HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

UNIT I
CONDUCTION
INTRODUCTION
v The term heat conduction is applied to the mechanism of internal energy exchange
from one Body to another, or from one part of the body to another part, by the
exchange of kinetic energy of motion of the molecules by direct communication or by
the drift of free electrons in the case of I heat conduction in metals.
v This energy transfer takes place from the higher energy molecules to the lower
energy molecules. Conduction usually takes place within the boundaries of a body,
or across the boundary of a body into another body placed in contact with the first
without any appreciable displacement of the matter comprising the body.

ONE AND THREE DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATIONS

v Consider a one dimensional system as shown in Fig 1.

v In the steady state system, the Temperature doesn't change with time.
v If the temperature changes with time the system is known as unsteady state system.
v This is the general case where the temperature is not constant.

Fig 1: One dimensional heat conduction

∂T
qx = Energy conducted in LHS of the element = - kA
∂x
qgen = Energy generated within the elemental strip = q A dx
∂T
qx+dx = Energy conducted out of the RHS of the element = - kA
∂x x + dx
dE
= Change in internal energy
dt
dE ∂T
=ρcA
dt ∂t
where
= density
c = specific heat of material.
q = energy generated per unit volume.
Making energy balance for an elemental strip dx,
dE
qx + qgen = + qx + dx
dt
∂T ∂T ∂T
- kA + qAdx = ρ cA dx − kA
∂x ∂t ∂x x + dx

∂T  ∂T ∂  ∂T  
= ρ CA dx − A  k + k  dx 
∂t  ∂x ∂x  ∂x  
Writing in differential form
∂  ∂T  ∂T
k  + q = ρC
∂x  ∂x  ∂t
v The above equation is known as one dimensional heat conduction equation.
v Generally the heat conduction problem consists of finding the temperature at any
time and at any point within a specified solid that has been heated to a known initial
temperature distribution.
v Whose surface has been subjected to a known set of boundary condition.
Consider a solid as shown in Fig 2 with heat conducting in and out of a unit volume in all
Three coordinate directions x, y and z.

dE
qx + q y + qz + qgen = qx + dx + q y + dy + qz + dz +
dt
Making energy balance

dT  ∂T ∂  ∂T  
qx = − kdydz ; qx + dx = −  k + k  dx  dydz
dx  ∂x ∂x  ∂x  

dT  ∂T ∂  ∂T  
q y = − kdxdz ; q y + dy = −  k + k  dy  dxdz
dy  ∂y ∂y  ∂y  
 dT  ∂T ∂  ∂T  
qz = −kdxdy ; q z + dz = −  k + k  dz  dxdy
dz  ∂z ∂z  ∂z  
dE ∂T
= ρ cdxdydz ; q gen = qdxdydz
dt ∂t
Substituting all the values in equations above, general three dimensional heat conduction
equation becomes

 ∂T ∂  ∂T    ∂T ∂  ∂T    ∂T ∂  ∂T   ∂T
= k + k  dx  dydz -  k + k  dy  dxdz −  k + k  dz  dydx + ρ cdxdydz
 ∂x ∂x  ∂x    ∂y ∂y  ∂y    ∂z ∂z  ∂z   ∂t
Re arranging and simplifying the above equation

If thermal conductivity k is constant, the above equation becomes

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q ρC ∂T
+ + + = ×
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k k ∂t

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q 1 ∂T
+ + + = ×
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t

Fig 2: Three dimensional heat conduction in Cartesian coordinates

 v In the above equation the quantity α is known as thermal diffusivity of the material.
Rate of heat diffusion through the material is faster if α is higher.
v The term c is known as thermal heat capacity. Higher value of a may be either due
to higher value of thermal conductivity or lower value of thermal heat capacity.
v Lower value of thermal heat capacity means the energy moving through the material
would be absorbed to a lesser degree and used to raise the temperature of the
material. This means more energy is available for further transfer.

Cylindrical coordinates
Cylindrical coordinates are expressed in radius (r), axis (z) and longitude ( ) as
shown Fig 3.
Three dimensional heat conduction equations in cylindrical coordinates is given by

∂ 2T 1 ∂T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q 1 ∂T
+ + 2 + 2 + = ×
∂r 2
r ∂r r ∂φ 2
∂z k α ∂t

Fig 3: Three dimensional heat conduction cylindrical coordinates z

.
Spherical coordinates
Spherical coordinates system expressed in (r, , z) is shown in Fig 4.
Three dimensional heat conduction equations in spherical coordinates is given by,
 Fig 4: Three dimensional heat conduction spherical coordinates

General equation for one dimensional heat conduction

The one dimensional heat conduction equation in the Cartesian (rectangular), cylindrical and
spherical coordinate systems is given by a single general equation as

Where n = 0 for rectangular coordinates

n = 1 for cylindrical coordinates
n = 2 for spherical coordinates

ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION WITHOUT HEAT

GENERATION THROUGH PLANE SLABS:
v Consider a plane slab of thickness L as shown in Fig 5.
v The plate is assumed to be large Enough along the y and z directions as compared
to its thickness L. Hence heat transfer along y and z directions is negligible.
Using the three dimensional heat conduction equation,

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q 1 ∂T
+ + + = ×
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t
 Fig 5: Steady state heat conduction without heat generation
Since the conduction takes place under steady state, without heat generation above
equation reduces to the following differential equation.

d 2T
=0
dx 2
The boundary conditions are
At x=0; T(x) = T1 ; At x=L; T(x) = T2
The solution for the above differential equation is T(x) = C1x + C2
Where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants
Applying the above boundary conditions,
At x=0; C2=T1 ; At x=L; T2= C1L+C2 = C1L+T1
T2 − T1
C1 =
L
Substituting the constants in above equation,

 T −T 
T ( x ) =  2 1  x + T2
 L 
The heat flow through the slab of area A is given by Fourier's conduction equation.

dT d  T2 − T1   T2 − T1 
Q = - kA = -kA   x + T2 = -kA  
dx x =0 dx  L   L 
 T −T 
Q = kA  1 2 
 L 
T1 − T2 L
Rearranging the above results, Q = here R =
R kA
Where R is called thermal resistance of the slab. This concept is analogous to electric
resistance.
CONCEPT OF THERMAL RESISTANCE AND ELECTRICAL ANALOGY
Consider a slab of thickness as shown in Fig 6. A fluid at temperature T 1 having a
heat transfer coefficient h1 flows over the slab at x =0. Another fluid at a temperature
T 2having a heat transfer coefficient h2 flows over the slab at x =L.

Fig. 6 Concept of Thermal Resistance

v As there is no heat generation within the medium, heat flow rate through the slab can
be determined by using thermal resistance concept.
v Heat flow rate Q is by convection from the fluid at T 1 to the surface of the slab at
x =0, by conduction through the slab and by convection from the surface at x = L to
the fluid at T 2.

 T −T 
Q = h1A ( T∞1 − T1 ) = kA  1 2  = h 2 A ( T2 − T∞ 2 )
 L 

Q=
( T∞1 − T1 ) = ( T1 − T2 ) = ( T2 − T∞ 2 )
1 L 1
h 1A kA h2A
This is analogous to Ohm's law with each term in the denominator representing the thermal
resistance of heat flow through an electric circuit.
Adding the denominators and numerators of the above equation,

T∞1 − T∞ 2 T −T T −T
Q= = ∞1 ∞ 2 = ∞1 ∞ 2
1 +L + 1 Ra + Rb + Rc Rtotal
h1A kA h2A
Rtotal= Total thermal resistance to heat flow total = Ra + Rb + Rc

Rtotal = 1 +L + 1
h1A kA h 2A
ONE DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION WITHOUT HEAT GENERATION
THROUGH CYLINDERS
v The radial heat flow in solids with cylindrical geometry is of great engineering,
importance. A few examples are heat flow across thick-walled circular tubes, heat
loss from a current carrying wire etc.
v Consider a long cylinder of length L with inside radius r1 and outside radius r2 as
shown in Fig 7. Let T1 and T2 be the corresponding temperatures at r1 and r2
respectively.
v As the length of the cylinder is very large compared to diameter, it may be assumed
that the heat flows only in a radial direction.
The three dimensional heat conduction equations in cylindrical co-ordinates is given by,

∂ 2T 1 ∂T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q 1 ∂T
+ + + + = ×
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂φ 2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t
For one dimensional steady -state heat conduction without heat generation, above equation
can be written in differential form as follows.

d 2T 1 dT
+ =0
dr 2 r dr
The boundary conditions are,
At r = r1 ; T(r) = T1 ; At r = r2 ; T(r) = T2
Equation can be rewritten as

d 2T dT d  dT 
r 2 + =0; r  =0
dr dr dr  dr 
Integrating the above, equation two times
dT dT C
r = C1 or = 1 ;T = C1 ln r + C 2
dr dr r
Where C1and C2 are arbitrary constants
Applying the boundary conditions at r = r1 and r = r2, equation becomes

T1 = C1 ln r1 + C2 and T2 = C1 ln r2 + C2
Solving the above two equations for C1and C2
T2 − T1 ln r1
C1 = = T1 − ( T2 − T1 ) ; C2 = T1 − C1 ln r1
ln  2  ln  2 
r r
 1
r  r1 
 Fig 7: One dimensional steady state heat conduction without heat generation in a
cylinder
Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in equations

(T2 − T1 )
T= [ln r + T1 − ln r1 ]
ln  2 
r
 r1 
The heat flow rate through the cylinder over the surface area A is given by Fourier s
conduction equation.
2π kL ( T1 − T2 )
Q= ; Rearranging the above equation,

ln 
r2 

 r1 
 2π r2 L 
ln  r2  ( r2 − r1 ) ln  
Q=
(T1 − T2 ) . Q=
(T1 − T2 ) and R=  1; R=
r  2 
  r2   R 2π kL ( r2 − r1 ) 2π kL
 ln  r1  
 
 2π kL 
 
A2 − A1
Am =
ln  2 
A
t
R= ;  A1 
kAm
Am =logarithmic mean area
A1 = 2π r1L
A2 = Outer surface area = 2π r2L
 ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION WITHOUT HEAT
GENERATION THROUGH SPHERES
Consider a hollow sphere of inside radius rl at temperature T1 and outside radius r2 at
temperature T2. The one dimensional heat conduction equation in spherical coordinates is
given by

1 ∂  2 ∂T  q 1 ∂T
r + =
r 2 ∂r  ∂r  k α ∂t

Fig. 8: One dimensional steady state heat conduction in a sphere

For one dimensional steady state heat conduction without heat generation, the above
equation reduces to the following differential form.
d  2 ∂T 
r  = 0 ; The boundary conditions are
dr  ∂r 
At r = r1; T(r) = T1 ; At r = r2; T(r) = T2
Integrating the above equation

dT dT C1
r2 = C1 ; = 2
dr dr r
Integrating again,

C1
T =− + C2
r
Where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants. Using the boundary conditions C1 and C2 can be
determined as follows.
C1 C
T1 = − + C2 ; T2 = − 1 + C2 ; Solving the above two equations,
r1 r2
r1r2 r T − rT
C1 = − (T1 − T2 ) ; C2 = − 2 2 1 1
r2 − r1 r2 − r1
Substituting in above equation

1 rr  r T − rT
T =  1 2  (T1 − T2 ) + 2 2 1 1 ; On rearranging the temperature distribution,
r  r2 − r1  r2 − r1

r1  r2 − r  r2  r − r1 
T=   T1 +   T2
r  r2 − r1  r  r2 − r1 
The heat flow through the hollow sphere is given by,

dT C1
Q = − kA = − k 4π r 2
dr r = r1 r2
Substituting C1 in the above equation,

r1r2
Q = 4π k (T1 − T2 ) ; Rearranging the above equation,
r2 − r1

Q=
(T1 − T2 ) ;R=
r2 − r1
R 4π kr1r2
Where R is the thermal resistance for a hollow sphere.

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMPOSITE SLAB

v If a medium is composed of several different layers each having different thermal
conductivity, then the medium is known as composite medium.
v Consider a composite slab made of three parallel layers as shown in Fig 9.
v If Q is the heat flow rate through an area A of the slab and if ha and hb are the heat
transfer
v Co-efficient at temperatures Ta and Tb respectively, then
Q T −T T −T T −T T −T T −T
= a 1 = 1 2 = 2 3 = 3 4 = 4 b
A  1   L1   L2   L3   1 
 h   k   k   k   h 
 a  1  2  3  b
 Fig 9: composite slab with equivalent thermal resistance network
Rearranging the above equation,

Q QL QL2 QL3 Q
Ta − T1 = ; T1 − T2 = 1 ; T2 − T3 = ; T3 − T4 = ; T4 − Tb =
Aha Ak1 Ak 2 Ak3 Ahb

Adding all the above equations

Ta − Tb
Q=
 1 L L L 
 h A + 1 k A + 2 k A + 3 k A + 1h A 
 a 1 2 4 b 
In general if there are n layers then the generalized equation becomes,

Q Ta − Tb
= n
A 1 1 L
+ +∑ n
; If the heat transfer coefficients ha and hb are neglected,
ha hb n =1 kn
Q T1 − Tn +1
= n
Ln
∑
A
n =1 kn

Equation can be modified in terms of equivalent thermal resistance. Thus

Ta − Tb
Q=
Ra + R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + R b
Where various thermal resistances are represented by R with corresponding subscripts.
Special Cases
i) A composite of two materials in parallel paths
Consider a composite of two materials in parallel paths with their ends maintained at
uniform temperatures Ta and Tb. An equivalent thermal resistance network is shown in
Fig.10.

Fig. 10: Composite slab in parallel paths

If Al and A2 are the areas of slabs with thermal conductivities kl and k2, using the concept of
thermal resistance, the heat flow rate Q is given by,
Ta − Tb T −T T −T 1 1 1
Q= = a b = a b ;Where = + = Equivalent parallel resistance
L
+
L R1 + R2 R R R 1 R 2
k1 A1 k2 A2

ii) A composite wall with materials arranged in series and parallel

Consider a composite wall with materials arranged in parallel and series paths.
Approximating heat flow as one directional, the equivalent thermal resistance network is
developed as shown in Fig.11. Assuming thermal conductivity of all materials same, the
arrangement is analyzed for One dimensional heat conduction.
 Fig. 11: Composite slab in series and parallel paths

Using the concept of thermal resistance the heat flow rate Q is expressed as,
T1 − T2
Q=
1
Ra + + Re
R
1 1 1 1
= + + = Equivalent parallel resistance
R Rb Rc Rd
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMPOSITE CYLINDERS
v Consider composite coaxial cylinders in perfect thermal contact as shown in
Fig.12.

v
Let temperature of the hot fluid flowing inside and outside the cylinder be Ta and
Tb with respective heat transfer coefficients ha and hb
 Fig 12: Composite cylinder with equivalent thermal resistance network
If Q is the heat flow rate through surface area A of the cylinder, then,

Q Ta − T0 k (T − T ) k (T − T ) T − T
= = 1 0 1 = 2 1 2 = 2 b
A  1  r  r   1 
 h  ln  1  ln  2   h 
 a  r0   r1   b

Rearranging the above equations,

r   r2 
ln  1  ln  
Q Q  0  T −T =
r Q
×  r1  ; T -T = Q
Ta -T0 = ; T0 − T1 = × ; 1
A × hb
2 2 b
A × ha A k1 A k2
Adding all the above equations,
2π L (Ta − Tb )
Q=
 1 1 r  1 r  1 
 + ln  1  + ln  2  + 
 h a r0 k1  ro  k2  r1  h b r2 
In general if there are n concentric cylinders, then the generalized equation becomes,
2π L ( T1 − Tn +1 )
Q=
 1 n
1  rn +1  1 
 + ∑ ln  + 
 h a r0 n =1 k n  rn  h b rn +1 
If the heat transfer coefficients ha and hb are ignored,
2π L (T1 − Tn +1 )
Q=
 n 1  rn +1  
 ∑ ln  
 n =1 kn  rn  
Above equation can be modified in terms of equivalent thermal resistance,

Q=
(Ta − Tb )
[ Ra + R1 + R2 + Rb ]

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMPOSITE SPHERES

v Consider a composite sphere as shown in Fig.13.
v Let the interior and exterior surfaces be Subjected to two different fluids at
temperatures Ta and Tb and heat transfer coefficients ha and hb respectively.
v Heat exchange takes place by convection and conduction.
It Q is the rate of heat transfer, then
4π k1r1r0 ( T0 − T1 ) 4π k2 r1r2 ( T1 − T2 )
Q = h a Aa ( Ta − T0 ) = = = h b Ab ( T2 − Tb )
r1 − r0 r2 − r1
Rewriting the above equation,

Q=
(Ta − T0 ) =
(T0 − T1 ) =
(T1 − T2 ) =
(T2 − T3 )
 1   r1 − r0   r2 − r1   1 
 4π h r 2       4π h r 2 
 a 0   4π k1r1r0   4π k2 r1r2   b 2 

Adding the Numerators and Denominators of the equation,

Q=
(Ta − Tb ) ; Q=
4π (Ta − Tb )
 1 r −r r −r 1   1 r −r r −r 1 
 + 1 0 + 2 1 + 2  + 1 0+ 2 1+ 
 4π h a r0 4π k1r1r0 4π k 2 r1r2 4π h b r2 
2 2
 h a r0 k1r1r0 k 2 r1r2 h b r2 2 

In general, if there are n concentric spheres the above equation modifies to,

4π (Ta − Tb )
Q=
 1 1 n
rn +1 − rn 
 2
+ + ∑ 
h b rn+12 n=1 kn rn rn+1 
 h a r0
If heat transfer coefficients are ignored, then

4π (T1 − Tn +1 )
Q=
 n rn +1 − rn  ; In terms of equivalent electrical circuit, equation can be written as,
∑ k r r 
 n =1 n n n +1 

Q=
(Ta − Tb )
[ Ra + R1 + R2 + Rb ]
 Fig. 13: Heat transfer through composite spheres with equivalent electrical circuit

OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

In many instances it is customary to express the heat flow rate in the cases of single
or multilayered plane walls and cylinders with convection at the boundaries in terms of an
overall conductance or overall heat transfer, U

1. PLANE WALL
Consider a plane wall exposed to a hot fluid A on one side and a cold fluid B on the other
side. The heat transfer is expressed as,
kA
Q = ha A (Ta − T1 ) = (T1 − T2 ) = ha A (T2 − Tb ) ; Q = Ta − T1 = T1 − T2 = T2 − Tb
L  1
 h A
 a 
 ( )
L 
kA  1 h A 
 b 


Adding the numerators and denominators of the above equation,

Ta − Tb Ta − Tb
Q= ; Q=
1 +L + 1 Ra + R1 + Rb
ha A kA hb A
The overall heat transfer coefficient due to combined heat transfer by convection and
conduction is given as,
∆Toverall
Q = U A ∆Toverall =
1
UA
 Fig.14: Overall heat transfer coefficient through a plane wall
Comparing equations
1 1 L 1
= + + =Ra + R1 + Rb
U ha k h b
1 1
U= =
1 L 1
+ + [ Ra + R1 + Rb ]
ha k hb
CRITICALTHICKNESSOF INSULATION
v Consider a small diameter pipe, cable or wire exposed to constant outer surface
temperature and dissipating heat by convection into surrounding medium (air).
v If the surface is covered by some insulation, it is observed that sometimes increasing
the thickness of insulation increases the heat loss until a critical value of thickness of
insulation, and further increase in thickness of insulation results in drop in heat loss.
v The thickness which gives the maximum heat loss is known as critical thickness of
insulation.

2. CYLINDER
v Consider a pipe of radius ri maintained at uniform temperature Ti .covered with a
layer of insulation of radius ro as shown in Fig. 15.
v Let T be the temperature of ambient air with heat transfer coefficient ho. Heat
transfer from the outside surface of insulation occurs due to convection into the
surrounding air.
v Using the concept of thermal resistance, rate of heat transfer,
 1 r 
Rins = Thermal resistance of insulation = ln  0 
2π kL  ri 

1
Ro = Thermal resistance of convection at the outer surface =
2π r0 Lh0

Fig. 15: Critical thickness of insulation

In the above equation all the factors Ti , T , k, L, ho and rj remain constant and only ro is
allowed to vary to find the maximum heat loss and hence to find the critical value of radius rc
equation is differentiated W.r.to ro.

Simplifying the above equation,

k k
rc = where ro = rc ; rc =
ho ho
Considering the effect of radiation, heat transfer coefficient in the above equation ho
becomes the sum of convection and radiation heat transfer coefficients.

ho = hc + hr
Physical significance
v If the radius is greater than the critical radius any addition of insulation on the surface
of the tube decreases the heat loss.
v If the radius is less than the-critical radius as in small diameter tubes, wires or
cables, the heat loss increases continuously with the addition of insulation until the
outer surface radius reaches its critical value.
v The heat loss is maximum at the critical thickness of insulation and becomes lesser
with the addition of insulation beyond the critical radius.
v Variation of heat loss with radius of insulation is shown in the Fig. 16

Fig.16. Variation of Q with r

B. SPHERE

FINNED SURFACES
v The rate of heat transfer by convection between a surface and fluid surrounding can
be increased by attaching thin strips of metal to the surface. These strips are known
as fins.
 v Fins of a variety of geometries are manufactured for the heat transfer applications as
shown in Fig. 17.
v The uses of extended surfaces in practical applications are very large.
v Fins are used for cooling of air cooled engines, on the radiator tubes and heat
exchangers. In all the above cases fins are used to increase the rate of heat transfer.

Fig.17: Examples of extended surfaces: (a) and (b), straight fins of uniform thickness;
(c) and (d), straight fins of non-uniform thickness.
ONE DIMENSIONAL FIN EQUATION
v The problem of determining the heat flow through a fin requires knowledge of
temperature distribution in the fin. This distribution can be found by developing a
governing energy equation.
v Fig 18 shows nomenclature for the derivation of one dimensional fin equation under
steady state conditions.
Consider a fin either rectangular or circular of uniform cross section subjected to a base
temperature To and surrounding ambient air at T having a heat transfer coefficient h.

x = Small volume element

A = Cross section area, m2
P = Perimeter, m
t = Thickness of rectangular fin of width W, m
 Fig. 18: One – dimensional fin equation
Making steady state energy balance,
 Net heat gain along x - direction into volume   Net rate of heat gain through lateral surface into 
element ∆x by conduction  +  volume element ∆x by convection =0
   
 I   II 

Net heat gain along x-direction into volume element x

d d 2T
I = − ( qA ) ∆x = kA 2 ∆x
dx dx
Net heat gain through lateral surfaces into volume element x

d 2T ( x )
kA + h T∞ − T ( x )  P = 0
dx 2
On rearranging

d 2T ( x ) hP hP
2
+ T∞ − T ( x )  = 0 letting m 2 = and θ ( x ) = T ( x ) − T∞
dx kA kA
d 2θ ( x )
2
+ m 2θ ( x ) = 0
dx
The above equation is known as one-dimensional fin equation for fins of uniform cross
section.
Equation is a linear, homogeneous, second-order ordinary differential equation with constant
coefficients. The general solution for that equation is,
 θ ( x ) = C1e− mx + C2 emx
The constants C1 and C2 are determined from the two boundary conditions specified for the
Fin problem.
Equation can be written in terms of hyperbolic sine and cosine as follows.

θ ( x ) = C1 cosh mx + C2 sinh mx = C1 cosh m ( L − x ) + C2 sinh m ( L − x )

The boundary condition for the problem one at fin base and the other at fin tip are
required to eliminate the constants C1 and C2 and hence to determine the temperature
distribution θx) in a fin of uniform cross section.
Usually the temperature at the fin base at x = 0 is known

T ( x ) = T0 at x = 0 ; θ ( x ) = θ ( 0 ) = T0 − T∞ ≡ θ 0
However at the fin tip several different conditions may exist. Three different possible
conditions are discussed below.

1. Fins with Convection at the Tip:

Heat transfer by convection between the fin tip and the surrounding fluid is the more realistic
boundary condition. The mathematical formulation for the problem becomes,

The boundary conditions are,

kdθ ( x )
At , x=0; θ ( x ) = T0 − T∞ = θ 0 ; At x=L ; + hf θ ( x ) = 0
dx
where hf is the heat transfer coefficient between the fin tip and the surrounding fluid.
Using the general solution for the given equation from [7],

θ ( x ) = C1 cosh m ( L − x ) + C2 sinh m ( L − x )
Applying the boundary conditions
At x = 0,

θ 0 =θ ( 0 ) = C1 cosh mL + C2 sinh mL
At x =L; θ ( L ) = C1 cosh m ( 0 ) + C2 sinh m ( 0 ) ; θ ( L ) = C1 = T∞

dθ
( L ) = C1m sinh m ( L − L ) + C2 m cosh m ( L − L ) = -C2 m
dx
The second boundary condition becomes,

Substituting the values of C1 and C2 into the equation

The heat flow through the fin in determined by evaluating the conduction heat transfer over
The fin base using the relation.

Long Fin:
For a sufficiently long fin it can be assumed that the temperature at the fin tip approaches
the surrounding fluid.
The mathematical formulation for the problem becomes,
Hence heat flow rate,

3. Fins with Negligible Heat loss at the Tip:

In this case the heat transfer area at the fin tip is small compared to the lateral area of the
fin.
Hence loss of heat from the fin tip is negligible and the fin tip is assumed to be insulated.
The mathematical equation for this problem becomes,
Important note regarding parameter m :
1. For circular fin:
P = Perimeter = D

hP hπ D 4h
m2 = = =
Ak  π  2 kD
 D k
4
2. For rectangular fin:
P = Perimeter = 2 (t + W)

FIN EFFICIENCY
v The temperature of the fin surface away from the base goes on decreasing due to
the thermal resistance of the fin material.
v For efficient heat transfer the lateral area of the fin at its base is used than that at the
fin tip.
v Heat transfer analysis has been performed for a variety of fin geometries and is
presented in terms of a parameter known as fin efficiency.
Efficiency of fin is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer through fin to the
ideal heat transfer through fin if entire fin surface were at base temperature of fin .

 Qa 
η=
Actual heat transfer ; η=  
Ideal heat transfer from fin at base temperature To  Qi 

The ideal heat transfer is given by,

Q i = a f h θo
af = Surface area of fin
h = Heat transfer coefficient
θo = To - T
In practical applications a finned heat transfer surface is composed of fin surfaces and the
un finned portion. Hence total heat transfer is given by,
Qf = Qa+Qunfinned

Where a = Total heat transfer area which includes both finned and un finned surface.
Equation can be written as,

; η = Area weighed fin efficiency = η+1-

af
β=
a
It can be noted that eventhough the additions of fins on a surface increases the
surface area for heat transfer, it will also increase the thermal resistance over the portion of
the surface where the fins are attached. To justify the use of fins, the ratio (Pk / Ah)
should be much larger than unity. Fig. 19 shows the variation of the fin efficiency with

2h
parameter L
kt

Fig. 19(a): Efficiency of axial fins where the fin thickness y varies with the distance x
from the root of the fin where y = t
EFFECTIVENESS OF FIN
v The heat changing capacity of an extended surface relative to that of the primary
surface with no fins is useful in defining the effectiveness of a fin.
v It is assumed that no contact resistance exists at the fin base in order that the fin
base temperature and the primary surface temperature may be taken to be the
same.
The effectiveness of fin is defined as the ratio of heat lost with fin to the heat lost
without fin .
Heat lost with fin
ε =
Heat lost without fin

Value of should be always greater than 1 if the fin were to be more effective.
For a fin with convection at the tip equation [1] above becomes,

ANALYTICAL SOLUTION FOR TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION IN A SLAB

v There are some instances in which the internal temperature within the solid varies
with the position instead of being uniform within the solid.
v For such cases the transient. Temperature charts are not available.
v Also it is not practical to construct charts for all special variations for initial
temperature distribution. Hence it is necessary to find the analytical solution for such
problems.
v Simple problems involving one-dimensional transient heat conduction in a slab with
no generation of internal energy can be solved using the method of separation of
variables.
v Consider a slab of thickness L confined to the region 0 ≤ x ≤ L .

The following assumptions are made to find the temperature distribution.

v F(x) is the initial temperature distribution which is a prescribed function of position
within the solid.
v At t =0, the temperatures at boundary surfaces x = 0 and x = L are suddenly reduced
to zero and maintained at that temperature for a duration t > 0.
Mathematical formulation of this problem is,

∂ 2T ( x, t ) 1 ∂T ( x, t )
= in 0 < x < L,t > 0
∂x 2 α ∂t
The boundary conditions are,
At x = 0; t >0; T(x, t) = 0
At x = L; t >0; T(x, t) = 0
The initial conditions is, T(x, t) = F(x) for t =0, 0 ≤ x ≤ L
Method of solution
v The solution for the equations is given by the method of separation of variables.
v Thus assume that temperature T(x, t) can be represented by the product of two
functions.
T ( x, t ) = ψ ( x ) Γ ( t )

Where ψ ( x ) is a function of x only and Γ ( t ) is a function of t only.

v It is easier to solve the ordinary differential equations resulting by splitting the partial
differential equation of heat conduction
v By knowing the functions ψ ( x ) and Γ ( t ) separately, the solution for T(x, t) can be

determined by summing the solutions of these functions.

Fig. 20: Transient heat conduction in a slab -Analytical solution

∂ 2ψ ( x ) Γ ( t ) 1 ∂ψ ( x ) Γ ( t ) ∂ 2ψ 1 ∂Γ
= i.e., Γ = ψ
∂x 2 α ∂t ∂x 2 α ∂t

1 2 nπ
where , = and λn =
N L L
USE OF TRANSIENT TEMPERATURE CHARTS
v In many cases, the temperature gradient within a solid can not be ignored and hence
the lumped system analysis doesn't hold good.
v The analysis of heat conduction problems in which both time and position vary is
very complicated.
v However for one dimensional case the distribution of temperature is calculated and
the results are represented in the form of transient temperature charts.
v In this section use of transient temperature charts for slab, long, cylinder and sphere
are discussed.

SLAB
Consider a slab of thickness 2L between the region − L ≤ x ≤ L .The slab with an
initial temperature Ti is suddenly exposed to an ambient temperature of T with heat transfer
coefficient h at t=0. The slab is maintained for some time t > 0 as shown in Fig. 21.

Fig. 21: Transient heat conduction in a slab

v Due to geometrical and thermal symmetry about the x-axis at x = 0, we can consider
only half portion of the slab.
v The mathematical formulation is based by considering a slab of thickness L in the
region 0 < x < L. Thus,

∂ 2t 1 ∂T
= confined to 0 < x < L, for t >0
∂x 2 α ∂t
Subjected to boundary conditions,

∂T ∂T
At x = 0; = 0; At x = L; k + hT = hT∞ for t > 0
∂x ∂x
The transient heat conduction problem can be expressed in the form of dimensionless
equations using non-dimensional parameters. Two of them are,
1) Fourier Number (Fo)
v Fourier number is a measure of the rate of heat conduction in comparison with the
rate of heat storage in a given volume element.
v Hence larger the Fourier number deeper will be the penetration of heat into solid
during a given time.

Rate of heat conduction across L in volume L3

Fo =
Rate of heat storage in volume L3
2) Biot Number (Bi)
Biot number is the ratio of the heat transfer coefficient to the unit conductance of a solid over
the characteristic dimension.

hL h
Bi = = Heat transfer coefficient at the solid suiface
k  k  = Internal conductance of solid across length L
 
L
T ( x,t ) − T∞
θ = Dimensionless temperature =
Ti − T∞
X = Dimensionless coordinate = x/L
Bo=Biot number
Fo = Dimension less time or Fourier number.
Then equations can be written as,

∂ 2θ ∂θ
= confined to 0 < X < 1 for F0 > 0
∂X 2
∂F0
Subjected to boundary conditions,
∂θ ∂θ
At X=0; = 0 for F0 > 0 ; At X=1 ; + Biθ = 0 for F0 > 0
∂X ∂X
and θ = 1 ; for F0 > 0 in the region 0 ≤ X ≤ 1
 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Derive expressions for radial heat transfer and temperature distribution along the
radius of a hollow cylinder whose inside and outside surfaces are maintained at
steady state temperatures T1 and T2 respectively and constant thermal conductivity.
Also obtain expression for overall heat transfer coefficient based on inner radius.

2. Define conduction shape factor and thermal diffusivity.

3. Derive an expression for critical thickness of insulation for a hollow sphere and
explain its significance.

4. Derive an expression for temperature distribution and heat transfer from an extended
rectangular surface of finite length with end insulated.

5. Differentiate between effectiveness and efficiency of heat transfer of extended

surface.

6. What is conduction shape factor? Explain.

7. Write a note on thermal contact resistance between two surfaces.

8. The effectiveness of fin should be greater than unity. Explain.

9. Write a note on conduction shape factor.

10. Explain the term effectiveness of fin and express the same in terms of Biot number.

11. A concrete wall of thickness 12 cm has thermal conductivity 0.8 W/moC. The inside
surface is exposed to air at 20°C and the outside surface to air at -18°C. The heat
transfer co-efficient for the inside and outside surfaces are 8 W/m2C and 40 W/m2C
respectively. Determine the rate of heat loss per square meter of wall surface.

12. A 10 cm OD steam pipe maintained at 130°C is covered with asbestos insulation 3

cm thick (k =0.1W/mC). The ambient air temperature is 30°C and the heat transfer
co-efficient for convection at the outer surface of the asbestos insulation is 25
 W/m2C. By using thermal resistance concept calculate the rate of heat loss from the
pipe per one meter length of pipe.

13. A cylindrical storage tank of radius 0.5 m and length 2.5 m is buried in the earth with
its axis parallel to the earth's surface. The distance between the earths surface and
the tank axis is 2m. If the tank's surface is maintained at 70°C and the earth's
surface is at 20°C, determine the rate of heat loss from the tank. The earth's thermal
conductivity may be taken as 1.2 W/m C.

14. A 16 cm diameter pipe carrying saturated steam is covered by a layer of lagging of

thickness 40mm (k = 0.8 W/m C). Later an extra layer of lagging 10 mm thick (k
= 1.2 W/mC is added. If the sounding temperature remains constant and heat
transfer coefficient for both the lagging materials is 10 W/m2C, determine the
percentage change in the rate of heat loss due to extra lagging layers Perimeter of
fin is 4 cm Surrounding air temperature 30°C