryngeal tuberculosis or when
infectious tuberculosis skin lesions are present and
procedures that would aerosolize viable organisms (e.g.,
irrigation, incision and drainage, whirlpool treatments) are
performed 12, 1025, 1026. Category IB
y Smallpox (vaccinated and unvaccinated). Respiratory
protection is recommended for all healthcare personnel,
including those with a documented take after smallpox
vaccination due to the risk of a genetically engineered virus
against which the vaccine may not provide protection, or of
exposure to a very large viral load (e.g., from high-risk
aerosol-generating procedures, immunocompromised
patients, hemorrhagic or flat smallpox 108, 129. Category II
V.D.4.b. No recommendation is made regarding the use of PPE by
healthcare personnel who are presumed to be immune to
measles (rubeola) or varicella-zoster based on history of
disease, vaccine, or serologic testing when caring for an
individual with known or suspected measles, chickenpox or
disseminated zoster, due to difficulties in establishing definite
immunity 1027, 1028. Unresolved issue
V.D.4.c. No recommendation is made regarding the type of personal
protective equipment (i.e., surgical mask or respiratory
protection with a N95 or higher respirator) to be worn by
susceptible healthcare personnel who must have contact with
patients with known or suspected measles, chickenpox or
disseminated herpes zoster. Unresolved issue

89

V.D.5. Patient transport

V.D.5.a. In acute care hospitals and long-term care and other residential
settings, limit transport and movement of patients outside of the
room to medically-necessary purposes. Category II
V.D.5.b. If transport or movement outside an AIIR is necessary, instruct
patients to wear a surgical mask, if possible, and observe
Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette 12. Category II
V.D.5.c. For patients with skin lesions associated with varicella or
smallpox or draining skin lesions caused by M. tuberculosis,
cover the affected areas to prevent aerosolization or contact
with the infectious agent in skin lesions 108, 1025, 1026, 1029-1031.
Category IB
V.D.5.d. Healthcare personnel transporting patients who are on Airborne
Precautions do not need to wear a mask or respirator during
transport if the patient is wearing a mask and infectious skin
lesions are covered. Category II
V.D.6. Exposure management
Immunize or provide the appropriate immune globulin to
susceptible persons as soon as possible following unprotected
contact (i.e., exposed) to a patient with measles, varicella or
smallpox: Category IA
y Administer measles vaccine to exposed susceptible persons
within 72 hours after the exposure or administer immune
globulin within six days of the exposure event for high-risk
persons in whom vaccine is contraindicated 17, 1032-1035.
y Administer varicella vaccine to exposed susceptible persons
within 120 hours after the exposure or administer varicella
immune globulin (VZIG or alternative product), when
available, within 96 hours for high-risk persons in whom
vaccine is contraindicated (e.g., immunocompromised
patients, pregnant women, newborns whose mothers
varicella onset was <5 days before or within 48 hours after
delivery 888, 1035-1037).
y Administer smallpox vaccine to exposed susceptible persons
within 4 days after exposure 108, 1038-1040.
V.D.7. Discontinue Airborne Precautions according to pathogen-specific
recommendations in Appendix A. Category IB
V.D.8. Consult CDCs Guidelines for Preventing the Transmission of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Health-Care Settings, 2005 12 and
the Guideline for Environmental Infection Control in Health-Care
Facilities 11 for additional guidance on environment strategies for
preventing transmission of tuberculosis in healthcare settings. The
environmental recommendations in these guidelines may be
applied to patients with other infections that require Airborne
Precautions.

90

VI. rotective Environment (Table 4)

P
VI.A. Place allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) patients in a
Protective Environment as described in the Guideline to Prevent
Opportunistic Infections in HSCT Patients 15, the Guideline for
Environmental Infection Control in Health-Care Facilities 11, and the
Guidelines for Preventing Health-Care-Associated Pneumonia, 2003 14
to reduce exposure to environmental fungi (e.g., Aspergillus sp) 157, 158.
Category IB
VI.B. No recommendation for placing patients with other medical conditions that
are associated with increased risk for environmental fungal infections
(e.g., aspergillosis) in a Protective Environment 11. Unresolved issue
VI.C. For patients who require a Protective Environment, implement the
following (see Table 5) 11, 15
VI.C.1. Environmental controls
VI.C.1.a. Filtered incoming air using central or point-of-use high efficiency
particulate (HEPA) filters capable of removing 99.97% of
particles >0.3 m in diameter 13. Category IB
VI.C.1.b. Directed room airflow with the air supply on one side of the
room that moves air across the patient bed and out through an
exhaust on the opposite side of the room 13. Category IB
VI.C.1.c. Positive air pressure in room relative to the corridor (pressure
differential of >12.5 Pa [0.01-in water gauge]) 13. Category IB
VI.C.1.c.i. Monitor air pressure daily with visual indicators (e.g.,
smoke tubes, flutter strips) 11, 1024. Category IA
VI.C.1.d. Well-sealed rooms that prevent infiltration of outside air 13.
Category IB
VI.C.1.e. At least 12 air changes per hour 13. Category IB
VI.C.2. Lower dust levels by using smooth, nonporous surfaces and
finishes that can be scrubbed, rather than textured material (e.g.,
upholstery). Wet dust horizontal surfaces whenever dust is
detected and routinely clean crevices and sprinkler heads where
dust may accumulate 940, 941. Category II
VI.C.3. Avoid carpeting in hallways and patient rooms in areas 941.
Category IB
VI.C.4. Prohibit dried and fresh flowers and potted plants 942-944. Category II
VI.D. Minimize the length of time that patients who require a Protective
Environment are outside their rooms for diagnostic procedures and other
activities 11, 158, 945. Category IB
VI.E. During periods of construction, to prevent inhalation of respirable particles
that could contain infectious spores, provide respiratory protection (e.g.,
N95 respirator) to patients who are medically fit to tolerate a respirator
when they are required to leave the Protective Environment 945 158.
Category II
VI.E.1.a. No recommendation for fit-testing of patients who are using
respirators. Unresolved issue

91

 VI.E.1.b. No recommendation for use of particulate respirators when

leaving the Protective Environment in the absence of
construction. Unresolved issue
VI.F. Use of Standard and Transmission-Based Precautions in a Protective
Environment.
VI.F.1. Use Standard Precautions as recommended for all patient

interactions. Category IA

VI.F.2. Implement Droplet and Contact Precautions as recommended for

diseases listed in Appendix A. Transmission-Based precautions for
viral infections may need to be prolonged because of the patients
immunocompromised state and prolonged shedding of viruses 930
1010 928, 932 1011
. Category IB
VI.F.3. Barrier precautions, (e.g., masks, gowns, gloves) are not required
for healthcare personnel in the absence of suspected or confirmed
infection in the patient or if they are not indicated according to
Standard Precautions 15. Category II
VI.F.4. Implement Airborne Precautions for patients who require a
Protective Environment room and who also have an airborne
infectious disease (e.g., pulmonary or laryngeal tuberculosis, acute
varicella-zoster). Category IA
VI.F.4.a. Ensure that the Protective Environment is designed to maintain
positive pressure 13. Category IB
VI.F.4.b. Use an anteroom to further support the appropriate air-balance
relative to the corridor and the Protective Environment; provide
independent exhaust of contaminated air to the outside or place
a HEPA filter in the exhaust duct if the return air must be
recirculated 13, 1041. Category IB
VI.F.4.c. If an anteroom is not available, place the patient in an AIIR and
use portable, industrial-grade HEPA filters in the room to
enhance filtration of spores 1042. Category II

92

Appendix A:
Preamble The mode(s) and risk of transmission for each specific disease agent included in Appendix A were reviewed.
Principle sources consulted for the development of disease-specific recommendations for Appendix A included infectious
disease manuals and textbooks 833, 1043, 1044. The published literature was searched for evidence of person-to-person
transmission in healthcare and non-healthcare settings with a focus on reported outbreaks that would assist in developing
recommendations for all settings where healthcare is delivered. Criteria used to assign Transmission-Based Precautions
categories follow:
A Transmission-Based Precautions category was assigned if there was strong evidence for person-to-person
transmission via droplet, contact, or airborne routes in healthcare or non-healthcare settings and/or if patient
factors (e.g., diapered infants, diarrhea, draining wounds) increased the risk of transmission
Transmission-Based Precautions category assignments reflect the predominant mode(s) of transmission
If there was no evidence for person-to-person transmission by droplet, contact or airborne routes, Standard
Precautions were assigned
If there was a low risk for person-to-person transmission and no evidence of healthcare-associated transmission,
Standard Precautions were assigned
Standard Precautions were assigned for bloodborne pathogens (e.g., hepatitis B and C viruses, human
immunodeficiency virus) as per CDC recommendations for Universal Precautions issued in 1988 780. Subsequent
experience has confirmed the efficacy of Standard Precautions to prevent exposure to infected blood and body
fluid 778, 779, 866.
Additional information relevant to use of precautions was added in the comments column to assist the caregiver in
decision-making. Citations were added as needed to support a change in or provide additional evidence for
recommendations for a specific disease and for new infectious agents (e.g., SARS-CoV, avian influenza) that have been
added to Appendix A. The reader may refer to more detailed discussion concerning modes of transmission and emerging
pathogens in the background text and for MDRO control in Appendix B.

93
 APPENDIX A1
TYPE AND DURATION OF PRECAUTIONS RECOMMENDED FOR SELECTED INFECTIONS AND CONDITIONS

Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
Abscess
No dressing or containment of drainage; until drainage stops or can be
Draining, major C DI
contained by dressing
Draining, minor or limited S Dressing covers and contains drainage
Acquired human immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV) S Post-exposure chemoprophylaxis for some blood exposures 866.
Actinomycosis S Not transmitted from person to person
Adenovirus infection ( see agent-specific guidance under
gastroenteritis, conjuctivitis, pneumonia)
Person to person transmission is rare. Transmission in settings for the
mentally challenged and in a family group has been reported 1045. Use
Amebiasis S
care when handling diapered infants and mentally challenged persons
1046
.

Anthrax S Infected patients do not generally pose a transmission risk.

Transmission through non-intact skin contact with draining lesions
possible, therefore use Contact Precautions if large amount of
Cutaneous S uncontained drainage. Handwashing with soap and water preferable
to use of waterless alcohol based antiseptics since alcohol does not
have sporicidal activity 983.
Pulmonary S Not transmitted from person to person
Environmental: aerosolizable spore-containing powder or other Until decontamination of environment complete 203 . Wear respirator
DE
substance (N95 mask or PAPRs), protective clothing; decontaminate persons

1
Type of Precautions: A, Airborne Precautions; C, Contact; D, Droplet; S, Standard; when A, C, and D are specified, also use S.
Duration of precautions: CN, until off antimicrobial treatment and culture-negative; DI, duration of illness (with wound lesions, DI means until wounds stop
draining); DE, until environment completely decontaminated; U, until time specified in hours (hrs) after initiation of effective therapy; Unknown: criteria for
establishing eradication of pathogen has not been determined

94
 APPENDIX A1
TYPE AND DURATION OF PRECAUTIONS RECOMMENDED FOR SELECTED INFECTIONS AND CONDITIONS

Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
with powder on them
(http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5135a3.htm)
Hand hygiene: Handwashing for 30-60 seconds with soap and water
or 2% chlorhexidene gluconate after spore contact (alcohol handrubs
inactive against spores 983.
Post-exposure prophylaxis following environmental exposure: 60
days of antimicrobials (either doxycycline, ciprofloxacin, or
levofloxacin) and post-exposure vaccine under IND
Antibiotic-associated colitis (see Clostridium difficile)
Not transmitted from person to person except rarely by transfusion,
and for West Nile virus by organ transplant, breastmilk or
Arthropod-borne viral encephalitides (eastern, western, Venezuelan
transplacentally 530, 1047. Install screens in windows and doors in
equine encephalomyelitis; St Louis, California encephalitis; West Nile S
endemic areas
Virus) and viral fevers (dengue, yellow fever, Colorado tick fever)
Use DEET-containing mosquito repellants and clothing to cover
extremities
Ascariasis S Not transmitted from person to person
Contact Precautions and Airborne Precautions if massive soft tissue
Aspergillosis S
infection with copious drainage and repeated irrigations required 154.
Avian influenza (see influenza, avian below)
Babesiosis S Not transmitted from person to person except rarely by transfusion,
Blastomycosis, North American, cutaneous or pulmonary S Not transmitted from person to person
Botulism S Not transmitted from person to person
Bronchiolitis (see respiratory infections in infants and young children) C DI Use mask according to Standard Precautions.
Not transmitted from person to person except rarely via banked
Brucellosis (undulant, Malta, Mediterranean fever) S spermatozoa and sexual contact 1048, 1049. Provid antimicrobial
prophylaxis following laboratory exposure 1050.
Campylobacter gastroenteritis (see gastroenteritis)
Candidiasis, all forms including mucocutaneous S
Cat-scratch fever (benign inoculation lymphoreticulosis) S Not transmitted from person to person
Cellulitis S

95
 APPENDIX A1
TYPE AND DURATION OF PRECAUTIONS RECOMMENDED FOR SELECTED INFECTIONS AND CONDITIONS

Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
Chancroid (soft chancre) (H. ducreyi) S Transmitted sexually from person to person
Chickenpox (see varicella)
Chlamydia trachomatis
Conjunctivitis S
Genital (lymphogranuloma venereum) S
Pneumonia (infants < 3 mos. of age)) S
Chlamydia pneumoniae S Outbreaks in institutionalized populations reported, rarely 1051, 1052
Cholera (see gastroenteritis)
Closed-cavity infection
Open drain in place; limited or minor drainage S Contact Precautions if there is copious uncontained drainage
No drain or closed drainage system in place S
Clostridium
C. botulinum S Not transmitted from person to person
C. difficile (see Gastroenteritis, C. difficile) C DI
C. perfringens
Food poisoning S Not transmitted from person to person
Transmission from person to person rare; one outbreak in a surgical
Gas gangrene S setting reported 1053. Use Contact Precautions if wound drainage is
extensive.
Coccidioidomycosis (valley fever)
Not transmitted from person to person except under extraordinary
Draining lesions S circumstances because the infectious arthroconidial form of
Coccidioides immitis is not produced in humans 1054 .
Not transmitted from person to person except under extraordinary
circumstances, (e.g., inhalation of aerosolized tissue phase
Pneumonia S endospores during necropsy, transplantation of infected lung) because
the infectious arthroconidial form of Coccidioides immitis is not
produced in humans 1054, 1055.
Colorado tick fever S Not transmitted from person to person
Standard Precautions if nasopharyngeal and urine cultures repeatedly
Congenital rubella C Until 1 yr of age
neg. after 3 mos. of age

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Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
Conjunctivitis
Acute bacterial S
Chlamydia S
Gonococcal S
Adenovirus most common; enterovirus 70 1056, Coxsackie virus A24
1057
) also associated with community outbreaks. Highly contagious;
outbreaks in eye clinics, pediatric and neonatal settings, institutional
settings reported. Eye clinics should follow Standard Precautions
Acute viral (acute hemorrhagic) C DI
when handling patients with conjunctivitis. Routine use of infection
control measures in the handling of instruments and equipment will
prevent the occurrence of outbreaks in this and other settings. 460, 814,
1058, 1059 461, 1060
.
Corona virus associated with SARS (SARS-CoV) (see severe acute
respiratory syndrome)
Coxsackie virus disease (see enteroviral infection)
Use disposable instruments or special sterilization/disinfection for
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease surfaces, objects contaminated with neural tissue if CJD or vCJD
S
CJD, vCJD suspected and has not been R/O; No special burial procedures
1061

Croup (see respiratory infections in infants and young children)

Crimean-Congo Fever (see Viral Hemorrhagic Fever) S
Not transmitted from person to person, except rarely via tissue and
Cryptococcosis S
corneal transplant 1062, 1063
Cryptosporidiosis (see gastroenteritis)
Cysticercosis S Not transmitted from person to person
Cytomegalovirus infection, including in neonates and No additional precautions for pregnant HCWs
S
immunosuppressed patients
Decubitus ulcer (see Pressure ulcer)
Dengue fever S Not transmitted from person to person
Diarrhea, acute-infective etiology suspected (see gastroenteritis)
Diphtheria

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Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
Cutaneous C CN Until 2 cultures taken 24 hrs. apart negative
Pharyngeal D CN Until 2 cultures taken 24 hrs. apart negative
Ebola virus (see viral hemorrhagic fevers)
Echinococcosis (hydatidosis) S Not transmitted from person to person
Echovirus (see enteroviral infection)
Encephalitis or encephalomyelitis (see specific etiologic agents)
Endometritis (endomyometritis) S
Enterobiasis (pinworm disease, oxyuriasis) S
Enterococcus species (see multidrug-resistant organisms if
epidemiologically significant or vancomycin resistant)
Enterocolitis, C. difficile (see C. difficile, gastroenteritis)
Enteroviral infections (i.e., Group A and B Coxsackie viruses and Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent children for
Echo viruses) (excludes polio virus) S duration of illness and to control institutional outbreaks
Epiglottitis, due to Haemophilus influenzae type b D U 24 hrs See specific disease agents for epiglottitis due to other etiologies)
Epstein-Barr virus infection, including infectious mononucleosis S
Erythema infectiosum (also see Parvovirus B19)
Escherichia coli gastroenteritis (see gastroenteritis)
Food poisoning
Botulism S Not transmitted from person to person
C. perfringens or welchii S Not transmitted from person to person
Staphylococcal S Not transmitted from person to person
Furunculosis, staphylococcal S Contact if drainage not controlled. Follow institutional policies if MRSA
Infants and young children C DI
Gangrene (gas gangrene) S Not transmitted from person to person
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
Gastroenteritis S duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks for
gastroenteritis caused by all of the agents below
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
Adenovirus S
duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
Campylobacter species S
duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks

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TYPE AND DURATION OF PRECAUTIONS RECOMMENDED FOR SELECTED INFECTIONS AND CONDITIONS

Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
Cholera (Vibrio cholerae) S
duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks
Discontinue antibiotics if appropriate. Do not share electronic
thermometers 853, 854; ensure consistent environmental cleaning and
disinfection. Hypochlorite solutions may be required for cleaning if
C. difficile C DI
transmission continues 847. Handwashing with soap and water
preferred because of the absence of sporicidal activity of alcohol in
waterless antiseptic handrubs 983.
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
Cryptosporidium species S
duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks
E. coli
Enteropathogenic O157:H7 and other shiga toxin-producing Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
S
Strains duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
Other species S
duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
Giardia lamblia S
duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks. Persons who
clean areas heavily contaminated with feces or vomitus may benefit
from wearing masks since virus can be aerosolized from these body
substances 142, 147 148; ensure consistent environmental cleaning and
disinfection with focus on restrooms even when apparently unsoiled
Noroviruses S 273, 1064
). Hypochlorite solutions may be required when there is
continued transmission 290-292. Alcohol is less active, but there is no
evidence that alcohol antiseptic handrubs are not effective for hand
decontamination 294. Cohorting of affected patients to separate
airspaces and toilet facilities may help interrupt transmission during
outbreaks.
Ensure consistent environmental cleaning and disinfection and
Rotavirus C DI frequent removal of soiled diapers. Prolonged shedding may occur in
both immunocompetent and immunocompromised children and the

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Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
elderly 932, 933.
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
Salmonella species (including S. typhi) S
duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
Shigella species (Bacillary dysentery) S
duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
Vibrio parahaemolyticus S
duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
Viral (if not covered elsewhere) S
duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent persons for the
Yersinia enterocolitica S
duration of illness or to control institutional outbreaks
German measles (see rubella; see congenital rubella)
Giardiasis (see gastroenteritis)
Gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum (gonorrheal ophthalmia,
S
acute conjunctivitis of newborn)
Gonorrhea S
Granuloma inguinale (Donovanosis, granuloma venereum) S
Guillain-Barr syndrome S Not an infectious condition
Haemophilus influenzae (see disease-specific recommendations)
Hand, foot, and mouth disease (see enteroviral infection)
Hansens Disease (see Leprosy)
Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome S Not transmitted from person to person
Helicobacter pylori S
Hepatitis, viral
Type A S Provide hepatitis A vaccine post-exposure as recommended 1065
Maintain Contact Precautions in infants and children <3 years of age
for duration of hospitalization; for children 3-14 yrs. of age for 2 weeks
Diapered or incontinent patients C
after onset of symptoms; >14 yrs. of age for 1 week after onset of
symptoms 833, 1066, 1067.
See specific recommendations for care of patients in hemodialysis
Type B-HBsAg positive; acute or chronic S
centers 778

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Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
See specific recommendations for care of patients in hemodialysis
Type C and other unspecified non-A, non-B S
centers 778
Type D (seen only with hepatitis B) S
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent individuals for the
Type E S
duration of illness 1068
Type G S
Herpangina (see enteroviral infection)
Hookworm S
Herpes simplex (Herpesvirus hominis)
Encephalitis S
Until lesions dry
Mucocutaneous, disseminated or primary, severe C
and crusted
Mucocutaneous, recurrent (skin, oral, genital) S
Also, for asymptomatic, exposed infants delivered vaginally or by C-
Until lesions dry section and if mother has active infection and membranes have been
Neonatal C
and crusted ruptured for more than 4 to 6 hrs until infant surface cultures obtained
at 24-36 hrs. of age negative after 48 hrs incubation 1069, 1070
Herpes zoster (varicella-zoster) (shingles)
Susceptible HCWs should not enter room if immune caregivers are
Disseminated disease in any patient
available; no recommendation for protection of immune HCWs; no
Localized disease in immunocompromised patient until disseminated A,C DI
recommendation for type of protection, i.e. surgical mask or respirator;
infection ruled out
for susceptible HCWs.
Localized in patient with intact immune system with lesions that can Susceptible HCWs should not provide direct patient care when other
S DI immune caregivers are available.
be contained/covered
Histoplasmosis S Not transmitted from person to person
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) S Post-exposure chemoprophylaxis for some blood exposures 866.
HAI reported 1071, but route of transmission not established 823.
Assumed to be Contact transmission as for RSV since the viruses are
Human metapneumovirus C DI
closely related and have similar clinical manifestations and
epidemiology. Wear masks according to Standard Precautions..
Impetigo C U 24 hrs

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TYPE AND DURATION OF PRECAUTIONS RECOMMENDED FOR SELECTED INFECTIONS AND CONDITIONS

Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
Infectious mononucleosis
S
Influenza
Single patient room when available or cohort; avoid placement with
high-risk patients; mask patient when transported out of room;
5 days except DI chemoprophylaxis/vaccine to control/prevent outbreaks 611. Use gown
in immuno and gloves according to Standard Precautions may be especially
Human (seasonal influenza) D
compromised important in pediatric settings. Duration of precautions for
persons immunocompromised patients cannot be defined; prolonged duration
of viral shedding (i.e. for several weeks) has been observed;
implications for transmission are unknown 930.
See www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/professional/infect-control.htm for current
Avian (e.g., H5N1, H7, H9 strains))
avian influenza guidance.
5 days from See http://www.pandemicflu.gov for current pandemic influenza
Pandemic influenza (also a human influenza virus) D onset of guidance.
symptoms
Kawasaki syndrome S Not an infectious condition
Lassa fever (see viral hemorrhagic fevers)
Legionnaires disease S Not transmitted from person to person
Leprosy S
Leptospirosis S Not transmitted from person to person
Lice http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/lice/default.htm
Head (pediculosis) C U 4 hrs
Transmitted person to person through infested clothing. Wear gown
Body S and gloves when removing clothing; bag and wash clothes according
to CDC guidance above
Pubic S Transmitted person to person through sexual contact
Person-to-person transmission rare; cross-transmission in neonatal
Listeriosis (listeria monocytogenes) S
settings reported 1072, 1073 1074, 1075
Lyme disease S Not transmitted from person to person
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis S Not transmitted from person to person

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TYPE AND DURATION OF PRECAUTIONS RECOMMENDED FOR SELECTED INFECTIONS AND CONDITIONS

Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
Lymphogranuloma venereum S
Not transmitted from person to person except through transfusion
rarely and through a failure to follow Standard Precautions during
Malaria S patient care 1076-1079. Install screens in windows and doors in endemic
areas. Use DEET-containing mosquito repellants and clothing to cover
extremities
Marburg virus disease (see viral hemorrhagic fevers)
Susceptible HCWs should not enter room if immune care providers
are available; no recommendation for face protection for immune
HCW; no recommendation for type of face protection for susceptible
4 days after
HCWs, i.e., mask or respirator 1027, 1028. For exposed susceptibles,
onset of rash; DI
Measles (rubeola) A post-exposure vaccine within 72 hrs. or immune globulin within 6 days
in immune
when available 17, 1032, 1034. Place exposed susceptible patients on
compromised
Airborne Precautions and exclude susceptible healthcare personnel
from duty from day 5 after first exposure to day 21 after last exposure,
regardless of post-exposure vaccine 17.
Melioidosis, all forms S Not transmitted from person to person
Meningitis
Aseptic (nonbacterial or viral; also see enteroviral infections) S Contact for infants and young children
Bacterial, gram-negative enteric, in neonates S
Fungal S
Haemophilus influenzae, type b known or suspected D U 24 hrs
Listeria monocytogenes (See Listeriosis) S
Neisseria meningitidis (meningococcal) known or suspected D U 24 hrs See meningococcal disease below
Streptococcus pneumoniae S
Concurrent, active pulmonary disease or draining cutaneous lesions
may necessitate addition of Contact and/or Airborne Precautions;
M. tuberculosis S
For children, airborne precautions until active tuberculosis ruled out in
visiting family members (see tuberculosis below) 42
Other diagnosed bacterial S
Meningococcal disease: sepsis, pneumonia, meningitis D U 24 hrs Postexposure chemoprophylaxis for household contacts, HCWs

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Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
exposed to respiratory secretions; postexposure vaccine only to
control outbreaks 15, 17.
Molluscum contagiosum S
A-Until Use See www.cdc.gov/ncidod/monkeypox for most current
monkeypox recommendations. Transmission in hospital settings unlikely 269. Pre-
confirmed and and post-exposure smallpox vaccine recommended for exposed
Monkeypox A,C smallpox HCWs
excluded
C-Until lesions
crusted
Mucormycosis S
MDROs judged by the infection control program, based on local, state,
regional, or national recommendations, to be of clinical and
epidemiologic significance. Contact Precautions recommended in
settings with evidence of ongoing transmission, acute care settings
Multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs), infection or colonization
S/C with increased risk for transmission or wounds that cannot be
(e.g., MRSA, VRE, VISA/VRSA, ESBLs, resistant S. pneumoniae)
contained by dressings. See recommendations for management
options in Management of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms In
Healthcare Settings, 2006 870. Contact state health department for
guidance regarding new or emerging MDRO.
After onset of swelling; susceptible HCWs should not provide care if
immune caregivers are available.
Note: (Recent assessment of outbreaks in healthy 18-24 year olds has
U 9 days indicated that salivary viral shedding occurred early in the course of
Mumps (infectious parotitis) D
illness and that 5 days of isolation after onset of parotitis may be
appropriate in community settings; however the implications for
healthcare personnel and high-risk patient populations remain to be
clarified.)
Mycobacteria, nontuberculosis (atypical) Not transmitted person-to-person
Pulmonary S
Wound S
Mycoplasma pneumonia D DI

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Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
Necrotizing enterocolitis S Contact Precautions when cases clustered temporally 1080-1083 .
Nocardiosis, draining lesions, or other presentations S Not transmitted person-to-person
Norovirus (see gastroenteritis)
Norwalk agent gastroenteritis (see gastroenteritis)
Orf S
Viral shedding may be prolonged in immunosuppressed patients 1009,
1010
Parainfluenza virus infection, respiratory in infants and young children C DI . Reliability of antigen testing to determine when to remove patients
with prolonged hospitalizations from Contact Precautions uncertain.
Maintain precautions for duration of hospitalization when chronic
disease occurs in an immunocompromised patient. For patients with
transient aplastic crisis or red-cell crisis, maintain precautions for 7
Parvovirus B19 (Erythema infectiosum) D
days. Duration of precautions for immunosuppressed patients with
persistently positive PCR not defined, but transmission has occurred
929
.
U 24 hrs after
Pediculosis (lice) C
treatment
Single patient room preferred. Cohorting an option. Post-exposure
chemoprophylaxis for household contacts and HCWs with prolonged
Pertussis (whooping cough) D U 5 days
exposure to respiratory secretions 863. Recommendations for Tdap
vaccine in adults under development.
Pinworm infection (Enterobiasis) S
Plague (Yersinia pestis)
Bubonic S
Pneumonic D U 48 hrs Antimicrobial prophylaxis for exposed HCW 207.
Pneumonia
Outbreaks in pediatric and institutional settings reported 376, 1084-1086. In
Adenovirus D, C DI immunocompromised hosts, extend duration of Droplet and Contact
Precautions due to prolonged shedding of virus 931
Bacterial not listed elsewhere (including gram-negative bacterial) S
B. cepacia in patients with CF, including Avoid exposure to other persons with CF; private room preferred.
C Unknown
respiratory tract colonization Criteria for D/C precautions not established. See CF Foundation

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TYPE AND DURATION OF PRECAUTIONS RECOMMENDED FOR SELECTED INFECTIONS AND CONDITIONS

Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
guideline 20
B. cepacia in patients without CF(see
Multidrug-resistant organisms)
Chlamydia S
Fungal S
Haemophilus influenzae, type b
Adults S
Infants and children D U 24 hrs
Legionella spp. S
Meningococcal D U 24 hrs See meningococcal disease above
Multidrug-resistant bacterial (see multidrug-resistant organisms)
Mycoplasma (primary atypical pneumonia) D DI
Use Droplet Precautions if evidence of transmission within a patient
Pneumococcal pneumonia S
care unit or facility 196-198, 1087
Avoid placement in the same room with an immunocompromised
Pneumocystis jiroveci (Pneumocystis carinii ) S
patient.
Staphylococcus aureus S For MRSA, see MDROs
Streptococcus, group A
See streptococcal disease (group A streptococcus) below
Adults D U 24 hrs
Contact precautions if skin lesions present
Infants and young children D U 24 hrs Contact Precautions if skin lesions present
Varicella-zoster (See Varicella-Zoster)
Viral
Adults S
Infants and young children (see respiratory infectious disease,
acute, or specific viral agent)
Poliomyelitis C DI
Pressure ulcer (decubitus ulcer, pressure sore) infected
If no dressing or containment of drainage; until drainage stops or can
Major C DI
be contained by dressing
Minor or limited S If dressing covers and contains drainage

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Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
Prion disease (See Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease)
Psittacosis (ornithosis) (Chlamydia psittaci) S Not transmitted from person to person
Q fever S
Person to person transmission rare; transmission via corneal, tissue
and organ transplants has been reported 539, 1088. If patient has bitten
Rabies S another individual or saliva has contaminated an open wound or
mucous membrane, wash exposed area thoroughly and administer
postexposure prophylaxis. 1089
Rat-bite fever (Streptobacillus moniliformis disease, Spirillum minus Not transmitted from person to person
S
disease)
Relapsing fever S Not transmitted from person to person
Resistant bacterial infection or colonization (see multidrug-resistant
organisms)
Respiratory infectious disease, acute (if not covered elsewhere)
Adults S
Infants and young children C DI Also see syndromes or conditions listed in Table 2
Wear mask according to Standard Precautions 24 CB 116, 117. In
immunocompromised patients, extend the duration of Contact
Respiratory syncytial virus infection, in infants,
C DI Precautions due to prolonged shedding 928). Reliability of antigen
young children and immunocompromised adults
testing to determine when to remove patients with prolonged
hospitalizations from Contact Precautions uncertain.
Reye's syndrome S Not an infectious condition
Rheumatic fever S Not an infectious condition
Droplet most important route of transmission 104 1090. Outbreaks have
occurred in NICUs and LTCFs 413, 1091, 1092. Add Contact Precautions if
Rhinovirus D DI
copious moist secretions and close contact likely to occur (e.g., young
infants) 111, 833.
Rickettsial fevers, tickborne (Rocky Mountain spotted fever, tickborne Not transmitted from person to person except through transfusion,
S
typhus fever) rarely
Rickettsialpox (vesicular rickettsiosis) S Not transmitted from person to person
Ringworm (dermatophytosis, dermatomycosis, tinea) S Rarely, outbreaks have occurred in healthcare settings, (e.g., NICU

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Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
1093
, rehabilitation hospital 1094. Use Contact Precautions for outbreak.
Ritter's disease (staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome) C DI See staphylococcal disease, scalded skin syndrome below
Not transmitted from person to person except through transfusion,
Rocky Mountain spotted fever S
rarely
Roseola infantum (exanthem subitum; caused by HHV-6) S
Rotavirus infection (see gastroenteritis)
Susceptible HCWs should not enter room if immune caregivers are
available. No recommendation for wearing face protection (e.g., a
surgical mask) if immune. Pregnant women who are not immune
should not care for these patients 17, 33. Administer vaccine within
U 7 days after
Rubella (German measles) ( also see congenital rubella) D three days of exposure to non-pregnant susceptible individuals. Place
onset of rash
exposed susceptible patients on Droplet Precautions; exclude
susceptible healthcare personnel from duty from day 5 after first
exposure to day 21 after last exposure, regardless of post-exposure
vaccine.
Rubeola (see measles)
Salmonellosis (see gastroenteritis)
Scabies C U 24
Scalded skin syndrome, staphylococcal C DI See staphylococcal disease, scalded skin syndrome below)
Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis) S
DI plus 10 days Airborne Precautions preferred; D if AIIR unavailable. N95 or higher
after resolution of respiratory protection; surgical mask if N95 unavailable; eye protection
fever, provided (goggles, face shield); aerosol-generating procedures and
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) A, D,C respiratory supershedders highest risk for transmission via small droplet nuclei
symptoms are and large droplets 93, 94, 96.Vigilant environmental disinfection (see
absent or www.cdc.gov/ncidod/sars)
improving
Shigellosis (see gastroenteritis)
Until all scabs have crusted and separated (3-4 weeks). Non-
Smallpox (variola; see vaccinia for management of vaccinated
A,C DI vaccinated HCWs should not provide care when immune HCWs are
persons)
available; N95 or higher respiratory protection for susceptible and

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Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
successfully vaccinated individuals; postexposure vaccine within 4
days of exposure protective 108, 129, 1038-1040.
Sporotrichosis S
Spirillum minor disease (rat-bite fever) S Not transmitted from person to person
Staphylococcal disease (S aureus)
Skin, wound, or burn
Major C DI No dressing or dressing does not contain drainage adequately
Minor or limited S Dressing covers and contains drainage adequately
Use Contact Precautions for diapered or incontinent children for
Enterocolitis S
duration of illness
Multidrug-resistant (see multidrug-resistant organisms)
Pneumonia S
Consider healthcare personnel as potential source of nursery, NICU
Scalded skin syndrome C DI
outbreak 1095.
Toxic shock syndrome S
Streptobacillus moniliformis disease (rat-bite fever) S Not transmitted from person to person
Streptococcal disease (group A streptococcus)
Skin, wound, or burn
Major C,D U 24 hrs No dressing or dressing does not contain drainage adequately
Minor or limited S Dressing covers and contains drainage adequately
Endometritis (puerperal sepsis) S
Pharyngitis in infants and young children D U 24 hrs
Pneumonia D U 24 hrs
Scarlet fever in infants and young children D U 24 hrs
Outbreaks of serious invasive disease have occurred secondary to
transmission among patients and healthcare personnel 162, 972, 1096-1098
Serious invasive disease D U24 hrs
Contact Precautions for draining wound as above; follow rec. for
antimicrobial prophylaxis in selected conditions 160.
Streptococcal disease (group B streptococcus), neonatal S
Streptococcal disease (not group A or B) unless covered elsewhere S
Multidrug-resistant (see multidrug-resistant organisms)

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Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
Strongyloidiasis S
Syphilis
Latent (tertiary) and seropositivity without lesions S
Skin and mucous membrane, including congenital, primary,
S
Secondary
Tapeworm disease
Hymenolepis nana S Not transmitted from person to person
Taenia solium (pork) S
Other S
Tetanus S Not transmitted from person to person
Tinea (e.g., dermatophytosis, dermatomycosis, ringworm) S Rare episodes of person-to-person transmission
Transmission from person to person is rare; vertical transmission from
Toxoplasmosis S mother to child, transmission through organs and blood transfusion
rare
Toxic shock syndrome (staphylococcal disease, streptococcal Droplet Precautions for the first 24 hours after implementation of
S
disease) antibiotic therapy if Group A streptococcus is a likely etiology
Trachoma, acute S
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (see Creutzfeld-Jacob
disease, CJD, vCJD)
Trench mouth (Vincent's angina) S
Trichinosis S
Trichomoniasis S
Trichuriasis (whipworm disease) S
Tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis)
Discontinue precautions only when patient is improving clinically, and
drainage has ceased or there are three consecutive negative cultures
Extrapulmonary, draining lesion) A,C
of continued drainage 1025, 1026. Examine for evidence of active
pulmonary tuberculosis.
Examine for evidence of pulmonary tuberculosis. For infants and
Extrapulmonary, no draining lesion, meningitis S children, use Airborne Precautions until active pulmonary tuberculosis
in visiting family members ruled out 42

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Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
Discontinue precautions only when patient on effective therapy is
improving clinically and has three consecutive sputum smears
negative for acid-fast bacilli collected on separate days(MMWR 2005;
Pulmonary or laryngeal disease, confirmed A
54: RR-17
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5417a1.htm?s_cid=rr5
417a1_e ) 12.
Discontinue precautions only when the likelihood of infectious TB
disease is deemed negligible, and either 1) there is another diagnosis
that explains the clinical syndrome or 2) the results of three sputum
Pulmonary or laryngeal disease, suspected A
smears for AFB are negative. Each of the three sputum specimens
should be collected 8-24 hours apart, and at least one should be an
early morning specimen
Skin-test positive with no evidence of current active disease S
Tularemia
Draining lesion S Not transmitted from person to person
Pulmonary S Not transmitted from person to person
Typhoid (Salmonella typhi) fever (see gastroenteritis)
Typhus
Transmitted from person to person through close personal or clothing
Rickettsia prowazekii (Epidemic or Louse-borne typhus) S
contact
Rickettsia typhi S Not transmitted from person to person
Urinary tract infection (including pyelonephritis), with or without
S
urinary catheter
Only vaccinated HCWs have contact with active vaccination sites and
Vaccinia (vaccination site, adverse events following vaccination) * care for persons with adverse vaccinia events; if unvaccinated, only
HCWs without contraindications to vaccine may provide care.
Vaccination recommended for vaccinators; for newly vaccinated
HCWs: semi-permeable dressing over gauze until scab separates,
Vaccination site care (including autoinoculated areas) S with dressing change as fluid accumulates, ~3-5 days; gloves, hand
hygiene for dressing change; vaccinated HCW or HCW without
contraindication to vaccine for dressing changes 205, 221, 225.
Eczema vaccinatum C Until lesions dry For contact with virus-containing lesions and exudative material

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 APPENDIX A1
TYPE AND DURATION OF PRECAUTIONS RECOMMENDED FOR SELECTED INFECTIONS AND CONDITIONS

Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
Fetal vaccinia C and crusted,
Generalized vaccinia C scabs separated
Progressive vaccinia C
Postvaccinia encephalitis S
Blepharitis or conjunctivitis S/C Use Contact Precautions if there is copious drainage
Iritis or keratitis S
Vaccinia-associated erythema multiforme (Stevens Johnson Not an infectious condition
S
Syndrome)
Secondary bacterial infection (e.g., S. aureus, group A beta Follow organism-specific (strep, staph most frequent)
S/C
hemolytic streptococcus recommendations and consider magnitude of drainage
Susceptible HCWs should not enter room if immune caregivers are
available; no recommendation for face protection of immune HCWs;
no recommendation for type of protection, i.e. surgical mask or
respirator for susceptible HCWs. In immunocompromised host with
varicella pneumonia, prolong duration of precautions for duration of
illness. Post-exposure prophylaxis: provide post-exposure vaccine
Until lesions dry
ASAP but within 120 hours; for susceptible exposed persons for whom
and crusted
Varicella Zoster A,C vaccine is contraindicated (immunocompromised persons, pregnant
women, newborns whose mothers varicella onset is <5days before
delivery or within 48 hrs after delivery) provide VZIG, when available,
within 96 hours; if unavailable, use IVIG, Use Airborne Precautions for
exposed susceptible persons and exclude exposed susceptible
healthcare workers beginning 8 days after first exposure until 21 days
after last exposure or 28 if received VZIG, regardless of postexposure
vaccination. 1036.
Variola (see smallpox)
Vibrio parahaemolyticus (see gastroenteritis)
Vincent's angina (trench mouth) S
Single-patient room preferred. Emphasize: 1) use of sharps safety
Viral hemorrhagic fevers devices and safe work practices, 2) hand hygiene; 3) barrier protection
S, D, C DI
due to Lassa, Ebola, Marburg, Crimean-Congo fever viruses against blood and body fluids upon entry into room (single gloves and
fluid-resistant or impermeable gown, face/eye protection with masks,

112
 APPENDIX A1
TYPE AND DURATION OF PRECAUTIONS RECOMMENDED FOR SELECTED INFECTIONS AND CONDITIONS

Infection/Condition Precautions
*
Type Duration Comments
goggles or face shields); and 4) appropriate waste handling. Use N95
or higher respirators when performing aerosol-generating procedures.
Largest viral load in final stages of illness when hemorrhage may
occur; additional PPE, including double gloves, leg and shoe
coverings may be used, especially in resource-limited settings where
options for cleaning and laundry are limited. Notify public health
officials immediately if Ebola is suspected 212, 314, 740, 772 Also see Table
3 for Ebola as a bioterrorism agent
Viral respiratory diseases (not covered elsewhere)
Adults S
Infants and young children (see respiratory infectious disease,
acute)
Whooping cough (see pertussis)
Wound infections
Major C DI No dressing or dressing does not contain drainage adequately
Minor or limited S Dressing covers and contains drainage adequately
Yersinia enterocolitica gastroenteritis (see gastroenteritis)
Zoster (varicella-zoster) (see herpes zoster)
Zygomycosis (phycomycosis, mucormycosis) S Not transmitted person-to-person

113
 TABLE 1. HISTORY OF GUIDELINES FOR ISOLATION PRECAUTIONS IN HOSPITALS*

YEAR
DOCUMENT ISSUED COMMENT
(Ref)
1970 Isolation Techniques for Use in - Introduced seven isolation precaution categories with color-coded
1099
Hospitals, 1st ed. cards: Strict, Respiratory, Protective, Enteric, Wound and Skin,
Discharge, and Blood
- No user decision-making required
- Simplicity a strength; over isolation prescribed for some infections
1975 Isolation Techniques for Use in - Same conceptual framework as 1st edition
1100
Hospitals, 2nd ed.
1983 CDC Guideline for Isolation Precautions - Provided two systems for isolation: category-specific and disease-
1101
in Hospitals specific
- Protective Isolation eliminated; Blood Precautions expanded to include
Body Fluids
- Categories included Strict, Contact, Respiratory, AFB, Enteric,
Drainage/Secretion, Blood and Body Fluids
- Emphasized decision-making by users

1985-88 Universal Precautions - Developed in response to HIV/AIDS epidemic

780, 896
- Dictated application of Blood and Body Fluid precautions to all patients,
regardless of infection status
- Did not apply to feces, nasal secretions, sputum, sweat, tears, urine, or
vomitus unless contaminated by visible blood
- Added personal protective equipment to protect HCWs from mucous
membrane exposures
- Handwashing recommended immediately after glove removal
- Added specific recommendations for handling needles and other sharp
devices; concept became integral to OSHAs 1991 rule on occupational
exposure to blood-borne pathogens in healthcare settings

114
YEAR
DOCUMENT ISSUED COMMENT
(Ref)

1987 Body Substance Isolation - Emphasized avoiding contact with all moist and potentially infectious
1102
body substances except sweat even if blood not present
- Shared some features with Universal Precautions
- Weak on infections transmitted by large droplets or by contact with dry
surfaces
- Did not emphasize need for special ventilation to contain airborne
infections
- Handwashing after glove removal not specified in the absence of
visible soiling
1996 Guideline for Isolation Precautions in - Prepared by the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory
1
Hospitals Committee (HICPAC)
- Melded major features of Universal Precautions and Body
Substance Isolation into Standard Precautions to be used with all
patients at all times
- Included three transmission-based precaution categories: airborne,
droplet, and contact
- Listed clinical syndromes that should dictate use of empiric isolation
until an etiological diagnosis is established
* Derived from Garner ICHE 1996

115
 TABLE 2. CLINICAL SYNDROMES OR CONDITIONS WARRANTING EMPIRIC TRANSMISSION-BASED PRECAUTIONS IN
ADDITION TO STANDARD PRECAUTIONS PENDING CONFIRMATION OF DIAGNOSIS*

Empiric Precautions (Always includes Standard

Clinical Syndrome or Condition Potential Pathogens Precautions)
DIARRHEA
Acute diarrhea with a likely infectious cause in an Enteric pathogens Contact Precautions (pediatrics and adult)
incontinent or diapered patient
Neisseria meningitidis Droplet Precautions for first 24 hrs of antimicrobial
MENINGITIS therapy; mask and face protection for intubation

Enteroviruses Contact Precautions for infants and children

M. tuberculosis Airborne Precautions if pulmonary infiltrate

Airborne Precautions plus Contact Precautions if
potentially infectious draining body fluid present

RASH OR EXANTHEMS, GENERALIZED, ETIOLOGY UNKNOWN

Petechial/ecchymotic with fever (general) Neisseria meningitides Droplet Precautions for first 24 hrs of antimicrobial therapy

- If positive history of travel to an area with an Ebola, Lassa, Marburg Droplet Precautions plus Contact Precautions, with
ongoing outbreak of VHF in the 10 days before viruses face/eye protection, emphasizing safety sharps and barrier
onset of fever precautions when blood exposure likely. Use N95 or
higher respiratory protection when aerosol-generating
procedure performed
Vesicular Varicella-zoster, herpes Airborne plus Contact Precautions;
simplex, variola
(smallpox), vaccinia Contact Precautions only if herpes simplex, localized
viruses zoster in an immunocompetent host or vaccinia viruses
most likely
Vaccinia virus
Maculopapular with cough, coryza and fever Rubeola (measles) virus Airborne Precautions

116
Clinical Syndrome or Condition Potential Pathogens Empiric Precautions (Always includes Standard
Precautions)
RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS
Cough/fever/upper lobe pulmonary infiltrate in an M. tuberculosis, Airborne Precautions plus Contact precautions
HIV-negative patient or a patient at low risk for Respiratory viruses, S.
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection pneumoniae, S. aureus
(MSSA or MRSA)
Cough/fever/pulmonary infiltrate in any lung M. tuberculosis, Airborne Precautions plus Contact Precautions
location in an HIV-infected patient or a patient at Respiratory viruses, S. Use eye/face protection if aerosol-generating procedure
high risk for HIV infection pneumoniae, S. aureus performed or contact with respiratory secretions
(MSSA or MRSA) anticipated.
If tuberculosis is unlikely and there are no AIIRs and/or
respirators available, use Droplet Precautions instead of
Airborne Precautions
Tuberculosis more likely in HIV-infected individual than in
HIV negative individual
Cough/fever/pulmonary infiltrate in any lung M. tuberculosis, severe Airborne plus Contact Precautions plus eye protection.
location in a patient with a history of recent travel acute respiratory If SARS and tuberculosis unlikely, use Droplet Precautions
(10-21 days) to countries with active outbreaks of syndrome virus (SARS- instead of Airborne Precautions.
SARS, avian influenza CoV), avian influenza
Respiratory syncytial Contact plus Droplet Precautions; Droplet Precautions may
Respiratory infections, particularly bronchiolitis virus, be discontinued when adenovirus and influenza have been
and pneumonia, in infants and young children parainfluenza virus, ruled out
adenovirus, influenza
virus,
Human metapneumovirus
Skin or Wound Infection
Staphylococcus aureus Contact Precautions
Abscess or draining wound that cannot be (MSSA or MRSA), group Add Droplet Precautions for the first 24 hours of
covered A streptococcus appropriate antimicrobial therapy if invasive Group A
streptococcal disease is suspected
* Infection control professionals should modify or adapt this table according to local conditions. To ensure that appropriate empiric
precautions are implemented always, hospitals must have systems in place to evaluate patients routinely according to these criteria

117
 as part of their preadmission and admission care.
Patients with the syndromes or conditions listed below may present with atypical signs or symptoms (e.g.neonates and adults with
pertussis may not have paroxysmal or severe cough). The clinician's index of suspicion should be guided by the prevalence of specific
conditions in the community, as well as clinical
judgment.
The organisms listed under the column "Potential Pathogens" are not intended to represent the complete, or even most likely,
diagnoses, but rather possible etiologic agents that require additional precautions beyond Standard Precautions until they can be
ruled out.
These pathogens include enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7, Shigella spp, hepatitis A virus, noroviruses, rotavirus, C.
difficile.

118
TABLE 3.
INFECTION CONTROL CONSIDERATIONS FOR HIGH-PRIORITY (CDC CATEGORY A) DISEASES THAT MAY RESULT
FROM BIOTERRORIST ATTACKS OR ARE CONSIDERED TO BE BIOTERRORIST THREATS (www.bt.cdc.gov) a
a
Abbreviations used in this table: RT = respiratory tract; GIT = gastrointestinal tract; CXR = chest x-ray; CT = computerized
axial tomography; CSF = cerebrospinal fluid; and LD50 lethal dose for 50% of experimental animals; HCWs = healthcare
worker; BSL = biosafety level; PAPR = powered air purifying respirator; PCR = polymerase chain reaction; IHC =
immunohistochemistry

Disease Anthrax
Site(s) of Infection; Cutaneous (contact with spores);RT (inhalation of spores);GIT (ingestion of spores - rare)
Transmission Mode Comment: Spores can be inhaled into the lower respiratory tract. The infectious dose of B. anthracis in
Cutaneous and humans by any route is not precisely known. In primates, the LD50 (i.e., the dose required to kill 50%
inhalation disease have of animals) for an aerosol challenge with B. anthracis is estimated to be 8,00050,000 spores; the
occurred in past infectious dose may be as low as 1-3 spores
bioterrorist incidents
Incubation Period Cutaneous: 1 to12 days; RT: Usually 1 to 7 days but up to 43 days reported; GIT: 15-72 hours
Clinical Features Cutaneous: Painless, reddish papule, which develops a central vesicle or bulla in 1-2 days; over next
3-7 days lesion becomes pustular, and then necrotic, with black eschar; extensive surrounding edema.
RT: initial flu-like illness for 1-3 days with headache, fever, malaise, cough; by day 4 severe dyspnea
and shock, and is usually fatal (85%-90% if untreated; meningitis in 50% of RT cases.
GIT: ; if intestinal form, necrotic, ulcerated edematous lesions develop in intestines with fever, nausea
and vomiting, progression to hematemesis and bloody diarrhea; 25-60% fatal
Diagnosis Cutaneous: Swabs of lesion (under eschar) for IHC, PCR and culture; punch biopsy for IHC, PCR and
culture; vesicular fluid aspirate for Gram stain and culture; blood culture if systemic symptoms; acute
and convalescent sera for ELISA serology
RT: CXR or CT demonstrating wide mediastinal widening and/or pleural effusion, hilar abnormalities;
blood for culture and PCR; pleural effusion for culture, PCR and IHC; CSF if meningeal signs present
for IHC, PCR and culture; acute and convalescent sera for ELISA serology; pleural and/or bronchial
biopsies IHC.
GIT: blood and ascites fluid, stool samples, rectal swabs, and swabs of oropharyngeal lesions if
present for culture, PCR and IHC

119
Disease Anthrax
Infectivity Cutaneous: Person-to-person transmission from contact with lesion of untreated patient possible, but
extremely rare.
RT and GIT: Person-to-person transmission does not occur.
Aerosolized powder, environmental exposures: Highly infectious if aerosolized
Recommended Cutaneous: Standard Precautions; Contact Precautions if uncontained copious drainage.
Precautions RT and GIT: Standard Precautions.
Aerosolized powder, environmental exposures: Respirator (N95 mask or PAPRs), protective
clothing; decontamination of persons with powder on them
(http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5135a3.htm)
Hand hygiene: Handwashing for 30-60 seconds with soap and water or 2% chlorhexidene gluconate
after spore contact (alcohol handrubs inactive against spores [Weber DJ JAMA 2003; 289:1274]).
Post-exposure prophylaxis following environmental exposure: 60 days of antimicrobials (either
doxycycline, ciprofloxacin, or levofloxacin) and post-exposure vaccine under IND

Disease Botulism
Site(s) of Infection; GIT: Ingestion of toxin-containing food, RT: Inhalation of toxin containing aerosol cause disease.
Transmission Mode Comment: Toxin ingested or potentially delivered by aerosol in bioterrorist incidents. LD50 for type
A is 0.001 g/ml/kg.
Incubation Period 1-5 days.
Clinical Features Ptosis, generalized weakness, dizziness, dry mouth and throat, blurred vision, diplopia, dysarthria,
dysphonia, and dysphagia followed by symmetrical descending paralysis and respiratory failure.
Diagnosis Clinical diagnosis; identification of toxin in stool, serology unless toxin-containing material
available for toxin neutralization bioassays.
Infectivity Not transmitted from person to person. Exposure to toxin necessary for disease.
Recommended Standard Precautions.
Precautions

120
Disease Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever
Site(s) of Infection; As a rule infection develops after exposure of mucous membranes or RT, or through broken skin
Transmission Mode or percutaneous injury.
Incubation Period 2-19 days, usually 5-10 days
Clinical Features Febrile illnesses with malaise, myalgias, headache, vomiting and diarrhea that are rapidly
complicated by hypotension, shock, and hemorrhagic features. Massive hemorrhage in < 50% pts.
Diagnosis Etiologic diagnosis can be made using RT-PCR, serologic detection of antibody and antigen,
pathologic assessment with immunohistochemistry and viral culture with EM confirmation of
morphology,
Infectivity Person-to-person transmission primarily occurs through unprotected contact with blood and body
fluids; percutaneous injuries (e.g., needlestick) associated with a high rate of transmission;
transmission in healthcare settings has been reported but is prevented by use of barrier
precautions.
Recommended Hemorrhagic fever specific barrier precautions: If disease is believed to be related to
Precautions intentional release of a bioweapon, epidemiology of transmission is unpredictable pending
observation of disease transmission. Until the nature of the pathogen is understood and its
transmission pattern confirmed, Standard, Contact and Airborne Precautions should be used.
Once the pathogen is characterized, if the epidemiology of transmission is consistent with natural
disease, Droplet Precautions can be substituted for Airborne Precautions. Emphasize: 1) use of
sharps safety devices and safe work practices, 2) hand hygiene; 3) barrier protection against
blood and body fluids upon entry into room (single gloves and fluid-resistant or impermeable
gown, face/eye protection with masks, goggles or face shields); and 4) appropriate waste
handling. Use N95 or higher respirators when performing aerosol-generating procedures. In
settings where AIIRs are unavailable or the large numbers of patients cannot be accommodated
by existing AIIRs, observe Droplet Precautions (plus Standard Precautions and Contact
Precautions) and segregate patients from those not suspected of VHF infection. Limit blooddraws
to those essential to care. See text for discussion and Appendix A for recommendations for
naturally occurring VHFs.

121
Disease Plague2

Site(s) of Infection; RT: Inhalation of respiratory droplets.

Transmission Mode Comment: Pneumonic plague most likely to occur if used as a biological weapon, but some
cases of bubonic and primary septicemia may also occur. Infective dose 100 to 500 bacteria
Incubation Period 1 to 6, usually 2 to 3 days.

Clinical Features Pneumonic: fever, chills, headache, cough, dyspnea, rapid progression of weakness, and in a
later stage hemoptysis, circulatory collapse, and bleeding diathesis
Diagnosis Presumptive diagnosis from Gram stain or Wayson stain of sputum, blood, or lymph node
aspirate; definitive diagnosis from cultures of same material, or paired acute/convalescent
serology.
Infectivity Person-to-person transmission occurs via respiratory droplets risk of transmission is low during
first 20-24 hours of illness and requires close contact. Respiratory secretions probably are not
infectious within a few hours after initiation of appropriate therapy.
Recommended Standard Precautions, Droplet Precautions until patients have received 48 hours of appropriate
Precautions therapy. Chemoprophylaxis: Consider antibiotic prophylaxis for HCWs with close contact
exposure.

2
Pneumonic plague is not as contagious as is often thought. Historical accounts and contemporary evidence indicate that persons with plague usually only transmit
the infection when the disease is in the end stage. These persons cough copious amounts of bloody sputum that contains many plague bacteria. Patients in the early
stage of primary pneumonic plague (approximately the first 2024 h) apparently pose little risk [1, 2]. Antibiotic medication rapidly clears the sputum of plague
bacilli, so that a patient generally is not infective within hours after initiation of effective antibiotic treatment [3]. This means that in modern times many patients will
never reach a stage where they pose a significant risk to others. Even in the end stage of disease, transmission only occurs after close contact. Simple protective
measures, such as wearing masks, good hygiene, and avoiding close contact, have been effective to interrupt transmission during many pneumonic plague outbreaks
[2]. In the United States, the last known cases of person to person transmission of pneumonic plague occurred in 1925 [2].
1. Wu L-T. A treatise on pneumonic plague. Geneva: League of Nations, 1926. III. Health.
2. Kool JL. Risk of person to person transmission of pneumonic plague. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 2005; 40 (8): 1166-1172
3. Butler TC. Plague and other Yersinia infections. In: Greenough WB, ed. Current topics in infectious disease. New York: Plenum Medical Book Company, 1983.

122
Disease Smallpox
Site(s) of Infection; RT Inhalation of droplet or, rarely, aerosols; and skin lesions (contact with virus).
Transmission Mode Comment: If used as a biological weapon, natural disease, which has not occurred since 1977,
will likely result.

Incubation Period 7 to 19 days (mean 12 days)

Clinical Features Fever, malaise, backache, headache, and often vomiting for 2-3 days; then generalized papular
or maculopapular rash (more on face and extremities), which becomes vesicular (on day 4 or 5)
and then pustular; lesions all in same stage.
Diagnosis Electron microscopy of vesicular fluid or culture of vesicular fluid by WHO approved laboratory
(CDC); detection by PCR available only in select LRN labs, CDC and USAMRID

Infectivity Secondary attack rates up to 50% in unvaccinated persons; infected persons may transmit
disease from time rash appears until all lesions have crusted over (about 3 weeks); greatest
infectivity during first 10 days of rash.
Recommended Combined use of Standard, Contact, and Airborne Precautionsb until all scabs have separated
Precautions (3-4 weeks).
Only immune HCWs to care for pts; post-exposure vaccine within 4 days.
Vaccinia: HCWs cover vaccination site with gauze and semi-permeable dressing until scab
separates (>21 days). Observe hand hygiene.
Adverse events with virus-containing lesions: Standard plus Contact Precautions until all
lesions crusted
b
Transmission by the airborne route is a rare event; Airborne Precautions is recommended when possible, but in the event of
mass exposures, barrier precautions and containment within a designated area are most important 204, 212.
c
Vaccinia adverse events with lesions containing infectious virus include inadvertent autoinoculation, ocular lesions
(blepharitis, conjunctivitis), generalized vaccinia, progressive vaccinia, eczema vaccinatum; bacterial superinfection also
requires addition of contact precautions if exudates cannot be contained 216, 217.

123
Disease Tularemia
Site(s) of Infection; RT: Inhalation of aerosolized bacteria. GIT: Ingestion of food or drink contaminated with
Transmission Mode aerosolized bacteria.
Comment: Pneumonic or typhoidal disease likely to occur after bioterrorist event using aerosol
delivery. Infective dose 10-50 bacteria
Incubation Period 2 to 10 days, usually 3 to 5 days
Clinical Features Pneumonic: malaise, cough, sputum production, dyspnea;
Typhoidal: fever, prostration, weight loss and frequently an associated pneumonia.
Diagnosis Diagnosis usually made with serology on acute and convalescent serum specimens; bacterium
can be detected by PCR (LRN) or isolated from blood and other body fluids on cysteine-
enriched media or mouse inoculation.
Infectivity Person-to-person spread is rare.
Laboratory workers who encounter/handle cultures of this organism are at high risk for disease if
exposed.
Recommended Standard Precautions
Precautions

124
TABLE 4.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR APPLICATION OF STANDARD PRECAUTIONS FOR THE CARE OF ALL PATIENTS IN ALL
HEALTHCARE SETTINGS
(See Sections II.D.-II.J. and III.A.1)

COMPONENT RECOMMENDATIONS

Hand hygiene After touching blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions,

contaminated items; immediately after removing gloves; between
patient contacts.
Personal protective equipment (PPE)
Gloves For touching blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions,
contaminated items; for touching mucous membranes and
nonintact skin
Gown During procedures and patient-care activities when contact of
clothing/exposed skin with blood/body fluids, secretions, and
excretions is anticipated..

Mask, eye protection (goggles), During procedures and patient-care activities likely to generate
face shield* splashes or sprays of blood, body fluids, secretions, especially
suctioning, endotracheal intubation

Soiled patient-care equipment Handle in a manner that prevents transfer of microorganisms to

others and to the environment; wear gloves if visibly
contaminated; perform hand hygiene.

Environmental control Develop procedures for routine care, cleaning, and disinfection of
environmental surfaces, especially frequently touched surfaces in
patient-care areas.

Textiles and laundry Handle in a manner that prevents transfer of microorganisms to

others and to the environment

125
 COMPONENT RECOMMENDATIONS
Needles and other sharps Do not recap, bend, break, or hand-manipulate used needles; if
recapping is required, use a one-handed scoop technique only;
use safety features when available; place used sharps in
puncture-resistant container
Patient resuscitation Use mouthpiece, resuscitation bag, other ventilation devices to
prevent contact with mouth and oral secretions
Patient placement Prioritize for single-patient room if patient is at increased risk of
transmission, is likely to contaminate the environment, does not
maintain appropriate hygiene, or is at increased risk of acquiring
infection or developing adverse outcome following infection.
Respiratory hygiene/cough etiquette Instruct symptomatic persons to cover mouth/nose when
(source containment of infectious respiratory sneezing/coughing; use tissues and dispose in no-touch
secretions in symptomatic patients, beginning at receptacle; observe hand hygiene after soiling of hands with
initial point of encounter e.g., triage and reception respiratory secretions; wear surgical mask if tolerated or maintain
areas in emergency departments and physician spatial separation, >3 feet if possible.
offices)

* * During aerosol-generating procedures on patients with suspected or proven infections transmitted by respiratory
aerosols (e.g., SARS), wear a fit-tested N95 or higher respirator in addition to gloves, gown,and face/eye protection

126
TABLE 5.

COMPONENTS OF A PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENT

(Adapted from MMWR 2003; 52 [RR-10])

I. Patients: allogeneic hematopoeitic stem cell transplant (HSCT) only

Maintain in PE room except for required diagnostic or therapeutic procedures
that cannot be performed in the room, e.g. radiology, operating room
Respiratory protection e.g., N95 respirator, for the patient when leaving PE
during periods of construction

II. Standard and Expanded Precautions

Hand hygiene observed before and after patient contact
Gown, gloves, mask NOT required for HCWs or visitors for routine entry into
the room
Use of gown, gloves, mask by HCWs and visitors according to Standard
Precautions and as indicated for suspected or proven infections for which
Transmission-Based Precautions are recommended

III. Engineering
Central or point-of-use HEPA (99.97% efficiency) filters capable of removing
particles 0.3 m in diameter for supply (incoming) air
Well-sealed rooms
o Proper construction of windows, doors, and intake and exhaust ports
o Ceilings: smooth, free of fissures, open joints, crevices
o Walls sealed above and below the ceiling
o If leakage detected, locate source and make necessary repairs
Ventilation to maintain >12 ACH
Directed air flow: air supply and exhaust grills located so that clean, filtered
air enters from one side of the room, flows across the patients bed, exits on
opposite side of the room
Positive room air pressure in relation to the corridor
o Pressure differential of >2.5 Pa [0.01 water gauge]
Monitor and document results of air flow patterns daily using visual methods
(e.g., flutter strips, smoke tubes) or a hand held pressure gauge
Self-closing door on all room exits
Maintain back-up ventilation equipment (e.g., portable units for fans or filters)
for emergency provision of ventilation requirements for PE areas and take
immediate steps to restore the fixed ventilation system
For patients who require both a PE and Airborne Infection Isolation, use an
anteroom to ensure proper air balance relationships and provide
independent exhaust of contaminated air to the outside or place a HEPA
filter in the exhaust duct. If an anteroom is not available, place patient in an
AIIR and use portable ventilation units, industrial-grade HEPA filters to
enhance filtration of spores.

127

IV. Surfaces
Daily wet-dusting of horizontal surfaces using cloths moistened with EPA-
registered hospital disinfectant/detergent
Avoid dusting methods that disperse dust
No carpeting in patient rooms or hallways
No upholstered furniture and furnishings

V. Other
No flowers (fresh or dried) or potted plants in PE rooms or areas
Use vacuum cleaner equipped with HEPA filters when vacuum cleaning is
necessary

128

Figure.

Example of Safe Donning and Removal of Personal

Protective Equipment (PPE)

DONNING PPE

GOWN
Fully cover torso from

neck to knees, arms to

end of wrist, and wrap

around the back

Fasten in back at neck and

waist

MASK OR RESPIRATOR
Secure ties or elastic band

at middle of head and

neck

Fit flexible band to nose

bridge

Fit snug to face and below

chin

Fit-check respirator

GOGGLES/FACE SHIELD
Put on face and adjust to

fit

GLOVES
Use non-sterile for

isolation

Select according to hand

size

Extend to cover wrist of

isolation gown

SAFE WORK PRACTICES

Keep hands away from face
Work from clean to dirty
Limit surfaces touched
Change when torn or heavily contaminated
Perform hand hygiene

129

REMOVING PPE

Remove PPE at doorway before leaving patient room or in anteroom

GLOVES
Outside of gloves are

contaminated!

Grasp outside of glove with

opposite gloved hand; peel off
Hold removed glove in gloved
hand
Slide fingers of ungloved hand
under remaining glove at wrist

GOGGLES/FACE SHIELD
Outside of goggles or face
shield are contaminated!
To remove, handle by clean
head band or ear pieces
Place in designated
receptacle for reprocessing or
in waste container

GOWN
Gown front and sleeves are
contaminated!
Unfasten neck, then waist ties
Remove gown using a peeling
motion; pull gown from each
shoulder toward the same
hand
Gown will turn inside out
Hold removed gown away

from body, roll into a bundle

and discard into waste or

linen receptacle

MASK OR RESPIRATOR
Front of mask/respirator is
contaminated DO NOT
TOUCH!
Grasp ONLY bottom then top
ties/elastics and remove
Discard in waste container

HAND HYGIENE
Perform hand hygiene immediately
after removing all PPE!

130

GLOSSARY

Airborne infection isolation room (AIIR). Formerly, negative pressure isolation

room, an AIIR is a single-occupancy patient-care room used to isolate persons
with a suspected or confirmed airborne infectious disease. Environmental factors
are controlled in AIIRs to minimize the transmission of infectious agents that are
usually transmitted from person to person by droplet nuclei associated with
coughing or aerosolization of contaminated fluids. AIIRs should provide negative
pressure in the room (so that air flows under the door gap into the room); and an
air flow rate of 6-12 ACH ( 6 ACH for existing structures, 12 ACH for new
construction or renovation); and direct exhaust of air from the room to the outside
of the building or recirculation of air through a HEPA filter before retruning to
circulation (MMWR 2005; 54 [RR-17]).

American Institute of Architects (AIA). A professional organization that

develops standards for building ventilation, The 2001Guidelines for Design and
Construction of Hospital and Health Care Facilities, the development of which
was supported by the AIA, Academy of Architecture for Health, Facilities
Guideline Institute, with assistance from the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services and the National Institutes of Health, is the primary source of
guidance for creating airborne infection isolation rooms (AIIRs) and protective
environments (www.aia.org/aah).

Ambulatory care settings. Facilities that provide health care to patients who do
not remain overnight (e.g., hospital-based outpatient clinics, nonhospital-based
clinics and physician offices, urgent care centers, surgicenters, free-standing
dialysis centers, public health clinics, imaging centers, ambulatory behavioral
health and substance abuse clinics, physical therapy and rehabilitation centers,
and dental practices.

Bioaerosols. An airborne dispersion of particles containing whole or parts of

biological entities, such as bacteria, viruses, dust mites, fungal hyphae, or fungal
spores. Such aerosols usually consist of a mixture of mono-dispersed and
aggregate cells, spores or viruses, carried by other materials, such as respiratory
secretions and/or inert particles. Infectious bioaerosols (i.e., those that contain
biological agents capable of causing an infectious disease) can be
generated from human sources (e.g., expulsion from the respiratory tract
during coughing, sneezing, talking or singing; during suctioning or
wound irrigation), wet environmental sources (e.g. HVAC and cooling
tower water with Legionella) or dry sources (e.g.,constuction dust
with spores produced by Aspergillus spp.). Bioaerosols include large respiratory
droplets and small droplet nuclei (Cole EC. AJIC 1998;26: 453-64).

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Caregivers.. All persons who are not employees of an organization, are not paid,
and provide or assist in providing healthcare to a patient (e.g., family member,
friend) and acquire technical training as needed based on the tasks that must be
performed.

Cohorting. In the context of this guideline, this term applies to the practice of
grouping patients infected or colonized with the same infectious agent together to
confine their care to one area and prevent contact with susceptible patients
(cohorting patients). During outbreaks, healthcare personnel may be assigned to
a cohort of patients to further limit opportunities for transmission (cohorting staff).

Colonization. Proliferation of microorganisms on or within body sites without

detectable host immune response, cellular damage, or clinical expression. The
presence of a microorganism within a host may occur with varying duration, but
may become a source of potential transmission. In many instances, colonization
and carriage are synonymous.

Droplet nuclei. Microscopic particles < 5 m in size that are the residue of
evaporated droplets and are produced when a person coughs, sneezes, shouts,
or sings. These particles can remain suspended in the air for prolonged periods
of time and can be carried on normal air currents in a room or beyond, to
adjacent spaces or areas receiving exhaust air.

Engineering controls. Removal or isolation of a workplace hazard through

technology. AIIRs, a Protective Environment, engineered sharps injury
prevention devices and sharps containers are examples of engineering controls.

Epidemiologically important pathogens . Infectious agents that have one or

more of the following characteristics: 1) are readily transmissible; 2) have a
proclivity toward causing outbreaks; 3) may be associated with a severe
outcome; or 4) are difficult to treat. Examples include Acinetobacter sp.,
Aspergillus sp., Burkholderia cepacia, Clostridium difficile, Klebsiella or
Enterobacter sp., extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase producing gram negative
bacilli [ESBLs], methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus [MRSA],
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, vancomycin-resistant enterococci [VRE], methicillin
resistant Staphylococcus aureus [MRSA], vancomycin resistant Staphylococcus
aureus [VRSA] influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus [RSV], rotavirus, SARS-
CoV, noroviruses and the hemorrhagic fever viruses).

Hand hygiene. A general term that applies to any one of the following: 1)
handwashing with plain (nonantimicrobial) soap and water); 2) antiseptic
handwash (soap containing antiseptic agents and water); 3) antiseptic handrub
(waterless antiseptic product, most often alcohol-based, rubbed on all surfaces of
hands); or 4) surgical hand antisepsis (antiseptic handwash or antiseptic handrub
performed preoperatively by surgical personnel to eliminate transient hand flora
and reduce resident hand flora) 559.

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Healthcare-associated infection (HAI). An infection that develops in a patient

who is cared for in any setting where healthcare is delivered (e.g., acute care
hospital, chronic care facility, ambulatory clinic, dialysis center, surgicenter,
home) and is related to receiving health care (i.e., was not incubating or present
at the time healthcare was provided). In ambulatory and home settings, HAI
would apply to any infection that is associated with a medical or surgical
intervention. Since the geographic location of infection acquisition is often
uncertain, the preferred term is considered to be healthcare-associated rather
than healthcare-acquired.

Healthcare epidemiologist. A person whose primary training is medical (M.D.,

D.O.) and/or masters or doctorate-level epidemiology who has received
advanced training in healthcare epidemiology. Typically these professionals
direct or provide consultation to an infection control program in a hospital, long
term care facility (LTCF), or healthcare delivery system (also see infection control
professional).

Healthcare personnel, healthcare worker (HCW). All paid and unpaid persons
who work in a healthcare setting (e.g. any person who has professional or
technical training in a healthcare-related field and provides patient care in a
healthcare setting or any person who provides services that support the delivery
of healthcare such as dietary, housekeeping, engineering, maintenance
personnel).

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Any transplantation of blood-

or bone marrow-derived hematopoietic stem cells, regardless of donor type (e.g.,
allogeneic or autologous) or cell source (e.g., bone marrow, peripheral blood, or
placental/umbilical cord blood); associated with periods of severe
immunosuppression that vary with the source of the cells, the intensity of
chemotherapy required, and the presence of graft versus host disease (MMWR
2000; 49: RR-10).

High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter. An air filter that removes

>99.97% of particles > 0.3m (the most penetrating particle size) at a specified
flow rate of air. HEPA filters may be integrated into the central air handling
systems, installed at the point of use above the ceiling of a room, or used as
portable units (MMWR 2003; 52: RR-10).

Home care. A wide-range of medical, nursing, rehabilitation, hospice and social

services delivered to patients in their place of residence (e.g., private residence,
senior living center, assisted living facility). Home health-care services include
care provided by home health aides and skilled nurses, respiratory therapists,
dieticians, physicians, chaplains, and volunteers; provision of durable medical
equipment; home infusion therapy; and physical, speech, and occupational
therapy.

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Immunocompromised patients. Those patients whose immune mechanisms

are deficient because of congenital or acquired immunologic disorders (e.g.,
human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] infection, congenital immune deficiency
syndromes), chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, cancer, emphysema, or
cardiac failure, ICU care, malnutrition, and immunosuppressive therapy of
another disease process [e.g., radiation, cytotoxic chemotherapy, anti-graft
rejection medication, corticosteroids, monoclonal antibodies directed against a
specific component of the immune system]). The type of infections for which an
immunocompromised patient has increased susceptibility is determined by the
severity of immunosuppression and the specific component(s) of the immune
system that is affected. Patients undergoing allogeneic HSCT and those with
chronic graft versus host disease are considered the most vulnerable to HAIs.
Immunocompromised states also make it more difficult to diagnose certain
infections (e.g., tuberculosis) and are associated with more severe clinical
disease states than persons with the same infection and a normal immune
system.

Infection. The transmission of microorganisms into a host after evading or

overcoming defense mechanisms, resulting in the organisms proliferation and
invasion within host tissue(s). Host responses to infection may include clinical
symptoms or may be subclinical, with manifestations of disease mediated by
direct organisms pathogenesis and/or a function of cell-mediated or antibody
responses that result in the destruction of host tissues.

Infection control and prevention professional (ICP). A person whose primary

training is in either nursing, medical technology, microbiology, or epidemiology
and who has acquired special training in infection control. Responsibilities may
include collection, analysis, and feedback of infection data and trends to
healthcare providers; consultation on infection risk assessment, prevention and
control strategies; performance of education and training activities;
implementation of evidence-based infection control practices or those mandated
by regulatory and licensing agencies; application of epidemiologic principles to
improve patient outcomes; participation in planning renovation and construction
projects (e.g., to ensure appropriate containment of construction dust); evaluation
of new products or procedures on patient outcomes; oversight of employee
health services related to infection prevention; implementation of preparedness
plans; communication within the healthcare setting, with local and state health
departments, and with the community at large concerning infection control
issues; and participation in research. Certification in infection control (CIC) is
available through the Certification Board of Infection Control and Epidemiology.

Infection control and prevention program. A multidisciplinary program that

includes a group of activities to ensure that recommended practices for the
prevention of healthcare-associated infections are implemented and followed by
HCWs, making the healthcare setting safe from infection for patients and

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healthcare personnel. The Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare

Organizations (JCAHO) requires the following five components of an infection
control program for accreditation: 1) surveillance: monitoring patients and
healthcare personnel for acquisition of infection and/or colonization; 2)
investigation: identification and analysis of infection problems or undesirable
trends; 3) prevention: implementation of measures to prevent transmission of
infectious agents and to reduce risks for device- and procedure-related
infections; 4) control: evaluation and management of outbreaks; and 5) reporting:
provision of information to external agencies as required by state and federal law
and regulation (www.jcaho.org). The infection control program staff has the
ultimate authority to determine infection control policies for a healthcare
organization with the approval of the organizations governing body.

Long-term care facilities (LTCFs). An array of residential and outpatient

facilities designed to meet the bio-psychosocial needs of persons with sustained
self-care deficits. These include skilled nursing facilities, chronic disease
hospitals, nursing homes, foster and group homes, institutions for the
developmentally disabled, residential care facilities, assisted living facilities,
retirement homes, adult day health care facilities, rehabilitation centers, and long-
term psychiatric hospitals.

Mask. A term that applies collectively to items used to cover the nose and mouth
and includes both procedure masks and surgical masks
(www.fda.gov/cdrh/ode/guidance/094.html#4).

Multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs). In general, bacteria that are

resistant to one or more classes of antimicrobial agents and usually are resistant
to all but one or two commercially available antimicrobial agents (e.g., MRSA,
VRE, extended spectrum beta-lactamase [ESBL]-producing or intrinsically
resistant gram-negative bacilli) 176.

Nosocomial infection. A term that is derived from two Greek words nosos
(disease) and komeion (to take care of) and refers to any infection that
develops during or as a result of an admission to an acute care facility (hospital)
and was not incubating at the time of admission.

Personal protective equipment (PPE). A variety of barriers used alone or in

combination to protect mucous membranes, skin, and clothing from contact with
infectious agents. PPE includes gloves, masks, respirators, goggles, face
shields, and gowns.

Procedure Mask. A covering for the nose and mouth that is intended for use in
general patient care situations. These masks generally attach to the face with ear
loops rather than ties or elastic. Unlike surgical masks, procedure masks are not
regulated by the Food and Drug Administration.

135

Protective Environment. A specialized patient-care area, usually in a hospital,

that has a positive air flow relative to the corridor (i.e., air flows from the room to
the outside adjacent space). The combination of high-efficiency particulate air
(HEPA) filtration, high numbers (>12) of air changes per hour (ACH), and minimal
leakage of air into the room creates an environment that can safely
accommodate patients with a severely compromised immune system (e.g., those
who have received allogeneic hemopoietic stem-cell transplant [HSCT]) and
decrease the risk of exposure to spores produced by environmental fungi. Other
components include use of scrubbable surfaces instead of materials such as
upholstery or carpeting, cleaning to prevent dust accumulation, and prohibition of
fresh flowers or potted plants.

Quasi-experimental studies. Studies to evaluate interventions but do not use

randomization as part of the study design. These studies are also referred to as
nonrandomized, pre-post-intervention study designs. These studies aim to
demonstrate causality between an intervention and an outcome but cannot
achieve the level of confidence concerning attributable benefit obtained through a
randomized, controlled trial. In hospitals and public health settings, randomized
control trials often cannot be implemented due to ethical, practical and urgency
reasons; therefore, quasi-experimental design studies are used commonly.
However, even if an intervention appears to be effective statistically, the question
can be raised as to the possibility of alternative explanations for the result.. Such
study design is used when it is not logistically feasible or ethically possible to
conduct a randomized, controlled trial, (e.g., during outbreaks). Within the
classification of quasi-experimental study designs, there is a hierarchy of design
features that may contribute to validity of results (Harris et al. CID 2004:38:
1586).

Residential care setting. A facility in which people live, minimal medical care is
delivered, and the psychosocial needs of the residents are provided for.

Respirator. A personal protective device worn by healthcare personnel to

protect them from inhalation exposure to airborne infectious agents that are < 5
m in size. These include infectious droplet nuclei from patients with M.
tuberculosis, variola virus [smallpox], SARS-CoV), and dust particles that contain
infectious particles, such as spores of environmental fungi (e.g., Aspergillus sp.).
The CDCs National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
certifies respirators used in healthcare settings
(www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/respirators/). The N95 disposable particulate, air
purifying, respirator is the type used most commonly by healthcare personnel.
Other respirators used include N-99 and N-100 particulate respirators, powered
air-purifying respirators (PAPRS) with high efficiency filters; and non-powered
full-facepiece elastomeric negative pressure respirators. A listing of NIOSH-
approved respirators can be found at
www.cdc.gov/niosh/npptl/respirators/disp_part/particlist.html. Respirators must
be used in conjunction with a complete Respiratory Protection Program, as

136

required by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), that

includes fit testing, training, proper selection of respirators, medical clearance
and respirator maintenance.

Respiratory Hygiene/ Cough Etiquette. A combination of measures designed

to minimize the transmission of respiratory pathogens via droplet or airborne
routes in healthcare settings. The components of Respiratory Hygiene/Cough
Etiquette are 1) covering the mouth and nose during coughing and sneezing, 2)
using tissues to contain respiratory secretions with prompt disposal into a no-
touch receptacle, 3) offering a surgical mask to persons who are coughing to
decrease contamination of the surrounding environment, and 4) turning the head
away from others and maintaining spatial separation, ideally >3 feet, when
coughing. These measures are targeted to all patients with symptoms of
respiratory infection and their accompanying family members or friends
beginning at the point of initial encounter with a healthcare setting (e.g.,
reception/triage in emergency departments, ambulatory clinics, healthcare
provider offices) 126 (Srinivasin A ICHE 2004; 25: 1020;
www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/infectioncontrol/resphygiene.htm).

Safety culture/climate. The shared perceptions of workers and management

regarding the expectations of safety in the work environment. A hospital safety
climate includes the following six organizational components: 1) senior
management support for safety programs; 2) absence of workplace barriers to
safe work practices; 3) cleanliness and orderliness of the worksite; 4) minimal
conflict and good communication among staff members; 5) frequent safety-
related feedback/training by supervisors; and 6) availability of PPE and
engineering controls 620.

Source Control. The process of containing an infectious agent either at the

portal of exit from the body or within a confined space. The term is applied most
frequently to containment of infectious agents transmitted by the respiratory route
but could apply to other routes of transmission, (e.g., a draining wound, vesicular
or bullous skin lesions). Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette that encourages
individuals to cover your cough and/or wear a mask is a source control
measure. The use of enclosing devices for local exhaust ventilation (e.g., booths
for sputum induction or administration of aerosolized medication) is another
example of source control.

Standard Precautions. A group of infection prevention practices that apply to

all patients, regardless of suspected or confirmed diagnosis or presumed
infection status. Standard Precautions is a combination and expansion of
Universal Precautions 780 and Body Substance Isolation 1102. Standard
Precautions is based on the principle that all blood, body fluids, secretions,
excretions except sweat, nonintact skin, and mucous membranes may contain
transmissible infectious agents. Standard Precautions includes hand hygiene,
and depending on the anticipated exposure, use of gloves, gown, mask, eye
protection, or face shield. Also, equipment or items in the patient environment

137

likely to have been contaminated with infectious fluids must be handled in a

manner to prevent transmission of infectious agents, (e.g. wear gloves for
handling, contain heavily soiled equipment, properly clean and disinfect or
sterilize reusable equipment before use on another patient).

Surgical mask. A device worn over the mouth and nose by operating room
personnel during surgical procedures to protect both surgical patients and
operating room personnel from transfer of microorganisms and body fluids.
Surgical masks also are used to protect healthcare personnel from contact with
large infectious droplets (>5 m in size). According to draft guidance issued by
the Food and Drug Administration on May 15, 2003, surgical masks are
evaluated using standardized testing procedures for fluid resistance, bacterial
filtration efficiency, differential pressure (air exchange), and flammability in order
to mitigate the risks to health associated with the use of surgical masks. These
specifications apply to any masks that are labeled surgical, laser, isolation, or
dental or medical procedure (www.fda.gov/cdrh/ode/guidance/094.html#4).
Surgical masks do not protect against inhalation of small particles or droplet
nuclei and should not be confused with particulate respirators that are
recommended for protection against selected airborne infectious agents, (e.g.,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis).

138

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