Vehicle Notes.1.

Introduction
The importance of Mathematics in Automobile calculations:

Gear Ratios
- In auto mechanics, gears and ratios are everywhere, and math is the only way to figure them out.
Everything from ring and pinion ratios to transmission gear ratios and even tire sizes come into play for
the final drive ratio. Some four-wheel-drive models have gear reduction axles, which allows major
torque multiplication at crawl speeds, as well. These ratios are what determine what the speedometer
says at any given speed. If even one of the gearing components is changed to a different size, the
speedometer will read too fast or too slow.
Volume
- Math is used to determine the size of each cylinder, and each of those is added up to a total, which is
the displacement of the engine itself. Combustion chamber sizes must be known and calculated, as
well as oil pan capacity and the cooling system capacity. Each of these components is dialed in using
math in conjunction with special tools.
Tolerances and PSI
- Every tolerance inside an engine requires math in order to work correctly. Cam and crankshaft endplay
are dialed in using special gauges, as is the lash on the valves inside the heads. Each piston is
designed using mathematical formulas so that when the rings are installed, a tight clean fit will be the
result. The oil pump must operate at a certain pressure for each engine, which is figured out using
math. Fuel delivery systems such as fuel injection require mathematical precision in order to maintain
the correct pressure and flow throughout the rpm (revolutions per minute) range. Even the tires on the
vehicle are inflated to a certain PSI (Pounds per Square Inch), which is a mathematical equation in
itself.
Other Numbers
- Auto mechanics and engineers must also take engine rpm into account when designing or installing
components. For instance, an engine idling at 600 rpm will need X amount of fuel and oil and coolant,
whereas an engine racing along at 3,000 rpm will need much more, but still a specific amount. Belt
lengths and sizes on the engine are all arrived at using math, as are hose thickness and lengths. The
water pump must flow a certain amount for each rpm, and the radiator must have a capacity that
matches the needs of the engine throughout different weathers and loads--all these answers are
reached using math.

Engine speed:
For those who are curious about the calculations, here are the details of the speed (MPH) versus
engine (RPM) calculations:
Each revolution of the engine is reduced by the Transmission Gear Ratio (TGR), each revolution
of the output shaft of the transmission is reduced by the rear-end ratio, and each revolution of the
tire makes the car move a distance equal to the circumference of the tire. Pretty simple really.
Let's go through the calculations to create an equation for the vehicle speed...
First, let's define the meaning of the gear ratios:
Transmission Gear Ratio (R1): denotes how many engine revolutions there are for each
driveshaft revolution.
Differential Gear Ratio (R2): denotes how many driveshaft revolutions there are for each
axle revolution.
Now, we'll derive the equation:

. min . . Re . .
) .( min . Re .
1
per volutions shaft Drive
RPM per volutions Engine
R =
1
. min . . Re . .
R
RPM
per volutions shaft Drive =
. min . . Re .
. min . Re . .
2
per volutions Axle
R =

2
min . . Re . .
. min . . Re
R
per volutions Axle =

2
1
. min . . Re
R
R
RPM

2 1
. min . . Re
R R
RPM
That is, the car will be linearly moving the following distance per minute (inches per
minute):
2 1
. .
) )( 2 (
) 2 .( min . . Re
R R
RPM r
r per volutions Axle
tyre of radius
t
t = ( inches per minute.)
Car speed (MPH)
inch
Mile
Hour
inch
R R
RPM r
63360
1 min 60
min
) )( 2 (
2 1
=
t

Car speed (MPH)
( )
Hour
Mile
R R
RPM r

=
2 1
) )( (
63360
60 2t

Car speed (MPH) ) (
) )( (
) 00595 0 (
2 1
MPH
R R
RPM r
=

If the engine speed (for this example) RPM = 6000 revolutions/minute,
then the driveshaft speed is the engine speed divided by tranny gear ratio R1:

1
6000
. min . . Re . .
R
per volutions shaft Drive = revolutions/minute,
and the rear axle speed is the driveshaft speed divided by rear-end ratio R2:

2 1
6000
. min . . Re
R R
per volutions Axle = revolutions per minute.
So, the rear tire will be making
2 1
6000
R R
revolutions each minute, causing the car to
move forward ( )
2 1
6000
2
R R
r t inches/minute (where r is the loaded tire radius in inches, and
( ) 28 6 14 . 3 2 2 = ~ t 2).

That is, the car will be moving ( )
2 1
28 6 6000
R R
r
inches per minute.

Since 1 mile = 5280 feet = 63360 12 5280 = inches, and 1 hour = 60 minutes, then the
conversion from inches per minute to miles per hour will come up with the following linear
speed (in miles/hour ) for a car whose engine turning 6000 rev/min:
Car speed ) ( ) 6000 ( ) 00595 0 (
2 1
MPH
R R
r
= ,

RPM = engine speed, in revolutions/minute

r = loaded tire radius (wheel center to pavement), in inches

R1 = transmission gear ratio

R2 = rear axle ratio

Example:
SCCA Ford Spec Racer -

RPM = 6000

transmission gear ratio R1 = 0.73 in high gear

rear end ratio R2 = 3.62

loaded tire radius r = 10.9 inches

The car's speed at 6000 RPM in high gear will be:
Car speed ) ( 147 ) (
) 62 3 73 0 (
9 10
) 6000 ( ) 00595 0 ( MPH MPH ~

= ,

Note: Some Internet Scientific sites have developed Potential Engine Speed (RPM)
Calculator which employs the equation derived above as follows:
Potential Engine speed (RPM) ) ( .
) (
) 067 168 (
2 1
MPH Speed car
r
R R
=

Potential Engine Speed (RPM) Calculator
This calculator requires the use of Javascript enabled and capable browsers. Enter the vehicle speed in
MPH. Enter the differential gear ratio for front or rear. Enter the selected transmission gear ratio. Click
on Calculate Potential Engine Speed. The value will be returned in estimated potential engine speed in
RPMs. To do another, click the Clear Values button and then enter new values. Calculated accuracy of
current Javascript enabled browsers is generally 16 places.

Enter Vehicle Speed In MPH 70

Enter Tire Size Diameter 26.5

Enter Differential Gear Ratio
3.23
:1
Enter Selected Transmission Gear
Ratio
1
:1

Clear All Values

Calculated Engine Speed In RPMs
2866.777358490566

The above Calculator uses the following equation:
Potential Engine speed (RPM) ) ( .
) (
) 067 168 (
2 1
MPH Speed car
r
R R
=

Speed versus RPM Calculator

Speed versus RPM Calculator
Engine Speed
RPM
Transmission Gear Ratio
:1
Differential Gear Ratio
:1
Loaded Tire Radius
inches
Reset

Vehicle Speed
MPH

The above Calculator uses the following equation:
Car speed ) ( ) 6000 ( ) 00595 0 (
2 1
MPH
R R
r
=
Tire Expansion:
There is a potential for error in these calculations with bias-belted tires due to centrifugal force
expansion of the tire at high speeds, but that effect is generally negligible for radial-ply tires due
to the circumferential belts used in their construction. To get accurate results, racers using bias-
ply tires should check with their tire supplier to determine how much the tire radius will change
at various speeds.

Speed ratio
The input or drive gear in a gear train is generally connected to a power source, such as a motor
or engine. Thus, the drive gear engages the remaining gears in the gear train, and transmits
power through to the output or driven gear.
The gear ratio of a gear train is the ratio of the angular velocity of the input gear to the angular
velocity of the output gear, also known as the speed ratio of the gear train. The gear ratio can be
computed directly from the numbers of teeth of the various gears that engage to form the gear
train. The torque ratio of the gear train, also known as its mechanical advantage, is defined by the
gear ratio.
The teeth of a gear are distributed on the circumference of the pitch circle so that the thickness of
each tooth t and the space between two teeth are the same. The pitch p of a gear, which is the
distance between the equivalent points on two teeth, is equal to twice the thickness of a tooth,

The pitch of a gear G
A
can be computed from the number of teeth N
A
and the radius r
A
of its pitch
circle

In order to mesh smoothly two gears G
A
and G
B
must have the same sized teeth and therefore
have the same pitch p, which means

This equation show that the ratio of the circumference, the diameters and the radii of two
meshing gears is equal to the ratio of their number of teeth,

From the above equation we notice that :

) .( ) ( . Pr . . . . . ....... .......... tan N and r between ity oportional Direct called is ip relationsh This t cons
N
r
N
r
A
A
B
B
= =

Two meshing gears transmit rotational motion.
Simple gear train with two gears
The simplest gear train is a pair of meshing gears. The input gear drives the output gear. Gear
teeth are designed so the pitch circles of the two gears roll on each other without slipping. The
velocity v of the point of contact of the two pitch circles are the same, therefore

where input gear G
A
has radius r
A
and meshes with output gear G
B
of radius r
B
.
The number of teeth on a gear is proportional to the radius of its pitch circle, this means that the
ratio of the radii equals the ratio of the number of teeth, that is

where N
A
is the number of teeth on the input gear and N
B
is the number of teeth on the
output gear.
This shows that a simple gear train with two gears has the gear ratio R given by

This equation shows that if the number of teeth on the output gear G
B
is larger than the number
of teeth on the input gear G
A
, then the input gear G
A
must rotate faster than the output gear G
B
.
) .( ) ( . Pr . . . . . ........ tan e e e and r between ity oportional inverse called is ip relationsh This t cons v r r
B B A A
= = =

The speed ratio of two gears rolling without slipping on their pitch circles is given by,

therefore

In other words, the gear ratio, or speed ratio, is inversely proportional to ratio of the radii of the
pitch circles and the number of teeth of the two gears.

Stopping Distance For A Vehicle
Assuming proper operation of the brakes on the vehicle, the minimum stopping distance for a
vehicle is determined by the effective coefficient of friction between the tires and the road, and
the driver's reaction time in a braking situation. The friction force of the road must do enough
work on the car to reduce its kinetic energy to zero. If the wheels of the car continue to turn
while braking, then static friction is operating, while if the wheels are locked and sliding over the
road surface, the braking force is a kinetic friction force only.

To reduce the kinetic energy to zero:

so the stopping distance is

Note that this implies a stopping distance independent of vehicle mass, and in this case, driver
reaction time. It also implies a quadrupling of stopping distance with a doubling of vehicle
speed.
considerations (regarding collected data) eg:

1. types of error:
a. assuming that :stopping distance independent of vehicle mass;
b. assuming that :not taking driver reaction time into account.
Simplifying assumptions that produce practically produce insignificant errors.
c. Errors in estimating coefficient of friction between the tires and the road and in
estimating gravity acceleration (g).
d. Errors in measuring the speed of the vehicle.
2. Accuracy:

Fairly accurate and practically produce insignificant errors.
3. Representation:

The formula used to represent the calculation of Stopping Distance is fairly
reasonable and accurate.

Stopping Distance Calculation
For calculating minimum stopping distance, a value of 0.8 is a nominal value for the coefficient
of static friction between good tires and a good road surface. Almost always, coefficients of
kinetic friction are less, and are dramatically less for wet, icy, slick, sandy, dirty very smooth or
oily surfaces. For many newer high performance tires with good tread, the coefficient of kinetic
friction on a dry road surface may approach 0.8 if the braking is not so prolonged as to cause tire
melting. You may wish to plug in a smaller value such as .7 or .6 for a vehicle with normally
driven and worn tires. Poor condition tires might yield .5 or .4 for a closer representation of
friction.

The stopping distance is given by:

Develop expression

If the vehicle speed is

v = m/s =
ft/s = km/hr = mi/hr
and the coefficient of friction between the tires and the road is

=
the stopping distance is d = m = ft.

Clear Values

( )
2
0
2
1
tan . v
g
ce dis stopping
=
( ) ( )
2
0
1
1000
60 60
. 1
. 81 9 8 0 2
1
tan .
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
Km
m
s
Hr
Hr
Km
v ce dis stopping
2
0
2
. 18
5
064 0 tan .
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Hr
Km
v ce dis stopping

2
0
.
00494 0 tan .
|
.
|
\
|
=
Hr
Km
v ce dis stopping

The above equation is when assuming coefficient of friction=0.8, otherwise,
2
0
2
.
1
18
5
051 0 tan .
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Hr
Km
v ce dis stopping

2
0
.
1
0039 0 tan .
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Hr
Km
v ce dis stopping

On the other hand, given the stopping distance, one can find the speed before applying the brakes:
( ) ) ( . . .......... .......... 16
0
m in d d
Hr
Km
v ~
|
.
|
\
|

The data for the above examples (or what comes later) are taken from one or more of the

following sources:

a. manufacturers;

b. workshop experiments or daily-life experience;

c. publicly available figures (such as media, internet);

Stopping Distance = Thinking Time + Braking Distance
For example: typical braking distance while travelling at 30 miles per hour
Thinking Distance = 9m
Braking Distance = 14m
Stopping Distance = 9 + 14 = 23m
Which is about the same length as 6 cars!

The figures given are only typical because in reality the real stopping distances will be
effected by different circumstances.
For example the thinking distance will vary depending on the driver
and what state he/she is in.
Whether they are old, young, tired, careless or effected by alcohol and or drugs
The braking distance will also depend on:
*How good the car brakes are.
*How well the tyres grip the road, which in turn can depend on the weather.
* Road surface conditions.
*The weight of the car and it's contents.
Cranfield University

Brake Pads
Disk brakes convert kinetic energy from the car into thermal energy by friction
The brake fluid compresses the piston inside the brake caliper applying pressure to the brake
pads.
brake pads are Fixed in the brake caliper
Various compounds of materials are used in the manufacturing of brake pads.
Brake pads wear over time and must be replaced.
The lifetime of brake pads produced is normally distributed with a mean and standard deviation
that depends on many factors such as, the particular company that produces the brake pads,
the way each driver uses them, the material used to manufacture them,..etc.

WHEEL AND AXLE
The wheel and axle is a simple machine consisting of a large wheel rigidly secured to a smaller
wheel or shaft, called an axle. When either the wheel or axle turns, the other part also turns. One
full revolution of either part causes one full revolution of the other part. If the wheel turns and
the axle remains stationary, it is not a wheel and axle machine.
When the force is applied to the wheel in order to turn the axle, force is increased and distance
and speed are decreased. When the force is applied to the axle in order to turn the wheel, force is
decreased and distance and speed are increased.
The mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle is the ratio of the radius of the wheel to the radius
of the axle. In the wheel and axle illustrated below, the radius of the wheel is five times larger
than the radius of the axle. Therefore, the mechanical advantage is 5:1 or 5.

Note: The radius is equal to 1/2 the diameter of a circle.
As previously indicated, the wheel and axle can also be used to increase speed. This is done by
applying the input force tot he axle rather than a wheel.
The increase in the output speed will be directly proportional to the ratio of the diameter of the
wheel and axle. For example, if the diameter of the wheel is 10 inches and the diameter of the
axle is 2 inches, the output speed will be increased 5 times (10:2 or 5:1).
The relationship between the input speed and axle diameter and the output speed and wheel
diameter is expressed by the following equation.

S1 X D1 = S2 X D2 , where,
S1 = Input Speed S2 = Output Speed
D1 = Axle Diameter D2 = Wheel Diameter

Let's say that you have another circle whose diameter is 0.635 inches (1.27 inches / 2), and you
roll it in the same way as in this figure. You'll find that, because its diameter is half of the circle's
in the figure, it has to complete two full rotations to cover the same 4-inch line. This explains
why two gears, one half as big as the other, have a gear ratio of 2:1. The smaller gear has to spin
twice to cover the same distance covered when the larger gear spins once.
Most gears that you see in real life have teeth. The teeth have three advantages:
- They prevent slippage between the gears. Therefore, axles connected by gears are always
synchronized exactly with one another.
- They make it possible to determine exact gear ratios. You just count the number of teeth
in the two gears and divide. So if one gear has 60 teeth and another has 20, the gear ratio
when these two gears are connected together is 3:1.
- They make it so that slight imperfections in the actual diameter and circumference of two
gears don't matter. The gear ratio is controlled by the number of teeth even if the
diameters are a bit off.
-
-
- Gear Trains
- To create large gear ratios, gears are often connected together in gear trains, as shown
here:
-

- The right-hand (purple) gear in the train is actually made in two parts, as shown above. A
small gear and a larger gear are connected together, one on top of the other. Gear trains
often consist of multiple gears in the train, as shown in the next two figures.

- In the case above, the purple gear turns at a rate twice that of the blue gear. The green
gear turns at twice the rate of the purple gear. The red gear turns at twice the rate as the
green gear. The gear train shown below has a higher gear ratio:

- In this train, the smaller gears are one-fifth the size of the larger gears. That means that if
you connect the purple gear to a motor spinning at 100 revolutions per minute (rpm), the
green gear will turn at a rate of 500 rpm and the red gear will turn at a rate of 2,500 rpm.
In the same way, you could attach a 2,500-rpm motor to the red gear to get 100 rpm on
the purple gear. If you can see inside your power meter and it's of the older style with five
mechanical dials, you will see that the five dials are connected to one another through a
gear train like this, with the gears having a ratio of 10:1. Because the dials are directly
connected to one another, they spin in opposite directions (you will see that the numbers
are reversed on dials next to one another).

Other Uses for Gears
If you want to create a high gear ratio, nothing beats the worm gear. In a worm gear, a threaded
shaft engages the teeth on a gear. Each time the shaft spins one revolution, the gear moves one
tooth forward. If the gear has 40 teeth, you have a 40:1 gear ratio in a very small package. Here's
one example from a windshield wiper.

A mechanical odometer is another place that uses a lot of worm gears:

There are three worm gears visible in this odometer. See How
Odometers Work for more information.
Planetary Gears
There are many other ways to use gears. One specialized gear train is called a planetary gear
train. Planetary gears solve the following problem. Let's say you want a gear ratio of 6:1 with
the input turning in the same direction as the output. One way to create that ratio is with the
following three-gear train:

In this train, the blue gear has six times the diameter of the yellow gear (giving a 6:1 ratio). The
size of the red gear is not important because it is just there to reverse the direction of rotation so
that the blue and yellow gears turn the same way. However, imagine that you want the axis of the
output gear to be the same as that of the input gear. A common place where this same-axis
capability is needed is in an electric screwdriver. In that case, you can use a planetary gear
system, as shown here:

In this gear system, the yellow gear (the sun) engages all three red gears (the planets)
simultaneously. All three are attached to a plate (the planet carrier), and they engage the inside
of the blue gear (the ring) instead of the outside. Because there are three red gears instead of one,
this gear train is extremely rugged. The output shaft is attached to the blue ring gear, and the
planet carrier is held stationary -- this gives the same 6:1 gear ratio. You can see a picture of a
two-stage planetary gear system on the electric screwdriver page, and a three-stage planetary
gear system of the sprinkler page. You also find planetary gear systems inside automatic
transmissions.
Another interesting thing about planetary gearsets is that they can produce different gear ratios
depending on which gear you use as the input, which gear you use as the output, and which one
you hold still. For instance, if the input is the sun gear, and we hold the ring gear stationary and
attach the output shaft to the planet carrier, we get a different gear ratio. In this case, the planet
carrier and planets orbit the sun gear, so instead of the sun gear having to spin six times for the
planet carrier to make it around once, it has to spin seven times. This is because the planet carrier
circled the sun gear once in the same direction as it was spinning, subtracting one revolution
from the sun gear. So in this case, we get a 7:1 reduction.
You could rearrange things again, and this time hold the sun gear stationary, take the output from
the planet carrier and hook the input up to the ring gear. This would give you a 1.17:1 gear
reduction. An automatic transmission uses planetary gearsets to create the different gear ratios,
using clutches and brake bands to hold different parts of the gearset stationary and change the
inputs and outputs.

An Example
Imagine the following situation: You have two red gears that you want to keep synchronized, but
they are some distance apart. You can place a big gear between them if you want them to have
the same direction of rotation:

Or you can use two equal-sized gears if you want them to have opposite directions of rotation:

However, in both of these cases the extra gears are likely to be heavy and you need to create
axles for them. In these cases, the common solution is to use either a chain or a toothed belt, as
shown here:

The advantages of chains and belts are light weight, the ability to separate the two gears by some
distance, and the ability to connect many gears together on the same chain or belt. For example,
in a car engine, the same toothed belt might engage the crankshaft, two camshafts and the
alternator. If you had to use gears in place of the belt, it would be a lot harder.
For more information on gears and their applications, check out the links on the next page

Miles per gallon (MPG) is a unit of measurement that measures fuel economy in automobiles,
that is, how many miles a vehicle can travel on one gallon of fuel. It is used similarly in United
States and the United Kingdom, although the U.S. gallon is about 83% of the Imperial gallon
previously used in the UK.

MPG to L/100km conversion chart: blue, liq. gal. (U.S.); red, imp. gal. (UK).
Most countries other than the U.S. use the metric units litre (approximately 0.220 Imperial
gallons or 0.264 U.S. liquid gallons) and km (approximately 0.621 statute miles). These can be
combined to either km/l (efficiency) or l/100 km (consumption). The UK is a special case in this
respect, as distances are measured in miles but fuel is sold by the litre. As a result, both MPG and
l/100 km are usually quoted for any given vehicle. Note that because the imperial gallon is
significantly larger than the U.S. gallon, MPG figures are 20.095% higher in the UK than in the
U.S. for the same real fuel economy.
U.S. Gallons
- 1 MPG 0.425 km/l
- 235.2/MPG l/100 km
- 1 MPG 1.201 MPG (Imp)
Imperial gallons
- 1 MPG 0.354 km/l
- 282/MPG l/100 km
- 1 MPG 0.833 MPG (U.S.)

The Binary System
Basic Concepts Behind the Binary System
To understand binary numbers, begin by recalling elementary school math. When we first
learned about numbers, we were taught that, in the decimal system, things are organized into
columns:
H | T | O
1 | 9 | 3

such that "H" is the hundreds column, "T" is the tens column, and "O" is the ones column. So the

number "193" is 1-hundreds plus 9-tens plus 3-ones.
Years later, we learned that the ones column meant 10^0, the tens column meant 10^1, the
hundreds column 10^2 and so on, such that
10^2|10^1|10^0

1 | 9 | 3

the number 193 is really {(1*10^2)+(9*10^1)+(3*10^0)}.
The decimal system uses the digits 0-9 to represent numbers. If we wanted to put a larger number
in column 10^n (e.g., 10), we would have to multiply 10*10^n, which would give 10^(n+1), and
be carried a column to the left. For example, putting ten in the 10^0 column is impossible, so we
put a 1 in the 10^1 column, and a 0 in the 10^0 column, thus using two columns. Twelve would
be 12*10^0, or 10^0(10+2), or 10^1+2*10^0, which also uses an additional column to the left
(12).
The binary system works under the exact same principles as the decimal system, only it operates
in base 2 rather than base 10. In other words, instead of columns being

10^2|10^1|10^0

they are

2^2|2^1|2^0
Instead of using the digits 0-9, we only use 0-1 (again, if we used anything larger it would be like
multiplying 2*2^n and getting 2^n+1, which would not fit in the 2^n column. Therefore, it would
shift you one column to the left. For example, "3" in binary cannot be put into one column. The
first column we fill is the right-most column, which is 2^0, or 1. Since 3>1, we need to use an
extra column to the left, and indicate it as "11" in binary (1*2^1) + (1*2^0).
Examples: What would the binary number 1011 be in decimal notation?

1011=(1*2^3)+(0*2^2)+(1*2^1)+(1*2^0)
= (1*8) + (0*4) + (1*2) + (1*1)
= 11 (in decimal notation)
Try converting these numbers from binary to decimal:
- 10
- 111
- 10101
- 11110
Remember:
2^4| 2^3| 2^2| 2^1| 2^0
| | | 1 | 0
| | 1 | 1 | 1
1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1
1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0

Binary Addition
Consider the addition of decimal numbers:
23
+48
___
We begin by adding 3+8=11. Since 11 is greater than 10, a one is put into the 10's column
(carried), and a 1 is recorded in the one's column of the sum. Next, add {(2+4) +1} (the one is
from the carry)=7, which is put in the 10's column of the sum. Thus, the answer is 71.
Binary addition works on the same principle, but the numerals are different. Begin with one-bit
binary addition:

0 0 1
+0 +1 +0
___ ___ ___
0 1 1
1+1 carries us into the next column. In decimal form, 1+1=2. In binary, any digit higher than 1
puts us a column to the left (as would 10 in decimal notation). The decimal number "2" is written
in binary notation as "10" (1*2^1)+(0*2^0). Record the 0 in the ones column, and carry the 1 to
the twos column to get an answer of "10." In our vertical notation,
1
+1
___
10
The process is the same for multiple-bit binary numbers:
1010
+1111
______
- Step one:
Column 2^0: 0+1=1.
Record the 1.
Temporary Result: 1; Carry: 0
- Step two:
Column 2^1: 1+1=10.
Record the 0, carry the 1.
- Step three:
Column 2^2: 1+0=1 Add 1 from carry: 1+1=10.
Record the 0, carry the 1.
- Step four:
Column 2^3: 1+1=10. Add 1 from carry: 10+1=11.
Record the 11.
Final result: 11001
Alternately:
11 (carry)
1010
+1111
______
11001

Always remember
- 0+0=0
- 1+0=1
- 1+1=10
Try a few examples of binary addition:
111 101 111
+110 +111 +111
______ _____ _____

Binary Multiplication
Multiplication in the binary system works the same way as in the decimal system:
- 1*1=1
- 1*0=0
- 0*1=0
101
* 11
____
101
1010
_____
1111
Note that multiplying by two is extremely easy. To multiply by two, just add a 0 on the end.

Binary Division
Follow the same rules as in decimal division. For the sake of simplicity, throw away the
remainder.
For Example: 111011/11

10011 r 10
_______
11)111011
-11
______
101
-11
______
101
11
______
10
Decimal to Binary
Converting from decimal to binary notation is slightly more difficult conceptually, but can easily
be done once you know how through the use of algorithms. Begin by thinking of a few
examples. We can easily see that the number 3= 2+1. and that this is equivalent to
(1*2^1)+(1*2^0). This translates into putting a "1" in the 2^1 column and a "1" in the 2^0
column, to get "11". Almost as intuitive is the number 5: it is obviously 4+1, which is the same
as saying [(2*2) +1], or 2^2+1. This can also be written as [(1*2^2)+(1*2^0)]. Looking at this in
columns,
2^2 | 2^1 | 2^0
1 0 1
or 101.
What we're doing here is finding the largest power of two within the number (2^2=4 is the
largest power of 2 in 5), subtracting that from the number (5-4=1), and finding the largest power
of 2 in the remainder (2^0=1 is the largest power of 2 in 1). Then we just put this into columns.
This process continues until we have a remainder of 0. Let's take a look at how it works. We
know that:
2^0=1
2^1=2
2^2=4
2^3=8
2^4=16
2^5=32
2^6=64
2^7=128
and so on. To convert the decimal number 75 to binary, we would find the largest power of 2 less
than 75, which is 64. Thus, we would put a 1 in the 2^6 column, and subtract 64 from 75, giving
us 11. The largest power of 2 in 11 is 8, or 2^3. Put 1 in the 2^3 column, and 0 in 2^4 and 2^5.
Subtract 8 from 11 to get 3. Put 1 in the 2^1 column, 0 in 2^2, and subtract 2 from 3. We're left
with 1, which goes in 2^0, and we subtract one to get zero. Thus, our number is 1001011.
Making this algorithm a bit more formal gives us:
1. Let D=number we wish to convert from decimal to binary
2. Repeat until D=0
o a. Find the largest power of two in D. Let this equal P.
o b. Put a 1 in binary column P.
o c. Subtract P from D.
3. Put zeros in all columns which don't have ones.
This algorithm is a bit awkward. Particularly step 3, "filling in the zeros." Therefore, we should
rewrite it such that we ascertain the value of each column individually, putting in 0's and 1's as
we go:
1. Let D= the number we wish to convert from decimal to binary
2. Find P, such that 2^P is the largest power of two smaller than D.
3. Repeat until P<0
o If 2^P<=D then
put 1 into column P
subtract 2^P from D
o Else
put 0 into column P
o End if
o Subtract 1 from P
Now that we have an algorithm, we can use it to convert numbers from decimal to binary
relatively painlessly. Let's try the number D=55.
- Our first step is to find P. We know that 2^4=16, 2^5=32, and 2^6=64. Therefore, P=5.
- 2^5<=55, so we put a 1 in the 2^5 column: 1-----.
- Subtracting 55-32 leaves us with 23. Subtracting 1 from P gives us 4.
- Following step 3 again, 2^4<=23, so we put a 1 in the 2^4 column: 11----.
- Next, subtract 16 from 23, to get 7. Subtract 1 from P gives us 3.
- 2^3>7, so we put a 0 in the 2^3 column: 110---
- Next, subtract 1 from P, which gives us 2.
- 2^2<=7, so we put a 1 in the 2^2 column: 1101--
- Subtract 4 from 7 to get 3. Subtract 1 from P to get 1.
- 2^1<=3, so we put a 1 in the 2^1 column: 11011-
- Subtract 2 from 3 to get 1. Subtract 1 from P to get 0.
- 2^0<=1, so we put a 1 in the 2^0 column: 110111
- Subtract 1 from 1 to get 0. Subtract 1 from P to get -1.
- P is now less than zero, so we stop.
Another algorithm for converting decimal to binary
However, this is not the only approach possible. We can start at the right, rather than the left.
All binary numbers are in the form
a[n]*2^n + a[n-1]*2^(n-1)+...+a[1]*2^1 + a[0]*2^0
where each a[i] is either a 1 or a 0 (the only possible digits for the binary system). The only way
a number can be odd is if it has a 1 in the 2^0 column, because all powers of two greater than 0
are even numbers (2, 4, 8, 16...). This gives us the rightmost digit as a starting point.
Now we need to do the remaining digits. One idea is to "shift" them. It is also easy to see that
multiplying and dividing by 2 shifts everything by one column: two in binary is 10, or (1*2^1).
Dividing (1*2^1) by 2 gives us (1*2^0), or just a 1 in binary. Similarly, multiplying by 2 shifts in
the other direction: (1*2^1)*2=(1*2^2) or 10 in binary. Therefore
{a[n]*2^n + a[n-1]*2^(n-1) + ... + a[1]*2^1 + a[0]*2^0}/2
is equal to
a[n]*2^(n-1) + a[n-1]*2^(n-2) + ... + a[1]2^0
Let's look at how this can help us convert from decimal to binary. Take the number 163. We
know that since it is odd, there must be a 1 in the 2^0 column (a[0]=1). We also know that it
equals 162+1. If we put the 1 in the 2^0 column, we have 162 left, and have to decide how to
translate the remaining digits.
Two's column: Dividing 162 by 2 gives 81. The number 81 in binary would also have a 1 in the
2^0 column. Since we divided the number by two, we "took out" one power of two. Similarly,
the statement a[n-1]*2^(n-1) + a[n-2]*2^(n-2) + ... + a[1]*2^0 has a power of two removed. Our
"new" 2^0 column now contains a1. We learned earlier that there is a 1 in the 2^0 column if the
number is odd. Since 81 is odd, a[1]=1. Practically, we can simply keep a "running total", which
now stands at 11 (a[1]=1 and a[0]=1). Also note that a1 is essentially "remultiplied" by two just
by putting it in front of a[0], so it is automatically fit into the correct column.
Four's column: Now we can subtract 1 from 81 to see what remainder we still must place (80).
Dividing 80 by 2 gives 40. Therefore, there must be a 0 in the 4's column, (because what we are
actually placing is a 2^0 column, and the number is not odd).
Eight's column: We can divide by two again to get 20. This is even, so we put a 0 in the 8's
column. Our running total now stands at a[3]=0, a[2]=0, a[1]=1, and a[0]=1.
We can continue in this manner until there is no remainder to place.
Let's formalize this algorithm:
1. Let D= the number we wish to convert from decimal to binary.
2. Repeat until D=0:
a) If D is odd, put "1" in the leftmost open column, and subtract 1 from
D.
b) If D is even, put "0" in the leftmost open column.
c) Divide D by 2.
End Repeat
For the number 163, this works as follows:
1. Let D=163
2. b) D is odd, put a 1 in the 2^0 column.
Subtract 1 from D to get 162.
c) Divide D=162 by 2.
Temporary Result: 01 New D=81
D does not equal 0, so we repeat step 2.

2. b) D is odd, put a 1 in the 2^1 column.
c) Divide D=80 by 2.
D does not equal 0, so we repeat step 2.

2. b) D is even, put a 0 in the 2^2 column.
c) Divide D by 2.
Temporary Result:011 New D=20

c) Divide D by 2.

c) Divide D by 2.

2. a) D is odd, put a 1 in the 2^5 column.
c) Divide D by 2.

c) Divide D by 2.

2. a) D is odd, put a 1 in the 27 column.
Subtract 1 from D to get D=0.
c) Divide D by 2.

D=0, so we are done, and the decimal number 163 is equivalent to the binary
number 10100011.
Since we already knew how to convert from binary to decimal, we can easily verify our result.
10100011=(1*2^0)+(1*2^1)+(1*2^5)+(1*2^7)=1+2+32+128= 163.

Negation in the Binary System

These techniques work well for non-negative integers, but how do we indicate negative numbers
in the binary system?
Before we investigate negative numbers, we note that the computer uses a fixed number of "bits"
or binary digits. An 8-bit number is 8 digits long. For this section, we will work with 8 bits.
Signed Magnitude:
The simplest way to indicate negation is signed magnitude. In signed magnitude, the left-most bit
is not actually part of the number, but is just the equivalent of a +/- sign. "0" indicates that the
number is positive, "1" indicates negative. In 8 bits, 00001100 would be 12 (break this down into
(1*2^3) + (1*2^2) ). To indicate -12, we would simply put a "1" rather than a "0" as the first bit:
10001100.
One's Complement:
In one's complement, positive numbers are represented as usual in regular binary. However,
negative numbers are represented differently. To negate a number, replace all zeros with ones,
and ones with zeros - flip the bits. Thus, 12 would be 00001100, and -12 would be 11110011. As
in signed magnitude, the leftmost bit indicates the sign (1 is negative, 0 is positive). To compute
the value of a negative number, flip the bits and translate as before.
Two's Complement:
Begin with the number in one's complement. Add 1 if the number is negative. Twelve would be
represented as 00001100, and -12 as 11110100. To verify this, let's subtract 1 from 11110100, to
get 11110011. If we flip the bits, we get 00001100, or 12 in decimal.
In this notation, "m" indicates the total number of bits. For us (working with 8 bits), it would be
excess 2^7. To represent a number (positive or negative) in excess 2^7, begin by taking the
number in regular binary representation. Then add 2^7 (=128) to that number. For example, 7
would be 128 + 7=135, or 2^7+2^2+2^1+2^0, and, in binary,10000111. We would represent -7
as 128-7=121, and, in binary, 01111001.
Note:
- Unless you know which representation has been used, you cannot figure out the value of
a number.
- A number in excess 2^(m-1) is the same as that number in two's complement with the
leftmost bit flipped.
To see the advantages and disadvantages of each method, let's try working with them.
Using the regular algorithm for binary adition, add (5+12), (-5+12), (-12+-5), and (12+-12) in
each system. Then convert back to decimal numbers.

Answers
What would the binary number 1011 be in decimal notation?
1011=(1*2^3)+(0*2^2)+(1*2^1)+(1*2^0)
= (1*8) + (0*4) + (1*2) + (1*1)
= 11 (in decimal notation)
Try converting these numbers from binary to decimal:
10=(1*2^1) + (0*2^0) = 2+0 = 2
111 = (1*2^2) + (1*2^1) + (1*2^0) = 4+2+1=7
10101= (1*2^4) + (0*2^3) + (1*2^2) + (0*2^1) + (1*2^0)=16+0+4+0+1=21
11110= (1*2^4) + (1*2^3) + (1*2^2) + (1*2^1) + (0*2^0)=16+8+4+2+0=30
Try a few examples of binary addition:
1 1
111 111 111
+110 +110 +110
______ ______ _____
1 01 1101

1 11 1
101 101 101
+111 +111 +111
_____ ____ _____
0 00 1100

1 1 1
111 111 111
+111 +111 +111
_____ _____ _____
0 10 1110

Using the regular algorithm for binary addition, add (5+12), (-5+12), (-12+-5), and (12+-12) in
each system. Then convert back to decimal numbers.
Signed Magnitude:

5+12 -5+12 -12+-5 12+-12

00000101 10000101 10001100 00001100
00001100 00001100 10000101 10001100
__________ ________ ________ _________
00010001 10010001 00010000 10011000

17 -17 16 -24

One' Complement:

00000101 11111010 11110011 00001100
00001100 00001100 11111010 11110011
_________ ________ ________ ________
00010001 00000110 11101101 11111111

17 6 -18 0

Two's Complement:

00000101 11111011 11110100 00001100
00001100 00001100 11111011 11110100
________ ________ ________ ________
00010001 00000111 11101111 00000000

17 7 -17 0

Signed Magnitude:

10000101 01111011 01110100 00001100
10001100 10001100 01111011 01110100
________ ________ ________ ________
00010001 00000111 11101111 01111100

109 119 111 124

Introduction
Almost all problems in computer vision are related in one form or another to the problem of
estimating parameters from noisy data. A few examples are line fitting, camera calibration,
image matching, surface reconstruction, pose determination, and motion analysis. A parameter
estimation problem is usually formulated as an optimization one. Because of different
optimization criteria and because of several possible parameterizations, a given problem can be
solved in many ways. It is important choose an appropriate criterion. This will influence the
accuracy of the estimated parameters, the efficiency of computation, the robustness to
predictable or unpredictable errors.
A Glance over Parameter Estimation in
General
Parameter estimation is a discipline that provides tools for the efficient use of data for aiding in
mathematically modeling of phenomena and the estimation of constants appearing in these
models [2]. It can thus be visualized as a study of inverse problems. Much of parameter
estimation can be related to four optimization problems:
criterion:
the choice of the best function to optimize (minimize or maximize)
estimation:
the optimization of the chosen function
design:
optimal design to obtain the best parameter estimates
modeling:
the determination of the mathematical model which best describes the system from which data
are measured.
Let be the (state/parameter) vector containing the parameters to be estimated. The dimension
of , say m, is the number of parameters to be estimated. Let be the (measurement) vector
which is the output of the system to be modeled. The system is described by a vector function
which relates to such that

In practice, observed measurements are only available for the system output corrupted with
noise , i.e.,

We usually make a number of measurements for the system, say ( ), and we
want to estimate using . As the data are noisy, the function is not valid
anymore. In this case, we write down a function

which is to be optimized (without loss of generality, we will minimize the function). This
function is usually called the cost function or the objective function.
If there are no constraints on and the function has first and second partial derivatives
everywhere, necessary conditions for a minimum are

and

By the last, we mean that the -matrix is positive definite.
three macro-estimation techniques:
Estimation using equations
Estimation using comparison
Estimation using analogy
It is important that you do not rely on a single estimation method for a project. Using a combination of
both micro and macro estimation techniques has proven to give the most accurate results. In addition, a
formal risk assessment is an essential project estimation prerequisite.

Required Conditions for a discrete Probability Function
( ) 0 > x f
( )
=1 x f
Discrete Uniform Probability Function
( )
n
x f
1
=
Where
= n the number of values the random variable may assume
Expected Value of a Discrete Random Variable
( ) ( )
= = x xf x E
Variance of a Discrete Random Variable
( ) ( ) ( )
= = x f x x Var
2 2
o

NORMAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUYION

Normal Probability Density Function

( )
( )
2
2
2
2
1
o
t o

=
x
e x f

Where

= mean
= o standard deviation

14159 3 = t
71828 2 = e

1) The highest point on the normal curve is at the mean, which is also the median and mode of the
distribution.

2) The mean of the distribution can be any numerical value: negative, zero, or positive.

3) The normal probability distribution is symmetric, with the shape of the curve to the left of the mean a
mirror image of the shape of the curve to the right of the mean. The tails of the curve extend to infinity
in both direction and theoretically never touch the horizontal axis.

4) The standard deviation determines the width of the curve. Larger values of the standard deviation
result in wider, flatter curves, showing more variability in the data.

5) Probabilities for the normal random variable are given by areas under the curve. The total area under
the curve for the normal probability distribution is 1 (this is true for all continuous probability
distributions).Because the distribution is symmetric, the total area under the curve to the left of the
mean is (0.50) and the total area under the curve to the right of the mean is (0.50).

6) The percentage of values in some commonly used intervals are:

a) 68.26% of the values of a normal random variable are within plus or minus one standard deviation of
its mean.

b) 95.44% of the values of a normal random variable are within plus or minus two standard deviations of
its mean.

c) 99.72% of the values of a normal random variable are within plus or minus three standard deviations
of its mean.

****Example :

Find the probability that a random variable having the standard normal distributions will take on a value

a) between 0.87 and 1.28;
b) between -0.34 and 0.62;
c) greater than 0.85;
d) greater then -0.65.

Solution

Looking up the necessary values in the Table, we get

a) ( ) ( ) 8078 0 8997 0 87 0 28 1 = F F
0919 0 =

b) ( ) ( ) ( ) 6331 0 1 7324 0 34 0 62 0 = F F

3655 0 =

c) ( ) 8023 0 1 85 0 1 = F

1977 0 =

d) ( ) ( ) | | 65 0 1 1 65 0 1 = F F

( ) 65 0 = F

7422 0 =

Converting to the Standard Normal Distribution

o

=
x
z

Example :

If the amount of cosmic radiation to which a person is exposed while flying by jet across the United
States is a random variable having the normal distribution with 35 4 = mrem and 59 0 = o mrem,
find the probabilities that the amount of cosmic radiation to which a person will be exposed on such a
flight is

(a) between 4.00 and 5.00 mrem;

(b) at least 5.50 merm.

Solution :

Looking up the necessary values in the Table, we get

a) ( ) ( ) 59 0 10 1
59 0
35 4 00 4
59 0
35 4 00 5
= |
.
|
\
|

|
.
|
\
|

F F F F

( ) 7224 0 1 8643 0 =

5867 0

b) ( ) 95 1 1
59 0
35 4 50 5
1 = |
.
|
\
|

F F
9744 0 1 =

0256 0 =
Example :

The actual amount of instant coffee that a filling machine puts into 4-ounce jars may be looked upon
as a random variable having a normal distribution with 04 0 = o ounces. If only 2% of the jars are to
contain less than 4 ounces, what should be the mean fill of these jars?

Solution

To find such that 02 0
04 0
4
= |
.
|
\
|

F and, hence, , 98 0
04 0
4
= |
.
|
\
|

F we look for the entry in the
Table closet to 0.98 and get 0.9798 corresponding to . 05 2 = z Thus,

05 2
04 0
4
=

And, solving for , we find that 082 4 = ounces.

Q1) A partial relative frequency distribution is given.

Class Relative Frequency Frequency Percent Frequency

A .34

B .26

C

D

a) What is the relation between the relative frequencies of classes C and D

rD rC
f and f . . ?

b) If the relative frequency of class C is( 0.3),what is the corresponding the relative

frequency of class D ?

c) The total sample size is 200. What is the frequency distribution of the above data?

d) What is the percent frequency distribution of the data?

Q2) A sample of midterm grades for five students showed the following results: 72,

65,82, 90,76. Which of the following statements are correct, and which should be

challenged as being too generalized (incorrect)?

a) The average midterm grade for the sample of five students is 80.

b) the average midterm grade for all students who took the exam is 80.

c) An estimate of the average midterm grade for all students who took the exam is
77.

d) More than half of the students who take this exam will score between 70 and 85.

e) If five other students are included in the sample, their grades will be between 65 and 90.

Q3) Consider the sample of size 5 with data values of 10,20,12,17, and 16. Compute

the variance ,standard deviation and the coefficient of variation of the data and the

z-score for each point in the data?

Q4) Consider a normally distributed random variable with a mean of 40 and a

standard deviation of 5. Use z-table to determine the proportion, or percentage, of

the data within each of the following ranges:

a. 35 to 45. b. 25 to 55. c. 30 to 50. .

Q5) Data that have a bell-shaped distribution have a mean of 30 and a standard

deviation of ( 5). Use the z-score and the normal distribution table to determine the

proportion, or percentage of data within each of the following ranges:

a. 20 to 40 b. 15 to 45. c. 25 to 35.

Statistics

Statistics : it refers to numerical facts, and is the art and science of collecting,

analyzing, presenting, and interpreting data. Particularly in business and

economics, a major reason for collecting, analyzing, presenting, and interpreting

data is to give mangers and decision makers a better understanding of the business

and economic environment and thus enable them to make more informed and better

decisions.

Data : are the facts and figures that are collected, analyzed, and summarized for

presentation and interpretation. Together, the data collected in a particular study

are referred to as the data set for the study.

Elements : are the entities on which data are collected.

A variable : is a characteristic of interest for the elements.

Population

A population is the set of all elements of interest in a particular study.

Sample

A sample is a subset of the population.

Frequency Distribution

A frequency distribution is a tabular summary of data showing the number (frequency) of items in
each of several nonoverlapping classes.

Relative Frequency
Frequency of the Class
Relative Frequency of a Class =
n

Frequency Distribution

The three steps necessary to classes for a frequency distribution with quantitative data are as follow:

1. Determine the number of nonoverlapping classes.
2. Determine the width of each class.
3. Determine the class limits.

Largest Data Value Smallest Data Value
Approximate Class Width =
Number of Classes

Relative Frequency and percent Frequency Distributions

Relative Frequency of Class =
n
f
i

Where :

i
f : Frequency of the Class

Sample Mean

n
x
x
i
=

Population Mean

N
x
i
=

Median
Arrange the data in ascending order (smallest value to largest value)

(a) For an odd number of observations, the median is the middle value.

(b) For an even number of observations, the median is the average of the two middle values.

Mode

The mode is the value that occurs with greatest frequency.

Percentile
The pth percentile is a value such that at least p percent of the observations are less

than or equal to this value and at leas ( ) p 100 percent of the observations greater

than or equal to this value.

Calculating the pth Percentile
Step 1. Arrange the data in ascending order (smallest value to largest value).

Step 2. Compute an index i

n
p
i |
.
|
\
|
=
100

Where p is the percentile of interest and n is the number of observations.

Step 3. (a) If i is not an integer, round up. The next integer greater than i denotes

The position of the pth percentile.

(b) If i is an integer, the pth percentile is the average of the values in positions

i and i + 1.

Solved problems :

1) Consider the sample of size 6 with data values of 10,20,21,17,16, and 12. Compute the mean and
median.
Solution :

The sample in ascending sequence :

10, 12, 16, 17, 20, 21

Sample mean :

n
x
x
i
=

6
21 20 17 16 12 10 + + + + +

16 =

Median : since even number of observations, then the median is the average of the two middle values

median =
2
17 16 +

5 16 =

2) Consider a sample with the data values of 53,55,70,58,64,57,69,57,68,53 and 53.
Compute the mean, median, and mode.

Solution :


53, 53, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 64, 68, 69, 70

Mean :
n
x
x
i
=

( )
11
70 69 68 64 58 57 55 54 53 3 + + + + + + + +
=

4545 59 =

Median :

Since the number of observations is odd, then the median is the middle value

Media =57

Mode : it is the value that occurs with the greatest frequency

Mode = 53

3) Millions of Americans get up each morning and go to work in their offices at home. The growing use
of personal computers is suggested to be one of the reasons more people can operate at-home
businesses. Following is a sample of age data for individuals working at home.
Solution :


22, 24, 29, 29, 29, 30, 31, 31, 32, 37, 40, 41, 44, 44, 46, 49, 50, 52, 57, 58

Mean :
n
x
x
i
=

Mode = 29
Sample median 5 38
2
40 37
=
+
= yrs

Sample median Population median

yre yre 1 35 . 5 38

Older than

First quartile 25 = P

1
Q to get

n
P
i |
.
|
\
|
=
100

20 *
100
25
|
.
|
\
|
= i

5 =

Because i is an integer step (3) (b) indication that the first quartile or the 25
th
percentile, is the
average of ( ) 5 = i an ( ) 6 1 1 = + = + s i

Which means
1
Q is the average of fifth and sixth values

5 29
2
30 29
1
=
+
= Q
Third quartile , get i

20
100
75
|
.
|
\
|
= i

15 =

3
Q is the average of 15
th
and 16
th
values
2
49 46
3
+
= Q

5 47 =

d) 32
nd
percentile

20
100
32
= i

4 6 =

round it to 1 + i

the 32
nd
percentile is the 7
th
value =31

Measures Of Variability

Range

Range = Largest Value Smallest Value

Interquartile Range
IQR =
1 3
Q Q

Population Variance

( )
N
x
i
2
2

o

=

Sample Variance

1
2
2
|
.
|
\
|

=
n
x x
s
i

Standard Deviation

Sample Standard Deviation =
2
s s =

Population Standard Deviation =
2
o o =

Coefficient of Variation

Standard Deviation
Coefficient of Variation = 100
Mean

Solved problems:

1) the following times were recorded by the quarter- mile and mile runners of a university track team
(times are in minutes).

Quarter- mile Times : .92 .98 1.04 .90 .99

Mile Times : 4.52 4.35 4.60 4.70 3.50

After viewing this sample of running times, one of the coaches commented that the quarter milers
turned in the more consistent times. Use the standard deviation and the coefficient of variation to
summarize the variability in the data. Does the use of the coefficient of variation indicate that the
coachs statement should be qualifed?

For the quarter- mile times sample :

966 0
5
99 0 9 0 04 1 98 0 92 0
1
=
+ + + +
=
x

Quarter-mile times Sample Mean Deviation about the mean Squared Deviation about the mean
( )
i
x
|
.
|
\
|

1
x
|
.
|
\
|

1
x x
i

2
1
|
.
|
\
|

x x
i

0.92 0.966 - 0.046 0.002116

0.98 0.966 0.014 0.000196

1.04 0.966 0.074 0.005476

0.90 0.966 - 0.066 0.004356

0.99 0.966 0.024 0.000576

= 83 . 4
i
x , 966 0 =
n
x
i
0
1
=
|
.
|
\
|

x x
i

=
|
.
|
\
|

01272 0
2
1
x x
i

00318 0
1 5
01272 0
1
2
1
2
1
=
|
.
|
\
|

=
n
x x
s
i

056 0 5639 0
2
1 1
~ = = s s

8 5 797 5 100
966 0
056 0
100 .) . . (
1
1
1
~ =
= =

x
s
Var of Coef

Mile times Sample Mean Deviation about the mean Squared Deviation about the mean
( )
i
x
|
.
|
\
|

1
x
|
.
|
\
|

1
x x
i

2
1
|
.
|
\
|

x x
i

4.52 4.534 - 0.014 0.000196

4.35 4.534 - 0.184 0.033856

4.60 4.534 0.066 0.004356

4.70 4.534 0.1 66 0.027556

4.50 4.534 - 0.034 0.001156

= 67 . 22
i
x , 534 4 =
n
x
i
0
2
=
|
.
|
\
|

x x
i

=
|
.
|
\
|

06712 0
2
2
x x
i

01678 0
1 5
06712 0
1
2
2
2
2
=
|
.
|
\
|

=
n
x x
s
i

9 2 867 2 100
534 4
13 0
100 .) . . (
2
2
2
~ =
= =

x
s
Var of Coef

13 0 1295 0
2
2 2
~ = = s s

The use of the coefficient of variation indicates that the coachs statement should not

be qualifed,since
2 1
s s .

The Basic Order Of Operation(O.O.O.):
The following BEDMAS rule helps you to remember O.O.O. more easily:

B E D M A S

Brackets Exponents Division Multiplication Addition Subtraction

Examples:

i- ( ) 2 5 4 7 +
= 2 5 11
= 55 -2
= 53

ii- 2 5 4 7 +
= 7 + 20 - 2
= 27 - 2
= 25

iii- ( ) 3 12 2 3 5 +
= 4 5 5
= 25 -4
= 21

iv-
2 8
8 16
.. the fraction line indicates brackets as well as division

=( ) ( ) 2 8 8 16
= 6 8
=
.
3 3 . 1
Common fractions:
A common fraction is used to show a part of the whole.
The part (Numerator)

5
2

The whole (Denominator)

i- Proper fractions : a fraction in which the Numerator is less than the Denominator ;

Examples : .... ,.........
9
1
,
7
4
,
4
3

ii- Improper fractions : a fraction in which the Numerator is greater than the
Denominator;

Examples : .... ,.........
9
11
,
2
7
,
4
5

Equivalent Fractions: They are obtained by changing the terms of a fraction without changing
the value of the fraction.
i- Equivalent Fractions in higher terms for
3
2
are:
15
10
5 3
5 2
=
,
60
40
4 15
4 10
=
,..etc.

ii- Equivalent Fractions in lower terms for
250
200
are :
25
20
10 250
10 200
=
,
5
4
5 25
5 20
=

Converting common fractions into decimal form:

i- The decimal terminates:

Examples: 125 . 1 8 9
8
9
= =

ii- The decimal repeats :

Examples:
.
6 1 . 1 6 7
6
7
= =

iii- The decimal is written to the desired number of decimal places

Examples: 86 . 7 6
7
6
= =

Converting mixed numbers to decimal form:
Mixed numbers consist of a whole number and a fraction .they might also be considered as Improper
fractions.
Examples:

i- 75 . 5 75 . 5
4
3
5
4
3
5
4
23
= + = + = =

ii-
. .
6 6 . 6 6 6 . 6
3
2
6
3
2
6
3
20
= + = + = =
Rounding:

Examples:

i- Round 745.6525 to the nearest tenth. 745.7 (One dec. place.)

ii- Round 745.6525 to the nearest hundredth. 745.65 (Two dec. places.)

iii- Round 745.6525 to the nearest thousandth. 745.653 (Three dec. places.)

iv- Round 745652.5 to the nearest whole number 745653

v- Round 745652.5 to the nearest ten 745650

vi- Round 745652.5 to the nearest hundred 745700

vii-Round 745652.5 to the nearest thousand 746000

viii- Round 745652.5 to the nearest ten thousands. 750000

Complex Fractions:

Examples:

i- ( ) 85 . 630 0175 . 1 620 0175 . 1 620
360
45
14 . 1 620 = = + = |
.
|
\
|
+

ii- 4000
865 .
3460
135 . 1
3460
75 . 18 . 1
3460
4
3
18 . 1
3460
360
270
18 . 1
3460
= =
=

=

=

iii- 720
075 .
54
625 . 12 .
54
360
225
12 .
54
= =

iv- 220000
1375 . 1
250250
1375 . 1
250250
6 91 . 15 . 1
250250
12
11
15 . 1
250250
360
330
15 . 1
250250
.
= =
+
=
+
=
+
=
+

v-
( ) 1911 91 . 2100 09 . 1 2100 6 . 0 135 . 1 2100
3
2
135 . 1 2100
360
240
135 . 1 2100
.
= = =
|
.
|
\
|
= |
.
|
\
|
= |
.
|
\
|

Percent:
i-Per cent means -in common fraction language -per hundred.

Therefore,
100
% =
Therefore,
100
13
% 13 =

ii- Per cent means -in decimal language - hundredths
Therefore, ( ) 01 0 % = x x
Therefore, 13 0 01 0 13 % 13 = =
iii- Finally ,in percent form , 13%

Examples:

Percent Fraction Decimal
150%
2
3
100
150
=
1.5
60%

5
3
100
60
=

0.6
8%
25
2
100
8
=
0.08
The rule for multiplying two powers having the same base :

n m n m
a a a
+
=

8 3 5 3 5
2 2 2 2 = =
+

The rule for multiplying three or more powers having the same
base:

p n m p n m
a a a a
+ +
=

16 7 6 3 7 6 3
5 5 5 5 5 = =
+ +

The rule for dividing two powers having the same base:

n m n m
a a a

=

5 3 8 3 8
7 7 7 7 = =

The rule for raising a power to a power :
( )
mn
n
m
a a =
( )
15 5 3
5
3
2 2 2 = =

The rule for taking the power of a product :
( )
m m m
b a ab =
( )
20 15 5 4 5 3
5
4 3
n m n m n m = =

The rule for taking the power of a quotient :

m
m
m
b
a
b
a
=
|
.
|
\
|

4
4
4
3
2
3
2
=
|
.
|
\
|

The definition of a negative exponent :

m
m
a
a
1
=

8
1
2
1
2
3
3
= =

The rule for a fraction with a negative exponent :

m
m
y
x
x
y
|
|
.
|
\
|
= |
.
|
\
|

( ) 81 9
1
9
9
1
2
2 2
= =
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|

The definition of a fractional exponent with numerator 1 :

n n
a a =
1

2 8 2 2 ) 2 ( 8
3 3
1
3
3
1
3
3
1
= = = = =

The definition of a fractional exponent with numerator -1 :

n
n
a
a
1
1
=

2
1
16
1
16
4
4
1
= =

Or, ( )
2
1
2 2 2 16
1
4
1
4
4
1
4
4
1
= = = =

The definition of a positive fractional exponent :

n m
n
m
a a =

3 4
3
4
3 3 =

The definition of a negative fractional exponent :

n m
n
m
a
a
1
=

3 2
3
2
5
1
5 =

Solving basic equations:

1) An equation is a statement of equality between two Algebraic Expressions ;

Left Hand Side (L.H.S.),and Right Hand Side (R.H.S.)

2)If the eq. contains one variable raised to the power 1 only ,then eq. is linear or

first -degree eq

3) Solving the eq. is the process of finding a number for the variable(root) which

makes the two Algebraic Expressions equal.

4) Equations that have the same root are called Equivalent Equations,and when

solving eqs. We generate useful equivalent eqs. By :

i) isolate the terms containing the variable on one side of the eq. (by addition

or subtraction.)

ii) Make the coefficient of the resulting single term containing the variable

equal to +1 (by multiplication or division.)

Examples:
Ex.1
L.H.S. R.H.S.

47 5 3 = + x

Solution:
i) 5 47 5 5 3 = + x
42 3 = x
ii)
3
42
3
3
=
x

14 = x

Ex.2
21
5
3
= x
Solution:

5
3
21
5
3
5
3
= x
3
5
21 = x
35 = x
Ex3.
5 7 2 = + x x
Solution:
7 5 2 = x x
12 = x
Ex.4
210 3 . 0 = x x
Solution:
210 7 . 0 = x
7 . 0
210
7 . 0
7 . 0
=
x

700 = x

Ex.5
7
8
1
=
x
Solution:

8
1
7
8
1
8
1
x
1
8
7 = x
56 = x
Solving problems containing Common Fractions:
Ex.6
( ) ( )
9
20
2 2 3
4
3
1 2
3
2
= x x x
Solution:
Multiply each term of Eq. by the lowest common denominator (LCD):
The (LCD) is found as follows:
2 3 ,4 , 9
2 3 , 2 , 9
3 3 , 1 , 9
3 1 , 1 , 3
36 1 , 1 , 1

( ) ( ) 36
9
20
2 2 3
4
3
1 2
3
2
)
`
= x x x
( ) ( )
9
20
36 2 36 2 3
4
3
36 1 2
3
2
36 = x x x
( ) ( ) 80 72 2 3 27 1 2 24 = x x x
( ) ( ) 80 72 2 3 27 1 2 24 = x x x
80 72 54 81 24 48 = + x x x
80 81 24 72 102 + = x x
25 30 = x

30
25
30
30
=
x

6
5
= x
Ex.7
( ) ( )
12
55
2 5
3
1
1 2
4
3
= x x
Solution:
Multiply both sides of eq. by (LCD=12)
( ) ( )
|
.
|
\
|
=
12
55
12 2 5
3
1
12 1 2
4
3
12 x x
( ) ( ) 55 2 5 4 1 2 9 = x x
55 8 20 9 18 = + x x
55 20 9 26 + = x
26 26 = x

26
26
26
26
=
x
1 = x

Formula rearrangement:
The key to formula re-arrangement is the concept of undoing operations.
1)Addition and subtraction are inverse operations-that is, they undo
each other.
2)Multiplication and division are inverse operations-that is, they undo
each other.
3)Powers and roots are inverse operations-that is, they undo each
other.

Examples:
Ex.1:
( ) w l p + = 2
In the above eq. p is the subject. Make (w) the subject .
Solution:

( )
2
2
2
w l p +
= divide by 2 to undo multiplication by 2.
w l
p
+ =
2

l w l l
p
+ =
2
subtract l to undo addition of l .
w l
p
=
2

Or ,equivalently : l
p
w =
2
Now w is the subject.
Ex 2:
32
5
9
+ = C F solve for C
Solution:
1) Subtract 32 to undo addition of 32:
32 32
5
9
32 + = C F
32
5
9
= F C
2) Divide by
5
9
to undo multiplication by
5
9
:

5
9
32
5
9
5
9
=
F
C

( )
9
5
32 = F C
or, equivalently :
( ) 32
9
5
= F C

Ex.3:
( )
n
i S P

+ = 1 Solve for( i )
Solution:
( )
n
i
S
P
+
=
1
from definition of negative exponent
( )
( )
( )
n
n
n
i
i
S
i P +
+
= + 1
1
1 multiply to undo division
( ) S i P
n
= + 1
( )
P
S
P
i P
n
=
+ 1
divide to undo multiplication
( )
P
S
i
n
= + 1

Take
th
n root to undo
th
n power(or exponent)

Definition of
th
n root

1 1 1
|
.
|
\
|
= +
n
P
S
i subtract 1 to undo addition of 1.

1
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
P
S
i

( )
n
n
n
P
S
i
1
1
|
.
|
\
|
= +
n
P
S
i
|
.
|
\
|
= + 1
1) Computing percentages
To find percentages, multiply a number by a percent.
50% of 60 = 30 60 50 0 =
Note: 50% is called the rate;
60 is called the base or original number;
30 is called the percentage or new number.

NEW NUMBER = RATE ORIGINAL NUMBER
PERCNTAGE =RATE BASE
or

Finding a rate percent
( ) % 100 %
1
2
=
N
N
Rate
Finding the New Number :
1 2
RN N =
Finding the base :
R
N
N
2
1
=
Finding the rate of increase or decrease
Change =
1
) 1 ( N R N = A
rate of increase or decrease = ) 1 (
1
=
A
= R
N
N
c
New number =
1 1 1 2
N cN N N N + = + A =
) 1 (
1 2
+ = c N N
Percentage
Rate Base
c
N
N
+
=
1
2
1

1
1 2
N
N N
c

=
Example:
70% of 100
1) 70% = R = = 7 0
100
70
= Rate
2) 100 =
1
N = Original Number (Base)
3)
2
70 100
100
70
N = = = New Number (Percentage)
4) 70-100 = -30 = N A = Amount Of Change (decrease since negative)
5) c =
10
3
100
30
=- 30% = Rate Of Change
6) Or, Decrease Rate c Change of Rate % 30
100
30
1
100
70
1 . . = = = = =
Solved problems
i- Solve each of the following equations.
1- % 40 + x of 28 = x
Solution:
28
100
40
= |
.
|
\
|
+ x x
28 4 0 = + x x
28 4 1 = x
4 1
28
4 1
4 1
x

20 = x
2- %
3
2
16 + x of 42 = x
Solution:
42 %
3
50
= |
.
|
\
|
+ x x
42
100
3
50
=
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ x x
42
6
1
= + x x
42
6
7
= x
42
7
6
6
7
7
6
= x
36 = x
ii-Find the rate percent for each of the following.
1- original amount 60; new amount 36
Solution:
New Amount =Rate Original Amount

Amount Original
Amount New
Rate
.
.
=
6 0
10
6
60
36
= = = Rate
% 100 . = Rate Percent Rate
% 60 % 100 6 0 . = = Percent Rate

2- base $800; percentage $920
Solution:
Rate Base Percentage =

Base
Percentage
Rate =
15 1
20
23
80
92
800
920
= = = = Rate
% 115 % 100 15 1 . = = Percent Rate

3- new amount $150; base $90
Solution:
Rate Base Amount New = .

Base
Amount New
Rate
.
=

= = = = 6 666 1
3
5
9
15
90
150
Rate
% 6 6 166 % 100 6 666 1 .

= = Percent Rate

iii- Answer each of the following questions.
1- $60 is 30% of what amount?
Solution:
% 30 . = Percent Rate
3 0
100
30
= = Rate
60 = Percentage
? = Base
Rate
Percentage
Base =
200
3
600
10 3 0
10 60
3 0
60
= =

=
= Base

2- What is 0.1% of $3600?
Solution:
% 1 0 . = Percent Rate
001 0
100
1 0
=
= Rate
? = Percentage
3600 = Base
6 3 001 0 3600 = = Percentage

4- %
2
1
of $612 is what amount?
Solution:
% 5 0 %
2
1
. = = Percent Rate
005 0
100
5 0
=
= Rate
? = Percentage
612 = Base

06 3 005 0 612 = = Percentage

5- What is %
8
1
of $880?
Solution:
% 125 0 %
8
1
. = = Percent Rate
00125 0
100
125 0
=
= Rate
? = Percentage
880 = Base

1 1 00125 0 880 = = Percentage

6- What percent of $70 is $350?
Solution:
Rate Base Amount New = .

Base
Amount New
Rate
.
=
% 100
.
. = =
Base
Amount New
Percent Percent Rate
70 = Base
350 . = amount New
% 500 % 100
70
350
. = = = Percent Percent Rate

7-350% of what amount is $1050?
Solution:
5 3
100
350
= = Rate
1050 = Percentage
? = Base

Rate
Percentage
Base =

300 $
35
10500
10 5 3
10 1050
5 3
1050
= =

=
= Base
iv- Answer each of the following questions.
1-The price of a car was reduced by 40%. If the original price was $70000, what was the
amount by which the price was reduced?
Solution:
4 0
100
40
= = Rate
? Re . . . = = duction price of Amount Percentage
70000 Pr = = ice Original Base
Rate ice Original duction ice Of Amount = Pr . Re . Pr . .
28000 4 0 70000 Re . Pr . . = = duction ice Of Amount

2- If waste is normally 6% of the material used in a production process, how much of
$25 000 worth of material will be wasted?
Solution:
06 0
100
6
= = Rate
? = =Waste Percentage
25000 $ . = = Material Original Base
Rate Material Original Waste = .
1500 $ 06 0 25000 = = Waste

3- If the actual sales of $40 500 for last month were 90% of the budgeted sales, how mach was the sales
budget for the month?

Solution:


9 0
100
90
= = Rate

40500 $ = Percentage

? = Base

Rate
Percentage
base =

4-A towns current population is 54 000. If this is 120% of the population five years ago, what was the
towns population then?

45000 $
9
405000
10 9 0
10 40500
9 0
40500
= =

=
= Base
Solution:

2 1
100
120
= = Rate

54000 = Percentage

? = Base

Rate
Percentage
base =

45000
12
540000
10 2 1
10 54000
2 1
54000
= =

=
= Base

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Introduction

The importance of Mathematics in Automobile calculations:

.. the fraction line indicates brackets as well as division

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