Hazardous Waste: Management and Treatment: Structure

Unit 9: Hazardous Waste: Management and Treatment
Lecture 9
Hazardous Waste: Treatment
STRUCTURE
Overview Learning Objectives 9.1 Hazardous Waste: Identification and Classification 9.1.1 Identification 9.1.2 Classification 9.2 Hazardous Waste Management 9.2.1 Generation 9.2.2 Storage and collection 9.2.3 Transfer and transport 9.2.4 Processing 9.2.5 Disposal 9.3 Hazardous Waste Treatment 9.3.1 Physica l and chemical treatment 9.3.2 Thermal treatment 9.3.3 Biologica l treatment 9.4 Pollution Prevention and Waste Minimisation 9.5 Hazardous Wastes Management in India Summary Suggested Readings Model Answers to Learning Activities
Management and
OVERVIEW
In Units 1 to 8, we discussed the management of solid waste and its functional elements, which include storage, collection, transport, waste disposal, processing, recycling, biological conversion of waste and incineration with energy recovery in the context of non-hazardous wastes. In view of the substantial threat present and potential hazardous wastes pose to human health, or living organisms in general, they ought to be handled, treated and managed differently, and this issue is discussed in the present Unit. In this Unit, we will first identify
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Municipal Solid Waste Management
and classify hazardous wastes, and then discuss their functional elements namely generation, storage and collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal. Subsequently, we will discuss the various physical, chemical, thermal and biological treatments to reduce the impact of hazardous wastes on public health and the environment. We will close the Unit by explaining some of the techniques for hazardous waste minimisation and pollution prevention and touching upon the prevailing hazardous waste management practices in India.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this Unit, you should be able to:
identify and classify hazardous wastes; explain the techniques of hazardous waste management, treatment and minimisation; describe the physical, chemical, thermal and biological methods of treating hazardous waste; adopt waste minimisation and pollution prevention techniques.
9.1
HAZARDOUS WASTE: IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION
Hazardous wastes refer to wastes that may, or tend to, cause adverse health effects on the ecosystem and human beings. These wastes pose present or potential risks to human health or living organisms, due to the fact that they: are non-degradable or persistent in nature; can be biologically magnified; are highly toxic and even lethal at very low concentrations.
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The above list relates only to the intrinsic hazard of the waste, under uncontrolled release, to the environment, regardless of quantity or pathways to humans or other critical organisms (i.e., plants and animals). The criteria used to determine the nature of hazard include toxicity, phytotoxicity, genetic activity and bioconcentration. The threat to public health and the environment of a given hazardous waste is dependent on the quantity and characteristics of the waste involved. Wastes are secondary materials, which are generally classified into six categories as inherently waste: like materials, spent materials, sludges, byproducts, commercial chemical products and scrap metals. Solid wastes form a subset of all secondary materials and hazardous wastes form a subset of solid waste. However, note that certain secondary materials are not regulated as wastes, as they are recycled and reused. Figure 9.1 illustrates the relationship among secondary materials, solid wastes and hazardous wastes (http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/):
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Figure 9.1 Secondary Materials, Solid and Hazardous Wastes: Relationship
Note that for a material to be classified as a hazardous waste, it mus t also meet the criteria specified in the regulatory definition of solid waste, which we will study next. 9.1.1 Identification
By using either or both of the following criteria, we can identify as to whether or not a waste is hazardous: (i) The list provided by government agencies declaring that substance as hazardous. (ii) Characteristics such as ignitibility, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity of the substance. Let us now explain these two criteria.
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Listed hazardous wastes (priority chemicals) A specific list showing certain materials as hazardous wastes minimises the need to test wastes as well as simplifies waste determination. In other words, any waste that fits the definition of a listed waste is considered a hazardous waste. Four separate lists cover wastes from generic industrial processes, specific industrial sectors, unused pure chemical products and formulations that are either acutely toxic or toxic, and all hazardous waste regulations apply to these lists of wastes. We will describe these wastes, classified in the F, K, P, and U industrial waste codes, respectively, below (http://www2.kumc.edu/safety/kdhehw/hwg1_10.html#SectionIV): F-list: The F-list contains hazardous wastes from non-specific sources, that is, various industrial processes that may have generated the waste. The list consists of solvents commonly used in degreasing, metal treatment baths and sludges, wastewaters from metal plating operations and dioxin containing chemicals or their precursors. Examples of solvents that are F-listed hazardous wastes, along with their code numbers, include benzene (F005), carbon tetrachloride (F001), cresylic acid (F004), methyl ethyl ketone (F005), methylene chloride (F001), 1,1,1, trichloroethane (F001), toluene (F005) and trichloroethylene (F001). Solvent mixtures or blends, which contain greater than 10% of one or more of the solvents listed in F001, F002, F003, F004 and F005 are also considered F-listed wastes. K-list: The K-list contains hazardous wastes generated by specific industrial processes. Examples of industries, which generate K-listed wastes include wood preservation, pigment production, chemical production, petroleum refining, iron and steel production, explosive manufacturing and pesticide production. P and U lists: The P and U lists contain discarded commercial chemical products, off-specification chemicals, container residues and residues from the spillage of materials. These two lists include commercial pure grades of the chemical, any technical grades of the chemical that are produced or marketed, and all formulations in which the chemical is the sole active ingredient. An example of a P or U listed hazardous waste is a pesticide,
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which is not used during its shelf-life and requires to be disposed in bulk. The primary distinction between the two lists is the quantity at which the chemical is regulated. The P-list consists of acutely toxic wastes that are regulated when the quantity generated per month, or accumulated at any time, exceeds one kilogram (2.2 pounds), while U-listed hazardous wastes are regulated when the quantity generated per month exceeds 25 kilograms (55 pounds). Examples of businesses that typically generate P or U listed wastes include pesticide applicators, laboratories and chemical formulators. Characteristics of hazardous wastes The regulations define characteristic hazardous wastes as wastes that exhibit measurable properties posing sufficient threats to warrant regulation. For a waste to be deemed a characteristic hazardous waste, it must cause, or significantly contribute to, an increased mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or incapacitating reversible illness, or pose a substantial hazard or threat of a hazard to human health or the environment, when it is improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise mismanaged. In other words, if the wastes generated at a facility are not listed in the F, K, P, or U lists, the final step to determine whether a waste is hazardous is to evaluate it against the following 4 hazardous characteristics: (i) Ignitability (EPA Waste Identification Number D001): A waste is an ignitable hazardous waste, if it has a flash point of less than 60 C; readily catches fire and burns so vigorously as to create a hazard; or is an ignitable compressed gas or an oxidiser. A simple method of determining the flash point of a waste is to review the material safety data sheet, which can be obtained from the manufacturer or distributor of the material. Naphtha, lacquer thinner, epoxy resins, adhesives and oil based paints are all examples of ignitable hazardous wastes. (ii) Corrosivity (EPA Waste Identification Number D002): A liquid waste which has a pH of less than or equal to 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5 is
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considered to be a corrosive hazardous waste. Sodium hydroxide, a caustic solution with a high pH, is often used by many industries to clean or degrease metal parts. Hydrochloric acid, a solution with a low pH, is used by many industries to clean metal parts prior to painting. When these caustic or acid solutions are disposed of, the waste is a corrosive hazardous waste. (iii) Reactivity (EPA Waste Identification Number D003): A material is considered a reactive hazardous waste, if it is unstable, reacts violently with water, generates toxic gases when exposed to water or corrosive materials, or if it is capable of detonation or explosion when exposed to heat or a flame. Examples of reactive wastes would be waste gunpowder, sodium metal or wastes containing cyanides or sulphides. (iv) Toxicity (EPA Waste Identification Number D004): To determine if a waste is a toxic hazardous waste, a representative sample of the material must be subjected to a test conducted in a certified laboratory. The toxic characteristic identifies wastes that are likely to leach dangerous concentrations of toxic chemicals into ground water. 9.1.2 Classification
From a practical standpoint, there are far too many compounds, products and product combinations that fit within the broad definition of hazardous waste. For this reason, groups of waste are considered in the following five general categories: (i) Radioactive substance: Substances that emit ionising radiation are radioactive. Such substances are hazardous because prolonged exposure to radiation often results in damage to living organisms. Radioactive substances are of special concern because they persist for a long period. The period in which radiation occurs is commonly measured and expressed as half-life, i.e., the time required for the radioactivity of a given amount of the substance to decay to half its initial value. For example, uranium
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compounds have half-lives that range from 72 years for U 232 to 23,420,000 years for U236. The management of radioactive wastes is highly controlled by national and state regulatory agencies. Disposal sites that are used for the long-term storage of radioactive wastes are not used for the disposal of any other solid waste. (ii) Chemicals: Most hazardous chemical wastes can be classified into four groups: synthetic organics, inorganic metals, salts, acids and bases, and flammables and explosives. Some of the chemicals are hazardous because they are highly toxic to most life forms. When such hazardous compounds are present in a waste stream at levels equal to, or greater than, their threshold levels, the entire waste stream is identified as hazardous. (iii) Biomedical wastes: The principal sources of hazardous biological wastes are hospitals and biological research facilities. The ability to infect other living organisms and the ability to produce toxins are the most significant characteristics of hazardous biological wastes. This group mainly includes malignant tissues discarded during surgical procedures and contaminated materials, such as hypodermic needles, bandages and outdated drugs. This waste can also be generated as a by-product of industrial biological conversion processes. (iv) Flammable wastes: Most flammable wastes are also identified as hazardous chemical wastes. This dual grouping is necessary because of the high potential hazard in storing, collecting and disposing of flammable wastes. These wastes may be liquid, gaseous or solid, but most often they are liquids. Typical examples include organic solvents, oils, plasticisers and organic sludges. (v) Explosives: Explosive hazardous wastes are mainly ordnance (artillery) materials, i.e., the wastes resulting from ordnance manufacturing and some industrial gases. Similar to flammables, these wastes also have a high potential for hazard in storage, collection and disposal, and therefore, they
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should be considered separately in addition to being listed as hazardous chemicals. These wastes may exist in solid, liquid or gaseous form. vi) Household hazardous wastes: Household wastes such as cleaning chemicals, batteries, nail polish etc in MSW constitute hazardous waste. Especially batteries contain mercury which are alkaline which is dangerous enough to kill people. Generic household hazardous material include non chlorinated organic, chlorinated organic, pesticides, latex paint, oil based paints, waste oil, automobile battery and household battery.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 9.1

Identify the characteristics of a major hazardous waste generated in your locality. Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below. b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
We will discuss the management of hazardous waste, which is different from the management of other solid wastes due to hazardous nature of wastes, next.
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9.2
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT
Hazardous waste management, as is the case with non-hazardous solid waste management, which we studied earlier, consists of several functional elements. We will discuss these elements in Subsections 9.2.1 to 9.2.5. 9.2.1 Generation
Hazardous wastes are generated in limited amounts in a community and very little information is available on the quantities of hazardous waste generated within a community and in various industries. Hazardous waste generation outside the industry is irregular and very less in amount, rendering the waste generation parameter meaningless. The only practical means to overcome these limitations is to conduct a detailed inventory and measurement studies at each potential source in a community. As a first step in developing a community inventory, potential sources of hazardous waste are to be identified. The total annual quantity of hazardous waste at any given source in a community must be established through data inventory completed during onsite visits. Table 9.1 below presents a list of hazardous waste generation sources:
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Table 9.1 Common Hazardous Wastes: Community Source

Waste Category Radioactive substances Source s Biomedical research facilities, colleges and university laboratories, offices, hospitals, nuclear power plants, etc. Agricultural chemic al companies, battery shops, car washes, chemical s hops, college and university laborat ories, construction companies, electric utilities, hospitals and clinics, industrial c ooling towers, news paper and photographic solutions, nuclear power plants, pest control agencies, photographic proc essing facilities, plating shops, servic e stations, etc. Biomedical research facilities, drug companies, hospitals, medical clinics, etc. Dry cleaners, petroleum reclamation plants, petroleum refining and proc essing facilities, service stations, tanker truck cleaning stations, etc. Construction companies, dry cleaners, ammunition production facilities, etc.
Toxic chemicals
Biological wastes
Flammable wastes
Explosives
Source: Tchob anoglous, et al., (1977 and 1993)
In addition to the sources listed, the spillage of containerised hazardous waste must also be considered an important source. The quantities of hazardous wastes that are involved in spillage are usually not known. The effects of spillage are often spectacular and visible to the community. Because the occurrence of spillage cannot be predicted, the potential threat to human health and environment is greater than that from routinely generated hazardous wastes. 9.2.2 Storage and collection
Onsite storage practices are a function of the types and amounts of hazardous wastes generated and the period over which generation occurs. Usually, when large quantities are generated, special facilities are used that have sufficient capacity to hold wastes accumulated over a period of several days. When only a small amount is generated, the waste can be containerised, and limited quantity may be stored. Containers and facilities used in hazardous waste storage and handling are selected on the basis of waste characteristics. For example,
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corrosive acids or caustic solutions are stored in fibreglass or glass-lined containers to prevent deterioration of metals in the container. Great care must also be exercised to avoid storing incompatible wastes in the same container or locations. Figures 9.2 and 9.3 show typical drum containers used for the storage of hazardous waste: Figure 9.2 Light-Gauge Closed Head Drum
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Figure 9.3 Light-Gauge Open Head Drum
The waste generator, or a specialised hauler, generally collects the hazardous waste for delivery to a treatment or disposal site. The loading of collection vehicles is completed in either of the following ways: (i) Wastes stored in large-capacity tanks are either drained or pumped into collection vehicles; (ii) Wastes stored in sealed drums or sealed containers are loaded by hand or by mechanical equipment onto flatbed trucks.
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The stored containers are transported unopened to the treatment and disposal facility. To avoid accidents and the possible loss of life, two collectors should be assigned when hazardous wastes are to be collected. The equipment used for collection vary with the waste characteristics, and the typical collection equipment are listed in Table 9.2 below: Table 9.2 Equipment for Collection of Hazardous Waste
Waste Category
Collection equipment and accessories Various types of trucks and railroad equipment depending on characteristics of wastes; special marking to show safety hazard; heavy loading equipment to handle concrete-encased lead containers. Flatbed trucks for wastes stored in drums; tractor-trailer tank truck combination for large volumes of wastes; railroad tank cars; special interior linings such as glass, fibreglass or rubber. Standard packers collection truck with some special precautions to prevent contact between wastes and the collector; flatbed trucks for wastes stored in drums. Same as those for toxic chemicals, with special colourings and safety warning print ed on vehicles. Same as those for toxic chemicals with some restriction on transport rout es, especially through residential areas.
Radioactive substances
Toxic chemicals
Biological wastes
Flammable wastes
Explosives
Note that for short-haul distances, drum storage and collection with a flatbed truck is often used. As hauling distances increase, the larger tank trucks, trailers and railroad tank cars are used.
9.2.3
Transfer and transport
The economic benefits derived by transferring smaller vehicle loads to larger vehicles, as discussed for non-hazardous solid waste in Unit 3, are equally
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applicable to hazardous wastes. However, the facilities of a hazardous waste transfer station are quite different from solid waste transfer station. Typically, hazardous wastes are not compacted (i.e., mechanical volume reduction) or delivered by numerous community residents. Instead, liquid hazardous wastes are generally pumped from collection vehicles and sludge or solids are reloaded without removal from the collection containers for transport to processing and disposal facilities. It is unusual to find a hazardous waste transfer facility, where wastes are simply transferred to larger transport vehicles. Some processing and storage facilities are often part of the material handling sequence at a transfer station. For example, neutralisation of corrosive wastes might result in the use of a lower-cost holding tank on transport vehicles. As in the case of storage (see Subsection 9.2.3 above), great care must be exercised to avoid the danger of mixing incompatible wastes. 9.2.4 Processing
Processing of hazardous waste is done for purposes of recovering useful materials and preparing the wastes for disposal. Processing can be accomplished on-site or off-site. The variables affecting the selection of processing site include the characteristics of wastes, the quantity of wastes, the technical, economical and environmental aspects of available on-site treatment processes and the availability of the nearest off-site treatment facility (e.g., haul distance, fees, and exclusions). The treatment of hazardous waste can be accomplished by physical, chemical, thermal or biological means. Table 9.3 below gives the various individual processes in each category:
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Table 9.3 Hazardous Waste Treatment Operations and Processes
Source: Tchob anoglous, et al., (1977, 1993)

$ *
Functions: VR= volume reduction; Se = separation; De = detoxification; St = storage; Waste types: 1= inorganic chemical without heavy metals; 2 = inorganic chemical with heavy metal; 3 = organic chemical without heavy metal; 4 = organic chemical with heavy metal; 5= radiological; 6 = biological; 7= flammable and 8= explosive; # Waste forms: S=solid; L= liquid and G= gas
Note that in practice, the physical, chemical and thermal treatment operations are the most commonly used. (Biological treatment processes are used less often because of their sensitivity.) Depending on the type of wastes being treated, one
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or more of these methods may be used. We will explain some of these methods later in Section 9.3. 9.2.5 Disposal
Regardless of their form (i.e., solid, liquid, or gas), most hazardous waste is disposed off either near the surface or by deep burial. Table 9.4 shows the various hazardous waste disposal methods: Table 9.4 Hazardous Wastes Disposal and Storage Methods
Functions: Di= disposal; St = storage; * Waste types: 1= inorganic chemical without heavy metals; 2 = inorganic chemical with heavy metal; 3 = organic chemical without heavy metal; 4 = organic chemical with heavy metal; 5= radiological; 6 = b iological; 7= flammab le and 8= explosive. # Waste form: S=solid; L= liquid and G= gas
Although, controlled landfill methods have been proved adequate for disposing of municipal solid waste and limited amounts of hazardous waste, they are not suitable enough for the disposal of a large quantity of hazardous waste, due to the following reasons:
possible percolation of toxic liquid waste to the ground water; dissolution of solids followed by leaching and percolation to the ground water; dissolution of solid hazardous wastes by acid leachate from solid waste, followed by leaching and percolation to the ground water; potential for undesirable reactions in the landfill that may lead to the development of explosive or toxic gases;
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volatilisation of hazardous waste leading to the release of toxic or explosive vapours to the atmosphere; corrosion of containers with hazardous wastes. We must, therefore, take care both in the selection of a hazardous waste disposal site and its design. In general, disposal sites for hazardous wastes should be separate from those for municipal solid wastes. As hazardous wastes can exist in the form of liquids, sludges, solids and dusts, a correct approach for co-disposal for each of the hazardous wastes should be determined. To avoid the co-disposal of incompatible wastes, separate storage areas within the total landfill site should be designated for various classes of compatible wastes (Phelps, et al., 1995). Liquid wastes are usually stored in a tank near the site and can be introduced into the landfill by means of trenches or lagoons, injection or irrigation. Sludges are also placed in trenches. During disposal of lightweight wastes, the disposal area must be kept wet to prevent dust emissions. Hazardous solid waste characterised by a high degree of impermeability as such must not be disposed of over large areas. When containerised wastes are to be disposed of, precautions must be taken to avoid the rupturing of containers during the unloading operation and the placement of incompatible waste in the same location. To avoid rupturing, the containers are unloaded and placed in position individually. The covering of the containers with earth should be monitored and controlled carefully to ensure that a soil layer exists between each container and the equipment placing the soil does not crush or deform the container. While designing a landfill site for hazardous waste, provision should be made to prevent any leachate escaping from landfill site. This requires a clay liner, and in some cases, both clay and impermeable membrane liners are used. A layer of limestone is placed at the bottom of the landfill to neutralise the pH of leachate. A final soil cover of 25 cm or more should be placed over the liner. The completed site should be monitored continuously, both visually and with sample wells.
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Suggest the ways and means of properly managing hazardous wastes. Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below. b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
Hazardous waste options A three stage hierarchy of options for handling hazardous wastes are: 1) The top tier includes in plant options such as process manipulation, recycle and reuse options that reduce the production of hazardous waste in the first place. It also contains most desirable options. 2) Middle stage highlights processes that convert hazardous waste to less hazardous or non hazardous substances that include a) Incineration b) Land treatment c) Ocean and atmospheric assimilation
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d) Chemical, physical and biological treatments e) Thermal treatments 3) Last stage which is least preferred or desirable tier that is perpetual storage cheapest alternative. Few process include landfill, underground injection, arid region unsaturated zone, surface impoundments, salt formations and waste piles.
9.3
HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT
In Section 9.2, we discussed the various elements of hazardous waste management such as generation, storage and transport, transfer and transport, processing and disposal. Processing is mainly done to recover useful products and to prepare waste for disposal. But prior to disposal, hazardous wastes need appropriate treatment, depending on the type of waste. The various options for hazardous waste treatment can be categorised under physical, chemical, thermal and biological treatments. We will discuss these options, in Subsections 9.3.1 to 9.3.3. 9.3.1 Physical and chemical treatment
Physical and chemical treatments are an essential part of most hazardous waste treatment operations, and the treatments include the following (Freeman, 1988): (i) Filtration and separation: Filtration is a method for separating solid particles from a liquid using a porous medium. The driving force in filtration is a pressure gradient, caused by gravity, centrifugal force, vacuum, or pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. The application of filtration for treatment of hazardous waste fall into the following categories: Clarification, in which suspended solid particles less than 100 ppm (parts per million) concentration are removed from an aqueous stream. This is usually accomplished by depth filtration and cross-flow filtration
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and the primary aim is to produce a clear aqueous effluent, which can either be discharged directly, or further processed. The suspended solids are concentrated in a reject stream. Dewatering of slurries of typically 1% to 30 % solids by weight. Here, the aim is to concentrate the solids into a phase or solid form for disposal or further treatment. This is usually accomplished by cake filtration. The filtration treatment, for example, can be used for neutralisation of strong acid with lime or limestone, or precipitation of dissolved heavy metals as carbonates or sulphides followed by settling and thickening of the resulting precipitated solids as slurry. The slurry can be dewatered by cake filtration and the effluent from the settling step can be filtered by depth filtration prior to discharge. (ii) Chemical precipitation: This is a process by which the soluble substance is converted to an insoluble form either by a chemical reaction or by change in the composition of the solvent to diminish the solubility of the substance in it. Settling and/or filtration can then remove the precipitated solids. In the treatment of hazardous waste, the process has a wide applicability in the removal of toxic metal from aqueous wastes by converting them to an insoluble form. This includes wastes containing arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium and zinc. The sources of wastes containing metals are metal plating and polishing, inorganic pigment, mining and the electronic industries. Hazardous wastes containing metals are also generated from cleanup of uncontrolled hazardous waste sites, e.g., leachate or contaminated ground water. (iii) Chemical oxidation and reduction (redox): In these reactions, the
oxidation state of one reactant is raised, while that of the other reactant is lowered. When electrons are removed from an ion, atom, or molecule, the substance is oxidised and when electrons are added to a substance, it is reduced. Such reactions are used in treatment of metal-bearing wastes, sulphides, cyanides and chromium and in the treatment of many organic wastes such as phenols, pesticides and sulphur containing compounds. Since these treatment processes involve chemical reactions, both reactants
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are generally in solution. However, in some cases, a solution reacts with a slightly soluble solid or gas. There are many chemicals, which are oxidising agents; but relatively few of them are used for waste treatment. Some of the commonly used oxidising agents are sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, calcium hypochlorite, potassium permanganate and ozone. Reducing agents are used to treat wastes containing hexavalent chromium, mercury, organometallic compounds and chelated metals. Some of the compounds used as reducing agents are sulphur dioxide, sodium borohydride, etc. In general, chemical treatment costs are highly influenced by the chemical cost. This oxidation and reduction treatment tends to be more suitable for low concentration (i.e., less than 1%) in wastes. (iv) Solidification and stabilisation: In hazardous waste management, solidification and stabilisation (S/S) is a term normally used to designate a technology employing activities to reduce the mobility of pollutants, thereby making the waste acceptable under current land disposal requirements. Solidification and stabilisation are treatment processes designed to improve waste handling and physical characteristics, decrease surface area across which pollutants can transfer or leach, limit the solubility or detoxify the hazardous constituent. To understand this technology, it is important for us to understand the following terms: Solidification: This refers to a process in which materials are added to the waste to produce a solid. It may or may not involve a chemical bonding between the toxic contaminant and the additive. Stabilisation: This refers to a process by which a waste is converted to a more chemically stable form. Subsuming solidification, stabilisation represents the use of a chemical reaction to transform the toxic component to a new, non-toxic compound or substance. Chemical fixation: This implies the transformation of toxic
contaminants to a new non-toxic compound. The term has been
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misused to describe processes, which do not involve chemical bonding of the contaminant to the binder. Encapsulation: This is a process involving the complete coating or enclosure of a toxic particle or waste agglomerate with a new substance (e.g., S/S additive or binder). The encapsulation of the individual particles is known as micro-encapsulation, while that of an agglomeration of waste particles or micro-encapsulated materials is known as macro-encapsulation. In S/S method, some wastes can be mixed with filling and binding agents to obtain a dischargeable product. This rather simple treatment can only be used for waste with chemical properties suitable for landfilling. With regard to wastes with physical properties, it changes only the physical properties, but is unsuitable for landfilling. The most important application of this technology, however, is the solidification of metal-containing waste. S/S technology could potentially be an important alternative technology with a major use being to treat wastes in order to make them acceptable for land disposal. Lower permeability, lower contaminant leaching rate and such similar characteristics may make hazardous wastes acceptable for land disposal after stabilisation. (v) Evaporation: Evaporation is defined as the conversion of a liquid from a solution or slurry into vapour. All evaporation systems require the transfer of sufficient heat from a heating medium to the process fluid to vaporise the volatile solvent. Evaporation is used in the treatment of hazardous waste and the process equipment is quite flexible and can handle waste in various forms aqueous, slurries, sludges and tars. Evaporation is commonly used as a pre-treatment method to decrease quantities of material for final treatment. It is also used in cases where no other treatment method was found to be practical, such as in the concentration of trinitrotoluene (TNT) for subsequent incineration. (vi) Ozonation: Ozone is a relatively unstable gas consisting of three oxygen atoms per molecule (O 3) and is one of the strongest oxidising agents
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known. It can be substituted for conventional oxidants such as chlorine, hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate. Ozone and UV radiations have been used to detoxify industrial organic wastes, containing aromatic and aliphatic polychlorinated compounds, ketones and alcohols. 9.3.2 Thermal treatment
The two main thermal treatments used with regard to hazardous wastes are: (i) Incineration: Incineration can be regarded as either a pre-treatment of hazardous waste, prior to final disposal or as a means of valorising waste by recovering energy. It includes both the burning of mixed solid waste or burning of selected parts of the waste stream as a fuel. The concept of treating hazardous waste is similar to that of municipal solid waste (see Unit 8). (ii) Pyrolysis: This is defined as the chemical decomposition or change brought about by heating in the absence of oxygen. This is a thermal process for transformation of solid and liquid carbonaceous materials into gaseous components and the solid residue containing fixed carbon and ash. The application of pyrolysis to hazardous waste treatment leads to a two-step process for disposal. In the first step, wastes are heated separating the volatile contents (e.g., combustible gases, water vapour, etc.) from non-volatile char and ash. In the second step volatile components are burned under proper conditions to assure incineration of all hazardous components (Freeman, M. H. et al., 1988). To elaborate, pyrolysis is applicable to hazardous waste treatment, as it provides a precise control of the combustion process. The first step of pyrolysis treatment is endothermic and generally done at 425 to 760 C. The heating chamber is called the pyrolyser. Hazardous organic compounds can be volatilised at this low temperature, leaving a clean residue. In the second step, the volatiles are burned in a fume incinerator to achieve destruction efficiency of more than 99%. Separating the process into two
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very controllable steps allows precise temperature control and makes it possible to build simpler equipment. The pyrolysis process can be applied to solids, sludges and liquid wastes. Wastes with the following characteristics are especially amenable to pyrolysis: Sludge material that is either too viscous, too abrasive or varies too much in consistency to be atomised in an incinerator. Wastes such as plastic, which undergo partial or complete phase changes during thermal processing. High-residue materials such as high-ash liquid and sludges, with light, easily entrained solids that will generally require substantial stack gas clean up. Materials containing salts and metals, which melt and volatilise at normal incineration temperatures. Materials like sodium chloride (NaCl), zinc (Zn) and lead (Pb), when incinerated may cause refractory spalling and fouling of the heat-exchanger surface. 9.3.3 Biological treatment
On the basis of the fact that hazardous materials are toxic to living beings, it is not uncommon for some to assume that biological treatment is not possible for hazardous wastes. This assumption is untenable, and, in fact, we must aggressively seek biological treatment in order to exploit the full potential of hazardous wastes in terms of removal efficiency and cost (Freeman, et al., 1988). Against this background, let us now list some of the techniques used for biological treatment of hazardous waste: (i) Land treatment: This is a waste treatment and disposal process, where a waste is mixed with or incorporated into the surface soil and is degraded, transformed or immobilised through proper management. The other terminologies used commonly include land cultivation, land farming, land application and sludge spreading. Compared to other land disposal options (e.g., landfill and surface impoundments), land treatment has lower longterm monitoring, maintenance and potential clean up liabilities and because
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of this, it has received considerable attention as an ultimate disposal method. It is a dynamic, management-intensive process involving waste, site, soil, climate and biological activity as a system to degrade and immobilise waste constituents. In land treatment, the organic fraction must be biodegradable at reasonable rates to minimise environmental problems associated with migration of hazardous waste constituents. The various factors involved in the operation of the system are as follows: Waste characteristics: Biodegradable wastes are suitable for land treatment. Radioactive wastes, highly volatile, reactive, flammable liquids and inorganic wastes such as heavy metals, acids and bases, cyanides and ammonia are not considered for land treatment. Land treatability of organic compound often follows a predictable pattern for similar type of compounds. Chemical structure, molecular weight, water solubility and vapour pressure are few of the characteristics that determine the ease of biodegradation. Soil characteristics: The rate of biodegradation and leaching of waste applied, the availability of nutrients and toxicants to microorganisms and the fate of hazardous waste constituents are determined largely by application rate as well as the soils chemical and physical characteristics or reaction. Principal soil characteristics affecting land treatment processes are pH, salinity, aeration, moisture holding capacity, soil temperature, etc. Some of the characteristics can be improved through soil amendments (e.g., nutrients, lime, etc.), tillage or through adjustments of loading rate, frequency, etc., at the time of waste application. Microorganisms: Soil normally contains a large number of diverse microorganisms, consisting of several groups that are predominantly aerobic in well-drained soil. The types and population of microorganisms present in the waste-amended soil depend on the soil moisture content, available oxygen, nutrient composition and other
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characteristics. The key groups of the microorganisms present in the surface soil are bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae and protozoa. In addition to these groups, other micro and macro fauna, such as nematodes and insects are often present. Waste degradation: Conditions favourable for plant growth are also favourable for the activity of soil microorganisms. The factors affecting waste degradation that (may be adjusted in the design and operation of a land treatment facility) are soil pH (near 7), soil moisture content (usually between 30 to 90 %), soil temperature (activity decreases below 10 C) and nutrients.
(ii)
Enzymatic systems: Enzymes are complex proteins ubiquitous in nature. These proteins, composed of amino acids, are linked together via peptide bonds. Enzymes capable of transforming hazardous waste chemicals to non-toxic products can be harvested from microorganisms grown in mass culture. Such crude enzyme extracts derived from microorganisms have been shown to convert pesticides into less toxic and persistent products. The reaction of detoxifying enzymes are not limited to intracellular conditions but have been demonstrated through the use of immobilised enzyme extracts on several liquid waste streams. The factors of moisture, temperature, aeration, soil structure, organic matter content, seasonal variation and the availability of soil nutrients influence the presence and abundance of enzymes.
(iii)
Composting: The principles involved in composting organic hazardous wastes are the same as those in the composting of all organic materials (See Unit 8), though with moderate modifications. The microbiology of hazardous wastes differs from that of composting in the use of inoculums. The reaction is that certain types of hazardous waste molecules can be degraded by only one or a very few microbial species, which may not be widely distributed or abundant in nature. The factors important in composting of hazardous wastes are those that govern all biological reactions. The principal physical parameters are the shape and dimensions of the particles of the material to be composted and the environmental
409
factors of interest in an operation are temperature, pH, available oxygen, moisture, and nutrient availability. As we studied in Unit 7, the compost technology can be divided into two broad classes windrow (open pile) and in-vessel (enclosed), and the former may be further subdivided into turned and forced aeration (static pile). Composting, by no means, is a panacea for the hazardous waste problem. When considering the future of hazardous waste composting needs, attention must be paid to the advantages and disadvantages inherent in composting as compared to those inherent in physical, chemical and thermal method of waste treatment. (iv) Aerobic and anaerobic treatment: Hazardous materials are present in low to high concentration in wastewaters, leachate and soil. These wastes are characterised by high organic content (e.g., up to 40,000 mg/l total organic carbon), low and high pH (2 to 12), elevated salt levels (sometimes, over 5%), and presence of heavy metals and hazardous organics. Hazardous wastes can be treated using either aerobic or anaerobic treatment methods. In aerobic treatment, under proper conditions, microorganisms grow. They need a carbon and energy source, which many hazardous wastes satisfy, nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and trace metals and a source of oxygen. Some organisms can use oxidised inorganic compounds (e.g. nitrate) as a substitute for oxygen. Care is to be taken such that all the required nutrients and substances are supplied in sufficient quantities. Temperature and pH must be controlled as needed and the substances that are toxic to the organisms (e.g., heavy metals) must be removed. Anaerobic treatment is a sequential biologically destructive process in which hydrocarbons are converted, in the absence of free oxygen, from complex to simpler molecules, and ultimately to carbon dioxide and methane. The process is mediated through enzyme catalysis and depends on maintaining a balance of population within a specific set of
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environmental conditions. Hazardous waste streams often consist of hydrocarbons leading to higher concentrations of chemical oxygen demand (COD). Depending upon the nature of waste, the organic constituents may be derived from a single process stream or from a mixture of streams. The treatability of the waste depends upon the susceptibility of the hydrocarbon content to anaerobic biological degradation, and on the ability of the organisms to resist detrimental effect of biologically recalcitrant and toxic organic and inorganic chemicals. The metabolic interactions among the various groups of organisms are essential for the successful and complete mineralisation of the organic molecules. Various parameters such as the influent quality, the biological activity of the reactor and the quality of the reactor environment are monitored to maintain efficient operating conditions within the reactor.
411

Explain the factors required for land treatment operation of hazardous wastes. Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below. b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
9.4
POLLUTION PREVENTION AND WASTE MINIMISATION
Pollution prevention is the use of materials, processes, or practices that reduce or eliminate the generation of pollutants or wastes at the source. It includes practices that reduce the use of hazardous and non-hazardous materials, energy, water or other resources as well as those that protect natural resources through conservation or more efficient use. Pollution prevention is the maximum
412
feasible reduction of all wastes generated at production sites. It involves the judicious use of resources through source reduction, energy efficiency, reuse of input materials and reduces water consumption. Waste minimisation means the feasible reduction of hazardous waste that is generated prior to treatment, storage and disposal. It is defined as any source reduction or recycling activity that results in the reduction of the total volume of hazardous waste, or toxicity of hazardous waste, or both. Practices that are considered in waste minimisation include recycling, source separation, product substitution, manufacturing process changes and the use of less toxic raw materials. Pollution prevention and waste minimisation provides us with an opportunity to be environmentally responsible (http://www.ehs.umaryland.edu/waste/pollutio.htm). While pollution prevention reduces waste at its source, waste minimisation, including recycling and other methods, reduces the amount of waste. In what follows, we will look at some of the factors that can contribute to pollution prevention and waste minimisation. (i) Management support and employee participation: A clear commitment by management (through policy, communications and resources) for waste minimisation and pollution prevention is essential to earn the dedication of all employees. For this to happen, a formal policy statement must be drafted and adopted. The purpose of this statement is to reflect commitment and attitude towards protecting the environment, minimising or eliminating waste and reusing or recycling materials by the laboratories, departments and industries. Creative, progressive and responsible leadership will serve to develop an environmental policy. However, the total employee workforce will need to be involved to realise the fruits of the planning. (ii) Training: As with any activity, it is important for management to train employees so that they will have an understanding of what is expected of them and why they are being asked to change the way things are done.
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Employees must be provided with formal and on-the-job training to increase awareness of operating practices that reduce both solid and hazardous waste generation. The training programme should include the industries compliance requirements, which may be found in the waste management policies, occupational health and safety requirements. Additionally, training on waste minimisation and pollution prevention is necessary. (iii) Waste audits: A programme of waste audits at the departmental level will provide a systematic and periodic survey of the industries designed to identify areas of potential waste reduction. The audit programme includes the identification of hazardous wastes and their sources, prioritisation of various waste reduction actions to be undertaken, evaluation of some technically, economically and ecologically feasible approaches to waste minimisation and pollution prevention, development of an economic comparison of waste minimisation and pollution prevention options and evaluation of their results. (iv) Good operating practices: These practices involve the procedural or organisational aspects of industry, research or teaching activities and, in some areas, changes in operating practices, in order to reduce the amount of waste generated. These practices would include, at a minimum, material handling improvements, preventive scheduling improvements, corrective spill and leak prevention, maintenance, maintenance,
material/waste tracking or inventory control and waste stream segregation, according to the toxicity, type of contaminant and physical state. (v) Material substitution practices: The purpose of these practices is to find substitute materials, which are less hazardous than those currently utilised and which result in the generation of waste in smaller quantities and/or of less toxicity. (vi) Technological modification practices: These practices should be oriented towards process and equipment modifications to reduce waste generation. These can range from changes that can be implemented in a
414
matter of days at low cost to the replacement of process equipment involving large capital expenditures. (vii) Recycling options: These options are characterised as use/reuse and resource recovery techniques. Use and reuse practices involve the return of a waste material either to the originating process or to another process as a substitute for an input material. Reclamation practices tender a waste to another company. (viii) Surplus chemical waste exchange options: Inter- and intra-department chemical exchange is to be implemented and encouraged by employers/employees. Material exchanges not only reduce wastes but also save money both are important considerations, during times of fiscal crisis. In addition, by auditing each department or section, a knowledge base of chemical purchase and usage can be developed, allowing each department to develop and implement controls on the purchase of chemicals, institute intradepartmental chemical sharing/swapping programmes and eliminate excessive purchase and usage. Research protocols should also be examined and modified in a manner similar to the above. Facility operations need to be examined to determine whether changes in practices and procedures will result in the generation of nonhazardous or less hazardous waste, or waste reduced in toxicity or volume. The specifics to be considered in this context include the substitution of non-toxic materials for toxic ones, distillation or evaporation of water-based chemical endproducts, reclamation and reuse of common solvents, use of non-chromate cleaners as a standard part of doing business to generate non-hazardous end products. By implementing and adhering to the guidelines for handling and storing wastes at the point of generation, the costs associated with hazardous waste disposal will also be minimised.
415

Explain the advantages of waste minimisation and pollution prevention. Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below. b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
9.5
HAZARDOUS WASTES MANAGEMENT IN INDIA
In the USA, more than 70% of the hazardous waste generated was produced from chemical and petrochemical industries. Of the remaining waste produced, 22% was generated by metal related industries. As industrialisation proceeds, the management of hazardous wastes is increasingly becoming a serious
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problem in India as well. The Indian chemical industry, which accounts for about 13% of the total industrial production and about 10% of the GNP valued at US $ 2.64 X 1011 (NNP is US $ 2.345 X 1011) per annum, employs about 6% of the nation's industrial workforce and is one of the major generators of toxic and hazardous wastes. There are 13,011 industrial units located in 340 districts, out of which 11,038 units have been granted authorization for multiple disposal practices encompassing incineration, storage land disposal and other disposal options. However, small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) are the major sources of hazardous wastes. And, the States of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu generate the majority of all hazardous wastes. The total estimate of hazardous waste generated in India is 4,434,257 tonnes per annum. India is the first country that has made provisions for the protection and improvement of environment in its Constitution. The Directive Principles of State Policy of the Constitution, Article 48-A of Chapter IV enjoins the State to make endeavor for protection and improvement of the environment and for safeguarding the forest and wild life of the country. In Article 51 A (g) of the Constitution, one of the Fundamental Duties of every citizen of India is to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures. India has enacted the following laws, regulations and standards governing the country's environmental protection: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 as amended in 1988. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules, 1975. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, as amended by Amendment Act, 1991. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1984, as amended by Amendment Act, 1987. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules 1982 and 1983. (vii) The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
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(viii) Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989 as amended in 2000. (ix) (x) Management, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989. Manufacture, 1989. (xi) The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991. (xii) The Public Liability Insurance Rules, 1991. (xiii) The Biomedical Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1995. (xiv) Municipal Wastes (Management and Handling) Draft Rules, 1999. (xv) Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules 2000. Because of these amendments, the legal management of hazardous substances in India will now apply to 44 industrial processes, as specified in Schedule I of the Rules. The penal provisions for non-compliance under Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Amended Rules 2000 and Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 are: Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms, Genetically Engineered Microorganisms or Cells Rules,
The State Pollution Control Board may cancel an authorisation issued under these rules or suspend it for such period as it thinks fit, if, in its opinion, the authorised person has failed to comply with any of the conditions of the authorisation or with any provisions of the Act of these rules, after giving the authorised person an opportunity to show cause and after recording reasons therefore. The occupier, transporter and operator of a facility shall be liable for damages caused to the environment resulting due to improper disposal of hazardous waste listed in Schedule 1, 2 and 3 of The Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2000. The occupier and operator of a facility shall also be liable to reinstate or restore damaged or destroyed elements of the environment. The occupier and operator of a facility shall be liable to pay a fine as levied by the SPCB with the approval of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for any violation of the provisions under these rules. An appeal shall lie against any order of grantor refusal of an authorisation by the Member Secretary, SPCB, etc., to the Secretary, Department of Environment of the State.
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Besides the aforementioned provisions for non-compliance(s), the Penalty Provisions, delineated under Sections 15 (1,2) and 16 of the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 are also applicable. Furthermore, the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests, through the Gazette Notification of March 24, 1992, introduced Public Liability Insurance Act Policy, which is specially designed to protect any person, firm, association, or company who owns or has control over handling any hazardous substance at the time of accident. These include 179 hazardous substances along with three categories of inflammable substances. The term handling means manufacturing, processing, treatment, packaging, storing, transportation by vehicle, use, collection, destruction, conversion, offering for sale, transfer or any other similar form of dealing with hazardous substances.
Hazardous waste (Management, Handling and transboundary movement) rules 2007. Hazardous Changes to the Hazardous waste Rules Existing Regulation The Ministry had notified the Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules,1989 as amended in 2000 and 2003 for regulating management and handling of hazardous waste. Based on the experience gained in the implementation of these Rules, the Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008 have been notified repealing the earlier Rules with a view to ensuring effective implementation. The Ministry has also provided financial assistance for strengthening the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) for facilitating implementation of the Rules. Financial assistance has also been provided for setting up Common Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facilities for hazardous waste management. In addition, the Ministry and the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) from time to time sponsor training programmes for creation of awareness about the provisions laid down in the Rules. The CPCB has also published guidelines on various aspects of the hazardous waste
419
management
for
ensuring
compliance
of
the
Rules.(source:
http://www.pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=44081) In new rules, categories of wastes banned for export and import had also been defined, fulfilling the Basel Convention, ratified by India in 1992. The basic objectives of the Basel Convention are for the control and reduction of transboundary movements of hazardous and other wastes subject to the Convention, prevention and minimization of their generation, environmentally sound management of such wastes and for active promotion of the transfer and use of cleaner technologies.
Current Scenario The hazardous waste generated in the country per annum currently is estimated to be around 8 million tonnes out of which 70% is being generated by five states, namely Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Only three States have developed common TSDF (Treatment, Storage, Disposal Facility), which are essential component of proper hazardous waste management activity for ultimate disposal of the hazardous wastes in an environmentally sound manner. These 10 facilities are currently operational only in Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. (Source: Central Pollution Control Board). Ground Reality Though the Hazardous Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules were notified in 1989, the implementation on the ground has left a lot to be desired. Lack of proper infrastructure and strict enforcement mechanism has led to hazardous waste still remaining a grave problem. New emerging wastes and loopholes in the current legislation have also contributed to this. There are still problems of hazardous waste not being managed in sound environmental conditions, improper dumping and lack of proper treatment and disposal facilities. However, the new draft claims to address sustainable development
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concerns and also enable the recovery and/or reuse of useful materials from hazardous materials generated from a process, thereby, reducing the hazardous wastes destined for final disposal and to ensure the environmentally sound management of all hazardous materials.Drawbacks for these new rules were mentioned in the Annexure I source: http://www.toxicslink.org/art-view.php?id=130
SUMMARY
In this Unit, our focus was on the management of hazardous wastes. We began the Unit with a discussion on the identification and classification of hazardous wastes, and in that context, explained the major identification lists (i.e., F, K, P and U), the characteristics (i.e., corrosivity, ignitability, toxicity and reactivity) and classifications (i.e., radioactive substances, chemicals, biological wastes, flammable wastes and explosives.) We then discussed the functional elements involved in hazardous waste management (i.e., generation, storage and collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal.) Subsequently, we explained how hazardous wastes could be treated through the physical, chemical, thermal and biological means to reduce their impact on public health and the environment. We then discussed some of the techniques for hazardous waste minimisation and pollution prevention. We closed the Unit by touching upon some aspects of hazardous waste management in India.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Areivala, S.J. 1971. Solid Wastes Disposal in India, Central/Public Health Engineering Institute. Nagpur. Asian Productivity Council, 2001. Hazardous waste Management: Policies and Practices in Asian Countries, Asian Productivity Council, Tokyo. Arne Vesilind, William Worrel and Reinhart Debra, 2002. Solid waste Engineering, Thomson Brooks/Cole, Singapore.
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Tchobaanoglous, G., Theisen, H., and Samuel A Vigil, 1993. Integrated Solid Waste Management, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New Delhi. Environmental Management in Developing Countries. 1995. Waste Management Vol II, Institute for Scientific Co-operation, Tubingen. Flinotoff, R.1984. Management of Solid Wastes in Developing countries , WHO Regional Publications, South east Asia Series No 1. Freeman, M. H.. 1988. Standard Handbook of Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Ramachandra T.V. and Saira Varghese K. 2004. Environmentally sound options for e-wastes management, ENVIS Journal of Human Settlements (ISSN 09719091), March 2004.
US Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. Decision-Maker's Guide to Solid Waste Management, Vol 1, Washington. US Environmental Protection Agency. 1995. Decision-Maker's Guide to Solid Waste Management, Vol II, Washington. http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/SWMTR/TR85.html http://www.pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=44081
REFERENCES
Freeman, M. H.1988. Standard Handbook of Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Phelps, H.O., Heinke. G. W., Jonker, J.F., Ouano, E.A.R. and Vandecasteele, C.1995. Management of Solid Wastes , UNESCO, Paris.
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Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H. and Eliassan, R. 1977. Solid WastesEngineering Principles and Management Issues , McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. http://www.ehs.umaryland.edu/waste/pollutio.htm http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/wm/HW/guides/HWIDGUIDE.P DF http://www2.kumc.edu/safety/kdhehw/hwg1_10.html#SectionIV
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Management of Solid Wastes
Lecture 9
Model Answers to Learning Activities
The major hazardous waste generated, though in small amounts, is that generated from garages and residences. There are 4 garages in operation in our locality and the major waste constituents that are considered hazardous include gas, fuel, antifreeze, brake fluid, motor oil, batteries, etc. Of these, the major one is motor oil. The 2 characteristics of motor oil are ignitability and toxicity. Motor oil readily causes fire and burns vigorously so as to create a hazard. The flash point varies in motor oil. The lower the flash point the greater the tendency for the oil to suffer vaporization loss at high temperatures and to burn off on hot cylinder walls and pistons. Toxicity of motor oil has a deleterious effect on aquatic animals and plants.

Management of hazardous waste follows the functional elements of solid waste, viz., generation, storage and collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal. Special facilities are used that have sufficient capacity to hold wastes accumulated over a period of several days. Small amounts are containerised, and limited quantities may be stored for periods covering months or years. The waste generator or a specialised hauler normally does the collection of hazardous wastes for delivery to a treatment or disposal facility. All storage containers remain unopened till they reach the treatment and disposal facility. Processing of waste can be done to recover useful materials and to prepare the wastes for disposal. Processing can be accomplished either on-site or off-site. Regardless of their forms, most hazardous wastes are disposed of either near the surface or by deep burial. When landfills are used for such wastes, precautions must be taken to avoid the rupturing of containers during the unloading operation and the placement of incompatible wastes in the same
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Unit 9: Hazardous Waste: Management and Treatment Model Answers to Learning Activities
location. Also provisions should be made to prevent any leachate from escaping from landfills, which can be done both visually and by monitoring wells.

The factors required for land treatment operation involve the consideration of waste and soil characteristics, microorganisms and waste degradation.

Waste minimisation means reduction, to the extent feasible, of hazardous waste that is generated prior to treatment storage and disposal. The advantages include reduction of the total volume and toxicity of hazardous waste or reduction in both. By using materials carefully so as to reduce the generation of waste, pollution is reduced, resources are conserved and costs of waste disposal are minimised. Pollution prevention is the use of materials, processes or practices that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollutants or wastes at the source. The advantages include reduction of the use of hazardous and non-hazardous materials, energy, water or other resources as well as those that protect natural resources through conservation or that is more efficient.
Annexure I This new revision is a major departure from the earlier amendments, as it talks about Hazardous Materials instead of Hazardous Waste. It categories recyclable hazardous waste as non-waste, instead of giving it a term Hazardous Material. This change is bound to create uncertainty among the generators regarding whether they are handling hazardous waste or hazardous materials and leaves scope for different interpretation. In fact this will take out most hazardous waste out of waste category and will eventually lead to improper handling causing environmental degradation. This ill-defined categorisation will also put all the raw materials with the
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Management of Solid Wastes
mentioned characteristics (like flammability, corrosiveness etc) under this Rule. This can snowball into a major monitoring and implementation drawback. The Rule also has overlapped with the existing Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989. Moreover, it is an unnecessary change as terming recyclables as waste is not in anyway anti recycling. This move is also in complete violation of the Basel Convention. The new categorization will open the floodgates for import of recyclable hazardous waste to India, making it a global waste destination. In times when India is finding it difficult to manage its own waste, this shift is certainly not warranted. The revision also does not take into account the observation made in the Supreme Court judgments on the issue, which clearly stresses on the need to have better implementation of the existing Rule.
The Draft Rule also reduces the control over the generators and handlers of hazardous waste. It removes the stipulation, which required them to seek authorisation from State Pollution Control Boards. This is bound to worsen the situation, as it will be impossible for the Central Bodies to monitor the units, leading to no control situation. Some of the other major drawbacks in this new draft rules are: -- The Draft Rule describes certain characteristics by which the waste can be termed hazardous. Characteristics like leachibility have not been included -- The definition of Disposal covers only land disposal- missing out on disposal in other mediums
-- The Rule does not mandate permission from Transit countries in case of export-import- this is in complete violation of the Basel Convention -- It does not propose streamlined collection mechanism for hazardous waste426
specially
new
wastes
like
E-Waste
Unit 9: Hazardous Waste: Management and Treatment Model Answers to Learning Activities
-- The rule also does not address the inadequacy of disposal sites -- Occupational health safety measures in the units handling hazardous waste have also not been dealt with.
-- No incentive or move to phase out toxic products in the production stage These new modifications are bound to worsen the situation, which currently needs a strict and effective monitoring and implementation strategy. The problem, at present, is that the enforcement mechanism lacks teeth and has failed in curbing the improper handling of Hazardous waste. The need of the hour is to have stringent implementation of the Existing Rules, which will lead to proper collection mechanism, sound recycling technologies, adequate and scientifically designed disposal sites. Sustainable Development concerns or enabling recovery and reuse of useful material from hazardous waste and thereby reducing the waste for final disposal is certainly a welcome thought. But the steps taken to achieve these in the draft Rule do seem ineffectual. The steps, in fact, seem to be more favourable towards making India a Dumping Destination in garb of Recycling Destination.
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Unit 9: Hazardous Waste: Management and Treatment

Municipal Solid Waste Management

HAZARDOUS WASTE: IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

Unit 9: Hazardous Waste: Management and Treatment

Municipal Solid Waste Management

Figure 9.1 Secondary Materials, Solid and Hazardous Wastes: Relationship

Unit 9: Hazardous Waste: Management and Treatment

Municipal Solid Waste Management

Unit 9: Hazardous Waste: Management and Treatment

Municipal Solid Waste Management

Unit 9: Hazardous Waste: Management and Treatment

LEARNING ACTIVITY 9.1

Municipal Solid Waste Management