Greek Architecture

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&
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Xiterature for 1892*93.

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GRECIAN HISTORY.
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AN A. J. Church. THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN POWERS. W.

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R. Joy. HISTORICAL, ROMANCE.
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GREEK ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE.

Bedford.
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GREEK COURSE
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GREEK ARCHITECTURE
P,Y
T.
ROGER
SMITH,
F. R.
I.
B. A.
AND
GREEK SCULPTURE
BY
GEORGE REDFORD,
WITH
F. R.
C.
S.
AN" INTRODUCTION*
HV
WILLIAM
"CClitb
H.
GOODYEAR
llustrations
/fcang
1f
MKADYILI.K
PI'.XNA
KI.OOI) AM) \-INCKNT Cbe Chautauqtia.-Ccnturn press

1892
The required books of the

Council of six.
C.
L.
S.
C.
It must, however, be
are recommended by a understood that recom-
mendation does not involve an approval by the Council, or by any member of it, of every principle or doctrine contained in the book recommended.
Published by arrangement with Sampson Low, Marston and Company, Limited, London.
The Chautauqua- Century Press, Meadvillc, Pa., U. &'. A. Electrotyped, Printed, and Bound by Flood & Vincent.
sra
URt
PREFACE.
THE
customary discrimination and wisdom of the mana-
gers of the Chuutauqua Literary and Scientific Circle are apparent in their choice of the compendiums on
Greek architecture and Greek sculpture which are united in Both are written by English scholars of distinguished reputation. Both are written in a scientific spirit and in such manner as to supply much exact matter-of-fact information, without sacrificing popular quality. Some slight additions and corrections, made necessary by discoveries or by revisions of scientific opinion, dating since the original books were written, have been entered in an apthis book.
pendix.
My duty in the preparation of a preface is to point out, first, that this work on Greek architecture and sculpture is part of a course of reading on Greek history ["Grecian History," by James II. Joy] and to remark that the general historical information supplied by this other book is a most essential introduction to the present work. All interest in ancient art presupposes an interest in ancient history as well as some On the other hand it is true that general knowledge about it. ancient art is a most valuable means itself of teaching ancient history. Not only is the impulse offered to the imagination by the actually existing relics and tangible remnants of the past a point to be considered but these relics are themselves illustrations of the lives of the Greeks which are superior to any verbal or literary descriptions of a bygone age. The life of a nation cannot be described by a chronicle of events.
;
IV
PREFACE.
life is
Greek
it
not only suggested by works of Greek
art,
but
form as a means of conveying ideas, it is difficult for us to realize from our own conceptions of art considered as a fact in modern life how
the arts of design were bound up with the everyday and everyday needs of ancient peoples. The superiority of ancient Greek art to our own is explained by the fact that its mission was superior that it was a means of ideal national expression and popular national instruction, which has now been displaced by printed literature. The technical quality of an art is dependent on the amount of public patronage and of public practice. Whatever is done much is done well, and
lives
;
also actually incorporated in them. Since printing has displaced the arts of
was
much
the only stable condition of good art

for
it.
is
a large public
demand
;
In Greek sculpture and relief, the Greeks had their Bible they expressed in them their religious beliefs and ideals. These arts were also the counterpart and summary of their whole national literature. These arts were moreover an epitome and reproduction of that life of the gymnasium and of physical exercise which was the basis of their whole political
existence, and which was originally called into being by their system of military training. It is therefore as a means to a knowledge of the Greeks
we should consider the study of Greek art imConsidering that the Greeks are the fathers of political self-government, that their system of individual training and state education was of unsurpassed excellence, that their refinement and simplicity of taste have furnished models for all later time, and that the development of European
themselves that
portant.
history and European civilization began with them, and considering also that their art has a comprehensive significance for their history at large it is clear that its study is a really necessary branch of liberal culture. Although the direct relations of Greek art to Greek life and religion are most obvious in their statuary and reliefs, and although the implications of their refinement and thoughtful minds are perhaps not so immediately obvious in their architecture, this is only because the connection between cause and effect in this case requires some explanation and presupposes
PREFACE.
a not always recognized, but very positive, relation between a nation's life and a nation's arcbitecture. Aside from its relations to Greek life, the study of Greek architecture is undoubtedly the best means of reaching the important principle that all good constructive art, of whatever time or nation, implies and demands constructive thought and constructive common sense. Aside from this value of the study of Greek architecture as a means to establishing artistic principles for construction in general, it should also be remembered that multitudes of modern buildings exhibit Greek construction or employ Greek details that these details are often misused and corrupted, and that a study of the original forms is essential to the criticism of such misuses and corruptions. Such study is also essential to comprehension of the matter-ofThis point has, fact history of modern architectural styles. however, been developed sufficiently by the author of the compendium of Greek architecture. I have so far emphasized the importance of the studies furthered by this book as being a branch of history, because it is a common thing to consider the Greeks as having had a special aptitude for "art," with implication of corresponding deficiencies in other fields of life whereas the fact is that their art represents their aptitudes, character, and life in general. Let me finish my preface by pointing out that all book studies of Greek art, and all reading about Greek art, or any other art, are the very least part of the matter in hand, which is to know the monuments themselves. All books on the subject are purely a means to this end. The objects themselves are the things which must train the taste and train the eye, and this training of taste and eye cannot in the least degree be achieved through any book. In fact the whole aim and object of art training is to supplement literature, not to make literature; to exalt the importance of forms and pictures, not to exalt the importance of reading and writing about them. If this be so, it is clear that a reader or a student who has finished this book may still have the all important work before him quite- unfinished, which is to know the objects which the book describes. Undoubtedly engravings are an assistance to some extent, and these the work has very liberally furnished, but these are rather a means to illustrating
;
VI
PREFACE.
the book, and are not to be considered in any sense as making a knowledge of the originals less important. It is true that we cannot all make travels in Greece to inspect Greek ruins, and that we cannot all make visits to the European museums which contain the works of the Greek chisel. By a knowledge of the actual objects I understand, however, a knowledge of photographs, casts, and models of them. Book engravings are inadequate because they cannot possibly represent the multitude of objects, and because they lack the veracity of photographs and casts. Every possible access to the various cast collections which are being so numerously founded in this country is an indispensable accompaniment to the study of this book. In default of such access it must be said that
photographs will very ably make good this deficiency, but that contact at least with abundant photographic illustration is really indispensable. I should therefore define the practical aim of this book to be that of bringing the reader in contact with photographs or casts of Greek sculpture, and to be that of bringing the reader in contact with models and casts and photographs of Greek architecture. These casts, in the case of architecture, must naturally be confined to details that is, to
simple capitals, shafts,
largest architecture
bases,
sections
of entablature, etc.
The
and best American collections of casts of Greek and Greek sculpture are, at date of writing, in New York and Boston. The New York Museum has by far the largest collection of models and casts in architecture. The Boston Museum has by far the best and largest collection of casts in sculpture (1892). I have no doubt that the Chautauqua Circle will take proper means to recommend and make
accessible
good collections of photographs.
WM. H. GOODYEAR.
CONTENTS
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Chapter
I.
BUILDINGS OF THE DORIC ORDER
...
.
.
Page
9
II.
BUILDINGS OK TIIK IONIC AND CORINTHIAN ORDERS
28
4_!
III.
ANALYSIS OK GREEK ARCHITECTURE
GREEK SCULPTURE
IV.
V.
VI. VII.
FK;
1.
UitEKK HONEYSUCKLE
CHAPTEE
I.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
Riiildings of the Doric Order.
architecture of Greece has a value far higher than that attaching to any of the styles which preceded on account of the beauty of the buildings and the it, astonishing refinement which the best of them display. This architecture has a further claim on our attention as being virtually the parent of that of all the nations of "Western
THE
Europe.
put a finger upon any features of EgypPersian architecture the influence of which has survived to the present day except such as were adopted by the Greeks. On the other hand, there is no feature, no ornament, nor even any principle of design which the Greek architects employed that can be said to have now become obsolete. Not only do we find direct reproductions of Greek architecture forming part of the practice of every European country, but we are able to trace to Greek art the parentage of many of the forms and features of Roman, Byzantine, and Gothic architecture, especially those connected with the
tian, Assyrian, or
We cannot
column and which grew out of
Greek archiand all the forms allied to it, such as the vault and the dome; and, so far as we know, the Greeks abstained from the use of the tower. Examples
its artistic use.
tecture did not include the arch
of both these features were,
it
is
almost
certain,
as
fully
10
within the knowledge of the Greeks as were those features of Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian buildings which they employed consequently it is to deliberate selection that we must attribute this exclusion. Within the limits by which they confined themselves, the Greeks worked with such power, learning, taste, and skill that we may fairly claim for their highest achievement the Parthenon that it advanced as near to absolute perfection as any work of art ever has been or ever can be carried. Greek architecture seems to have begun to emerge from the stage of archaic simplicity about the beginning of the sixth century before the Christian era (600 B.C. is the reputed All the finest date of the old Doric Temple at Corinth). examples were erected between that date and the death of Alexander the Great (323 B. C.), after which period it de;
clined
and ultimately gave place

palatial
to
Roman.
buildings of the Greeks have decayed or been destroyed, leaving but few vestiges. know their architecture largely from ruins of public buildings and, to a limited extent, from sepulchral monuments remaining in Greece and in Greek colonies. By far the most numerous and excellent among these buildings are temples. The Greek idea of a temple was different from that entertained by the Egyptians. The building was to a much greater extent designed for external than internal effect. comparatively small sacred cell was provided for the reception of the image of the divinity, usually with one other cell behind but it, which seems to have served as treasury, or sacristy there were no surrounding chambers, gloomy halls, or enclosed courtyards, like those of the Egyptian temples, visible only to persons admitted within a jealously guarded outer wall. The temple, it is true, often stood within some sort of precinct, but it was accessible to all. It stood open to the sun and air; it invited the admiration of the passer-by; its most telling features and best sculpture were on the exterior. Whether this may have been, in some degree, the case with Persian buildings, we have few means of knowing, but certainly the attention paid by the Greeks to the outside of their temples offers a striking contrast to the practice of the Egyptians and to what we know of that of the Assyrians.
The domestic and
We
THE UOK1C OKUEK.
11
The temple, however grand, was always of simple form with a gable at each end and in this respect differed entirely from the series of halls, courts, and chambers of which a great Egyptian temple consisted. In the very smallest temple
FIG.
2.
PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TKMPLE IN ANTIS.
at least one of the gables was made into a portico by the help of columns and two pilasters (Fig. 2). More important
temples had a larger number of columns and often a portico at each end (Figs. 3 and 10). The most important had columns on the flanks as well as at the front and rear, the sacred cell bring, in fact, surrounded by them. It will be apparent from this that the column, together with the superstructure which
FlO.
;?.
Pl.AX OF A SMALL
GKEKK TEMTLK.
must have played a very important part in Greek temple architecture and an inspection of any representations of Greek buildings will at once confirm the impression.
rested
upon
it,
We
find in Greece three distinct manners,
distinguished
12
largely
GREEK ARCHITECTURE AXD SCULPTURE.

by the mode
in
which the column
is
dealt
with.
These it would be quite consistent to call " styles," were it not that another name has been so thoroughly appropriated to them that they would hardly now be recognized were they to be spoken of as anything else than "orders." The Greek
named the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each of them presents a different series of proportions, moldings, features, and ornaments, though the main forms of the buildings are the same in all. The column and its entablature (the technical name for the frieze, architrave, and cornice, forming
orders are
the usual superstructure), being the most prominent features in every such building, have come to be regarded as the index or characteristic from an inspection of which the order and the degree of its development can be recognized, just as a botanist
recognizes plants by their flowers. By reproducing the column and entablature, almost all the characteristics of either of the orders can be copied and hence a technical and somewhat unfortunate use of the word "order" to signify these features only has crept in and has overshadowed and to a large extent It is difficult in a book on displaced its wider meaning. architecture to avoid employing the word "order" when we have to speak of a column and its entablature because it has so often been made use of in this sense. The student must, however, always bear in mind that this is a restricted and artificial sense of the word and that the column belonging to any order is always accompanied by the use throughout the building of the appropriate proportions, ornaments, and
;
moldings belonging to that order. The origin of Greek architecture

for inquiry, but,
early examples information, however, as we possess, taken together with the internal evidence afforded by the features of the matured style, points to the influence of Egypt, to that of Assyria and the Persia, and to an early manner of timber construction forms proper to which were retained in spite of the abandonment of timber for marble -as all contributing to the formation
is a very interesting subject to the disappearance of almost all very of the styles, it is necessarily obscure. Such
owing
Greek architecture. In Asia Minor a series of monuments, many of them rockcut, has been discovered, which throws a curious light upon the
of
THK DORIC ORDER.
13
refer to tombs found in early growth of architecture. Lycia and attributed to about the seventh century B. C. In these we obviously have the first work in stone of a nation of
We
Lycian tomb such as the one now to be shipbuilders. seen, accurately restored, in the British Museum represents a
structure of beams of wood framed together, surmounted by a The roof which closely resembles a boat turned upside down.
planks, the beams to which they were secured, and even a ridge similar to the keel of a vessel, all reappear here, showing that the material in use for building was so universally timber that when the tomb was to be "graven in the rock forever" the
Fir..
!.
ANCIENT GKEEK WAI..I.. OF UNWKOUGIIT STONE KKOM SAMOTHRACE.
forms of a timber structure were those that presented themselves to the imagination of the sculptor. In other instances the resemblance to shipwrights' work disappears and that of the
carpenter is followed by that of the mason. Thus we find imitations of timber beams framed together and of overhanging low-pitched roofs, in some cases carried on unsquared rafters lying side by side, in several of these tombs.
What happened on the Asiatic shore of the /Egean must have occurred on the (Jreek shores; and, though none of the
very earliest specimens of reproduction in stone of timber structures has come down to us, there are abundant traces,
14
as we shall presently see, of timber originals in buildings of the Doric order. Timber originals were not, however, the only sources from which the early inhabitants of Greece drew their inspiration. Constructions of extreme antiquity and free from any appearance of imitating structures of timber mark the sites of the oldest cities of Greece, Mycense and Orchomenos, for
example, the most ancient being Pelasgic city walls of unwrought stone (Fig. 4). The so-called Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae, a circular underground chamber 48 feet 6 inches in diameter, and with a pointed vault, is a well-known specimen
of more regular yet archaic building. Its vault is constructed of stones corbeling over one another and is not a true arch
Fro.
(i.
FIG.
PijANOF TREASURY OF ATKEUS AT MYCENAE.

5.
SECTION OF THE TREASURY OF ATRKUS AT MYCKM.E.
(Figs. 5, 6). The treatment of an ornamental column found here and of the remains of sculptured ornaments over a neighboring gateway called the Gate of the Lions is of very Asiatic character and seems to show that whatever influences had been brought to bear on their design were Oriental. wide interval of time and a great contrast in taste separate the early works of Pelasgic masonry and even the chamber at Mycenro from the rudest and most archaic of the remaining Hellenic works of Greece. The Doric temple at Corinth is attributed, as lias been stated, to the seventh
century B. C. This was a massive masonry structure with extremely short, stumpy columns and strong moldings, but presenting the main features of the Doric style, as we know it,
THE DORIC OKDEK.

ill
15
and rudest form. Successive examples (Figs. show increasing slenderness of proportions and refinement of treatment, and are accompanied by sculpture which approaches nearer and nearer to perfection but in the later and best buildings, as in the earliest and rudest, certain forms are retained for which it seems impossible to account except
its earliest
7, 8,
and
9)
on the supposition that they are reproductions
in stone or
FIG.
7. GKKEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SELIXUS.
FIG.
TAL,
8.
FROM THE THESEUM.
GREEK DORIC CAPI-
Fli:. !>.<";
11KEK
DoiUO C'APITAL FROM 8AMOTHRACF.
marble of a timber construction. These occur in the entablature while the column is of a type which it is hard to believe is not copied from originals in use in Egypt many centuries earlier.
We will now proceed to examine a fully developed Greek Doric temple of the best period and in doing so we shall be able to recognize the forms referred to in the preceding
16
paragraph as we come to them. The most complete Greek Doric temple was the Parthenon, the work of the architect
CD
it-
FIG.
10.
PLAX OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.
IctimiR, the temple of the Virgin Goddess Athene (Minerva) at Athens, and on many accounts this building will be the
best to select for our purpose (Frontispiece).
THE DORIC ORDER.
17
The Parthenon at Athens stood on the summit of a lofty rock and within an irregularly shaped enclosure, something like a cathedral close, entered through a noble gateway, The temple itself was of perfectly regucalled the Propylsea. lar plan and stood quite free from dependencies of any sort. It consisted of a cella, or sacred cell, in which stood the statue of the goddess, with one chamber (the treasury) behind. In the cella and also in the chamber behind there were columns. series of columns surrounded this building,
FIG.
12.
CONSTRUCTIONAL YJF.W OF TUP: PARTHENON.
THE DOK1O
OltDEK.
19
the very finest quality, executed by or under the superintendence of Phidias. Of this sculpture many specimens are now " in the British Museum. They are called the Elgin Marbles," after Lord Elgin, who brought them from Greece in 1816 and afterwards sold them to the British government. The construction of this temple was of the most solid and durable kind, marble being the material used and the workmanship was most careful in every part of which remains
;
have come down to us. The roof was, no doubt, made of timber and covered with marble tiles (Fig. 11), carried on
FIG.
13.
SECTION OF THE GKEEK DOKIC TEMPLE AT PJESTU.M. As
RESTORED UY
BOTTICIIEI:.
a timber framework, all traces of which have entirely perished and the mode in which it was constructed is a subject
;
upon which authorities differ, especially as to what provision was made for the admission of light. The internal columns,
found in other temples as well as in the Parthenon, were to support this roof, as is shown in Botticher's restoration of the Temple at IVstum, which we reproduce (Fig. U>), though without pledging ourselves to its accuracy; for, indeed, it seems probable that something more or less like the clerestory of a Gothic church must have been
no doubt employed
'
fornice
Ovolo. Corona.
Pediment.
.".
Mutules
rr
TICK DORIC ORDER.
21
to admit light to these buildings, as we know was the case in the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. But this structure, if it existed, has entirely disappeared. The order of the Parthenon was Doric, and the leading The column was 5.56 diameters proportions were as follows high ; the whole height, including the stylobate, or steps, might be divided into nine parts, of which two go to the steps,
employed
FIG.
THE FILLETS UNDER A 16. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL.
FIG.
15.
PLAN OF A GKEEK DORIC

COLUMN.
six to tne
column, and one to the entablature, or super;
structure.
The Greek Doric order is without a base the shaft of the column springs from the top step and tapers toward the top,
the outline being not, however, straight, but of a subtle curve, technically as the cntaxis of the column. This shaft is channeled with twenty shallow channels,* the ridges separat-
known
little below the ing one from another being very fine lines. molding of the capital, fine sinkings, forming lines round the shaft, exist, and above these the channels of the flutes are stopped by or near the commencement of the projecting molding of the capital. This molding, which is of a section calculated to convey the idea of powerful support, is called the rr-hiniifi, and its lower portion is encircled by a series of fillets Above the echinus, which is (Fig. 1(5), which are cut into it. circular, like the shaft, comes the highest member the abacutt (Fig. 14), a square, stout slab of marble, which completes the capital of the column. The whole is most skillfully designed to convey the idea of sturdy support and yet to clothe the support with grace. The- strong proportions of the shaft, the
*
In a few instances a smaller
number
is
found.
22

upon
its
slight curve of its outline, the lines traced
surface
by
the channels, and even the vigorous, uncompromising planting of it on the square step from which it springs, all contribute to make the column look strong. The check given to the vigorous upward lines of the channels on the shaft by the first sinkings and their arrest at the point where the capital spreads out, intensified as it is by the series of horizontal lines drawn round the echinus by the fillets cut into it, all seem to convey the idea of spreading the supporting energy of the column outward and the abacus appears naturally fitted, itself inert, to receive a burden placed upon it and to transmit its pressure to the capital and shaft below.
;
FIG.
17.
CAPITAL OF A GREKK DORIC COI.TJJIX FROM .EG WITH COL.OKED DECORATION.
The entablature which formed the superstructure consisted of a small square beam the architrave, which, it may be assumed, represents a square timber beam that occupied the same position in the primitive structures. On this rests a
first
called the frieze, the prominent feature of a series of slightly projecting features, known as triglyphs (three channels) (Fig. 20), from the channels running down their face. These closely resemble, and no doubt actually represent, the ends of massive timber beams, which must have connected the colonnade to the wall of the cell in earlier buildings. At the bottom of each is a row of small pend-
second
member
which
is
ants,
known as (jititw, which closely resemble wooden pins, such as would be used to keep a timber beam in place. The
THE DORIC
OKIJKK.
23
panels between the triglyphs are usually as wide as they are They are termed metopes and sculpture commonly high.
FIG.
18.
SECTION OF THE ENTABLATURE OF THE GREEK DORIC OKDER.
FIG.
lit.
1'i.AN,
LOOKING IT, OF PART OF A URKKK DORIC I'KRISTVLK.
occupies them. The third division of the entablature, the cornice, represents the overhanging eaves of the roof. The cornices employed in classic architecture may be almost
24

:
invariably subdivided into three parts the supporting part, which is the lowest, the projecting part, which is the middle, and the crowning part, which is the highest division of the cornice. The supporting part in a Greek Doric cornice There are no moldings, such as we shall is extremely small. find in almost every other cornice, calculated to convey the idea of contributing to sustain the projection of the cornice, but there are slabs of marble, called mutules (Fig. 21), dropping toward the outer end, of which one is placed over each triglyph and one between every two. These seem to recall, by
their shape, their position,
and
their slope alike, the ends of
rr
FIG.
20.
DETAILS OF THE TKIGI.YPH.

FlG.
21.
IVFTAI'LS
OF THE
MUTCLES.
the rafters of a timber roof and their surface is covered with small projections, which resemble the heads of wooden pins, similar to those already mentioned. The projecting part, in this as in almost all cornices, is a plain upright face of some " the corona," and recalling probably a "facia," height, called or flat, narrow board such as a carpenter of the present day would use in a similar position, secured in the original structure to the ends of the rafters and supporting the eaves. Lastly the crowning part is, in the Greek Doric, a single convex molding, not very dissimilar in profile to the ovolo of the
;
capital
and forming what we commonly
At the ends
call an eaves-gutter. of the building the two- upper divisions of the
THE DORIC ORDER.
25
cornice namely, the projecting corona and the crowning ovolo are made to follow the sloping line of the gable, a second corona being also carried across horizontally in a manner which can be best understood by inspecting a diagram of the corner of a Greek Doric building (Fig. 14) and the triangular space thus formed was termed a pediment, and was the position in which the finest of the sculpture with which the building was enriched was placed. In the Parthenon a continuous band of sculpture ran around the exterior of the cell near the top of the wall. One other feature was employed in Greek temple architecture. The anta was a square pillar or pier of masonry attached to the wall and corresponded very closely to our pilaster but its capital always differed from that of the columns in the neighborhood of which it was employed. The untce of the Greek Doric order, as employed in the Parthenon,
; ;
81
H
-:
?i%!
K-i._y{;
Lr2L:i
:iL^
FlG.
22.
GKKEK ANTA, WITH COLOKED DECORATIONS.
ELEVATION ANT) SECTION OK THE CAPITAL OF A
have a molded base, which it will be remembered is not the with the column, and their capital has for its principal feature an under-cut molding, known as the bird's beak, quite dissimilar from the ovolo of the capital of the column Sometimes the portico of a temple consisted of the (Fig. 2'2). side walls prolonged and ending in two antce with two or more columns standing between them. The Parthenon presents examples of the most extraordinary
case
refinements in order to correct optical illusions.
The
delicacy
and subtlety of these are extreme, but there can be no manner

of doubt that they existed. The best known correction is the diminution in diameter, or taper, and the rfY/x/x, or convex curve of the tapered outline of the shaft of the column. With-
out the taper, which

building,
is
perceptible
enough
in the order of this
and much more marked
in the order of earlier build-
26
ings, the

;
columns would look top-heavy but the entasis is an additional optical correction to prevent their outline from appearing hollowed, which it would have done had there been no curve. The columns of the Parthenon have shafts that are over 34 feet high and diminish from a diameter of 6.15 feet at the bottom to 4.81 feet at the top. The outline between these
points is convex, but so slightly so that the curve departs at the point of greatest curvature not more than three fourths of an inch from the straight line joining the top and bottom. This is, however, just sufficient to correct the tendency to look hollow in the middle. second correction is intended to overcome the apparent tendency of a building to spread outward toward the top. This is met by inclining the columns slightly inward. So slight, however, is the inclination, that were the axes of two columns on opposite sides of the Parthenon continued upward till they met, the meeting point would be 1,952 yards, or in other words, more than one mile from the ground. Another optical correction is applied to the horizontal lines. In order to overcome a tendency which exists in all long lines to seem as though they droop in the middle, the lines of the architrave, of the top step, and of other horizontal features of the buildings fire all slightly curved. The difference between the outline of the top step of the Parthenon and a straight line joining its two ends is at the greatest only just over two inches. The last correction which it is necessary to name here was The applied to the vertical proportions of the building. principles upon which this correction rests have been demon-
strated
by Mr. John Pennethorne ;* and it would hardly come within the scope of this volume to attempt to state them here suffice it to say that small additions, amounting in the
;
entire height of the order to less than five inches, were made to the heights of the various members of the order, with a view to secure that from one definite point of view the effect of
foreshortening should be exactly compensated and so the building should appear to the spectator to be perfectly proportioned. The Parthenon, like many, if not all Greek buildings, was
*
"Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture."
THK DORIC OKDKK.
27
profusely decorated with colored ornaments, of which nearly every trace has now disappeared, but which must have contributed largely to the splendid beauty of the building as a
whole, and must have emphasized and set off its parts. The ornaments known as Doric frets were largely employed. They
made entirely of straight lines interlacing, and, while preserving the severity which is characteristic of the style, they permit of the introduction of considerable richconsist of patterns
ness.
The
Doric
may
principal remaining examples of fragments of Greek be enumerated as follows

:
IN*
GHEECE.
Temple of (?) Athene, at Corinth, ab. 6oO B. C. Temple of (?) Zeus, in the island of Êgina, ab. 5-50 B. C. Temple of Theseus (Theseum), at Athens, -IGo B. C. Temple of Athene (Parthenon), on the Acropolis at Athens, fin. 438 B. C. The Propylcea, on the Acropolis at Athens, 436-431 B. C. Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassre,* in Arcadia (designed by Ictinus). Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Phigalia, in Arcadia (built by Ictinus). Temple of Athene, on the rock of Sunium, in Attica. Temple of Nemesis, at Rhamnus, in Attica. Temple of Demeter (Ceres), at Eleusis, in Attica. IN SICILY
AND SOUTH
ITALY.
Temple of (?) Zeus, at Agrigentum, in Sicily (begun B. C. 480). Temple of Egesta (or Segesta), in Sicily. Temple of (?) Zeus, at Selinus, in Sicily (? ab. 410 B. C.). Temple of (?) Athene, at Syracuse, in Sicily. Temple of Poseidon, at Pajstum, in South Italy (? ab. 5-50 B. C.).
*? Exterior Doric
Interior Ionic.
FIG.
23.
PALMETTE AND HONEYSUCKLE.
CHAPTER
II.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.
Doric was the order in which the
full
strength and
a great completely deal of the spirit of severe dignity proper to Egyptian art in its aspect but other nationalities contributed to the formation of the many-sided Greek nature, and we must look to some other
;
the complete refinement of the artistic character of the THE' Greeks were most shown. There was
order.
country than Egypt for the spirit which inspired the Ionic This seems to have been brought into Greece by a distinct race
and shows marks of an Asiatic origin. The feature most distinctive is the one most distinctly Eastern the capital of the column, ornamented always by volutes, i.e. scrolls, which bear a close resemblance to features similarly employed in the columns found at Persepolis. The same resemblance can be also detected in the molded bases and even the shafts of the columns, and in many of the ornaments emwhich
is
ployed throughout the buildings.
In form and disposition an ordinary Ionic temple was similar to one of the Doric order, but the general proportions are more slender and the moldings of the order are more numerous and more profusely enriched. The column in the
Ionic order had a base, often elaborately and sometimes singu-
T1IK IONIC
larly
AND COHINTHIAX OUUKKS.

The
shaft (Figs. 24, 26)
is
29 of
molded
(Figs. 31, 32).
more
slender proportions than the Doric shaft. It was fluted, but its channels are more numerous and are separated from one another by broader fillets than in the Doric. The distinctive feature, as in all the orders, is the capital (Figs. 25, 20), which
is
recognized at a glance by the
two remarkable ornaments
FIG. 2^. SHAFT OF IONIC COLUMN SHOWING THE FLUTINGS.
FIG.
26.
IONIC CAPITAL.
SIDE
ELEVATION.
FIG.
2").
IONIC
C.vi'iTAi,.
FRONT
KI.F.V.VTION.
already alluded to as like scrolls and known as volutes. These generally formed the faces of a pair of cushion-shaped features, which could be seen in a side view of the capital; but sometimes volutes stand in a diagonal position, and in almost every
building they differ slightly. The dlxicus is less deep than in the Doric, and it is always molded at the edge, which was
Fro.
27.
THE
loxic ORDER.
FROM PRIENE, ASIA MINOR.
nd.
Frieze.
_J
Architrave with
Facias.
Capital.
Stylobat
Fio.
2S.
IONIC OKDKI:.
FKOM
TIIK KUKCTIIKTM, ATIIKNS.
32

The entablature
never the case with the Doric abacus.
(Fig. 27) is, generally speaking, richer than that of the Doric order. The architrave, for example, has three facias instead of
the other hand, the frieze has no triglyphs, There are more members in the cornice, several moldings being combined to fortify the supporting portion. These have sometimes been termed "the bed moldings" and among them occurs one which is almost
being plain.
On
and but rarely
sculpture.
FIG.
29.
NORTH-WEST VIEW OF THE ERECHTHEUM, IN TIME OF PERICLES.
and is termed a dentil band. This molding presents the appearance of a plain square band of stone, in which a series of cuts had been made dividing it into blocks somewhat resembling teeth, whence the name. Such an ornament is more naturally constructed in wood than in stone or marble, but if the real derivation of the Ionic order, as of the Doric, be in fact from timber structures, the dentil band is apparently the only feature in which that origin can now be
typical of the order,
THE
traced.
IONIC
AND CORINTHIAN OKDEKS.

of
The crowning member
the cornice
:
is
a partly
hollow molding, technically called a cyma recta, less vigthis molding, orous than the convex ovolo, of the Doric and some of the bed moldings, were commonly enriched with
Kia.
80.
PLAN OF THE ERECTHEUM.
Fro.
31.
TKMIM,K OF THK WINOI,F.SS VICTORY (NiKEAPTKKOS).
IONIC BASK
FROM THK
Fir,.
32.
IONIC
BASK MOLDINGS FROM PKIKNK.
Altogether more slenderness and loss vigor, more carved enrichment and less painted decoration, more reliance on architectural ornament and less on the work of the sculptor, appear to distinguish those examples of Greek Ionic which have come down to us, as compared with Doric buildings.
carving.
34
The most numerous examples of the Ionic order of which remains exist are found in Asia Minor, but the most refined and complete is the Erechtheum at Athens (Figs 29, 30), a composite structure containing three temples built in juxtaposition, but differing from one another in scale, levels, dimensions,
and treatment. The principal order from the Erechtheum (Fig. 28) shows a large amount of enrichment introduced with the most refined and severe taste. Specially remarkable are the ornaments (borrowed from the Assyrian honeysuckle) which encircle the upper part of the shaft at the point where it passes into the capital and the splendid spirals of the volutes (Figs. 25, 26). The bases of the columns in the Erechtheum. example are models of elegance and beauty. Those of some of the examples from Asia Minor are overloaded with a vast number of moldings, by 110 means always producing a
(Figs. 31, 32). Some of them bear a close resemblance to the bases of the columns at Persepolis. The most famous Greek building which was erected in the Ionic style was the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. This temple has been all but totally destroyed, and the very site of it had been for centuries lost and unknown till the energy and sagacity of an English architect (Mr. Wood) enabled him to discover and dig out the vestiges of the building. Fortunately sufficient traces of the foundation have remained to render it possible to recover the plan of the temple completely and the discovery of fragments of the order, together with representations on ancient coins and a description by Pliny, have rendered it possible to make a restoration on paper of the general appearance of this famous temple, which must be very nearly, if not absolutely, correct.
pleasing effect
The walls of this temple enclosed, as usual, a crlla (in which was the statue of the goddess), with apparently a treasury behind it they were entirely surrounded by a double series of columns with a pediment at each end. The exterior of the building, including these columns, was about twice the width of the cclla. The whole structure, which was of marble, was planted on a spacious platform with steps. The account of Pliny refers to thirty-six columns, which he describes as columme <-clat<c " (sculptured columns), adding that one was by Scopas, a very celebrated artist. The fortunate discovery
;
l<
THE IONIC AND CORINTHIAN ORDERS.

by Mr.
35
Wood of a few fragments of those columns shows that the lower part of the shaft immediately above the base was enriched by a group of figures about life size carved in the boldest relief and encircling the column. One of these groups has been brought to the British Museum, and its beauty and vigor enable the imagination partly to restore this splendid feature, which certainly was one of the most sumptuous modes of decorating a building by the aid of sculpture which has ever been attempted the effect must have been rich be;
yond
description.
It is worth remark that the Erechtheum, which has been already referred to, contains an example of a different, and perhaps a not less remarkable, mode of combining sculpture with architecture. In one of its three porticoes (Fig. 29) the columns are replaced by standing female figures, known as This caryatids, and the entablature rests on their heads. device has frequently been repeated in ancient and in modern but, except in some comparatively obscure architecture, examples, the sculptured columns of Ephesus do not appear to
have been imitated. Another famous Greek work of art, the remains of which have been, like the Temple of Diana, disinterred by the energy
and skill of a learned Englishman, belonged To Mr. Newton we owe the recovery of the
to the Ionic order.

site
and
consider-
able fragments of the architectural features of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the ancient wonders of the world.
outline of this monument must have resembled other Greek tombs which have been preserved, such, for example, as the Lion Tomb at Cnidus that is to say, the plan was square there was a basement, above this an order, and above that a steep pyramidal roof rising in steps, not carried to a point, but stopping short to form a platform, on which was
The general
This building is placed a qiiadriya (four-horsed chariot). known to have been richly sculptured and many fragments of Indeed it was probably its great beauty have been recovered. elaboration, as well as its very unusual height (for the Greek
buildings were
celebrated.
seldom
lofty),
which
led
to
its
being so
The Corinthian order, the last to make its appearance, was almost as much Roman as Greek, and is hardly found in any
FIG.
33.
TIIK
CORINTHIAN ORDER. FROM THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATKS AT ATHENS.
THE
IONIC
AND CORINTHIAN ORDKKS.
37
of the great temples of the best period of which remains exist in Greece, though we hear of its use. For example, Pausanias states that the Corinthian order was employed in the interior of the Temple of Athene Alea at Tegea, built by Scopas, to which a date shortly after the year 394 B. C. is assigned. The examples which we possess are comparatively small works,
FIG.
3-1.
CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE MONUMENT OK LYSICKATES AT ATHENS.
and
in them the order resembles the Tonic, but with the important exceptions that the capital of the column is quite different, that the proportions are altogether a little slenderer, and that the enrichments are somewhat more florid. The capital of the Greek Corinthian order, as seen in the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates at Athens (Fig. 35) a comparatively miniature example, but the most perfect we have is a work of art of marvelous beauty (Fig. 34). It retains a feature resembling the Ionic volute, but reduced to a very small size, set obliquely and appearing to spring from the sides of a kind of long bell-shaped termination to the column. This bell is clothed with foliage, symmetrically arranged and much of it studied, but in a conventional manner, from the graceful foliage of the acanthus between the two small volutes appears
;
FIG.
33.
MoxuMEvr
TO LV.SICRATES AT ATHENS.
THE
IONIC
AND CORINTHIAN
OKDKR.S.
39
an Assyrian honeysuckle and tendrils of honeysuckle, conventionally treated, occupy part of the upper portion of the capital. The abacus is molded and is curved on the plan and the base of the capital is marked by a very unusual turning-
The entire structure to of the flutes of the columns. this belonged is a model of elegance and the large sculptured mass of leaves and tendrils with which it is
down
which
crowned
is
especially noteworthy.
Fig.
36.
CAPITAL OF ANT.I; FROM MILEITS. HIDK VIEW.
somewhat simpler Corinthian capital and another of very rich design are found in the Temple of Apollo Didynueus at Miletus, where also a very elegant capital for the antce, or
than that of the Lysicraexample, but there was room for more elaboration in the entablature, and accordingly large richly-sculptured brackets seem to have been introduced and a profusion of ornament was employed. The examples of this treatment which remain are, however, of Roman origin rather than Greek. The Greek cities must have included structures of great
tes
pilasters, is employed (Figs. 36, 38). for a capital could hardly be adopted
A more ornamental design
beauty and adapted to many purposes, of which in most cases few traces, if any, have been preserved. We have no remains of a Greek palace or of Greek dwelling houses, although those at Pompeii were probably erected and decorated by Greek
artificers for
Roman occupation. The agom of a Greek city, which was a place of public assembly something like the Roman Forum, is kno\vn to us only by descriptions in ancient writers, but we possess some remains of Greek theaters and
;
THK
IONIC
AND CORINTHIAN OKDKRS.
41
from these, aided by Roman examples and written descripThe auditory tions, can understand what these buildings were. was curved in plan, occupying rather more than a semicircle the seats rose in tiers one behind another a circular space was reserved for the chorus in the center of the seats and behind it was a raised stage, bounded by a wall forming its back and sides a rough notion of the arrangement can be obtained from the lecture theater of many modern colleges, and our illustration (Fig. 37) gives a general idea of what must have been the appearance of one of these structures. Much of the detail of these buildings is, however, a matter of pure speculation and consequently does not enter into the scheme of this manual.
;
FIG.
38.
CAPITAL OF ANT.E FROM MILETUS.
CHAPTER
Analysis.
III.
QREEK ARCHITECTURE.
plan, or floor-disposition, of a Greek building was always simple however great its extent, was well judged for effect, and capable of being understood at once. The grandest results were obtained by simple means and all con-
THE
fusion,
uncertainty, and complication were scrupulously avoided. Refined precision, order, symmetry, and exactness mark the plan as well as every part of the work. The plan of a Greek temple may be said to present many of the same elements as that of an Egyptian temple, but, so to Columns are relied on by the Greek speak, turned inside out. artist, as they were by the Egyptian artist, as a means of giving effect but they are placed by him outside the building instead of within its courts and halls. The Greek, starting with a comparatively small nucleus formed by the cell and the treasury, encircles them by a magnificent girdle of pillars and The disposition of these columns so makes a grand structure. and of the great range of steps, or stylobate, is the most marked feature in Greek temple plans. Columns also existed, the interior of the building, but these were it is true, in of smaller size and seem to have been introduced to aid in carrying the roof and the clerestory, if there was one. They have in several instances disappeared, and there is certainly no
;
ANALYSIS OK GREEK ARCIIITECTUHE.

ground
in
for
43
supposing that the attempt was made to reproduce interior the grand but oppressive effect of a hypostyle hall. That was abandoned, together with the complication, seclusion, and gloom of the long series of chambers, cells, etc., placed one behind another, just as the contrasts and
any Greek
surprises of tiie series of courts
and
halls following in succession
were abandoned for the one simple but grand mass built to be seen from without rather than from within. In the greater number of Greek buildings a degree of precision is exhibited, to which the Egyptians did not attain. All right angles are absolutely true the setting-out (or spacing) of the different
;
columns, piers, openings, etc., is perfectly exact and, in the Parthenon, the patient investigations of Mr. Penrose and other skilled observers have disclosed a degree of accuracy as well as refinement which resembles the precision with which astronomical instruments are adjusted in Europe at the present day, rather than the rough and ready measurements of a
;
modern mason
or bricklayer.
the plans of Greek palaces might have exhibited, did any remains exist, is merely matter for inference and conjecture and it is not proposed in this volume to pass far beyond ascertained and observed facts. There can be, however, little doubt that the palaces of the West Asiatic style must have at least contributed suggestions as to internal disposition of the later and more magnificent Greek mansions. The ordinary dwelling houses of citizens, as described by ancient writers, resembled those now visible in the disinterred The chief characteristic cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. of the plan of these is that they retain the disposition which in the temples was discarded that is to say, all the doors and windows look into an inner court, and the house is as far as possible secluded within an encircling wall. The contrast between the openness of the public life led by the men in Greek cities and the seclusion of the women and the families
;
What
when
at home, is remarkably illustrated by this difference between the public and private buildings.
of the triple building called the Erechtheum deserves special mention as an example of an exceptional arrangement which appears to sci (he ordinary laws of symmetry at defiance and which is calculated to produce a
(Fig. 29)
The plan
44
GKEKK ARCHITECTUKK AND SCULPTURE.
which the picturesque enters at least as much Though the central temple is symmetrical, the two attached porticoes are not so and do not, in position,
result into
as the beautiful.
dimensions, or treatment, balance one another. The result is a charming group, and we cannot doubt that other examples of freedom of planning would have been found, had more remains of the architecture of the great cities of Greece come down to our own day. In public buildings other than temples such as the theater, the (tf/ora, and the basilica the Greek architects seem to have had great scope for their genius the planning of the theaters
;
provisions to meet circular disposition was here the requirements of the case. introduced not, it is true, for the first time, since it is rendered probable by the representations on sculptured slabs that some circular buildings existed in Assyria and circular buildings remain in the archaic works at Mycenae but it was now elaborated with remarkable completeness, beauty, and mastery over all the difficulties involved. Could we see the great theater of Athens as it was when perfect, we should probably find that as an interior it was almost unrivaled, alike for convenience and for beauty and for these excellences The it was mainly indebted to the elegance of its planning. actual floor of many of the Greek temples appears to have been of marble of different colors.
shows
skillful
and thoroughly complete
The WnllH.
The construction of the walls of the Greek temples rivaled that of the Egyptians in accuracy and beauty of workmanship and resembled them in the use of solid materials. The Greeks had within reach quarries of marble, the most beautiful material which nature has provided for the use of the builder and great fineness of surface and high finish were attained. Some interesting examples of hollow walling occur in the construction of the Parthenon. The wall was not an element of the building on which the Greek architect seemed to dwell with pleasure much of it is almost invariably overshadowed by the lines of columns which form the main features of the building. The pediment, or gable, of a temple is a grand development
;
ANALYSIS OF ORKEK AKCJIITKCTUKK.

of the walls
45
and perhaps the most striking of the additions which the Greeks made to the resources of the architect. It offers a fine field for sculpture and adds real and apparent height beyond anything that the Egyptians ever attempted and it has remained since the days of the Pyramid builders
;
in constant use to the present hour. do not hear of towers being attached to buildings and, although such monumental structures as the Mausoleum of
We
Halicarnassus approached the proportions of a tower, height does not seem to have commended itself to the mind of the Greek architect as necessary to the buildings which he designed. It was reserved for Roman and Christian art to introduce this element of architectural effect in all its power. On the other hand, the Greek, like the Persian architect, emphasized the base of his building in a remarkable manner, not only by base moldings, but by planting the whole structure on a great range of steps which formed an essential part of the composition.
The,
Roof.
The construction
subject of
of the roofs of
Greek temples has been the

in
much debate. It is almost certain that they were some way so made as to admit light. They were framed
timber and covered by
tiles,
of
often, if not always, of marble.
Although
all traces
we can
at least
know
of the timber framing have disappeared, that the pitch was not steep by the slope
of the outline of the pediments, which formed, as has already been said, perhaps the chief glory of a Greek temple. The flat
stone roofs sometimes used by the Egyptians and necessitating the placing of columns or other supports close together, seem to have become disused, with the exception that where a temple was surrounded by a range of columns the space between the main wall and the columns was so covered. The vaulted stone roofs of the archaic buildings, of which the treasury of Atreus (Figs, o, (>) was the type, do not seem to have prevailed in a later period or, so far as we know, to have been succeeded by any similar covering or vault of a more scientific construction. It is hardly necessary to add that the Greek theaters were not roofed. The Romans shaded the spectators in their
46
theaters
ing,

but
in
was
and amphitheaters by means of a velarium, or awnextremely doubtful whether even this expedient use in Greek theaters.
it is
The Openings.
The most important
characteristic of the openings in
Greek
buildings is that they were flat^topped, covered by a lintel of stone or marble, and never arched. Doors and window openings were often a little narrower at the top than the bottom and were marked by a band of moldings, known as the architrave, on the face of the wall, and, so to speak, framing in the There was often also a small cornice over each opening. (Figs. 39, 40). Openings were seldom advanced into prominence or employed as features in the exterior of a building in fact, the same effects which windows produce in other styles were in Greek buildings created by the interspaces between the
;
columns.
The Columns.
These
ture,
features, together
with the superstructure or entabla-
which they customarily carried, were the prominent parts of Greek architecture, occupying as they did the entire
height of the building. The development of the orders (which we have explained to be really decorative systems, each of which involved the use of one sort of column, though the term is constantly understood as meaning merely the column and entablature) is a very interesting subject and illustrates the acuteness with which the Greeks selected from those models
which were
their
accessible to them, exactly \vhat was suited to purpose and the skill with which they altered and refined and almost redesigned everything which they so
selected.
During the whole period when Greek art was being developed, the ancient and polished civilization of Egypt constituted a most powerful and most stable influence, always
present, always, comparatively speaking, within reach, and always the same. Of all the forms of column and capital exist-
ing in Egypt, the Greeks, however, only selected that straightsided, fluted type of which the Beni-Hassan example is the best known, but by no means the only instance. first meet with these fluted columns at Corinth, of very sturdy pro-
We
ANALYSIS OF G KKEK ARCHITECTURE
47
portions and having a wide, swelling, clumsy molding under the abacus by way of a capital. By degrees the proportions of the shaft grew more slender and the profile of the capital more elegant and less bold, till the perfected proportions of the Greek Doric column were attained. This column is the
which all columns with molded capitals that have been used in architecture, from the age of Pericles to our own, may be directly or indirectly referred while the Egyptian types which the Greeks did not select such, for example, as the lotus-columns at Karnak have never been perpetuated. A different temper or taste, and partly a different history, led to the selection of the West Asiatic types of column by a
original to
;
Fir,. 39.
GREEK
FIG.
10.
DOORWAY, SHOWING COKNICE.

section of the
tion, in
;
(FROM THE ERECHTHECM.)
GREEK DOORWAY, FRONT VIEW.
Greek people but great alterations in proporthe treatment of the capital, and in the management of the molded base from which the columns sprang, were made, even in the orders which occur in the Ionic buildings of Asia Minor. This was carried further when the Ionic order was made use of in Athens herself, and as a result the Attic base and the perfected Ionic capital are to be found at their best in the Erechtheum example. The Ionic order and the Corinthian, which soon followed it, are the parents, -not, it is true, of all, but of the greater part of the columns with foliated capitals that have been used in all styles ami periods of archi-
48
tecture since. It will not be forgotten that rude types of both orders are found represented on Assyrian bas-reliefs, but still the Corinthian capital and order must be considered as the natural and, so to speak, inevitable development of the Ionic. From the Corinthian capital an unbroken series of foliated almost the only capitals can be traced down to our own day new ornamented type ever devised since being that which takes its origin in the Romanesque block capital, known to us this was in England as the early Norman cushion capital certainly the parent of a distinct series, though even these owe
; ;
to Greek originals. have alluded to the Ionic base. It was derived from a very tall one in use at Persepolis and we meet with it first in the rich but clumsy forms of the bases in the Asia Minor ex-
not a
little
We
amples.
In them we find the height of the feature as used in Persia compressed, while great, and to our eyes eccentric, these the refinement of elaboration marked the moldings Attic taste afterwards simplified, till the profile of the wellknown Attic base was produced a base which has had as wide and lasting an influence as either of the original forms
;
of capital.
The Corinthian order, as has been above remarked, is the natural sequel of the Ionic. Had Greek architecture continued till it fell into decadence, this order would have been the badge of it. As it was, the decadence of Greek art was Roman art, and the Corinthian order was the favorite order of the Romans in fact all the important examples of it
;
which remain are Roman work. If we remember how invariably use was made of one or other of the two great types of the Greek order in all the buildings of the best Greek time, with the addition toward its close of the Corinthian order, and that these orders, a little more subdivided and a good deal modified, have formed the substratum of Roman architecture and of that in use during the last three centuries and if we also bear in mind that nearly all the columnar architecture of Early Christian, Byzantine, Saracenic, and Gothic times, owes its forms to the same great source, we may well admit that the invention and perfecting of the orders of Greek architecture has been with one exception the most important event in the archi;
ANALYSIS OF GUEEK AKCHITECTUKK.

tectural history of the world.
49
That exception
is,
of course, the
introduction of the Arch.

Ttic
Ornaments.
Greek ornaments have exerted the same wide influence over the whole course of Western art as Greek columns and in their origin they are equally interesting as specimens of Greek skill in adapting existing types and of Greek invention where
;
no existing types would serve. Few of the moldings of Greek architecture are to be traced to anterior styles. There is nothing like them in Egyptian work and little or nothing in Assyrian and though a suggestion of some of them may no doubt be found in Persian examples, we must take them as having been substantially originated by Greek genius, which felt that they were wanted, designed them, and brought them far toward absolute perfection. They were of the most refined form and when enriched were carved with consummate skill. They were executed, it must be remembered, in white marble a material
;
and capable of responding to the by corresponding changes in shade or light in a manner and to a degree which no other material can equal. In the Doric, moldings were few and almost always convex they became much more numerous in the later styles and then included many of concave profile. The chief are the oi'olo, which formed the curved part of the Doric capital and the crowning molding of the Doric cornice the cyma ; the birds bc<(k, employed in the capitals of the antce the fillets under the Doric capital the hollows and torus moldings of the Ionic and Corinthian bases. The profiles of these moldings were very rarely segments of
having the
finest surface
most
delicate variations in contour
circles,
but lines of varying curvature, capable of producing the most delicate changes of light and shade and contours of the most subtle grace. Many of them correspond to conic sections, but it seems probable that the outlines were drawn by hand and not oMained by any mechanical or mathematical
method.
The moldings were some of them enriched, to use the technical word, by having such ornaments cut into them or carved on them as, though simple in form, lent themselves
50
well to repetition. Where more room for ornament existed, and especially in the capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, ornaments were freely and most gracefully carved and Though these were very varivery symmetrically arranged. ous, yet most of them can be classed under three heads.
(1.)
FRETS
(Figs.
73 to 77).
These were patterns made up
and made to seem intrithough originally simple. Frequently these patterns are called Doric frets from their having been most used in buildings of the Doric order. (2.) HONEYSUCKLE (Figs. 51 and 68 to 71). This ornament, admirably conventionalized, had been used freely by the Assyrians, and the Greeks only adopted what they found ready to their hand when they began to use it but they refined it at the same time losing no whit of its vigor or effectiveness, and the honeysuckle has come to be known as a typical Greek decorative motif. (3.) ACANTHUS This is a broad-leaved plant, the foliage and (Figs. 41, 42). stems of which, treated in a conventional manner, though with but little departure from nature, were found admirably adapted for floral decorative work and accordingly were made use of in the foliage of the Corinthian capital and in such
of squares or L-shaped lines interlaced
cate,
;
Fir.. 41.
THE ACAXTHUS LEAF AND STALK.
ornaments
as, for example, the great finiifl which forms the summit of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates (Fig- 3o). The beauty of the carving was, however, eclipsed by that
as,
highest of all ornaments sculpture. In the Doric temples, for example, in the Parthenon, the architect contented
ANALYSIS OK (JKEKK ARCHITECTURE.
51
himself with providing suitable spaces for the sculptor to and thus the great pediments, the metopes (Fig. 43), or square panels, and the frieze of the Parthenon were occupied by sculpture, in which there was no necessity for more conventionalism than the amount of artificial arrangement needed in order fitly to occupy spaces that were respectively triangular, square, or continuous. In the later and more voluptuous style of the Ionic temples we find sculpture made
occupy
into an architectural feature, as in the famous statues, known as the caryatids (page
which support the smallErechtheum, and in the enriched columns of the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. Sculpture had already been so employed in Egypt and was often so used in later
35),
est portico of the
times but the best opportunity for the display of the finest qualities of the sculp;
tor's art is such a one as the pediments, etc., of the great Doric temples afforded.
There
is
little
room
FHJ.
42.
THE ACANTHUS LEAF
for
doubting that all the Greek temples were richly decorated in these, colors, but traces and indications are all that remain however, are sufficient to prove that a very large amount of
;
color
77)
was employed and that probably ornaments (Figs. 62 to were painted upon many of those surfaces which were left plain by the mason, especially on the cornices, and that mosaics (Fig. 44) and colored marbles and even gilding were freely used. There is also ground for believing that as the use of carved enrichments increased with the increasing adoption of the Ionic and Corinthian styles, less use was made of painted
decorations.
Architccturul
'/ict
r<-f<
r.
this
Observations which have been made during the course of and the previous chapters will have gone far to point out
52
the characteristics of Greek art. An archaic and almost forbidding severity, with heavy proportions and more strength than grace, marks the earliest Greek buildings of which we
have any fragments remaining. Dignity, sobriety, refinement, and beauty are the qualities of the works of the best period. The latest buildings were more rich, more ornate, and more slender in their proportions, and to a certain extent less severe. Most carefully studied proportions prevailed and were
FIG.
43.
METOPE FROM THE PARTHENON. CONFLICT BETWEEN A CENTAUK AND ONE OF THE LAPITHJE.
wrought out
is
to a pitch of completeness and refinement which truly astounding. Symmetry was the all but invariable law of composition. Yet in certain respects as, for example, the spacing and position of the columns a degree of freedom was
enjoyed which Roman architecture did not possess. Repetition ruled to the almost entire suppression of variety. Disclosure of the arrangement and construction of the building was almost complete and hardly a trace of concealment can be detected. Simplicity reigns in the earliest examples, the
ANALYSIS OK GUKKK ARCHITECTURE.

elaboration of even the
graceful,
53
most ornamental is very chaste and and the whole effect of Greek architecture is one of harmony, unity, and refined power. A general principle seldom pointed out which governs the
application of enrichments to moldings in Greek architecture may be cited as a good instance of the subtle yet admirable concord which existed between the different features it is as
;
FIG.
44.
MOSAIC FROM THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS, OL.YMPIA.
of each enrichment in relief was ordinarily described by the name line as the profile of the molding to ichieh it was applied. The egg enrichment (Fig. 47) on the ovolo, the water-leaf on the c>/ma rererxa (Figs. 48, 54), the honeysuckle on the cyma recta (Fig. f>l), and the aiiittoche (Fig. 57) on the turm, are examples of the application of this rule one which obviously tends to produce harmony.
:
follows
T7tc outline
54
(JREEK ARCHITECTUHK
AND SCULPTURE.
P"IG.
4").
SECTION OF THE POKTICO OF THE ERECHTHET'M.
FIG.
46.
PLAN OF THE PORTICO LOOK NO

i
rr.
IN THK
EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT NORTHERN PORTICO OF THE KKECHTHEITM SHOWING THE ORNAMENTATION OF THE CEIT.INO.
ANALYSIS OF OKKKK ARCHITECTURE.
FIQ.
47.
EGG AND DART.
Fir,. 48.
LEAF AND DART.
FIG. 49 .--HONEYSUCKLE.
FIG.
50.
CAPITAL OF ANT.*: FROM THE
FlC.
51.
HONEYSUCKLK.
KXA.MPLES OF (iKFFK
ORNAMENT
IN KEI.IEF.
FIG.
52.
ACANTHUS.
FIG.
53.
ACANTHUS.
FIG.
54.
LEAF AND TONGUK.
FIG.
55.
LEAF AND TONGUE.
FIG.
50.
OAKLAND.
FIG.
57.
GTJTLLOCHE.
FIG.
60.
TORUS MOLDING.
FIG.
01.
TORUS MOLDING.
IN RELIEF.
EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT
ANALYSIS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE.
57
FIG*. 62,
HONEYSUCKLE.
FIG.
61.
HONEYSUCKLE.
FIG.
65.
FIGS.
(O,
flo.
FACIAS WITH BANDS OF FOI,IAGK.
FIG.
06.
LEAF AND DART.
FIG.
67.
EGG AND DART.
EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN COLOR.
58
GHEEK AKCHITECTUKE AXD SCULPTURE.
FIG.
FIG.
69.
***ii>"
^*'^ *Sl
Q51
FIG.
F'IGS. 68
72.
GUIL-
LOCHE.
TO
70.
EXAMPLP:S OF THE HONEYSUCKLE.
FIG.
71.
COMBINATION ov THE FKKT, THE EGG AND DAKT, THE BEAD AND FII.I-KT, AND THE HONEYSUCKLE.
FIG.
75.
FIG.
PÎGS.
76.
7:>
FIG.
77.
TO
77.-
EXAMPLES OF THE FRET.

IN COLOR.
EXAMPLE* OF GREEK OKN'AMENT
BAS-RELIEF IN
MARBLE FROM THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO AT PHIGALIA. CONTEST OF CENTAURS AND

In the British Museum.
CHAPTER
IV.
SCULPTURE IN GENERAL.
THE
word "sculpture," derived from the Latin sculpo, I carve, is applicable to all work cut out in a solid material in imitation of natural objects. Thus carvings in wood,
and those works formed in a softer such as wax and clay, all come
ivory, stone, marble, metal,
material, not requiring carving,
under the general denomination of sculpture. But sculpture, as we are about to consider it, is to be distin" guished by the term statuary," from all carved work belongto ornamental ing art, and from those beautiful incised gems and cameos which form the class of glyptics, a word derived from the Greek glypho, I carve. It must be borne in mind, however, that the sculptor docs not generally carve his work directly out of the marble; he first makes his statue or basrelief in clay or sometimes in wax. It is scarcely necessary to say that the most primitive sculptor naturally took clay for his " work, as the potter did for his wheel." This method enabled him to "sketch in the clay" and to perfect his work in this obedient material. Michelangelo and such great masters could dispense with this and when they chose could carve at once
60
the statue from the block. The ancient Egyptian sculptors, and after them the Assyrians, carved their gigantic figures from the living rock. The rock-cut temples of India show
similar work.
Carving is, however, of secondary consideration with the exception of the special work of great masters just referred to and it is the modeling in the clay which is the primary work. Sculpture is therefore properly styled "plastic art," from plasso, I fashion or mold. The " model," as it is termed " molded " technically, is afterwards to be by the exact application of liquid plaster of Paris in a proper manner. By means of the mold thus formed, a cast of the original clay statue or bas-relief is taken by a similar use of the liquid This liquid plaster has the property of solidifying, or plaster. " setting," as it is technically called, by a kind of crystallizaThe tion, and it thus takes any form to which it is applied. clay model, therefore, is like the original drawing of a painter, a master work. It is something more it is the result of a previous step, for the sculptor has probably made a drawing before taking the clay in hand. The sculptor, therefore, is less a carver than a designer, draughtsman, and modeler. This being so, he invented a method of mechanical measurement by which most of the carving could be done by skilled labor. That this was an ancient practice is shown by an example in the Museum of St. John Lateran at Rome of an unfinished " on statue of a which has been left with the
; ;
captive, "points the surface so placed by the master as a guide for the workman. In the process of "pointing," the model and the block of marble are each fixed on a base called a scale-stone, to which a standard vertical rod can be attached at corresponding centers, having at its upper end a sliding needle so adapted by a movable joint as to be set at any angle and fastened by a screw when so set. The master sculptor having marked the governing points with a pencil on the model, the instrument is applied to these and the measure taken. The standard being then transferred to the block-base, the "pointer," guided by this measure, cuts away the marble, taking care to leave it rather larger than the model, so that the general proportions are kept, and the more important work is then left for the
master hand.
01
Hard
statues
Stones.
Greek and
Roman
sculptors
made many
There are fine examples in the Vatican collection, but, as might be expected from the nature of the material, none that equal in beauty of form and expression the works in marble and bronze. The Vatican also contains the most remarkable collection of sculpture of this kind in existence, in the groups of animals, all in the most spirited actions of sport or combat, placed in what is The extremely difficult called "the Hall of the Animals." nature of such work may be understood when it is seen that the ordinary method of the chisel and mallet in the most skillful hands would be quite unavailing in this hard material and upon so small a scale. The treadle-wheel, the drill, and ihff file are brought to aid the chisel, and even these require the use of emery upon the wheel of the lapidary, in the
bas-reliefs in
and
hard stones.
method by which the hardest gems are cut. Terra Cotta. Clay, modeled and dried in the sun or hardened by the fire, was naturally one of the early forms in which sculpture was developed. At once ready to hand and easily modeled, it was adopted for the same reasons that made clay convenient for the ordinary vessels of everyday use. So we find countless numbers of ancient figures of deities, animals,
grotesque monsters, in baked or simply sun-dried clay, all more or less barbaric and archaic in style, whether found in Mexico or Cyprus, in Egypt or Assyria, in Etruria or the Troad. These have escaped destruction chiefly on account of their not being of any value, as bronze and marble were,
and partly from their great durability in resisting decay. Terra cotta was obviously chosen by the sculptors of Greece and Rome, as it is by modern artists, with the view of preserving the exact spirit and freedom of the original, whether as a sketch or as a finished work. Although some shrinking under the action of the fire has to be allowed for, and occasionally an accidental deformity may occur from this cause, yet what is
well-baked is certain to possess the excellence of the \vork in the fresh clay, as it escapes the chances of overfinish and the loss of truth and animation, which too often befall bron/.e and marble. As it left the hand of the master the fire fixed it, converting the soft clay into a material as hard as marble and
more capable
of resisting
damp and
heat.
62
Ivory. Another ancient form of sculpture to be noticed, though no examples of it remain, is very important as it is known to have been that employed by the greatest master of the art Phidias, for his grand colossal statues of Zeus and
Athene in the temples of those gods. This is called Chryselephantine, on account of the combined use of gold (chrysos} and ivory (elephas), the nude parts of the figure being of ivory, with color applied to the flesh and features, and the drapery of gold. The statue was substantially but roughly made in
marble with wood perhaps upon
it
;
the ivory being laid on in
FIGS.
78, 79, 80.
SHOWING THE SUPPOSED METHOD OF WORKING IVORY

IX PIECES LAID ON.
Much interesting research has 78, 79, 80). been given to this form of sculpture, by De Quincy especially, but it is not necessary to enter into details which are so largely
thick pieces (Figs.
conjectural.
Wood. Statues of wood of various kinds were made by the most ancient sculptors of Egypt, Assyria, and Greece. The Greeks called their wood statues zoana, from zeo, I polish or carve. The statue of a god was called agalma kion, (an image column) a column is taken to mean also a statue (Plutarch). Castor and Pollux were represented by the Lacedaemonians simply as two pieces of wood joined by a ring,
hence the sign
figures of
twins in the Zodiac. The small called by the Greeks Dccdalidcs as supposed to be made by Dtedalus (a name derived from daidallo, I work skillfully) and his school of artificers, were carved in wood.
for the
men and animals,
Bronze.
63
This was one of the most important forms of anUnfortunately we have to rely almost entirely upon ancient writers for any descriptions of the great works of the Greek sculptors in bronze and upon those copies of them in marble which tradition tells us are such. The original bronze works have long since perished, some by fire and others by the hand of the spoiler. The ancient bronze workers sought to obtain effects of color. Pliny states that Aristonidas made a statue of "Athamas" that showed the blush of shame in the face, by the rusting of the iron mixed with the bronze. Plutarch mentions a "Jocasta dying," the face of which was pale, the sculptor Silanion having mixed silver with the bronze. A representation of the "Battle of Alexander and Porus" was like a picture, from the different colors of the metal employed. Possibly these effects were obtained by inlaying with metals of different colors. The primitive bronze workers began by hammering solid metal into shapes, before they arrived at the knowledge of casting. The "toreutic" art, although not definitely known
cient statuary.
at present, was probably that of hammering, punching, and chiseling plates of metal, either separately or with a view to fixing them upon stone or wood. Much ancient work was of this kind, as the famous shield of Achilles, described by Homer the chest of Cypselus, made about 700 B. ('. and the ornamental work of the temple of Jerusalem. The Greek
;
;
word for hammer, sphyra, gave the name of sfthyrclaton to work of this kind. The casting of metal in molds of a very simple kind for small ornaments like rings, the pendants of necklaces, buttons, and bosses, must have followed upon the discovery that metals
could be melted in the fire. There are many allusions to this in the Bible (Job xxviii. 1, 2), and to the refiner and purifier of " gold seven times purified." As the sculptor improved in his art of modeling he would be able to make better molds. He would soon observe that his solid statue was not only a costly work but a very heavy one. He would find that solid arms broke off at the trunk from mere weight or t but his whole figure hud collapsed from the same simple cause. Thus he would be led to seek some means
64
of overcoming these defects in his cast statues, which, though an improvement upon his hammered ones in their correctness of form, were not so durable. This was accomplished by the discovery of a contrivance for casting metal in a hollow form. It was done very much as it is at the present day.
The Various Forms Adopted in Sculpture. Having described the various materials and methods employed in sculptural art, we are in a condition to classify the different forms adopted, and arrange them under the proper
terms.
All sculpture height, width,
is
measurable
and
it
has three dimensions
Sculpture in "the round," I. e. statuary proper, has also circumference, or girth, that may be measured.
Sculpture in Relief. is the term used when the projects from the general plain surface, or ground, the
or
basso-relievo,
and depth.
Bas-relief,
work
FIG.
81.
AI/TO-REI.TKVO.
ONE OF THE METOPES OF THE PARTHENON.
SCULPTURE IX GENERAL.
forms being rounded as in nature. If the work is very raised, the forms being not so projecting as in nature,
called flat-relief or stiacciato.
Go
little
it
is
If more raised, but not free from the ground in any part, it is described as half-relief, or mezzo-relievo, as in the Parthenon and other friezes.
If the relief
relievo, in
is still
higher
;
it
becomes
fall-relief, or
alto-
which parts of the
the ground of the slab

(Fig. 81).
figures are entirely free from as in the metopes of the Parthenon
Sunk-relief,
or
cavo-rclievo
in
which the work
is
re-
raised in flat relief not projecting above the surface of the slab as seen in the ancient
still
cessed within
an outline but
Egyptian carvings.
The beauty and character
of bas-relief depend
much upon
the representation of outline. The projection is small in proportion to the distinctness and continuity of line enforced by this method, so conspicuously seen, in its most masterly style, in the frieze of the Parthenon.
Statuary.
Statuary proper, which is so called from the Latin stare, statue is therefore seen to stand, is sculpture in the round. on every side. Statues are 1. Standing. 2. Seated. 3. Recumbent. 4. Equestrian. They are classed into five forms as
to size
1.
Colossal
Heroic
3.
above the heroic standard. above six feet, but under the
colossal.
4.
life, and smaller. The ancient sculptors represented with great beauty the various mythological creatures described in their fables some of which are of the human form varied as the Amazon, the
5.
Life Size, Small Life Size. Statuettes half the size of
Faun, the Syren, the Nereid,
the Cyclops, the Janus, or
bifrons (double-faced), and the Hermaphrodite, uniting the characteristics of Hermes and Aphrodite. In other instances
they invented the combinations of the human with the brute form of fabulous creatures described in ancient mythology. lion with head of man or woman These are (a) Sphin.r
:
66

;
man with (c) Minotaur (6) man with eagle or hawk head head or body of the bull (d) Centaur man with part of trunk and limbs of the horse (e) Satyi man with hind quarters of a goat; (/) Triton man with fish-tail; (g) The Giants men with serpents for legs (h) Harpy woman and bird. Other strange creatures were of brutes only, as the Hippocamp horse and fish, with fins at the hoofs the Chimcera, Griffin, Dragon, Dog Cerberus, with many heads, etc.
;
;
Different Marbles Used by Greek Sculptors.
Many
varieties of fine marbles

;
Asia Minor
were plentiful in Greece and they take names from the mountains where they
were quarried.
Soft Marbles sedimentary rocks of limestone. Pentelic marble, from Mount Pentelicus in the neighborhood of Athens, is found white, with a fine fracture, brilliant and
sparkling, obtaining with exposure, after having received the surface polish from the hand of the sculptor, a beautiful warm tone comparable to ivory. This effect is seen in the Parthenon and other temples in Athena built of this marble, which have
an extraordinary richness in their golden tint, especially under bright sunlight and seen against a blue sky. The yellow color is said to be caused by oxidation of some salt of iron contained in the marble. The statues in Athens and many others now in various museums are also of the same marble. Parian is the marble from the island of Paros. The marble
usually called Parian has a coarse, sparkling grain, which, however, takes a high finish but there is reason to suppose that the true Parian marble was of extremely fine grain, easy to work, and of a creamy white. Phigalian a gray marble, seen in the bas-reliefs from
;
Phigalia.
ment
Êginetan a grayish marble, seen in the statues of the pediof the Temple of Athene, now in the museum of Munich. Black marble found at Cape Tenaros. Verde antico found at Taygetos.
FIG.
10 feet
82.
THE GATE OF LIONS AT MYCENJE.

;
high and 15 feet wide
of greenish limestone.
CHAPTER
V.
ARCHAIC GREEK SCULPTURE.
THE Egyptian
origin of the ascribed by her
arts
of Greece
1ms been generally
own
early
influences.
and traditions to The evidence derived from the

records
style of art followed at this early period tends to confirm tradition. The earliest coins of Greek work with the head of
Athene show a striking resemblance to the heads of Isis. There are many examples of vases, painted with figures representing in the most primitive forms the oldest mytholog-
68
ical
heroes and deities, which closely resemble the Egyptian and paintings they are in profile with the eye full and the feet turned both in the same direction or, when the figure is full-face as in some bas-reliefs, the feet are in the In impossible position of profile and both on the same plane. painting, the absence of all attempt to represent shadow, either in the forms or in the cast shadow, and the use of a strong black outline, sometimes incised and having the color filled in as a flat tint, are other points of affinity between the early Greek work and the Egyptian. But it is important to bear in mind, in a historical consideration of the question, that it was in Ionia that the arts were
cavi relievi
;
promoted long before Athens had begun to show any advance and all the names, handed down by the traditions taken up by Diodorus Siculus, Pausanias, Pliny, and the late Greek writers, are those of sculptors working in the islands near the Asiatic shore and in the towns upon the mainland. Thus in the
FIG.
83. EARLY COIN OF ATHENS, HEAD OF ATHENE; THE EVE
FIG.
FULL, AS IN EGYPTIAN RELIEFS.

objects found
81. COIN OK ATHENS AFTER THE TIME OF PHIDIAS. WITH THE HELMET INTRODUCED BY PHIDIAS.
by Cesnola in Cyprus, consisting of statues and sculptures, incised gems, and metal work of the hammered-out or repousse kind, the resemblance to the art of
other
Assyria
is
remarkable.
besides the workmanship there is more decisive evidence in the choice and treatment of the subjects these tend to con-
But
firm the same view.
The bas-reliefs upon the Harpy tomb (Fig. 80), as it is called, which was discovered in 1838 by Sir C. Fellows, were at first supposed by Gibson the great sculptor and student of classic
GO
FIG.
85.
BAS-RELIEF ON THE
In
HAKPY TOMB. THE FIGUKES AND WITH THE PRIMITIVE DRAPERIES.

the British
IN PROFILE,
Museum.
sculpture, to have for their subject the Harpies flying away with the daughters of King Pandarus, as related by Homer ("Odys." lib. xx.). Pandarus was king of Lycia. But archaeologists are not agreed upon the point more recent opinions
;
conjecture that the subject is simply funereal, and the Harpies emblematic of untimely death are bearing off the souls of mortals. The Harpy figures are more especially Assyrian in the character of the work. The date of these Lycian sculptures is not later than 500 B. C. In the other reliefs which are now on the walls of the New Lycian room, in the British Museum, there are sieges, chariots, processions, and many
the Nineveh round resemble the Assyrian lions in style. All this is told in the same graphic manner as on the Nineveh slabs, and it is most interesting to compare these two series of sculptures in the British Museum. It will be observed that most of the figures are in the profile and that the eyes are nevertheless shown in full same peculiar smile prevails in all, which is a distinguishing feature in Etruscan works and in the JEirinetan and otlier
figures in the energetic action so remarkable sculptures. The two lions sculptured in the
in,
;
70
sculptures we shall have to notice. This is also seen in the coins of the time and is a feature which has, of course, some similarity to the Egyptian, but not less to the Assyrian style. The long, straight folds and zigzag edges of the draperies are
also archaic forms
which belong to these Lycian. sculptures, as well as the sculptures found at Selinus in Sicily and to a draped figure found on the Acropolis at Athens in the ruins of temples and buildings which were erected there before the Parthenon. These were destroyed by the Persians in the early battles of the Athenians against their old enemy. Their date
;
FIG.
86.
BAS-KELIEFS ON THE HARPY TOMB. In the Jiritish Museum.
is
190 B. C., when Pisistratus was Athens and later. The archaic "Artemis" of the Naples Museum in marble (Fig. 87) shows the zigzag form of drapery, which is also seen on a similar figure in the Dresden collection. It has been said these archaic statues are Egyptian in style, yet it is difficult to see this character in them beyond the general rigidity and the calm smiling look of the features. But in this respect they are equally like the Assyrian, and for the simple reason that to
considered to be about 560
ruler at
give
exercise of art
any expression to the countenance requires a higher and this these sculptors wêre not sufficiently skilled to do. The Egyptians could perhaps have done it, but
FIG.
87.
ARTEMIS, FOUND AT POMPEII.
Nlimving the archaic style of draper}/ folds.
In the Naples Museum.
72
it

was not
in keeping with their intention
and the genius of The Assyrians were very rough expressionists, rather vulgar and puerile in their imitative sculpture, but, as we have observed, inventive, and with more feeling for design
their art.
than the Egyptians in their ornament. Seeking for other signs of Egyptian teaching in early Greek sculpture, it is remarkable that not a single example can be pointed out of cavo-relievo (page 65), such as the Egyptians adopted so univer-
Though effective, durable beyond all other forms, and capable of carrying color, yet it never was employed by Greek carvers or architects early or late ; nor, as has been pointed out, was the cavo-relievo ever employed in the Assyrian reliefs. Turning next to the statues the seated and standing figures carved universally with some supporting part of the work at the back and not in the round the examples of similar statues in Greece are extremely rare. There are as yet only the headless seated Athene in the Museum at Athens, and ten draped, seated statues found in 18.38, by Mr. Newton, at Miletus on the Asiatic shore of the Êgean, all headless but one. It may be observed that among the small objects found in Greece there are none of those miniature figures of deities precisely like the large Egyptian statues which abound in Egypt. To these some importance must have been attached,
sally.
since they are found in every mummy case, often rolled up with the cerecloths, and probably intended as amulets or pro-
tecting charms. From all that we learn of the Egyptians, through such exhaustive researches as those of Sir G. Wilkinson, it would seem that the sculptors and the carvers of hieroglyphics were a
distinct class or caste, descending from father to son, and always under the close control of the priestly rule. It is not likely that they would ever become colonists and travel away from their city. Those who did wander off with Cecrops and Cadmus were not any of them sculptors or we should have found some trace of their work. The Egyptians were a reThey ligious, not a commercial, people, and not colonizers. devoted themselves to a life of ease and luxurious repose they were dreamers over the abstract and only entered into wars to
;
defend themselves and their territory. The PhuMiicians are sometimes spoken of as teachers; but
FIG.
88.
COLOSSAL,
34
INCHES HIGH.
Km. 89.-STONE,
9> 2
FIG.
90.
STONK,
1U
FIG.
91.
STONK,
It
1NTHKS HIGH.
INCHES HIGH.
IN
INCHKS mr;n.
HEADS FOUND BY OFKNOLA
THE TEMPLE OF GOLOOI, CYPRUS'
74
they never developed any art in the direction either of beauty of form or energy of expression. As the earliest and most expert metal workers, they taught their neighbors and carried the materials both along the coast and to the islands of the JEgean. In Cyprus abundant examples have been found in the discoveries of General Cesnola of Phoenician and GrsecoPhreiiician work.
Let us endeavor to trace in other monuments that remain, the influence of Egyptian and Assyrian art, as shown in the work of the Pelasgi and Etrusci. Those which are simply barbaric, as we have already pointed out, have no value for sculptural art in helping us to identify any foreign influence, since they belong to 110 individual style. Neither is much to be learned from sepulchral structures such as the tumuli common to the plains of Troy and the far west of Europe, as well as the far east of India nor from the underground structures known as treasuries. Sculptural art did not take its great spring in advance from any of these, as no statues of any value in art have ever been found in them. At Mycense, once, perhaps in the days of Homer (850 800 ? B. C.), the most important city of Greece, there are sculptural works in the remains of two lions over the entrance gate (Fig. The height of these 82), which are examples of Pelasgic art. The stone is a greenish is about 10 feet and the width 15 feet. limestone. The holes show where the metal pins held the
;
heads, long since decayed. Fragments as they are, they show an Assyrian rather than an Egyptian influence in the strong marking of the muscles and joints, softened though it is by decay, and in the erect attitude, which denotes action such as is not seen in Egyptian art of this kind. Whether it is a column they support or an altar is doubtful but the four
;
round projections above the capital resemble the wood structure of the Lycian tombs. The peculiar tail of the lions, with the knob at the tip, is exactly such as we see in the Assyrian These lions should be compared also with the wounded lions. lion in the British Museum, Nineveh collection (Fig. 94). Of this "gate of the lions," which has long been known as a most ancient work of early Greek sculpture, it must be noticed And that it is not in the round but only in high relief. this is the case with all the earliest works, just as it is
75
with the Assyrian sculptures. They tend to show therefore that the Greek sculptor had not yet learned to model and carve in the round in marble and stone. There are early records of statuary being made in marble. Pliny says the first of all distinguished for marble carving were Dipoenus and Scyllis, who worked together at Sicyon. They were born in. the island of Crete during the existence of the empire of the Medes, before Cyrus began his reign in Persia, about the fiftieth Olympiad (about 580 B. C.). They
gill LJ L
I
FIG.
92.
PERSEUS KILLING ME-
FIG.
93.
HERCULES CARRYING OFF
DUSA. SELINUS METOPE. In the Museum at Palermo.

Cast in the British
Museum.
CKCROPES (robbers). SELINUS METOPE. Cast in the British Museum.

TIIK
are
named by Clemens
of Alexandria
as the sculptors of
statues of Castor
and Pollux at Argos, of Hercules at Tiryns, and Diana at Sicyon. It is also related by Cedrenus that, in the time of the Emperor Theodosius at By/antium, was to be seen a statue of Minerva Lindia of smaragdus' stone (rcrde antico?} four cubits high, the work of Scyllis and Dipoenus, which had formerly been sent by Sesostris, the These references Egyptian tyrant, to Cleobulus of Lindus. are so far interesting and important as showing with failprobability that these statues were sculptures in the round. Numerous examples of archaic sculpture in brou/e and
'
Fia.
95.
WARRIOR OF MARATHON.
1
FIG.
96.
ULYSSES
(?)
MARBLE.
Inscribed
"Work of Aristoclex.' Pound in Attica. In Athens Museum.
Inscribed in Oscan Characters.
In Xaples Museum.
78
marble, some of hammered-out work, are to be seen in all the museums, a large proportion of which are bas-reliefs representing the figiu-e in profile. Good examples are Figs. 95, 96, which show a general resemblance to the Assyrian rather than Egyptian sculptures,
as well as those found at Selinus (Fig. 92). The sharp features with the turned-up
nose and smiling mouth and the short, formal curls at the forehead are characteristic of archaic Greek work and are seen again in the small full-length
crisp,
Apollo represented in Fig. 97 where we also notice the stiff attitude with one leg
slightly advanced.
The important point to bear in mind is the general archaic condition of sculpture prevailing at a time extending from the first Olympiad, 776 B. C., to the middle of the sixth century B. C. examples of which, all more or less resembling each
;
other,
have been found at Mycenae, XanEphesus, the islands of
thus, Miletus,
Cyprus and Rhodes on the Asiatic side of the JEgean at Seh'nus in Sicily, and throughout Magna Grsecia in Italy at
;
;
Palestrina, Perugia, Cervetri, as well as in all Etruria far up on the west coast of
in Greece proper, in. the Peloponnesus at Sparta, Sicyon and Argos, AthTK.NKA. ens, and TEgina then an independent Munich ^fHKfitm. island and always possessing a very vigorous school of sculpture, in bronze especially, though destined to yield the palm when Athens rose to her high state.
FIG.
97.
APOLLO OF
Italy
CHAPTEE
VI.
GREEK SCULPTURE.
Temple Decoration.*
Êgina a temple of Athene was begun about B. C. 480 therefore about twenty-six years before the Parthenon was begun at Athens and about the same time as the victories of the Greeks over the Persians at Plata?a and Mycale
IN478,
Thermopylae and Salamis. The temple was and coated with stucco in a method resembling that employed in the temple at Selinus in Sicily. Its gable statues and those of the Parthenon are the only examples as yet found of a complete pediment series, as they were designed to fill the architectural space. The Niobe figures in the Florence Museum are supposed to have formed a similar composition but this is not yet a settled point, though they have been placed in this form. The JEginetan statues (Fig. 98) are of marble and were purchased by the late King Ludwig of Bavaria and placed in the Glyptothek at Munich after having been very much restored by Thorwaldseii at Rome. The western pediment is that given in our illustration and the subject,
and the
battles of
built of sandstone
formerly thought to be the contest for the body of Patroclus, is now thought to be the fight of Greeks and Trojans around the body of Achilles, who lies at the feet of Athene. These eleven figures are in better preservation than those of the eastern pediment, which was so far destroyed that only five could be put together. Those of the east pediment are rather larger. They represent either Hercules and his companions fighting over the body of Laomedoii or an incident of the expedition of Hercules and Tt'lamon against Troy. Athene is represented
*For a description of temple architecture
see pages 9
>3.
80
closely after the hieratic type, considerably larger than the other figures, with her feet turned sideways, but her face to the front, while the mortal combatants are placed in various attitudes of strong action, but with most of the heads in proThese statues are all carved in file. the round and are consequently most interesting as showing the great step in advance that had been made in technic capabilities. The study of the figure will be noticed as singularly accurate, even to the veins and tendons and the anatomy of the
joints.
This vigorous naturalism
is
carried out also in the spirited attitudes and in the fallen and falling
in
combatants. The remarkable style which the athletic points of the figures are displayed by the sculptor, has been attributed to the knowledge of the figure which he gained when he witnessed the Olympic games, the victors in which were honored
by having statues made of them,

state, to
often at the expense of their city or be placed in the groves of the temples. Still greater realism
ons
was obtained by making the weapspears and bows (shown, as replaced by modern ones in the cut)
as well as other parts of the details, of bronze. On some of the figures of the eastern pediment the hair of
the beards
was
'
.finished witli curls
of metal wire attached, while the
eyes were painted,
and the bloody

colored.
wounds were
also
This
may have been an. improvement of a
TEMPLE IJECOKATION.
81
later taste, but, whenever applied, portions of the color are still to be seen. The figures of sturdy, robust, and gladiatorial
forms are short in the proportions and are under the size of The heads are particularly significant of the art of the time, carved with artistic skill, but all of one type, and having no other expression than the same complacent smile. Whether attacking to the death or whether in. the last agony, there is the same smile. This was so probably because the sculptor did not allow himself to depart from the received type of the heroic countenance. It was not that he was incapable, or how could he have modeled the body so exactly with an accuracy that
life.
FIG.
99.
METOPE FROM THE TEMPLE OF THESEUS.

;
29
INCHES HIGH.
perhaps even approaches to dryness? Still, it was not the portrayal of beauty that was the aim, but a forcible representation of a scene of historic interest with all the accentuation and emphasis that exact imitation could give without the As to the sculptor of these expression of the countenance. remarkable statues, two names are recorded as celebrated by but whether both were Quintilian Gallon and Hegesias engaged upon them, as if one did the eastern and the other the western pediment, is not related. Tli'- Athenian Style. At Athens we have already seen what the style of sculpture during the time of Pisistratus and his successors was in the
;
82
stiffness and archaic forms of the draperies (560 490 B. C.) and we have noted the absence of any sculpture in the round in marble, at least so far as discovery has hitherto gone. But art and especially architecture had advanced. When the bones of Theseus were found in Scyros, one of the islands of the Êgean, by Cimon in 469 B. C., the oracle directed that Athens should be their guardian and a temple called the Theseum was built to do honor to the remains of the great hero and king of Athens. The pediment of this temple, which is of Pentelic marble, contained statues but they have been destroyed. Some of the metopes and the sculptured friezes in
; ;
FIG.
100.
METOPE THESEUS OVERCOMING THE WRESTLER CERCYON.

;
still in their ancient Figures 99 to 102 show some of them. The subjects of the frieze are, at the east end, the battle of the gods and the giants, and, at the west, Theseus fighting with the Centaurs. Theseus, it will be remembered, killed the Minotaur, conquered the Amazons, and subdued the Centaurs at Thebes. Referring to the illustrations it will be observed what an extraordinary advance there is in these figures from the style of the Êginetan statues the forms are wellproportioned, the head not too large, and the muscles displayed in the swelling, lifelike movement of muscles in action. The one figure in which the sculptor evidently in-
high
relief at
the east and west ends are
position.
TEMPLE DECORATION.
83
tended to show his knowledge of the anatomy of the back, perhaps the most difficult of any, is most remarkable (Fig. 102). There is nothing finer than this throughout the Parthenon frieze. Indeed, it will be admitted on comparing these Theseum sculptures with those of the Parthenon, that the former are of such excellence as to have been well worthy of being examples to the sculptors who, a few years afterwards, were engaged under Phidias.
FIGS.
101, 102.
BATTLE.
TEMPLE OF THESEUS FRIEZE. I. THE GODS WATCHING THE II. THE BATTLE OF THE GODS AND GIANTS.
It is important to understand that these sculptures of the
Theseum must have been studied by Phidias and his contemporaries and that they must have raised the art to a very high standard, such as would inspire the loftiest ambition in those who were afterwards intrusted with the works of the
Parthenon.
It is
not
known whether
Ageladas, the master of
84

;
Phidias, was the sculptor who designed these fine works but, he were, we might imagine that some of these figures are to be ascribed to his pupil, destined to become the master famous forever as the greatest in classic sculpture. Other able sculptors of the time were Onatas of Êgina and Calamis, whose
if
is associated with bronze work and who is distinguished as the sculptor of the Apollo Alexicacus. It is known that Phidias finished his great statue in ivory and gold in the Parthenon in the third year of the 85th Olympiad, 438 B. C., when he must have been about 58 or 60 years old, if born as presumed between the 70th and 72d
name
Olympiads therefore it is quite possible that he might have been engaged upon the sculptures of the Theseum as a young man. That he must have acquired the reputation of being the first sculptor in Athens at the time the Parthenon was determined upon by Pericles, is only what is to be concluded otherwise, such an important M ork would not have been placed in his hands.
; ;
The Grand Style of Phidias.
We have arrived now at a period in. ancient art when at Athens, the center of the civilization of the world, the Parthenon, the most beautiful example of architecture, adorned with the grandest works of sculpture, was created. Phidias was intrusted by Pericles with the general design and direc138 B. C.), while two tion of this great national work (4-54 architects, Ictinus and Callicrates, are also recorded as the practical builders and probably the designers, with Phidias, of the temple. The whole world of art, ancient and modern, has always with one voice extolled the architecture and the sculpture. It has been pronounced "of all the great temples the best and most celebrated the only octostyle (eight columns wide) Doric temple in Greece, and in its own class undoubtedly the most beautiful building in the world." The architecture of the Parthenon has already been described (pages
;
16-27).
The subject of the Parthenon sculptures has received an immense amount of learned investigation, particularly by the German archzeologists, and especially by Michaelis, who may be said to have almost exhausted the materials. It would
TEMPLE DECORATION.
85
be impossible, within any practical limits, to place before the reader the arguments as to the identification of the various We shall therefore content ourselves with a brief figures. statement of the conclusions that have been reached. The Frieze (page 51). The frieze sculptures represent the famous procession in honor of Athene the patroness of the "On the birthday of the goddess the procession which city. conveyed the j^los (a robe in this case embroidered with mythological figures) to her temple, assembled in the outer Kerameikos (quarter of the modelers) and passed through
FHJ.
103.
FROM THE FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, 47^ INCHES HIGH.
the lower city round the Acropolis, which it ascended through the Propylsea (page 17). During its passage through the Kerameikos the 2^cplos was displayed on the mast of the ship which was propelled on rollers. On the eastern frieze the delivery of the peplos is represented in the presence of certain
Toward this central point converge two which, starting from the west side of the temple, proceed along its northern and southern sides toward the center of the eastern front." Beginning with the western frieze, the start of the horsemen under the direction of one of
deities (Fig. 106). lines of procession,
the marshals, and the figures of
men
in various attitudes
86
of
mounting and riding, display the wonderful power of the ancient Greek sculptor in representing the horse and his rider (Fig. 103) Nothing can be finer in composition than many of these groups of complex forms or more striking than the effect given with such very low relief. Along the northern frieze the horsemen are continued in crowded though admirably composed throngs. Amazing inventive faculty is shown in the variety of attitude and unflagging spirit and lifelike energy characterizing the figures. As Mr. Newton remarks " In the 125 mounted figures in this cavalcade we do not find one single monotonous repetition. rhythmical effect is produced by the contrast of the impetuous horses and their calm steadfast riders." Several figures carrying vases, others with trays holding offerings of cakes, and others leading the cows to be sacrificed are remarkable for freedom
.
FIG.
104.
PART OF THE SOUTHERN FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON.
and naturalness (Fig. 104). These last were the offerings contributed by the colonies to the great festival. On the eastern frieze we see the two great lines of the procession meeting over the entrance, where a group of magistrates receive the advancing procession on either side. Here are two groups of twelve seated male and female figures in pairs, six on one side and six on the other. Between these are five
TKMPLE DECOKATIOX.
standing figures (Fig.
peplos.
106),
87
representing the offering of the
The
beautiful
maidens of Athens, draped and carry-
ing jugs, are noble figures in graceful and stately attitudes. The central portion of the eastern frieze has been the subject
of
much
discus-
sion, but, the faces as well as the attri-
butes and
other
indicatiousby 3
which they could ? be identified, hav- 8
ing suffered
much ^
2
injury, it is very difficult to judge
the true interpretation.
The
southern
frieze is occupied
with the chariots and the sacrificial cows and sheep,

the offerings of the colonies, with
numerous
of
figures
drovers a 11 d others in every beautiful variety

of attitude
104).
Each
is
(Fig. chari-
oteer
accompa-
nied by an armed warrior either in the chariot or at its side, not as in
the northern
frieze
stepping in-
to
it.
The
horse-
men on
side
this south
are in moiv regular order and
88
not in a tumultuous throng as on the opposite side and therehas been supposed they are the trained cavalry of Athens. This part of the frieze is much injured.
fore it
The Metopes
(page 51). These are the blocks
sculptured
with
the
groups partly in high relief and

partly
in
round, which occupy the spaces known asmetopce. They were on the outside of the temabove the ple,
architrave and were continued all

round, 92 in
:
numeach
ber, viz. 14 at
end beneath the pediments and 32 at each side. Of

these
scarcely
thirty are well preserved, fifteen i n the British
Museum, one
the
in
i
Louvre
Paris, the rest in
their original positions in the Parthenon.
The metopes on
the
south
side
have for
the Centaurs
their sub-
ject the contest of
and Lapithre at the marriage feast of Pirithous. The twenty-eighth metope in the original series is pointed out " for dramatic power in the conspecially by Mr. Newton
TEMPL.K DECOKATION.
89
ception and truth in the modeling of the forms this metope " is unrivaled (Fig. 107). The metopes of the north side are so much damaged that
their subjects cannot be made out, but it is conjectured by Michaelis that they may have represented a scene from the taking of Troy while Mr. Newton suggests they may have been a continuation of the series of combats of Centaurs
;
and Lapitlue.
FIG.
107.
CONTEST BETWEEN THE CENTAURS AND THE L ONE OK THE METOPES OF THE PARTHENON.
front,
all
Of the metopes on the west
except two remain

;
in position, hut are too much injured to be made out the subject appears to refer to the battles of Greeks with Amazons.
The metopes
temple,
of the east front are all in position on the
though much injured.

to be the battle of the gods
The
and
subject,
however,
is
known
giants.
Tfic Sculptures of tlic, P> dinunts (Fiirs. 10s, 100) represented, as I'uusanias describes, over the eastern end above the entrance to the temple the birth <>f Athene and over the western end
the contest of Athene and Neptune for the
soil of Attica.
The
H M
a
2 S
a
"S
S c S <S 3 ^_
!
_tn
|f
o>
.a
^ S
-3
P,
5
-a
~
g
cJ
S
e
5 g
03 S S H 2
S S ^
I*
s^
8 O
03
1
s
"-H
^ r ^ H-t-> *j
. E-(
r-
4J
II!
^ ^
W
si
<w *s O T-
.2
S x ^ ~ s
If
c^
TEMPLE DECORATION.
Museum. The group which
91
broken statues and fragmentary parts are preserved in the

British
still remains on the pediment at Athens is considered to be that of Cecrops and Aglaurus. The heads are
gone.
The
sculptures
identification of each of the figures of the pediment must still be a matter of discussion and as we
;
cannot pretend to give a statement of the various opinions
FIG.
110.
THK
TIIESETS, SOMETIMES
CALLED THE
IJJ.EAN
HEKCULKS.
that have been given, we must refer the reader to the writers devoted so much attention to the subject. The drawings by Carrey (Figs. 108 and 109) afford, after all, the
who have
only trustworthy evidence as to the position of the statues. The Eastern Pediment.- TJic Hirth of Athene.
The names given to the broken statues above mentioned are those which were proposed by the archaeologist Visconti in 1816 in the memoir lie read to the Institute of France at the time when the Parthenon marbles were acquired by the British Museum.
92

to the Iris (Fig.
112), all agree with Visconti except proposes that it may be Hebe, and he also suggests that the whole subject was the moment before the birth of Athene. To this it must be an obvious objection that the figure displays the action of rapid movement upward and away from the central group. Hebe as the daughter of Zeus and Hera would not be an appropriate personage at the birth
As
Brunn,
who
of Athene, while Iris as the messenger of the god has a
Firs. 111.
THE THESEUS, OK ID-EAX HERCULES.

fills
most significant part and

of the subject.
up the
fine poetic conception
The Hor^s Head. (Fig. 113). Of the two heads of the horses belonging to the car of Selene, this has fortunately been preserved in much of its original beauty. The other, which remains on the pediment, is described as now a mere shapeless mass though as it was hidden behind this head it may never have been so highly wrought as its fellow. Some interesting points are to be noticed in this grand head. It is inclined
;
TKMPL.K DKCOKATION.
93
downward, as in the descent of the departing Night before the advancing horses of the day at the opposite angle (Fig. 109, extreme left), whose fiery heads are tossed as they spring into the air out of the waves. " In the whole range of ancient art there is perhaps no work in marble in which the sculptor
Fi<;. 112.
IKIS.
Ox THK EASTKKN PEDIMENT OF THE PAUTHKNON.
has shown such complete mastery over his material. The nostrils 'drink the air' as if animated with the breath of life" (Newton}. It was highly praised by Goethe. It is a remarkable example of the genius of Greek art in uniting exact imitation of nature with the higher beauty of an ideal
94
(JKKKK ARCHITECTURE
AND SCULPTURE.
type or in the words of Goethe "seems the revelation of a prototype it combines real truth with the highest poetical conception." This head, as seen in Carrey's drawing, projected in front of the cornice and the marble has been cut away to allow this. There are also some drill-holes behind the ears and on the nose, showing that a metal bridle was originally fitted to it, and the crest of the hogmane has holes which served to fasten some ornament. The Three Fates. (Fig. 114.) Though headless now, two of them are seen in Carrey's drawing with their heads, the one nearest the angle turned toward the horses of Selene, the other toward the central group. The right arms of two were then only partially injured, but are now lost.
;
FIG.
113.
THE HOUSE'S
This
HEA.D.
CAR OF SKLKXK.
The Nike, Victory.
figure,
not in Carrey's drawing,
was found lying on the ground below the pediment, and Visconti naturally concluded it had stood as Victory present at the birth of Athene. Some most interesting discoveries have been made among the fragments brought with the Parthenon marbles by Lord Elgin. In 1860 Mr. Watkiss Lloyd identified the thigh of this Nike and in 1875 the knee was recognized and these have since been added to the statue. Wings of marble w ere attached to the shoulders, where are to be seen the deep sinking for their attachment with holes for metal dowels. The position of the Xikfe in the pediment would depend on these wings; as, if they
r
TEMPLE DECORATION.
were
is
95
it
much
in.
raised, it
must have stood nearer the center than
placed
the Museum.
Prometheus or Jfrphcestux. A mutilated statue in the at Athens, which was found on the east side of the Parthenon in
Museum
1836
and was unto Visconti.
known
"
The action of the shoulders and muscles of
the back sug-
gests the notion of a figure about to

strike
with
lifted
both
above
arms
the
head"
(New-
It is considton). ered to beeither that
of Hephaestus, according to
who
the
ancient
myth
cleaved the head of
Zeus with his ax to
accomplish the
birth
as
t
of Athene,
represented on
he patera
115),
(Fig. showing him
standing with his ax or that of Pro-
metheus, to
ferred
to
whom
Attic tradition preattribute
the
deed. I)e Quin c y proposed

this
that
patera
might be taken as an authority for the

central group of the
pediment and he gives a restoration from

above referred
to.
it
in his great
work
96
GREEK AKCHITECTUKE AND SCULPTURE.

The Western Pediment.
statues of the western pediment as seen in Carrey's drawing (Fig. 108) are sufficiently complete to indicate the subject but they were reduced to mere fragments and
;
The mutilated
saw the Parthenon (A. D. 1751). The general conclusion come to, first by De Quincy and Visconti, is that the composition of this pediment was arranged as if embraced between the two rivers of Athens the Ilissus and Cephissus the figures on the left hand side of Athene being Attic deities or heroes, while those on the
torsos before Stuart
side of Poseidon are
marine
deities, his allies as ruler of
the
ocean.
It remains to be said of these wonderful sculptures of the
Parthenon, that it is impossible that they could all have been by the hand of Phidias or that they could have been done in the time of certainly not more than sixteen years by any one man. very decided opinion is given by M. Rochette " These sculptures which emanated from the mind of Phidias and were most certainly executed under his eye and in his school are not the works of his hand. Phidias hiuiFIG. 115.-BIKTH OF ATHENE, ON self disdained or worked but litA PATERA, OR CUP. , ,, TT His most skillful tie 111 marble.
;
pupils were Alcamencs
and Agoracritus, and
it
was most
probably the latter who executed the sculptures in alto-relievo in the two pediments. And they were artists without name, but certainly not without merit, who produced from the designs of Phidias the bas-reliefs of the frieze." It is in vain to attempt to pronounce as to which of the beautiful fragments of the Parthenon statues is by the hand of Phidias but by the common consent of critics the Theseus, the Ilissus or Cephissus of the nude figures, and the Fates and Ceres and Proserpine of the draped figures, are acknowledged to be the grandest examples of sculpture ever achieved. That Alcameiies, who was taught by Phidias, must have been
;
KlG.
IHi.
IlKKMKS CAKKYIXCJ TUF. INFANT DIONYSUS.
V.
PRAXITELES:
Jiccently discovered at Olympia.
cast in the liritish
Museum.
98
GREEK AKCHITECTUKE AND SCULPTURE.
esteemed a great man, is shown by his having contended with Phidias in a competition for a statue of Athene.
Other Works of Phidias.
have next to notice the other great works of Phidias, which, though utterly destroyed, were fortunately seen by Pausanias; whose descriptions of them remain. There were three great statues of Athene on the Acropolis. 1. The one of ivory and gold in the Parthenon, about 37 feet high not including the pedestal, which was about 10 feet. 2._ A bronze
We
known as the Lemnian because it was made at the cost of the people of Lemnos this Pausauias and Lucian describe as the most beautiful and on this Phidias inscribed his name it is not stated to have been colossal. 3. The bronze colossal statue known as Athene Promachus, which stood between
;
;
the Propylsea and the Parthenon;
it
was between 50 and
60 feet high, and probably gilt, and it was cast from the spoils of Marathon. The crest of the helmet and the point of the
spear could be seen far out at sea. The shield of the goddess was carved by Mys from the designs of Parrhasius the great painter. It was still erect in 395 A. D., and is said to have struck terror into the barbarian soldiers of Alaric. The still more famous colossal statue by Phidias, the Zeus at Olympia in Elis, was his last great work. It was made between B. C. 438, the date of the consecration of the Parthenon statue, and B. C. 432, the year of his death, at Elis. This was a seated statue of ivory and gold, 55 feet high including the throne. Strabo remarks that "if the god had risen he would have carried away the roof," and the height of the interior was about 55 feet the temple being built on the model of the Parthenon at Athens, which was 64 feet to the point of the pediment. Pausanias has given a minute description of this renowned statue, from which we learn what an extraordinary amount of sculptured work was bestowed as accessory to the statue.
;
CHAPTER
The
VII.
GREEK SCULPTURE.
/Successors of Phidias.
some examples of sculpture of the time of Phidias and of the later Athenian style about the middle of the 5th century B. C., which have been discovered at Olympia within the last few years in the researches made under the direction and at the expense of the German government. Olympia, it was known by the history of Pausanias, had its Temple of Zeus, the pediments of which were filled with statues by Alcamenes, who was a
notice
WE
may now
pupil of Phidias, and by Pteonius, and some of these pediment statues have been recovered in a very broken state and put together. The most important discoveries, however, are a heroic statue of Hermes carrying the infant Dionysus by Praxiteles (Fig. 116), and a Victory, the head and arms of winch are lost, the work of Pteonius. The subjects of the sculptures in. the pediments of this temple are described by Pausanias. In the eastern pediment the "Contest between Pelops and CEnomaus" was by Pseonius, whose name has now been discovered carved in the marble and in the western pediment the " liattle between the Centaurs and Lapitlue " was by Alcamenes. The recent recovery of the Hermes and the pediment statues by Alcamenes and Pujonius is of great importance, as enabling us to identify the work of Praxiteles, the sculptor of the famous Venus of Cnidus. The style and works of Praxiteles, however, will come in for consideration further on, while some other sculptures of this period must be noticed here.
;
Temple of Apollo at Phigalid.

Ictinus, the architect of the Parthenon, was employed to build a temple to Apollo Epicuritis near the ancient Phigalia
100
in Arcadia at the time after the plague in 430 B. C. The frieze of this temple is in the British Museum, placed around the walls of the room in which are the casts of the JEgina, pediments, called the Hellenic Room. They decorated the interior and the figures are in high relief, showing very strong
action,
with draperies much contorted and exaggerated in the curves of the folds, as if the sculptor having noticed the fine effect in the Parthenon figures had tried not only to imitate but to surpass them, and thus failed while becoming too artificial, and departing from the true forms sanctioned by Phidias. There is, however, much power and originality
FIG.
117.
FRIEZE OF THE TEMPLE AT PHIGALIA.

In the JUritish Museum,
27% inches high. in
some of these works, as in Fig. 117, of the Amazon being dragged from her horse. The name of the sculptor or sculptors of these is not known. There are twenty-three slabs, eleven representing the battle between the Centaurs and Lapitlue, the rest the contest of the Greeks and Amazons. This frieze was placed about twenty-three feet from the ground, being a little more than two feet in height. There were originally twenty-four slabs extending about a hundred The ruins were discovered feet in length, so that one is lost. in 1812 by the late Mr. Cockerell, A., Mr. Forster, and two Germans, Messrs. Haller von Hallerstein and Liiikh,
to
whom we owe the recovery of
the Êgiua marbles.
THE SUCCESSORS OF PHIDIAS.
101
Temple of Wingless Victory. Portions of a frieze, now in the Elgin Room of the British Museum, from the little temple of Wingless Victory, near the Propylsea of the Acropolis at Athens, built in the time of Cimon, B. C. 450, should be noticed as showing work of the Phidian period. The drapery is larger in style than in the Phigalian reliefs, which these sculptures somewhat resemble. The subjects are Athenian warriors fighting with men, some in Persian, others in Greek dress. Relief slabs in Athens from the balustrades which ran along the edge of the Acropolis about the temple represent five figures of Victory, two of which (partly seen in Fig. 119) are leading a bull to
FIG. US.
sacrifice.
FRIEZE OF THE TEMPLE OF WINGLESS VICTORY.
"These reliefs are all in the finest style " (Neivton'}. The grand treatment of the draperies is especially remarkable
in the beautiful figure with one foot raised as if to tie the sandal (Fig. 120) in which the form is finely shown beneath the drapery.
Tfif
Mausoleum
(it
Jfalicarnassus.
in the year 1857, of the ruins with sculptured figures in the round and friexes belonging to the famous tomb of Mausolus (died 3-~>3 B. C.) which was raised to his memory
The discovery
by his wife Artemisia at Halicarnassus in ('aria (Asia Minor) was an event of very great interest. It brought to light the works of no less than five .sculptors whose names had long
102
been known through Pliny's account of the structure which " gave the name "Mausoleum to all tombs that approached this in importance and magnificence of decoration. The Greeks called a tomb of this kind Jfcroon, and this particular one so
surpassed all others that it was named among the seven wonders of the world. It w as of Parian marr
ble 140 feet high, pyramidal in form of
steps supported
peristyle
on a
lofty
of
Ionic
columns on a
basement. The whole was surmounted by a

sal
colos-
group of a chariot and four horses, with Mausolus standing in another figit, and
ure
supposed to be
either a goddess as charioteer or Arte-
misia herself, who died before the completion of the work. This group was the work of Pythis or
Pythius,
FIG.
who was
architect;
also the
FROM THE BALUSTRADE OF THE TEMPLE OF WINGLESS VICTORY. VICTORY LEADING A BULL.
Hit.
while
liefs
the various
cast in the British
Museum.
and rewhich frayments more or less

statues, lions,
of
broken are preservedwere by Scopas, Leochares, Bryaxis, and Timotheus. The east side was the work of Scopas, the north of Bryaxis, the south of Timotheus, and the west of
103
Leochares, as described by Pliny, who also names Pythis as the sculptor of the chariot and figures on the summit. In style these sculptures resemble the Phigalian
reliefs,
having
similar strong action
and
(see
flying draperies
page
100).
All
sculptors belonged to the later
these
Athenian school; and it "will be observed in their works,

fine as
far
they are, how the art had al-
ready begun to decline.
The head
of
Mausolus, a critic reu marks, is not of the Hellenic type, as he was a Curian," but it
is
remarkable
of
in
characteristic expression and as a portrait.
The date
works
352.
is
these
about B. C.
The sculptors were selected from those
who had
selves.
already distinguished the
Scopas was
a nati ve of Paros, and FKOM THE BAI.USTKADK OF 120. he and Praxiteles ufTKMPLE OF WlNGLESS VICTORY. of Phidter the time ias, were heads of the school of architecture and sculpture at Athens, which arose subsequent to the Peloponnesian War. It is doubtful whether he or Praxiteles was the sculptor of the Niobe statues (Fig. 140) which were in Pliny's time
104
in the temple of Apollo Sosianus in Rome. upon the Niobe is extant in which Praxiteles
" I
A Greek epigram
is
thus
named
am she whom the gods from life had changed into marble.
Praxiteles
by
his art
woke me from
stone into
life."
Bryaxis was of the school of Rhodes, where he five of the smaller bronze co-
made
lossal
statues
the Sun God.

other
of In
Cnidus he made
statues.
Clemens of Alexandria says that
some
attributed
works of Phidias
to him, while Columella includes
him with such

*
masters as Polycletus, Lysippus,
and
Praxiteles.
Timotheus and
Leochares appear
to
have been
Paumentions
Athenians.
sanias
the latter as the sculptor of several statues in bronze and in ivory and
gold.
speaks
1 '
Plutarch
of
of
his
Gany-
" as his masterpiece. Of this a copy in marble is in the Vatican collection a fine group of a figure, nude except a mantle across the neck falling down behind, raised by the eagle through the air, while his dog looks upward from the ground.
Rape
mede

It will
105
have been seen from what has been said of the works which are known to have been executed by the sculptors contemporary with Phidias and by others who followed in the school which arose around him and who formed what is spoken of as " the later Athenian School," that none approached the great examples of the Parthenon. Sculpture then reached the highest point in the grandest style, whether in the treatment of the statue in the round
of sculpture
FIG.
Similar
122.
BAS-RELIEF OF MERCURY, EuRYnrcE, ORPHEUS.

letters.
to the
one at Naples, which bears the inscription in sharply cut
or of bas-relief as in the frieze or of alto-relievo as in the metopes. As to the chryselephantine statues of Phidias, it may be concluded without hesitation that though we are
compelled to rely upon descriptions only, they must have been works of the great master even more beautiful than the marbles. There is every reason to conclude that although color was applied, and the eyes perhaps even made to re-
106
GREEK: ARCHITECTURE
AM> SCULPTURE.
semble life very closely by means of enamel of some kind, yet such was the perfection of form obtained, that these were
minor adornments only adopted
to give the appearance of real
FIG.
123.
BAS-RELIEF OF KLEUSIS. Discovered 1859. In
CERES, TKIFTOLEMUS, PUOSPERINE.

the
Museum
at Athens.
illusion in the minds of the worshipers. be difficult to reconcile the minute execution of detail in the work of Phidias with his grand ideal of the beautiful in simple form. But the descriptions recorded prove that
life
and complete the
It
may

he carried "finish"
107
to its extreme point, as Leonardo and other great artists after him have delighted in doing, as if to bestow the utmost of his art was a point of devotion and
worship. Of the few statues that can be confidently attributed to the contemporaries of Phidias, some are described among the examples (Chapter VIII.) of which the engravings will afford a general idea. The attention of the student should be given to the important statue (Fig. 133), representing an athlete of full life size, winding a fillet around his head, and considered to be a copy from a celebrated statue of Polycletus. Certain bas-reliefs, resembling in style the art of Phidias, are to be found in the museums, such as that in the
Naples collection, of Orpheus, Eurydice,
and Hermes
(Fig. 122), inscribed in letters of the time, two repetitions of
which exist, one in the Louvre, the other in the Villa Albani at Rome the alto-relievo of Perseus and Andromeda in the Capitol at Rome a large relief, in Pentelic marble, of two combatants and a horse, in the Villa Albani. The bas-relief of Eleusis, discovered in 1859 (Fig. 123), may perhaps also be considered to be of about this time. The names of the sculptors of these works are, however, unknown. In the works of the later Athenian school, at the head of which were Scopas and Praxiteles, the sublime ideal of Greek art was 110 longer sustained by any new creations that can be compared with those of the Phidian school no FIG. 124. ICARUS FOKMEKLY CALLED EKOS. rivalry with those great masters seemed Marble. In Brit. Museum. to be attempted. The severe and grand Found in tfte Acropolis, were beyond the comprehension or A(?n-ns. Jn t?i'- style probably uncongenial to the spirit of of Praxiteles.
;
; :
;
108
the age, which inclined toward the poetic, the graceful, the sentimental, and romantic, as we have already observed in speaking of the aesthetic tendencies of that period. The whole range of the beautiful myths found abundant illustration in forms entirely different from the ancient archaic represen-
FIG. I'Jo.TiiE
CYMBAL-PLAYER. A HAS-RELIEF IN THE VILLA ALBAXI.

Style of Scopas.
THE SUCCESSORS OF
PHIDIAS.
109
tations, and in these the fancy of the sculptor was allowed the freest and fullest indulgence. Nymphs, Nereids, Msenads,
FIG.
126.
A M.*;NAD. BAS-RELIEF. IN THE BRITISH Fine example of drapery. Attributed to Scopas.

chisel of the sculptor in every
(Fig. 128).
and Bacchantes occupied the

form of graceful beauty
Macedonian Period.
After this epoch, to which so
many
of the
fine
statues
110
OKEKK ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE.
repetitions in marble of famous originals in bronzeGreek sculpture took another pbase in accordance with the social life and the taste of the age, which inclined toward the feeling for display that arose with the domination of the Macedonian power brought to its height by the conquests and ambition of Alexander the Great. Lysippus, a selftaught sculptor of Sicyon, was the leading artist of his time. He was evidently a student of nature and individual character, as he was the first to become celebrated for his portraits, especially those of Alexander. He departed from the severe and grand style, and in the native conceit of all self-taught men sneered at the art of Polycletus in the well-known saying recorded of him, " Polycletus made men as they seem to be, but I make them as they ought to be." He seems to have been the first great naturalistic sculptor. Pliny says that he made the heads of his statues smaller than the ancients and defined the hair especially, making the bodies more slender and sinewy, by which the height of the figure seemed
belong
The "Apoxyomenos " (Fig. 132) may be regarded as a good example of his work this however was in bronze and so probably were all of his statues. The taste for colossal statues was met by many from his hand, such as the Hercules of Tarentum and a Colossal Zeus, besides many others, to the number of several hundred, as related by Pliny and Pausanias. The famous Colossus of Rhodes has also been attributed to him, though more probably it was the work of his pupil Chares. His great bronze equestrian group of Alexander and the horsemen who fell at the battle of the Granicus, was brought to Borne by Metellus (146 B. C.) to be shown in his triumph. Such was the general influence of Lysippus under
greater.
;
the high patronage of Alexander the Great, who only permitted him and Apelles the painter to represent him, that the style which then prevailed and retained its influence until the time of Augustus has been generally called Macedonian." peculiar treatment of the hair in two strong rising curls above the center of the forehead is characteristic of this period. This arose from Lysippus having in his portrait busts and statues adhered so closely to this peculiarity in Alexander. It was to flatter Alexander that he gave this peculiarity to all his heroic figures and to the gods, and it is seen
'
THE SUCCESSORS OF
1'HIDIAS.
Ill
in the head of the Colossus of Rhodes, as on the coins, and again in the heads of the colossal marble figures of Castor and Pollux on Monte Cavallo, at Rome, which though bearing the names of Phidias and Praxiteles, absurdly carved upon the pedestals in letters of a kind not used before the time of Sixtus V. are fine works, not
of
very high pretenbut probably copies from bronze statsions,
ues of the Macedonian

period.
In the frieze around the Choragic monument of Lysicrates at Athens, sculptured in the year 334 B. C., the subject
which is Dionysus transforming the Tyrrhenian pirates into dolof
phins, a certain softness in the forms and pic-
turesque action suggests the inquiry whether the reliefs may not be the work of Praxiteles, to whom as regards date they might be attributable. They are certainly not like the work of
Lysippus
(Fig. 127).
The discovery at Ephesus by Mr. Wood in 1S73, of the ruins and

sculptured columns of the famous temple of Diana, built B. C. 323, brought to light the "sculptured columns" (page The lower drum of one, six feet in 34) described by Pliny.
is now in the Elgin Room of the British Museum. Six figures on this are full life size in mezzo-relievo, and in
diameter,
112

Hermes and the winged Thanatos the
it is
the
style of
Lysippus
thought, be recognized. That Scopas sculptured one of the columns is related by Pliny, but that any of these fragments in the Museum are to be attributed to him is not at present decided. Pliny gives the number of columns as 127, each the gift of a king, and says that thirty-six of them were celatce, that is,
may,
"sculptured
their height
feet.
in relief"; was 60 Roman
Mr. Newton remarks
that the surface of some of the square bases, which are sculptured in high relief, show the marks of a column " having rested, and that we thus have the combination
of a richly sculptured shaft resting on a richly sculptured
^
fi
square pedestal, a combination which may have been the prototype of Trajan's and other triumphal columns."
The pediments of this temple no doubt were filled with

statues, as in other instances,
but no one has succeeded in

finding any fragments belonging to them, if they ever existed. The temple, which, as "The Artemisium," was celebrated as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, in Roman times had become the ffepository of an immense treasure of works of art of all kinds, none of which have been, as yet discovered. Goths burned and plundered the temple in the year
A. D.
262.

Other Schools.
113
Rhodes had unquestionable right to give her name to a school of sculpture, both from the great antiquity of the origin of the culture of the arts in the island and from -the number (more than one hundred) of the colossal statues in bronze, of the Sun God, at the head of which stood the great Colossus by Chares, who was the most renowned pupil of Lysippus. The Rhodian school is also distinguished by those remarkable examples of sculpture in marble of large groups of figures the Toro Farnese (Fig. 141) and the Laocoon (Fig. 138). In these works which are described among the examples there is the same feeling for display of artistic accomplishment that has been noticed as characteristic of the Macedonian age, with that effort at the pathetic, especially in the Laocoon, which belongs to the finer style of the later schools, as displayed in the works of Scopas and Praxiteles, as seen in the Niobe figures and others.
At
Pergainus, another school allied
in
style to that
of
Ephesus arose, of which the chief sculptor was Pyromachus, who, according to Pliny, flourished in the 120th Olympiad, B. C. 300298, with Eutychides, Dahippus, Cephisodotus, and Timarchus. Pliny also mentions a great work by many
artists (artifices) representing
the battles of Attalus against the Gauls, in which Pyromachus, Isigonus, Stratonicus, and
Antigonus were engaged (lib. xxxv. c. 8). Pergamus was raised to the highest importance under Attalus (B. C. 247 197) and Eumenes IL, his successor, who adorned it with many fine buildings and founded the famous library. A statue of Êsculapius by Pyromachus w as a work of some note in the splendid temple at Pergamus and is to be seen on the coins of that city. It is also conjectured that the wellknown " Dying Gladiator" and the group of Ptetus and Arria
r
of the Villa Ludovisi are copies of bronzes by Pyromachus (Scharf). However this may be, the subjects are evidently taken from scenes that occurred at this time and were characteristic of the Gauls, who constantly slew themselves and their wives and children rather than fall into the hands of The vigorous naturalistic style of these their conquerors. statues, surpassing anything of preceding schools in the
etFort at expression,
may
be taken as characteristic of the
114
school of Pergamus, then completely under Roman influence. But all question as to the nature of .the sculptures was set at rest by the discovery of many large works in high relief by the German expedition at Pergamus in 1875. These are now in the Museum at Berlin. They are of almost colossal proportions, representing, as Pliny described, the wars of Attalus and the battles with the Giants. In these the nude figures especially show the effort to display artistic ability and great energy in the action. In these points there is observable a connection with the well-known and very striking example of sculpture of this order the "Fighting Gladiator," or more properly the Warrior of Agasias, who, as is certain from the inscription on his work, was an Ephesian. The equally renowned statue of the "Apollo Belvedere," finely conceived and admirably modeled as it undoubtedly of artistic display which removes it is, bears the stamp from the style of the great classic works of sculpture.
FIG.
120.
FIGURE
o>r
THE FRIEZE OF THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES.
Tftought to Resemble the Theseus of the Parthenon.
CHAPTEE
Examples
VIII.
GREEK SCULPTURE.
A rrangcd
Alphabetically.
;
[Abbreviations: m., marble
b.,
bronze.]
6 feet, 5 inches, Berlin. This claims to be a copy of the bronze of Polycletus and one of the five made in competition for the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, by
AMAZON,
least seven are
At Polycletus, Phidias, Cresilas, Cydon, and Phradmon. known besides this two in the Vatican, one of
: ;
which, the Mattel statue, also claims to be after that of Polycletus two in the Capitol, one in the Louvre, one in Vienna Museum, and one at Petworth House. They all bear some resemblance one to the other, but are different, some being wounded. The Vatican statue distinguished as the "Mattel Amazon," is loosening her bow, with the right hand over the head, a quiver at her left side, a shield by the right leg on the tree-trunk, the battle-ax, and a helmet at her feet. On the left ankle is a spur, as in the Berlin figure. The other "Amazon" of the Vatican is wounded, has the right arm raised over the head, while the left falls by her side. very fine head of an Amazon is No. 150, British Museum. APOLLO BELVEDERE. Heroic size m. Carrara. Height, 7 feet, 2 inches. Vatican. Once thought to be a repetition in marble of a bronze, by Calamis, but now considered to be of the time of Lysippus. Being of Carrara marble, it was most probably executed at Rome. Formerly considered to be the most beautiful of antique statues, but since placed in an inferior rank in It may represent Apollo either as the destroyer of the art. Python and protector from evil or, as Pausanias described the statue of Apollo by Calamis, as the protector after the
116

plague had left Athens, having the serpent, the emblem of the healing art, twining around the Delian olive (lib. i. Visconti took p. 6, 20). this view, while Winckel-
mann
thought he had just
discharged the arrow that killed the Python. The. small snake upon the trunk, however, would not warrant the latter opinion and evidently refers to the healing power of the god, as it does
in statues of .ZEsculapius. bronze statuette in Count
Stroganoff' s collection has the aegis in the left hand as in the figure, No. 131. It was found at the close of the fifteenth century in the ruins at Antium where the "Gladiator" or "Warrior" of Agasias was. It was purchased by the Cardinal delle Rovere, afterwards Julius II., being one of the first works' of the Vatican
collection.
Restorations. The entire right forearm and left hand were supplied by Montorsoli
when employed by Clement

VII. Therefore it is entirely
a
FIG.
AT.
matter
of
conjecture
130.
WOUNDED AMAZON.
whether the original statue

in bronze held a bow or the a?gis or simply had the hand
Berlin Museum. Differs from the others chiefly in having no quiver or shield, and the left arm supported
extended.
on a
pillar.
Much restored.
APOXYOMEXOS.
Heroic
EXAMPLES.
117
m. Greek.
statue
to
is
Height, 6
feet,
5J inches.
Vatican.
This fine
an example of the school of Lysippus and considered be taken from the famous bronze mentioned by Pliny as re-
FK;.
l.'U.
APOLI.O BKLYEDERK.
in this cut us
In
the Vaticttn.
The
left
hand restored
holding the
crgis.
moved by
ace, and restored in consequence of the It is also remarkable as representing
Tiberius from the baths of Agrippa to his own palclamor of the people. an athlete using the
118
strigil.
GKEKK ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE.

The
die held in the right
hand
is
an addition of the
modern
restorer.
This copy of the celebrated statue was found in the Viccolo della Palme in the Trastevere,
Rome,
and,
though
in in
1849,
many
pieces, nearly complete.
Restorations. Part o f the nose, and the fingers of the right hand with the die.
DIADUMENOS. Life sizejm. There are two Diadumeni in the British

Museum this one known as the Farnese statue and the other as the Vaison
;
statue, from having been found at that place in
France.
statues
Both are supby Polycletus reby Pliny (lib.

c.
posed to be copies of the

ferred to
xxxiv.
8),
one of a
"
young man
Diadu-
menum fecit
vencm''
vnolliter ju-
the other of a
youth of manly form " idem et Doryphorum viriliter puerum." This

Farnese statue may be the soft and graceful figure, the Vaison statue, the strong, square-built,
young named
fillet.
athlete.
is
The
last
also
defective
in the left
FIG.
132.
THE APOXYOMEXOS.
Athlete using- the Strigil.
leg at
hand and the Both rest with one ease, an attitude

to
Vatican.
peculiar
statues
by
EXAMPLES.
119
Polycletus and seen in the Doryphorus at Naples. DIANA with the Stag. Heroic, in. Parian height 6 feet, 7 inches. Louvre. It is not known where or when this statue
;
it has been in France a long time, and was probably one of the 184 that Primaticcio brought from Rome for Francis II. It was once at Versailles, hence called "Diane de Ver" Diane & la Biche." sailles," also
;
was found
Restorations.
B arthfilemy
Prieur is said to have done a little too much to the surface, the feet having got something of the style of Germain Pilonand Prieur (Cfarac}. The left arm is by the
sculptor Lange of Toulouse, done in the Louvre before 1809. Restorations. The nose, ears, part of neck, right hand, half of forearm; left, with arm to the deltoid; right foot and upper part of leg.
Stag, nearly all. work of the first century, A.
if not by the same sculptor, probably of the same period as the Apollo Belvedere (M. Froh-
D.,
iier,
Louvre
Cat.).
Many
repe-
titions exist,
one at Holkham. DISCOBOLUS OF MYRON. Above life size marble height, 5 feet,
; ;
8 inches.
British
Museum.
less
There are no
statues like this,
than
five
all
copies of the
famous bronze by Myron, which is described by Quintilian (A. D. 40) and afterwards by Luciaii (A. D. 120), and copied on gems and coins still in existence. A small bronze in w h i c h
FIG.
Jiri(ish
133.
THE DIADCMEXOS.
.
3fiwpMin shoulder
lcft
arm and
io.it.
120

is
the head
turned back
is
in the
;
Munich Museum.
he was a pupil of Ageladas of Argos and fellow-student with Polycletus and contemporary with Phidias. He became celebrated about 431 B. C. " Cow for his works in bronze, especially for his lowing, with her calf," which stood
Myron was born about
480 B. C.
in the great square of Athens in the time of

Cicero.
The
action and
mo-
tive of the figure are
readily
understood,
described
it
and could not be more
concisely
Lucian, Athens.
"
than in the words of
who saw
at
The discus-
player bending
down
as if about to throw,
and looking back

toward the hand that holds the discus, with one knee bent as if
prepared to rise after the cast. That is the Discobolus, the work of
Myron."
FAUX OF THE
telic.
CAPI-
TOL. Life size; m. Pen-
Height, 5
feet, 7
FIG.
131.
DIANA WITH THE STAG OF BRAZEN inches. Capitol, Rome.

FEET
(Ceryneia).
Often called the "Faun

(
in the Louvre.
les,"
or Satyr) of Praxite-
being thought to be a copy of the bronze so far-famed that it was spoken of at the time as "famous." It is the " MarThe folds of the skin ble Faun " of Hawthorne's romance. sometimes erroneously called the ncbris, but which is that of the panther, indicate the sharper forms which would be chosen by an artist working in bronze. The grace of line in the figure, amounting to what would be termed elegance, and
EXAMPLES.
the expression of the head
121
mark the
style as that of the later

size,
Athenian
sculptors.
life
THE DYING GLADIATOR. Above

inches, length, G6 inches. In the
m.
Height
33
Museum of the Capitol, Rome.
FIG.
135.
THE
DISCOBOLUS. British Musnun.
Though long
it
called "The Dying Gladiator" to distinguish from the " Fighting Gladiator," this fine statue is now more properly called a "Dying Gaul," or a "Gaulish Herald,"
122

mortally wounded or may have slain himself. horn on the ground, within which he lies as though it had slipped off his shoulders, has been considered to be that carried by heralds. The twisted ring of metal around the neck is a torque such as was worn by the Gauls. The expression of the
face
who has been

The
large
and the whole

is finely
fig-
ure
portrayed, and with strong realistic truth, very characteristic of the Pergamus school. It was found in
the ruins of the Garden

of Sallust in 1770 and was once in the gallery 'of the Villa Ludovisi,
Rome.
It
was
pur-
chased by Clement XII. arid was taken to Paris among the spoils of
It is considered to be a work of the time of Hadrian.
Napoleon.
THE LAOCOOX. Heroic

;
Grechetto marble
height, 5 feet, 10 inches.
In the Vatican, Rome. This fine group was

found in 1506 in the Baths of Titus where Pliny said it was placed not in a vineyard on
stated
FIG.
136.
FAUX OF PRAXITELES.
Capitol,
Rome.
the Esquiline Hill as by F. di Sangallo. This was in the pontificate of Julius II. while
EXAMPLES.
123
Michelangelo was engaged upon his great works at the

Vatican. That great sculptor is said to have called it "a wonder of art." Pliny speaks of its being in the palace of the Emperor Titus (lib. xxxvi. c. 5). Michelangelo, who with Christoforo Romano was directed to examine it, pointed out that it was not of one block, but of three, one for the son on the left, another for the figure of Laocoon to the knees, and
the third for the rest of the group. since found to be made of six blocks.
It has, however, been
When dug up, the right
arm
of
Laocoon was gone as well as the shoulder and the
FIG.
137.
THE DYING GLADIATOR.

Museum, Rome.
In the
;
Capitoline
pectoral muscle the right arm and foot of the younger son and the same parts of the elder were also broken off and lost. Skillful restorations were made by different Italian sculptors. Lord Macaulay has pronounced the essay on Laocoon by the German critic Lessing to be the greatest critical work of modern literature. MINEHVA THE PAL.L.AS OF THE VATICAN. Heroic, draped m. Parian. Height, 6 feet, 10 inches. This statue has been restored with the attributes of " Minerva Medica," the serpent raising its head by her side, a spear in her right hand, the arms, the Corinthian helmet and jegis, with mantle over the shoulders. It was found in the temple of Minerva Medica on the Ksquiline, Rome.
;
124
This statue was for a long time in the possession of the Giustiniani family and afterwards passed into the collection of Lucien Bonaparte, from whom it was eventually purchased by Pope Pius VII. and added to the Gallery of the Vatican.
'Jlie
FIG. 138. LAOCOON AND HIS SONS. work of the Rhodians, Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus. In the Vatican. But with the arm as restored by Montorsoli. The right arms and legs of the sons restored by
Cornacchini.
It represents the goddess
preserver of health
cially
as the beneficent protector and by her wisdom. The drapery is an espegood example of the grave dignity given to the figure
by the toga so admirably sculptured.
EXAMPLES.
125
The form of the helmet is not that of the Athene of Phidias, seen on the coins of Athens, but that found on the coins of Corinth. Restorations. Right arm and hand with spear and the serpent, emblem of health and long life, as seen in statues of Êsculapius.
THE NIOBE GROUP

Life
size
;
14
figures.
m.
Florence Gallery.
A very
celebrated group of statues,
which once adorned the temple of They Apollo Sosianus at Rome. were referred to both by Horace and Pliny as the work either of Scopas
or Praxiteles.
Probably none of the original

ures remain
;
fig-
those that are at Florence are only a part of the copies made, for some do not belong to the subject and have merely been supplied to make up the number. The pedagogue and son are not at Florence, but in the Louvre, and are a very inferior group found at Soissons in France. The head of Xiobe is almost proverbial as an example of the pathetic (Fig. 140). It was the favorite study of Guido, as is seen in his pictures.
There is a head of Niobe in Lord Yarborough's collection which is considered to be finer than that of
FIG.
139.
THE MINERVA THE VATICAN.
the statue. In the Vatican there are two " Daughters of Niobe" from another group. In the Munich Museum is a very fine nude kneeling figure in Parian marble much injured, the arms and head lost, of the son of Niobe looking up, which is called " Jlioneus." There is also one of the sous lying on the ground. In the Capitol Museum, Rome, there is one of the kneeling
sons.
FIG.
140.
NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN.
(Center Group.)
Now
in the Florence Gallery.
EXAMPLES.
127
Most of these statues were discovered before 1583, at Rome, and placed in the Villa Medici, having been obtained by the Medici family, in whose palace they were till Pierre Leopold had them removed to Florence in 1776. It is not decided whether the statues belong to the same group and whether they formed; a pedimental or merely a semi-circular arrangement. Also it is a question whether Apollo and Artemis did not belong to the group and there is
;
in the British
deities.
Museum a
bas-relief of the subject
with those
These are so very numerous in arms, hands, and some legs that it is impossible to name them all. TORO FARNESE. Colossal group m. Grechetto. Height, 12 feet, 4 inches, on square base. Naples Museum. By Apollonius and Tauriscus of Rhodes. This is the group described by Pliny, representing Dirk6 being tied to a bull by Amphion and Zethus, the sons of Aiitiope, who thus revenged the insult of their mother, whose husband, Lycus king of Thebes, had forsaken her for Dirke". Aiitiope, according to some
Restorations.
feet,
;
versions of the story, interposed to save her rival, but according to others Dirk6 was dragged about by the bull till she was dead and was then thrown into a well, which to this day is called the well of Dirk6. So much that is expressive in the heads and figures not being due to the ancient sculptor, but to the restorer Bianchi under the direction of Michelangelo, the group is chiefly valuable as an example of the ambitious style of colossal work which characterized the later Rhodian school after the time of
Lysippus, when it was brought to the extreme by Chares in his Colossus. The lyre hung upon the tree and the Pandean " Amphion pipes are in allusion to Amphion's skill in music " moved the stones his The wild singing (Horace). by animals, with sheep and oxen carved on the base, describe the pastoral life led by the sons of Lycus on Mount Cithaeroii
:
expelled by him with their mother. tells us that this grand work was brought from Rhodes to Rome and that it was cut out of a single block of Greek marble and that Asinius Pollio purchased it in the time of Augustus. It was much broken and some parts entirely gone as the head of the bull, for example. It was
when
Pliny
128
placed in the court of the Farnese Palace, where Michelangelo superintended the restorations by Giov. Battista Bianchi. In 1786 it was removed to Naples and suffered further injuries in the transport, which had to be restored it was then placed
;
FIG.
141.
TOKO FARNESE.
Naples Museum.
In
in the Villa Reale
for
the
years order of Francis
many
it I.
and after remaining exposed to the weather was removed to the Royal Museum by
A cast of
this fine
work
is
in the Crystal Palace.
EXAMPLES.
129
THE TORSO BELVEDERE.

feet 1J inches.
Vatican.
The
he studied
celebrated torso is it so profoundly
m. Pentelic. Height 5 Apollonius, about 336 B. C. often called after Michelangelo because
Heroic
;
By
for sculptors.
and made Flaxman borrowed it
it
for
his great example one of his com-
positions of the Apotheosis of Hercules. That it is a Hercules is shown by the remains of the Nemaean lion's skin on the thigh and the rock. On the rock is cut the name of the
sculptor
to
who was careful show that he was an
Athenian.
Venus of the Capitol. Heroic; m. Parian. Height, 6 2-10 feet. This statue has a nobler character in the form and is altogether a more
complete work than the " Medici Venus" it is also much larger. It has the
;
special
interest
of being
nearly as perfect as the ancient sculptor left it.
Flaxman of more
"
said,
an example
dignified
and
less
insinuating beauty than the
'Venus de' Medici,' and certainly a copy from one of the three enumerated by Pliny among the works of
Praxiteles."
JZcstorationx.
of the nose
fingers. It was
Only the tip and two of the
found at Home end of the FIG 112. THE TORSO BELVEDERE. eighteenth century near the In the Vatican. " Suburra di monti." VENTS DE' MEDICI. Life si/.t m. Parian. Height, 4 feet, 11J indies. Florence, in the Tribune of the Uln/.i by Cleonienes of Athens.
toward
the
130
In allusion to the birth of the goddess from the foam of the sea, is the dolphin, on whose back are sporting the two boy The hair is bound up as the Horse deities, Eros and Himeros. were said to have done it. The ears are pierced and no doubt once had ear-rings, and on the left arm is the mark of an armlet.
It was found in the Forum of Octavia or Hadrian s Villa at Tivoli about 1680, with other
:
beautiful statues,
.
among which
was the
rotino."
knife-sharpener, "L'Ar-
It was brought to Florence in the Pontificate of Innocent XI., in the reign of Cosmo III. di Medici, and placed in the gardens of the Medici in the sixteenth century, and was placed in the gallery of the Uffizi in 1680.
Restorations. It was broken into thirteen pieces the head

;
the trunk injured, the thighs broken, the feet, the arms, and hands almost entirely gone. Fortunately the fractures were so regular that the pieces were easily joined with the exception of some parts in the trunk. The right arm and hand and the left from the elbow were quite lost, and these were supplied by Bernini. This accounts for some of the affectations shown in the position FIG. 143. VENUS. Resembling the statue in the Cap- of the arms and hands. These itoiine Museum, Rome. are not at all of the antique character, and the statue is much grander without them, as indeed it should always be when studied from. The plinth is also modern, the ancient one
off,
was
KXAMPLiES.
131
having been too much broken scription was accurately copied.

"
is
to be used.
The Greek
in-
Cleomenes, sou of Apollodoros the Athenian, did it." He spoken of by Pliny as a sculptor of the highest repute for his female figures. The son of this sculptor is thought to be he whose name is cut upon the tortoise at the foot of the statue called Germanicus in the Louvre, No. 184. It is thought to bear some resemblance to the famous Venus of Praxiteles, the first representing the
goddess nude, of which some idea is obtained from the coins of the time of
Caracalla and Plautilla. Old copies in marble of the Venus of Cnidus are in the Vatican, and an especially good one in theGlyptothek at Munich. An antique marble copy of the " Medici Venus "in the Louvre (156) has the arms, which are modern, slightly different from Bernini's in the Florence statue.
foot
The
left
and some
new.
toes of the right are also This belonged to the Campana
collection,
and was found at Porto d' Anzo
(Antium).
statue in the Dresden Museum closely resembles the "Medici Venus," the legs however being lost from about half of the thighs. small bronze in the British Museum is in this attitude. VENUS OF MILO or MELOS, the name of the island in which it was found.
FIG.
144.
VENUS
DK'
Venus
Victrix.)
half-draped heroicleft foot
MEDICI.
In the Tribune of the
size statue, the

off.
arms and
broken
1'ffl.zi Gallery. Marble. Height, 6 feet, 8 inches. In the Louvre, No. 136. Corallitic marble, like ivory in color, and very close in the grain. The name of the sculptor is not known, but this beautiful statue is considered by Clarac to be of the school of Praxiteles. But being partly draped some think it to be of an earlier time. Others have attributed it to Alcumenes and to Agesander. By Overbeck it is considered to be of as late a time as that
FIG.
143.
VENUS OF MELOS.
The
left
In the Louvre.
foot added.
EXAMPLES.
of Augustus.
It
133
Mr. Newton would place it about 250 B. C. 1820 by a Greek peasant in getting up the roots of a tree, when the whole fell through into a hollow place which proved to be a tomb in the rock. The bust was first found, and then the trunk in two parts, separated where the drapery begins, at the hips but the head was not separate, being perfect with the exception of the nose the left foot was quite lost. A hand holding an apple was found.
was found in
FIG.
146.
THE WRESTLERS.
Uffizi.
In the Tribune of the

It
be noticed that the attitude suggests that some resting on the knee, such as a shield. bronze statue in a somewhat similar attitude, now in the Louvre, is a winged figure of Victory holding a shield and inscribing it, which was found at Brescia about twenty years ago. There is also a resemblance in attitude to the Venus of Capua in the Naples Museum. M. Frohner is of opinion
may
object
was held
134
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
AJSD SCULPTURE.
that the left hand with the apple belongs to this statue, but the right hand held the drapery. M. Claudius Tarral, sculptor, has made the most accurate investigation of the fragments and agrees in this opinion. He notices that certain irregularities in the forms show that the sculptor was not a copyist but essentially an originator, working from his own ideal. .The right cheek is rather larger than the left and the corners of the mouth are not exactly alike and the drapery is simple and finely designed so as to avoid all folds not essential to the
FIG.
147.
CASTOR.
Said
Bas-relief in British
to be
Museum.
Archaic,
position
and not interfering with the harmony of the

;
figure.
THE WRESTLERS Group m.
Height, 2
most remarkalength, 3 feet, 11 inches. Florence Gallery. ble group, although much of it is new. The immense difficulties of such a work are surmounted with wonderful skill, and the knowledge of the figure shows a great mastery of the technical part of the art. It represents a deadly struggle, not
a mere throwing to the ground, which was another kind of game in this the upper figure is about to deal a finishing blow upon his victim. It is a good example of choice of
;
feet, 10
inches
EXAMPLES.
135
motive. It belongs to the later style of Greek art and has been connected with the Niobe figures from having been found in the same place and sold in one lot with them to the Medici family. Winckelmann thought they belonged to that group in accordance with another account of the Niobe catastrophe, which says that the sons were wrestling when it happened. In treatment it recalls the Laocoon group and is classed in the School of Rhodes by some German critics. Restorations. The heads, the left arm and foot, right leg from knee of the upper figure, the right arm and leg above knee of the lower are modern. It is, however, maintained that they are antique the head of the conquered wrestler being retouched only.
;
APPENDIX.
PAGE 9. The statement that " Greek architecture did not include the arch" is qualified by the recent discovery of two cases of the arch in Greece which date back to the early period here under consideration. These discoveries would make it possible or probable that the customary view that Greek architecture ignored the arch may be owing to the destruction of the monuments in which it occurred. It is undoubtedly true that the arch construction was never employed in temples. Egyptian architecture employed the arch in utilitarian construction, although it is never found in the temples, and instances are known at Thebes dating to the XVIII. Dynasty (about 1800 B. C.) of arches in brick work. The arch was also used in Assyria. These facts are implied in the reference to a "deliberate selection" and "exclusion" on the part of the Greeks, which occur on page 10. For a reference to the arch as found in the theater at Sicyon, seethe "American Journal of Vaulted passages have also reArchaeology," Vol. V., p. 278. cently been found in the theater of Eretria. PAGE 10. " The building was to a much greater extent deits most signed for external than internal effect It is telling features and best sculpture were on the exterior." undoubtedly true that, as distinct from Egyptian temples, those of the Greeks had a far more symmetrical and beautiful exterior but it must not be forgotten that the temple was the shrine of a statue which was in the best periods of Greek art an object of sublime grandeur, colossal size, great cost,
....
138
APPENDIX.
and a supreme effort of Greek art (see reference to these statues of gold and ivory on pp. 62, 84, 98). It is not likely that the Greeks were indifferent to the decorative interior effect of the
apartments intended to hold these statues. PAGE 14. The implication that the remains of Mycenae and Orchomenos belong to Greek art indicates the belief of all students on this point, down to a very recent date. Since the excavations of Dr. Schliemann at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Orchomenos, the opinion has begun to gain ground that "Pelasgic" art was that of a race entirely distinct from the Greeks,
scattered through the archipelago and settled in various strongholds on the shores of Greece whose civilization was largely influenced by Egypt and preceded that of the Greeks by
The pottery, metal-work, jewels, in tombs at Mycenae are Dr. Schliemann found by etc., thoroughly foreign to the style of early Greek art and have suggested and given color to this theory that they belong to a distinct race, whose ascendency must have been broken before the Greeks made their appearance on the stage of history otherwise traces of their influence on early Greek art would be apparent. Dr. Schliemann himself believed that he had discovered the remains of an early Greek civilization but the most recent summary on the subject of his excavaSee " Schliemann' s Excations takes a contrary view. vations," by Schuchardt. The objects found in the tombs of
several centuries at least.
Mycenae are in the Museum of Athens, and conclusions based on their style of art would also cover the "Pelasgic" walls of Mycenae, the "Treasury of Atreus " (which was undoubtedly a tomb) and the Gate of the Lions. PAGE 19. The "Elgin Marbles" were brought to London in 1807-1808, but they were not purchased for the British Museum
until 1816.
" The 22. architrave, it may be assumed, represents a beam." Egyptian temples show two lines of timber square stone beams corresponding to the Greek architrave and frieze. That this arrangement, and not that of timber construction, explains the Greek entablature is proven by the recently demonstrated Egyptian origin of the triglyphs. According to Professor Smith, " These closely resemble, and no doubt actually represent, the ends of massive timber beams." This
PAGE
APPENDIX.
139
has been the current explanation with most writers on Greek it has been recently proven that this is erroneous and that the triglyphs are carved ornaments, copying in relief the three recessed and colored bunds which are frequently found, in the same arrangement, on the Egyptian stone cornice which corresponds to the Greek frieze. The first
architecture, but
suggestion to this effect was long since made by Sir Gardner " Manners and Customs of the Wilkinson, author of the Ancient Egyptians," in a small work written as a Guide to the Egyptian Department of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. The conclusive proof has been furnished by the German, Hans Auer, whose conclusions are adopted by Dunn, the most recent
of Greek architecture were employed to correct optical illusions is that generally followed by English writers, in deference to the authority of the English architect Penrose, who made the
(in 1845 and 1846), by which the purposed construction of these refinements was proven. This theory is, however, not the only one. The German architect Hofer advanced the idea (in 1838), that the curves were intended to enhance the effects of dimension in the Greek
German authority on Greek architecture. PAGE 26. The theory that the optical refinements
masonry measurements
temples, according to the principles of curvilinear perspective. idea has been advanced by Emile Boutmey in his " Philosophic del' architecture en Grece" (Paris, 1870). The other refinements mentioned, and interpreted as corrections, have also been explained as purposed exaggerations of perspective effect excepting the refinement mentioned as treated
The same
by Mr. John Pennethorne.
This gentleman was the original
discoverer of the Greek horizontal curves, noticed by him. in 1837.
which were
first
PAGE 27. Aside from the colored patterns mentioned it is proven by the remains of color that the metope spaces and the space within the gable were painted Pompeiian red. (This would hold only of the backgrounds of the sculptured reliefs.) The triglyph bands were painted a low-toned blue aud the grooves between the triglyphs were Pompeiian red. The fillet between architrave and frieze (Fig. 14, p. 20) and the cornices, were orange yellow or gilded. PAGE 28. "We must look to some other countrv than
140
APPENDIX.
for the spirit
is
Assyrian honeySee note which follows for page 50. PAGE 39. "Assyrian honeysuckle." See note to page 50. PAGE 43. " The setting out (or spacing), of the different columns, piers, openings, etc., is perfectly exact." This statement is an oversight. The precision and refinement of all masonry cutting have been proven by Mr. Penrose as stated, but he has also proven that there are absolutely no equidistant spacings in the parts of a Greek temple. All the columns and all the triglyphs are spaced at slightly irregular distances. These irregularities were undoubtedly intentional. They were possibly intended to avoid an appearance of tedious mathematical symmetry. It is possible that these irregularities are connected with a purposed scheme of exaggerating perspective effects from certain points of view. This has been positively asserted by Emile Boutmey for the metope spaces of the east front of the Parthenon. See reference to Boutmey's book in note to page 26. Although the irregularities mentioned have been proven by Mr. Penrose to exist, he has not attempted to explain them. PAGE 45. " The flat stone roofs sometimes used by the Egyptians." This sentence implies a suggestion not intended by the author that flat stone roofs were not always used in stone buildings. Flat stone roofs were used invariably in the
suckle."
which inspired the Ionic order." This' that of all compendious authorities up to date, but it has been proven erroneous. PAGE 34. " Ornaments borrowed from the Egypt
supposition
Egyptian temples. PAGE 46. " Of all the forms of column and capital existing in Egypt, etc." For the Ionic capital as Egyptian see note to
page 27. Clumsy forms of a Doric capital closely resembling early capitals found at Athens have been found recently in Egypt by the English excavator, Mr. Win. M. Flinders Petrie, and are dated to the very high antiquity of the Pyramid Dynasties. That the elementary form (basket or bell shape)
of the Corinthian capital is found in Egypt was long since pointed out by Sir Gardner Wilkinson (Crystal Palace Guide.
1
857).
PAGE 48. The remark that the Corinthian capital is a development from the Ionic is just and highly important.
APPENJJIX.
141
PAGE 50. The " fret " is derived from Egypt. The " honeysuckle " is attributed at present to Assyria by all compendious authorities but it has quite recently, been conclusively proven to be derived both in Assyria arid in Greece from an Egyptian
lotus-palmette.
PAGE 53. The supposed "water-leaf" of Fig. 54 is a phase of the egg-and-dart molding (Fig. 47 and compare Fig. 48). PAGES 70, 72. "To give any expression to the countenance reThe Egyptians couid perquires a higher exercise of art haps have done it, but it was not in keeping with their intention and the genius of their art." This has been the usual view of Egyptian sculpture but it has been absolutely reversed by the Egyptian statues of the Pyramid period which have been discovered in recent Witness the " Scribe " in the
.
years.
Louvre,
Boulak" in the Ghizeh Museum, the statues of Kefert and Ra-hotep, and several others in the same Collection. A highly expressive and realistic portrait art is
the
of
also occasionally
for instance
"Wooden Man
found in later times of Egyptian sculpture the portrait bust commonly called that of Queen
at
Taia, in the
PAGE
74.
Ghizeh Museum. For the Gate of the Lions
Mycense as
art of a
race preceding the Greeks, see note to page 14.
INDEX.
Doric, 20, 21, 22; 39. 37, 50, 56. vKgiiietan (Statues, 79, 82. Ageladas, 83, 120. Agesander, 124, 131 . Agora, 39, 44. Agoracritus, 96. Aleamenes, 96, 99, 131. Alto-relievo, 64, 65, 105.
47;
29, 31
;
Abacus,
Ionic,
Corinthian,
Acanthus,
Caryatids, 35, 51. Carving, 59. 60. Casting in Hollow Form,

Castor, 134. Cavo-relievo, 65, 72. Cell, The Sacred, 10,
59. 88-89, 99, 100. Cephissus, The, 96. Ceres, The, 96. Chares, 113.
64.
Centaurs and L,apitha?, Contest
11, 17, 42.
of.
Amazon, The, 115, 116. Anta, 25, 39, 49. Apollo Alexicacus, The, 84. Apollo Belvedere, The, 115-116,
119.
Chryselephantine, 62, Cleomenes, 129, 131.

117,
10").
A polio of Tenea, 78. Apollo Kpicurius, Temple of, 99-100. Apollonius, 127, 129. Apoxyomenos, The, 110, 116-118. Arch, The, 9, 49, 137. Architecture, Greek, 9-58; Origin of, Charac12-13; Analysis of, 42^58
;
Coins, 68, 70. Color in Statue, 80-81,
105.
Column, The,
Parthenon,
11,
12, 42,
;
46;
Of the
;
Columnre
Position and Spacing,
17,
21
Doric,
52.
20, 21, 47
Celatee, 34, 111.

12, 35-30,
Corinthian Order, The,
The Capital of, 37, 48. Cornice, 12. 20, 23-25, 32.
81,141.
48;
teristics of, 5U53.
Architrave.
:il,32.
Doric, 12,20, 22; Ionic,
Corona, 20, 24, 25. 'ountenance, Expression

Cypselus, Chest of, Diedalides, 62. Dentil Band, 31,32.
63.
of,
70, 72,
Artemis,
71.
Cyma,49; Recta, 31, S3, -53; Reversa,53.

;
Artemisium, The, 112. Arts in Greece, Origin of the, 67, 68. Athene. Temples of, 16, 27, 37, 79 Statue of, 72 Sculptures in Honor
;
of, 85-S8, 89-98.
Athenian School, The Later,

'
103, 105-
109.
Athenodorus, 124. Balustrade of the Temple of Wingless

Victory,
102, 10:!.
Diadumenos, The, 118-119. Diana, Temple of, at Kphesus, 34, 51. Diana, with the Stag, 119, 120. Dipo?nus, 75. Discobolus, The, 119-120, 121. Doric Order, The, 12-27; Temple at Corinth, 14 Temple at Psestum, 19
;
;
Basilica, 44.
Bas-relief, 48, 59, 60, 61, 61-65, 69, 76, 77, 78, 1 ftV 109.
Capitals,
25
;
15, 20, 21,
22; Cornice, 2427.
Examples Remaining,
70, 100, 101.
Draperies,
123.
Bronze, 63-64. Brynxis, 102, 104. Calamis, 84.

Callon,
29
81.
Dying Gladiator, The,

Echinus,
20, 21,22.
113,
121-122.
Egg Enrichment,
Elgin Marbles,
Calllcrates,84.
53, 55, 57. 19, 13S.
Capital.
;
15, 20, 21, 22; Ionic, Corinthian, 37, 48 ; Foliated, 47 ;
Doric,
Enrichments.
Karly
Norman
Cushion,
48.
48;
Ro-
manesque Block,
Egg, 53, 55,57: \Vatcrleaf, 53, 55, 56,57, 141; Honeysuckle, 39, 50, 53, 55, 57, 58, 141 ; Guilloche, 53, 56.
144
Entablature,
Entasis,
1-',
INDEX.
20,23, 32, 35, 39.
;
Niobe Figures, The,

145.
;
70,
103, 12-3-127,
21, 25, 26.
Erechtheum, 32-:!5, 51 Ionic Order Octostvle, 84. from, 31; Arrangement, 43-44 Por- Onatas, 84. tico, 54 Ornamentation, 54 Capi- Orders, The Greek,
; ;
ta I, 55. Erotria, Theater of, 137.
27;
12-53 Doric, 12Ionic, 28-35; Corinthian, 35-39.

; ;
Facia, 24, 32, 57. Fates, The Three, 01, 05, 06. Faun of Praxiteles, The, 120-121,
Fillets, 20,21, 49.
Ornaments, 30, 40-51 Colored, 51, 139 Examples, 55-58.

;
27,
Ovolo.
122.
20, 40, 53. 1'iBonius, 99.

10, 16-19, 21,
Parthenon, The,
46.
25, 84;
;
Fluted Columns,
;
Frets, 58 Doric, 27, 50, 141. Frieze. Doric, 12, 20, 22; Ionic, 31; Ot Theseum, H2-83 Of Parthenon.
;
5-88;
curius, 100; Of
Of Temple of Apollo EpiTemple of Wingless

14, 67, 74, 138, 141.
Victory, 101. Gate of the Lions, Glyptics, 59.

(ireeks
100.
17; Roof, 10; Correction of Optical Illusions, 25-26, 139 Ornaments, 27; Accuracy in Planning, 43, 140; Spaces for Sculpture, 51 Metope, 52; Sculpture in Frieze, 65, 85-88; Sculptures, 84-98. Patera, 05, 96.
Columns,
Pausanias,
and Amazons, Contest
Pediment,
of, 00,
37, 68, 98, 99, 104, 115. 20, 25, 44-45, 51, 79;
Of
Theseum,
82
Of Parthenon,
89-98.
Guilloche,
Guttw,
60, 70.
53, 56, 58. 20. 22.
Art, Pelasgic r Peplos, & >, 87.

113-114.
14, 138.
Pergamus, School of Sculpture

Peristyle.
of,
Harpv Tomb,
Hegesias, 81. Hermes, The,
Bas-reliefs 011 the, 68,
Greek Doric,
102.
;
23
Of Ionic
Columns,
97. 00. 30, 50, 53, 55, 57, 58, 141.
Phidias,
of Selene,
Honeysuckle,
10, 62 Sculptures of Parthenon, 83-98; Other Works, 98; Suc-
Homer,
Horse's
02-04.
63.
Head from the Car
Houses, 43. HypostyleHall,21,43. Icti nus' l(i, 84,00.

Ilissus.The, 96. Ionic Order, The,
92, 93. 62, 84,98. Kerameikos, 85.
Iris,
12,
;
cessors of, 99-114. Pilasters, 11. Plan of a Greek Temple, Pliny, 34, 63, 68, 75, 111,
118, 123, 12-5, 127, 129. Plutarch, 62, 63, 104. 'ointing, 60.
42.
112, 113,
114,
The Column, 28-20 The The Entablature, 32.

The,
28-,35,
130-140;
;
Capital, 20
olycletus, 110, "olydorus, 124.

125, 129.
115, 118, 119, 120.
'raxiteles, 97, 99, 103, 104, 107. 113, 120,
Ivory,
Laocodn, The,
Leochares,
Lion Tomb at Cnidus, Lotus-column, 47. Lucia n,98, 110. 120.

Lysierates,
Frieze,
111.
113, 122-123, 121. 102, 103, 101. 35.
^rometheus, The, 95. 'ropylsea, The, 17. 'rosperine, The, 06.
'yromachus,
Quadriga,
113.
'ythis, 102, 103.

35. Quintilian, 119.
Monument
of,
38,
50;
Corinthian Order, 36; Capital, 37;

Lvsippus, Marble, Kinds
110-111, 112. of, 60.
Sculpture in, 61-6'-. Rhodes, School of Sculpture

Relief,
of, 113.
Roofs, 45, 140. Scopas, 34,37,

113, 125.
35. 45,
102, 103, 107, 108, 109, 112.

;
Mausoleum
101-104.
of Halicarnassus,
75, 81, 82;
Metopes, 20, 2}, 52, Parthenon, 88-80.
Of the
Sculpture, 59-135; Process, 50-60 MaVarious Forms, terials, 6M>4, 66 64-66 Origin, 67-68 Draperies, 70 Comparison of Asiatic Statues with
;
Mra/.o-relicvo, 65, 111. Michelangelo, 50, 12:',, 127, 128, 120. of the Vatican, The, 12:i-125.
Minerva
Mosaic
<
Egyptian and Assyrian, 70, 72, 74; Athenian Style, 81-84; Theseum, 82-83, 84; Grand Style of Phidias,
: ;
Molding, 60. Moldings, 40.
from
Temple of Zeus
at
84-98; Successorsof Phidias, 99-111 Later Athenian School, 105-109 Macedonian Period, 109-112; Other
(lytnpia, 53. Mutules, 20.24.
Schools,
Scyllis, 75.
113, 114
63.
Examples,
34.
115-135.
Myron,
110-120.
Sphyrelaton,
Ni'ke, The, 91-05.
Spirals of the Volutes,
IXDKX.
Statuary,
Statues.
82;
50, 65-66.
;
145
01.
Terra Cotta,
Theater,
20
;
Position, (55 Si/o, 65; Subjects. 65-6ti; vtCginetan Statues, 7!l,
39-J1, 41,45.
;
Improvement
115-135.
65.
in, 82, 86;
Kx-
Theseum,
82; Doric Order from the, Frieze, 82-83 Metopes, 82.

15, 22, 138.
amples,
Stiacciato,
Theseus, The, 91, 92, 96. Timber Construction, 12-13,
Stone, Statues in, fil. Stylobate, 20,21, 31. Taper, 25. Tauriscus, 127.
Temple, The (ireek,

10,
10-11
11;
;
Remains
Tlmotheus, 102, 101. Toro Farnese, The, 113, 127-12S. Torso Belvedere, The, 129. Torus Molding, 49, 53, 56. Egyptian, Treasury of Atreus, The, 14, MS.
of Doric, 27;
16-26; Krechtheum, 3234, 35 Temple of Diana at Kphesus, 34; Of Athene Alea, 157; Of Apollo Pidymrous, 39; Plan of Temple,
Parthenon,
The Triglyph, 20, 22, 139. Velarium. 46. Venus de' Medici, The, 129, 131. Venus of Melos, The, 131-133. Venus of the Capitol, The, 129, 130.
57, 141.
of. 101 102, 103.
;
42-44;
Walls, 44-45; Roof, 45-46; Volutes, 28,31,37. Openings, 46; Columns, 46-48; Pec- Water-leaf, 53, 55, 56,
49-51, 79-98;
orut ion,
100
10'!.
;
Temple of Apollo
Theseum, 82-83; Wingless Victory, Temple

Frieze, 101
;
at Phigalia. 99Ol Wingless Victory, 101, 102,
Balustrade,
Wood,
62.
Wrestlers, The,
133, 134-135.
NURSES AND NURSING.

By LISBETH
D. PRICE.
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of the sick. the home.
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An
What to do in emergency cases, how to proceed until a physician arrives, how the nurse may help the physician, how to read prescriptions and administer doses, and many other points bearing on practice in the sick room are ably and practically considered.
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AMERICANIZED DELSARTE CULTURE.

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This handbook does not purport to be a treatise on the Delit does not relate to oratory, to dramatic art criticism. It was written because of the large demand for a book telling of the "whys and hows and wherefores " of Practical Delsarte. The author adopts an ideal standard of life "the greatest
sarte Philosophy expression, or to
;
" and considers the Delsarte art good to the greatest number of expression in a broad sense, as it may be of general benefit Americanized Delsarte Culture relates to health and to all.
grace and includes expression and art.

sarte
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'
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Mr.

Mrs. Horace A. Scott

2208 North Ross Street Santa Ana, California 92706

Xiterature for 1892*93.

AN A. J. Church. THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN POWERS. W.

R. Joy. HISTORICAL, ROMANCE.

GREEK ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE.

Cbautauqua "Reading Circle literature

KI.OOI) AM) \-INCKNT Cbe Chautauqtia.-Ccnturn press

The required books of the

are recommended by a understood that recom-

customary discrimination and wisdom of the mana-

not only suggested by works of Greek

the only stable condition of good art

good collections of photographs.

BUILDINGS OF THE DORIC ORDER

BUILDINGS OK TIIK IONIC AND CORINTHIAN ORDERS

ANALYSIS OK GREEK ARCHITECTURE

GREEK ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE.

column and which grew out of

tecture did not include the arch

of both these features were,

GREEK ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE.

and ultimately gave place

The domestic and

THE UOK1C OKUEK.

PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TKMPLE IN ANTIS.

find in Greece three distinct manners,

GREEK ARCHITECTURE AXD SCULPTURE.

which the column

moldings belonging to that order. The origin of Greek architecture

THK DORIC ORDER.

ANCIENT GKEEK WAI..I.. OF UNWKOUGIIT STONE KKOM SAMOTHRACE.

GREEK ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE.

PijANOF TREASURY OF ATKEUS AT MYCENAE.

SECTION OF THE TREASURY OF ATRKUS AT MYCKM.E.

THE DORIC OKDEK.

on the supposition that they are reproductions

7. GKKEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SELIXUS.

FROM THE THESEUM.

GREEK DORIC CAPI-

DoiUO C'APITAL FROM 8AMOTHRACF.

GREEK ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE.

PLAX OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS.

best to select for our purpose (Frontispiece).

THE DORIC ORDER.

CONSTRUCTIONAL YJF.W OF TUP: PARTHENON.

SECTION OF THE GKEEK DOKIC TEMPLE AT PJESTU.M. As

TICK DORIC ORDER.

THE FILLETS UNDER A 16. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL.

PLAN OF A GKEEK DORIC

column, and one to the entablature, or super;

In a few instances a smaller

GREEK ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE.

slight curve of its outline, the lines traced

CAPITAL OF A GREKK DORIC COI.TJJIX FROM .EG WITH COL.OKED DECORATION.

SECTION OF THE ENTABLATURE OF THE GREEK DORIC OKDER.

LOOKING IT, OF PART OF A URKKK DORIC I'KRISTVLK.

GREEK ARCHITECTURE AXD SCULPTURE.