SEPTEMBER 2001

Online
Geo file 408

Neil Punnett

UK rural issues
Over the past 10 years, concern has Figure 1: Population of England: % in rural areas
grown over the changes affecting
rural Britain. In 1995 the
Conservative government published
a White Paper on Rural England,
with the aim of boosting economic
growth. The 1997 general election
led to a change in the ruling party.
After 18 years of Conservative rule,
a Labour government was voted
into power. Several rural
parliamentary seats that had been
Conservative for generations
returned Labour MPs. The new
government had a mandate for
change, but it soon encountered
problems with its policy for rural
areas, especially with regard to
farming policy and the Labour
government’s opposition to fox
hunting. A pressure group called the
Countryside Alliance formed, Figure 2: Comparison of the age structure of the rural population with other districts
organising petitions and of England 1998
demonstrations against government
interference. In November 2000 a
new Rural White Paper was
published, mirroring the concerns
of five years previously.

This Geofile considers the conflicts

of interest and issues now affecting
the countryside, and examines the
proposals for tackling them.

Pressures for development

(a) The background
Development pressures have
affected and shaped the countryside
for centuries. However, the pace of
change has never been quicker than
in the past century. New
agricultural techniques have
changed the character of rural
Britain, transforming patterns of
employment and altering the land
itself. Demographic changes and
development of the national
infrastructure, together with
changing standards of living and
public expectations, have increased
urban Britain’s influence on rural countryside a year were built on In the same year the Agriculture Act
society. during the 1930s. This was largely protected farmland from
due to improvements in public and development, in order to safeguard
(b) Planning constraints private transport that freed people food production.
During the 1920s and 1930s a from having to live close to their
sudden upsurge in urban sprawl place of work. Effective planning Following the Town and Country
resulted in the loss of large areas of constraints were not introduced Planning Act, ‘green belts’ were
countryside, as over four million until 1947, with the Town and established around London and
new homes were built across Britain Country Planning Act. This other major cities in order to restrict
in an unplanned, uncontrolled required local authorities to prepare building and preserve areas of
expansion. 25,000 hectares of plans of development in their areas. countryside for farming and

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September 2001 no.408 UK rural issues

Figure 3: Article from The Guardian, 6 pressure on the countryside)

January 2001 allowed people to undertake longer
The crisis in agriculture
journeys to work and to enjoy the Farming’s share in the national
The trend of rich people buying up all better quality of life that the
the available housing in the countryside
economy is in long-term decline,
and forcing poorer young families to
countryside is often perceived to and this trend is likely to continue.
move to cities is increasing offer. Other new rural dwellers This has brought social and
dramatically, according to research. included owners of second homes, economic distress to many people,
Mark Shucksmith, of Aberdeen and those retiring to the especially in some of the remoter
University, told the Institute of British countryside. The proportion of rural areas. In 1975 3% of the UK’s
Geographers’ conference: “Rural areas older people is slightly higher in
are now ruled by market forces, so the
gross domestic product was
rich will live in the countryside and the
rural areas than in the rest of the contributed by agriculture; by 2000
poor in the urban areas. The social glue country – in 1998 18% of the rural this had fallen to just 1%. This
that holds rural communities together is population was over 65 years old, decline has been due to relatively
falling apart.” compared with 15% of the urban slow growth in demand for
population (see Figure 2). foodstuffs, and the lower relative
The situation has been made worse by
prices for agricultural commodities,
the rich incomers taking over local
communities by forming the majority on
(d) The Impact of Counter- which have increased far less quickly
parish councils, being able to lobby urbanisation than inflation, largely because of the
against any new housing Counter-urbanisation involves the impact of technological changes. In
developments, especially preventing movement of people with urban addition, the economics of the food
“village homes for village people”, and attitudes into rural society, where supply chain appear to favour the
by doing so “inadvertently threatening those attitudes are not always large retailers, rather than the food
the social, cultural and economic
sustainability of what they are keen to
shared. The conflicting attitudes to producers. Making matters worse,
preserve.” fox hunting is one example. The farming has been hit by a series of
income levels of ‘incomers’ whose health scares that have caused public
The effect on young people was jobs are in big cities tend to be alarm and reduced demand. In the
particularly severe, with those wanting much higher than those of people early 1990s fears over salmonella in
to stay in the countryside having to live who have been brought up in the eggs were quickly dwarfed by the
with their parents. It was estimated that
countryside – most rural impact of the BSE crisis. British beef
80,000 affordable homes were needed
in rural England between 1990 and employment tends to be poorly paid. exports were banned world-wide and
1995, but only 17,700 were provided the national beef herd was reduced
between 1990 and 1997. The The influx of wealthy newcomers as farmers sought other sources of
government’s recent Rural White Paper has resulted in prices of rural income. In 2000, swine vesicular
had set a target of 9,000 affordable housing spiralling out of the reach disease hit the British pig herd, and
homes a year being built in rural areas,
of local people. This, together with in February 2001 one of the most
but this was not enough to prevent a
continuation of the trend. the search for work, has forced dreaded livestock diseases of all, foot
many young adults to move away and mouth, reappeared – the first
from their villages in order to find major outbreak since the 1960s.
cheaper accommodation elsewhere, Across Britain, smoke rose from
recreational purposes. By 1980 green in towns and cities. The sale of rural giant funeral pyres as thousands of
belts covered 1.8 million hectares. council houses and a lack of housing slaughtered animals were cremated
The amount of countryside being association homes mean there is no in a desperate effort to halt the
taken for building had fallen to accommodation for many rural spread of the disease. All livestock
about 5,000 hectares a year, one- people setting up home for the first exports from the UK were banned.
sixth of the rate during the 1930s. time (Figure 3). Farmers’ leaders warned that many
smaller farmers would be driven out
(c) Rural development The influx of newcomers has not by of business by the effects of the
During the 1980s planning laws any means been completely epidemic. Farmers already have one
were gradually relaxed by the negative. It may for instance have of the highest suicide rates of any
Conservative government, which helped preserve services in rural profession in the UK, a clear
was opposed to rigid government areas. Although many of them may indication of high levels of stress. Is
controls and preferred to allow work in urban areas, their children this succession of diseases the result
market forces to operate. There was will attend local schools and they of ill fortune, or does it reflect a
growing demand for houses, both will use local services such as the deeper malaise within the UK’s
generally and more particularly in general stores, surgery and pub. The agricultural sector?
the countryside. Between 1981 and Rural Development Commission
1991 around 770,000 people moved concluded its Survey of Rural Despite the range of problems facing
to rural areas in England, and the Services in 1997 by saying that the British farming during the 1990s,
percentage of the population living level of service provision had the continuing decline in
in rural areas increased from 24.1% changed little between 1991 and agricultural employment (Figure 4),
to 27.6% (Figure 1). 1997, other than a steady decline in the provision of subsidies through
the number of rural post offices. the EU’s Common Agricultural
Who were these new rural dwellers? This represents a marked change Policy, and a wide range of
Many were commuters – rapidly over the previous three decades, restructuring activity helped to
increasing car ownership, plus the when many rural services declined sustain levels of income per head in
growing network of motorways and rapidly. the farming community. However,
dual carriageways (themselves a the severity of the crisis of the late

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 September 2001 no.408 UK rural issues

Figure 4: Trends in the UK’s • a shift towards larger-scale employment, is a result of the
agricultural labour force,1970–2000 enterprises, but also an following factors:
increasing role for smaller, part-
time farms. • rising demand for leisure and
tourism activities as disposable
In 2000 over a fifth of UK full-time incomes increase
farms received income from • the movement of people into
diversified activities. The percentage rural areas, especially those with
varies both by size of farm and by easy access to centres of
region. It is higher for smaller farms employment
(23%) than for larger enterprises • developments in
(17%) and substantially higher in the telecommunications which allow
west (27%) than in the north (14%). people to work from home via e-
mail, fax, video-conferencing and
the Internet
Employment • increased demand for rural
products such as craft and
(a) Trends horticultural items
Rural areas in the UK have • constraints on expansion in
experienced growth in total urban areas.
employment since 1971, and rural
Figure 5: Trends in total income from employment has grown faster than (c) Leisure and tourism
farming, 1973–2000 urban employment. Major trends Tourism is of particular economic
since 1981 have included: significance to rural areas. Rural
• a decline in agriculture’s share of tourism supports over 400,000 jobs
employment in rural areas, from and generates over £12 billion –
6% to 4% of the total rural nearly a quarter of the total value of
employment the tourism industry in the UK. The
• a decline in the employment benefits of tourism are unevenly
share of other primary industries distributed between rural areas.
such as mining and quarrying, Some areas experience problems of
from 2% to 1% congestion and environmental
• a decline in manufacturing’s degradation, while other areas do
share of employment, from 24% not fulfil their potential because
to 20% visitors are unaware of the full range
• an increase in employment in the of attractions in the area.
service sector, from 60% to 71%.
Increased job opportunities in Tourism is well suited to the rural
leisure and recreation as general environment, since it is often
incomes have risen have played directly related to the countryside,
an important part in this its scenic attractions and its way of
increase. life. Properly managed, tourism
1990s has meant that average farm offers many opportunities for
incomes fell in 1999 and 2000 to income generation and can help to
There is a high proportion of small
their lowest point for over 30 years sustain local communities and local
enterprises in rural areas, with over
(Figure 5). The weakness of the services. Bad weather in the crucial
90% of all rural firms employing
single European currency, the euro, school summer holiday period can
fewer than 10 people. Large firms
against sterling was affecting UK have a great effect on income from
(employing over 100 people) are less
farm exports even before the foot tourism – visitors either go abroad,
common in rural than in urban areas
and mouth epidemic led to a total or stay at home or remain in their
(1.4% of rural firms, compared with
export ban. resorts where they can shelter from
2.2% of urban firms). The higher
rate of small firm formation in rural the elements.
For many farmers, restructuring has
areas may partly be the result of the
been essential for survival. The money spent by tourists and day
perceived higher quality of life in
Restructuring has included: visitors represents a significant
rural areas. Almost two-thirds of
• diversification, such as farm new rural firms are set up by people transfer of income from urban to
shops, organic farming, pick your who have moved into the area, rural areas. Total annual spending
own, nurseries and garden compared with only one-third of by day visitors to rural areas is £7
centres, bed & breakfast, farm new urban firms. 75% of those who billion, compared with £38 billion in
visitors’ centres, and also off- moved to rural areas stated that the urban areas. The average amount
farm income through part-time environment was of at least some spent by each day visitor is a little
jobs importance in their decision. over £5, the single largest item
• more efficient utilisation of purchased being food and drink.
labour (b) Employment growth
• increased adoption of new The successful growth of (d) Rural unemployment
business arrangements, such as employment in many rural areas, Unemployment in rural areas is
contracting and collaboration despite the decline in agricultural generally lower than in the rest of

Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2001

September 2001 no.408 UK rural issues

the country (3.4% in rural areas in • convenience shopping Such detailed planning, if achieved,
2000, compared with 4.9% in non- • a farmers’ market would restore rural services and
rural areas). However, some remoter • at least one bank/building society make an important contribution to
rural areas with less potential for with a 24-hour automatic cash boosting farm incomes.
leisure-based employment have been point
less able to adapt to the decline of • at least one surgery, dentist and
agriculture, and here unemployment pharmacy Conclusion
levels can be much higher. Parts of • a secondary school The countryside of the UK faces
the Scottish Highlands and Islands, • permanent library services several issues and conflicts of
the Southern Uplands, Cumbria, • an arts venue interest. A way of life which has
Northumberland, mid-Wales, • sports pitches changed only very slowly over
Cornwall, Devon and Kent all suffer • a weekly cinema centuries has been subject to rapid
to some extent from their relative • pubs and at least one restaurant change within a generation.
remoteness. In all rural areas, • adequate employment sites Countryside issues are now an
seasonality of employment is a • a Job Centre important political issue, and the
problem. • a Citizens’ Advice bureau last two governments have both
• out-of-hours childcare published White Papers carrying
Poverty and social exclusion do exist • access to district and county proposals for tackling these issues.
in rural areas, but often at a scale officers Following its victory in the General
where they are masked by generally • a range of overnight Election of June 2001, the new
higher levels of affluence. Poverty accommodation Labour government established a
can be harder to tackle than in urban • a minimum of a part-time police Department for the Environment,
areas, because the individuals office and fire station Food and Rural Affairs. This
concerned are geographically • a complete range of housing underlined the importance attached
dispersed. • regular bus services to the to rural issues.
surrounding villages and major
The 2000 Rural White towns.
Bibliography
Paper Objective One also provides for an Punnett, N. (1996) ‘Changes in
In November 2000 the government additional £24 million for redundant Rural Britain’, Geofile No. 289.
published its Rural White paper farm buildings to enable greater Rae, A. (1998) ‘Changes in UK
which set out an overall aim “To diversification, the launching of a Villages’, Geofile No. 325.
sustain and enhance the distinctive joint government/industry task force The following website:
environment, economy and social to investigate farming costs, and a www.maff.gov.uk/erdp
fabric of the English countryside for seven-year programme to help
the benefit of all.” Its five national farmers with marketing.
rural objectives were:
Within Objective Two the
1. To facilitate the development of government pledged to retain basic
dynamic and sustainable local services, providing a £15
economies in the countryside and million Community Service Fund to
to tackle rural poverty. safeguard or re-establish basic
2. To maintain and stimulate services. Rural post offices would be
communities and to secure access maintained, with increased services
to services which is equitable in such as banking. Village schools
all circumstances, for those who would be retained with increased
live and work in the countryside. funding and Internet provision for
3. To conserve and enhance rural all of them. £132 million in Rural
landscapes and the diversity and Bus Subsidy Grants would support
abundance of wildlife. otherwise uneconomic bus services,
4. To increase opportunities for along with additional funding for
people to enjoy the countryside. rural rail partnerships. The planning
5. To promote government system would be changed to secure
responsiveness to rural more affordable homes to the extent
communities through better that in small villages there should be
working together between central one affordable home for every new-
departments and local build home.
government.

Within Objective One the

government pledged support for
market towns as central places,
Focus Questions
providing £37 million to fund their 1. Outline the pressures for development in rural areas in the UK.
regeneration. The White Paper
sought to ensure that each market 2. Discuss the impact of counter-urbanisation on rural areas.
town has as a minimum the
following services: 3. Discuss possible solutions to the issues facing rural areas.

Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2001