Tobacco

Booklet No.109 Narcotics - 3

Contents Preface I. Introduction II. Climate III. Varieties IV. Selection of Seeds V. Nursery Raising VI. Preparation of Field VII. Fertilizer Application VIII. Transplanting IX. Irrigation X. Topping and Desuckering XI. Weed Control XII. Diseases XIII. Insects Pests XIV. Harvesting XV. Crop Rotation XVI. Curing XVII. Economics of Cultivation Preface Tobacco is an important cash crop earning a lot of foreign exchange every year. In India, tobacco in industry is well developed employing lakhs of people in various activities. This booklet describes the method of cultivation, curing methods and uses of tobacco. Dr. K. T. Chandy, Agricultural & Environment Education I. Introduction Tobacco is an important commercial crop of India which fetches the much needed foreign exchange apart from providing raw material to the industry and creating employment opportunities to lakhs of people. 1. Origin Origin of tobacco is a controversial subject even today. Some authorities believe that tobacco was in existence in Asia even during 12th century when it was not known elsewhere. It had got intoxicating, religious and medical uses in those days in Asia. The credit of discovering its narcotic quality goes to Christopher Columbus while in search of America. It was, introduced to Europe from America by Columbus and his colleagues. Tobacco is believed to have been introduced to India by Portugese sailors. Virginia tobacco, however, was introduced in India by the Indian Leaf Tobacco Development Company in 1920. 2. Distribution of production Tobacco is extensively grown throughout the world and main countries being China, USA, Turkey, India, USSR, Brazil, Indonesia and Thailand. India is the third largest producer of

tobacco next to China and U.S.A. It accounts for about 10% of the area and 8 % production of the world. Major tobacco states of India are Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Maharashtra and U.P. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer and together with Gujarat produces over 50 % of the total tobacco production in the country. Total production of tabacco in India during 1986-87 was around 460 million kilogram. II. Climate Although tobacco is a tropical crop, it can be grown ' in a wide range of environments; it is as much a plant of tropical zone as it is of the sub-tropical and temperate zones. 1. Altitude In India tobacco is successfully grown from 8N latitude to 34N latitude. The places of such latitude are located in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate zones. However, tobacco is basically a tropical crop. 2. Temperature For germination, tobacco seeds require about 21C temperature. Temperatures between 27 and 32C are desirable for rapid and uniform germination. Tobacco plant grows and matures rapidly when average temp rature is about 25C. 3. Rainfall The water requirement of tobacco is very high. When it is grown as a rainfed crop, it requires at least 50 cm of well-distributed rainfall throughout the growing season. Tobacco requires 100-115 cm of annual precipitation for successful production. Rainfall is undesirable at the time of maturation of the crop as gums and resins from the leaves are washed away. 4. Humidity Atmospheric humidity considerably influences the growth of crop and the quality of the leaves. Drought conditions, dry speedy winds with low humidity affect the quality and yield adversely. 1 Soil The type, grade and quality of tobacco produced are considerably influenced by the soil characteristics particularly soil texture. Light soils tend to produce a large and thin leaf with light weight and colour, mild in strength and weak in aroma, whereas leaf produced on heavy soils is usually thick and heavy, dark coloured, strong and aromatic. However, certain indigenous types of tabacco such as bidi tobacco are an exception to this general rule. Moderately acidic soil with pH ranging from 5.5 to 6.5 is very suitable for tobacco cultivation. Tobacco will not do well in waterlogged soils. Tobacco soil should be well-drained, relatively poor in organic matter but should contain a good amount of potassium, phosphorus and iron. The selection of soil should be based upon the purpose of the crop. As a general rule, heavy and naturally fertile soils are preferred for cigar-fillers, pipe, hookah and chewing type tobacco. But tobacco used for making cigarette, bidi and cigar wrappers can be grown in light sandy soil and less fertile soil and high grade pipe tobacco. III. Varieties A lot of varieties of different kinds of tobacco have been released. Some popular varieties are shown in the table 1.

Table. 1. Improved varieties under different tobacco types Sl.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Type Flue-cured Natu Burley Cigar wrapper Cigar filler Cheroot Chewing Hookah and chewing Bidi tobacco Improved Kanakprabha, CIRI Special, Jayasri, HR 757, HR 70-58, Dhanadayi, GSH-3, TMVRR-2, TMVRR-3, Line-1494, Line-2359, Virginia Gold. Prabhat, G-3, DG-4. Momi-2, Burley-21, Ky-58, Ky-21, Ky-16. S-5, Dixie-shade, Rangpur Sumatra Rg. Colour-10, Havana,Swanbile-shan, Maryland, KV-1, Vv-2. Ok-1, 1-737, Bhwani Specil, DR-1, Line-2331. 1-64, Bhagyalakshmi, I-1115, thangam, PV-7, VR-2, VTK-1, Vairam, Sona, Gandak Bahar, Dp-401, VD1, Pusa-Tobacco-76. DD-413, 414, 415, 417; DP-401, HD65-40, DD-437, R-12, Saraimira, Tobacco-1 K-20, Anand-3, Anand-23, Anand 119, S-20, Akolgound, Bhojgound, Annekevi

IV. Selection of Seeds Seeds of tobacco should always be taken from the reliable source. They should be true to their variety with high degree of germination. Tobacco seeds are very small in size and the emerging seedlings are tiny and delicate and therefore, the seeds are unsuitable for direct sowing in the field. Hence they are first sown in nursery and tended carefully till the seedlings attain a desirable height before transplanting in the main field. V. Nursery Raising Much of the success in growing a good crop of tobacco depends on the promotion of healthy and vigorous seedlings in the nursery beds. So care must be taken to obtain a good nursery. 1. Location of nursery bed Generally tobacco nurseries are raised on sandy or sandy loam soil. The cigarette tobacco growing areas of Andhra Pradesh are an exception in that the crop is grown on heavy black soil and the nurseries are generally raised on sandy to gravelly loam soil. Raising of nurseries on heavy black soils is hazardous due to poor internal drainage caused by high clay content. The nursery site should have a good sub-surface as well as surface drainage and should be situated at an elevated place. Growing of a green manure crop like dhaincha for 40-45 days before tobacco seeding, and ploughing down it is also desirable. It is desirable to change nursery site every year as it would minimize incidence of pests and diseases and also prevent contamination by other varieties. If it is not possible to change

the site, old-site can be used after sterilizing by rabbing i.e. by burning any readily available slow burning waste materials like tobacco-stalks, paddy husk, sugarcane trash, etc. For the best results this operation should be done at the right moisture con tent, after the final preparation of the bed and a few days before sowing. 2. Preparation of bed The nursery area should be periodically ploughed and weeded till it comes to a fine tilth and is free of weeds. Beds should be about 1.25 metre wide and of convenient length but not more than 10 metres. There should be about 0.5 m wide channel between the beds. By deepening these channels by about 10 cm and spreading the soil on the beds, they can be raised to about 15 cm higher than the side channel. The length of the bed should be along the slope. A seed bed must be supplied with sufficient quantity of essential nutrients to get healthy and sturdy seedlings in a short time. Application of farmyard manure or compost at the rate of 50 tonnes per hectare as a layer on the top of the bed is found to be highly beneficial in giving higher number of seedlings. In poor soils, 50 kg ammonium sulphate and 300 kg single superphosphate per hectare should be applied. Of late, magnesium deficiency is being noticed in tobacco in sandy soils. To overcome this deficiency it is desirable to apply dolomite lime stone at the rate of 100 kg per hectare. 3. Seed and sowing The seed rate is dictated by the climatic conditions. Tobacco seeds are tiny and one gram of seeds contains 10000 seeds. Therefore, about 3-4 kg seeds are sufficient for one hectare. In drought conditions the amount of seed required is more than in wet conditions. The optimum time for sowing the nursery is the second fortnight of August. If the nurseries are sown early the seedlings may become ready for planting when fields may not be prepared for transplanting. If the sowings are too much delayed, the seedlings will not become available during the optimum period of planting. For the production of sturdy seedlings a spacing of 5 cm x 5 cm is the best. If the sowing is done by broadcasting, seeds should be mixed with sufficient amount of sand or soil and evenly distributed on the bed. Bed should be raked with fingers to mix seeds. By soaking the seed overnight in water and then keeping it moist between wet gunny bags, the seed coat starts splitting in 3-6 days. At this stage if seed is sown in the nursery, the germination will be quick and satisfactory. 4. Irrigation Watering of nursery beds should be done carefully. The beds should always be kept moist but not wet. In the initial stages, in a sunny day, five to six watering will be required. Use rose cans for watering to avoid dislocation of germinating seeds. Under favourable conditions, germination starts from the fifth day of sowing and almost all the viable seeds germinate till 12th day. If seedlings are over crowded in some places, they can be thinned out when three weeks old, maintaining spacing of 5 cm x 5 cm. To protect the seedlings from diseases and pests give ! application of Fytolan, Blitox or Endosulpan 35 EC. Mulching of the nursery seedbeds is a very useful practice and rather necessary in the areas where water is scarce. Once the seed is sown it is necessary to keep the surface of the bed moist till germination is completed. The first 10 days of nursery period is most critical and if

the afternoons are hot, missing even one watering can cause severe damage to the germinating seeds. The provision of covers and mulches of twigs, straw, chopped stems of leafy materials and leaves etc. have been found very beneficial as they conserve moisture during germination and later protect the tender seedlings from strong sunlight and beating rains. 5. Care and protection For protection of newly emerged seedlings against leaf eating caterpillar, four to five sprays of neem seed kernel suspension are given. Spraying Metalaxyl-l-ZM-72 WP @ 0.2% at 15 and 30 days after germination in tobacco nurseries, reduces damping off incidence. The main field where tobacco seedlings are to be transplanted should be properly prepared. A few hours before transplanting nursery beds should also be well watered so that seedlings could be pulled out easily avoiding any damage to roots. While transplanting care should be taken that only healthy seedlings with well developed root system are planted. Those with little or no root system are discarded. Fifteen centimetre high seedlings with 5-7 leaves are good for cigarette tobacco; but bidi tobacco requires smaller seedlings. As far as possible seedlings should be transplanted immediately after pulling. Transplanting should be done in the later afternoon to avoid scorching sunshine. VI. Preparation of Field A clean and weIl pulverized seedbed of good tilth is needed for transplanting of tobacco seedlings. The land should be well prepared for this purpose. 1. Summer tillage Before transplanting field should be raked well to provide suitable physical conditions for the growth of tobacco roots. The nature and intensity of tillage operations vary from region to region and soil type to soil type. In black soils where major portion of flue-cured tobacco is produced, the soil cracks deep in the summer and becomes very sticky with the onset of rain. There is more of run-off than infiltration. In such soils deep tillage in summer is very desirable. This operation is preferably done quite early in summer so that the maximum benefit is obtained by exposure of soil to the sun before the summer rains are received. 2. Kharif tillage In most of the tobacco growing areas of Andhra Pradesh, the field is kept fallow till September even though monsoon rains are received by the middle of June. A number of ploughings are given with the country plough followed by harrowing in order to retain maximum amount of rainwater. One to two ploughings with a plough ( deep) and three to few harrowings are enough. Each harrowing should be followed by planking so that the soil is well pulverized and leveled. Care should be taken to see that weeds, stubbles, etc. are completely 1 buried in or removed from the field. VII. Fertilizer Application The maximum economic returns from tobbaco depend upon its quantity and quality. Quality of tobacco, particularly in smoking types, depends on the balance of the nutrients in the leaf. Heavy manuring and large application of nitrogen provide a large yield but the quality of the

leaf produced goes down. However, in case of chewing, bidi and hookah tobacco, quality also improves along with yield which is obtained by heavy manuring of nitrogen together with other nutrients. But in flue-cured tobacco for cigarette, cigar, etc. better quality leaves are obtained from partially nitrogen-starved plants. Therefore, nutrient requirements of different tobaccos are different which are given in table-2. Table 2 Different requirements such as spacing, planting time, manures and fertilizers, harvesting time etc. for different types of tobacco. Sl. Type No 1 Spacing Time of Cm plantin g Fluecured 80 x 60 Oct(Black middle soil) to Nov. first wk Fluecured 100x 60 October Northern cm light soils Fluecured 100x 60 May Transition cm end to belt light June 1st soils) week Baurley 100x 50 July (light soils cm end to Aug 1 week on ridges Baurley 80x80 October (black cm end soil) Manuer/ kg hectre 7.5 tonnes FYM 6-12 tonnes FYM 5-6 tonnes FYM 10 tonnes FYM Fertilizer topping Harvesting Primin g Primin g Primin g

N:P:K. 20- At 30:50:30-50 flower head 40:60:60:15 N:P:K:MgO 40:80:80:15 N:P:K:MgO At flower head At flower head

2 3

60:40:40 Level12- Primin N:P:K; N&K 24 g in two splits Leaves

Natu (rainfed)

Cheroot

Cigar filler

15 tonnes FYM, 30 kg Groundn ut cake 90x90 Oct. 40 kg/ha cm middle nitrogen to Nov. as 1st groundn week ut cake 60x45 Oct. 5-10 Bhavani middle tonnes area to FYM & Nov. 1st 60x60 week cm 75x50 Oct. 75 cm middle tonnes to FYM Nov. 1st

40-15:5060:25 N:P:K

14 to 16 Primin leaves g level

40 kg of N

At flower head

Primin g

50:50:100 14-16 NPK (N on leaves 45th & 60th day) Three spots 70:%0:100N 12-14 PK(N-45th & leaves 60th days)

Stalk cut

Partial Primin g

Cigar wrapper

90x45 cm

10

Chewing

90x60 cm

week Oct. middle to Nov. 1st week Oct. middle to Nov. 1st week

15 tonnes FYM 45 tonnes FYM or tank silt

125:112:224 NPK

No topping

Primin g

11

Hookah & 90x90 chewing cm

112-168 40 N,50% as leaves mustard cake & 50% as ammonium sulphate October 20 tonne 112-112-O 8 leaves FYM NPK

Stalk Cuttin g

Primin g

Priming is a process of harvesting in which leaves are individually picked up bottom to upwards stem as they mature. In comparison to other crops, tobacco requires less amount of phosphorus. In tobacco it is difficult to diagnose deficiency symptoms of phosphorus. Potash also plays an important role in tobacco plant growth especially for smoking tobacco. A liberal supply of potash to smoking tobacco imparts good burning quality to it. Besides, potash also improves the physical qualities it of the leaf ego elasticity and low prominence of veins. Application of magnesium @ 15 kg/ha through dolomite is found to have distinctly beneficial effect on the field and quality of tobacco crop. Merely fertilizers are not enough to provide sustained favourable conditions for successful growth of tobacco crop. A well rotten farmyard manure or compost should also be applied at the rate of 6-7 tonnes per hectars for heavy soils and 10-12 tonnes/ha for light soils. Manure should be applied one month before transplanting of tobacco seedlings in the main field. It should be ploughed thoroughly in the soil. If the amount of nitrogen to be applied is 20 kg per ha or less the whole amount can be applied at the time of planting. But for higher doses, nitrogen should be given in two split doses: half at the time of planting or during field preparation and rest half three weeks after transplanting when crop needs first irrigation. All the dose of phosphorus and potash should be applied at the time of field preparation (last ploughing). VIII. Transplanting After the seedlings attain desirable height in the nursery, they are transferred to the main tobacco field. This process is called transplanting and the main aspects of transplanting can be discussed as under: 1. Time of transplanting The optimum time for transplanting is governed by the considerations from the point of either escaping certain periods of adverse weather or of taking advantage of periods of favourable weather conditions during certain stages of the crop.

Optimum time of transplanting for winter crop of tobacco is from second fortnight of October to first fortnight of November. However, depending upon the circumstances this can be transplanted any time in these two months. For summer or second crop of tobacco, usual time of transplanting is from the end of March to the beginning of April. Immediately after transplanting, light irrigation should be given. Plants which have not established well should be replaced with fresh seedlings within a week of transplanting. In Andhra Pradesh, the normal period of planting commences in mid-October after the hazard of cyclonic j weather is over. In the light soils, planting in early September is generally affected by high soil temperatures. In Tamil Nadu planting is done after sufficient rains have increased the water supply in the wells. In northern India, planting is governed by the time when frosty , weather is likely to occur and duration of winter. The planting period in Karnataka ranges from April to May depending upon the quantity and distribution of rainfall. In West Bengal, jati tobacco is planted earlier than motihari, both after the rains, as the former is of longer duration. In Bihar rustica type tobacco is planted in October-November, a month later than tobacum type as rustica is planted in low lying areas and can stand low temperature better. In Punjab, the planting is done in February-March as soon as the cold weather is over. 2. Methods of planting Three methods of planting are practiced for tobacco namely setting by hand, by use of hand transplanters and by planting machines. In hand setting of plants, after the final preparation of the land, the position of the plants is marked by funning a marker in cross directions or alternatively the rows are marked on the field and the position of the plant marked by holding a rope across the rows. With the hand transplanted, making of holes, putting the seedling and watering are done simultaneously. In case of planting machines, the machine marks the position of the plant, sets the seedling, drops water and presses the soil along the site of the seedlings. In India, planting is done only by hand setting. The plant holes are pot watered just prior to setting the seedlings. Planting of bicli tobacco in Charatar and hookah tobacco in Bihar is generally arranged on a rainy day. In Tamil Nadu the field is irrigated prior to planting as seedlings set well in wet soil. In compact soils where drainage facility is inadequate, planting the seedlings on ridges is found beneficial. In this method, only moderate ridges are made at the time of planting and the ridges are raised in subsequent operations. 3. Spacing Spacing of tobacco depends upon soil type, tobacco type and variety. Generally spacing is wider in soils of low fertility than in soils of high fertility. Broad leaf type varieties are spaced wider than narrow leaf types. Due to different spacings adopted for various tobacco types grown in India, the plant densities vary from 12345 to 37037 plants/ha. Spacing for different types of tobacco has been given in the table 2. IX. Irrigation There are a number of factors such as local soil-climatic conditions, type and variety of crops, etc. which affect water requirement of crop. The irrigation requirement of tobacco crop also depends upon the distribution of rainfall, soil moisture status, stage of crop growth and

Evapo-transpiration demand of atmosphere. In light textured soils, light but frequent irrigations are required in order to avoid leaching loss of nutrients, at the same time ensuring adequate availability of moisture throughout the life span of crop. Loss of nutrients from the soil results in formation of slick leaves with dirty colour. Insufficient irrigation on the other hand, restricts crop growth and the curing of leaves becomes difficult. In the light soils of Andhra Pradesh, altogether 6-7 irrigations are needed for flue-cured tobacco, starting three weeks after planting. In case of cigar and cheroot tobacco more frequent light irrigations are needed. In Tamil Nadu abut 20-22 irrigations at 48 hours intervals starting after seedlings establishment for chewing and cigar-filler tobaccos are required. In Bihar there is sufficient oil moisture at the time of planting to support the growth of the crop for several weeks. Therefore, 2-3 irrigations at monthly intervals are required for chewing and hookah tobacco. In Punjab, about 12-13 irrigations at the intervals of 5-7 days given for hookah tobacco. In Uttar Pradesh, mainly hookah tobacco is grown where generally 10-12 irrigations are given for hookah tobacco. Following the transplantation, the crop is irrigated regularly after three of four days. Sub-sequent irrigations are given at 5-7 days intervals. In West Bengal, one or two irrigations are required for cigar-filler, cigar-wrapper and hookah tobacco. In case of flue-cured tobacco, water quality is considered to be of paramount importance. The quality of tobacco leaf gets adversely affected when the crop is irrigated with water having a chloride content in excess. Excess chlorides in tobacco inhibits the leaf bum, reduce leaf storage capacity, leads to two-faced leaf which ultimately results in low market price of the product. X. Topping and Desuckering The operation of topping consists of removal of I the terminal bud (top of the stem) just before or after the emergence of the flower. head. Following topping, the accessory buds located in the axils of branches (axillary buds) become active and give rise to shoots, known as suckers. Removal of these suckers is called de-suckering. The object of topping and desukering is to divert the nutrients of the plant to the leaves instead of flowers and seeds with the result gaining in the size and body of the leaf. Topping and desuckering increase the yield and quality of the tobacco. Stage of topping differs according to the type of tobacco (table-2). In most of the types, best stage for topping is when the signs of flower head start appearing. It is a very important operation for the quality of tobacco leaf. It gives a uniform quality of product and prevents excessive coarseness in the leaves. To realise maximum benefit from topping, desuckering is a must. Two or three desuckerings should be done by hand when the suckers reach a convenient size to handle or become large enough to retard the development of the main leaves. Certain chemicals have also been evolved to supress the growth of buds on the plant. XI. Weed Control A large number of weeds get established along with tobacco seedlings after planting. Therefore, inter- cultural operations should start after 10-15 days of transplanting. In North India fields are cleared of weeds two to three times, with the help of khurpi. Weeding with khurpi also breaks upper crust of the field providing good mulch and improved aeration to the roots. Tobacco requires good aeration, thus is very susceptible to water-logging conditions.

Interculture with hoe , ..also serves the purpose and saves time and labour. In southern India intercultural operations are done more, frequently, almost after each irrigation. , The most serious parasites surviving on the roots of tobacco plants is Orobanche. This weed steals all the food from tobacco plant. The only way to control this menacing weed is to pull it out with hands, collect and destroy it before seed formation. XII. Diseases A number of diseases attack tobacco crop affecting its yield and quality. Some important ones are discussed here. A. Damping off This disease is caused by a fungus Pythium aphanidermatum. It appears in nursery beds with decay of seedlings at the soil surface. Small seedlings may disappear altogether due to complete rotting. In older, seedlings, stems become shriveled at the collar with brown discolouration. Control 1. Use raised seedbeds with adequate drainage to remove excess water during heavy rains. 2. Rubbing the seedbeds with paddy straw in 15-20 cm thick layer. 3. Spray the nursery beds with Bordeaux mixture 0.4 % or Difolatan 0.2 % or Ridomil 0.1 % solution. B. Black shank This disease is caused by a fungus Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianase. It may occur in nursery as well as in the field. Black lesions are produced on stems starting at ground surface. Affected leaves drop and fall down. Ultimately plants rot and die. Control 1. Over irrigation should be avoided. 2. Rubbing the beds with paddy husk in 15-20 cm thick layer. 3. Soil drenching with Boardeaux mixture 0.4% or Fyto1an 0.2 % or Blitox 0.2 per cent. C. Powdery mildew Powdery mildew disease is caused by a fungus, Erysiphe cichoracearum var. nicotianae. It appears in the field on transplanted crop. Affected leaves appear dusted with white powder in patches. Under favourable weather conditions the entire leaf surface is covered with the powdery mass. In the case of flue-cured tobacco, affected leaves get scorched on curing and show brown patches and become useless for marketing. Control 1. Remove all the affected leaves and destroy them. 2. Dusting of sulphur 200 mesh at the rate of 40 kg/ha. 3. Spray the crop with 0.1 % Bavistin or Benlate at the rate of 500-700 litres per hectare. D. Anthrecnose Anthrecnose is caused by a fungus Colletotrichum tabacum. On leaves, small irregular whitish spots develop which coalesce to form bigger patches and finally the affected leaves dry. On stem, brown lesions are seen girdling the stem. Affected plants turn pale and collapse.

Control 1.Rubbing the beds with paddy husk in 15-20 cm thick layer. 2. Spray the nursery with 0.2 % Fytolan or Dithane z- 78 or Daconil. E. Leaf curl Leaf curl is a serious disease of tobacco which is caused by virus. This virus is transmitted by white flies. Infestation takes place in the nursery. The disease appears in the field around 40-60 days after transplanting. Dwarfing of the plant and reduction of leaf size occur. Curling of the whole or a portion of the leaf is the main symptom of this disease. Control 1. Destroy all the affected plants and plant healthy seedling. 2. Destroy weeds harbouring white-flies around tobacco fields. 3. Spray systemic insecticides such as Metasystox, Dimecron, etc. at the rate of 0.1 to 0.2 per cent. F. Tobacco mosaic Tobacco mosaic is the most widely distributed viral disease of tobacco. This disease occurs both in the nursery as well as in the mainfield. Diseased plants show leaves with mosaic pattern of light and dark green areas. There is typical mosaic mottling, blistering and puckering of young developing leaves. Severely affected plants are stunted in growth, pale and sickly looking. Mosaic affected leaves do not cure properly and have no market Control 1.The most important control measure is the adoption of strict sanitary measures to prevent infection in the nursery as well as in the field. 2. Wash hands with soap and running water before weeding or handling the seedlings. 3. One should not smoke or chew tobacco while working in the nursery. 4. Diseased seedlings should be removed and destroyed. Only healthy seedlings should be transplanted. 5. Spray 0.1 % tannic acid in the early stages to check the disease. 6. Use resistant varieties. G. Root knot This condition caused by a nematode and frequently occurs in the nurseries raised in light soil. The disease causes sickly growth of seedling and poor establishment of such seedlings in the field, ultimately resulting in the loss of yield. . The diseased seedling, if pulled out, shows enormous number of galls or knots on the roots. These knots vary in size from a pinhead to many times the thickness of the roots on which they grow. They are round to irregular in shape. Affected plant looks stunted and yellowish and ultimately dries. Control 1. The tobacco nursery should be kept free from weeds. 2. Do not raise nursery in the affected area for at least l two years. . 3. Nursery site should be deep ploughed in summer to allow desiccation and killing of eggs and larvae , produced by nematode. 4. Seedbed should be rabbed with paddy husk @ 5 kg/sqm before sowing the seed to kill the egg mass and larvae. 5. Follow a proper crop rotation. No host crops such as groundnut,

gingelly, cotton, chilli, marigold l or redgram may be grown for 2-3 years in the infested area before raising the nursery. 6. Soil fumigation with nematicides such as DD @ 300 litres/ha or Nemagon 60EC (DBCP) @ 50 litres/ha in places of severe nematode infestation. 7. Apply systemic granular nematicides such as Temic 10 G, Desanit 5G or Nemacur 5G @ 4-6 kg a. i/ha either as a single dose before sowing or in two split doses i.e. half of the quantity prior to sowing and the remaining dose one month later. XIII. Insects Pests A number of insects attack tobacco crop, beginning from the sowing of seeds in the nursery to the storage of leaves in the go downs. They cause great damage to the tobacco crop. Some important pests attacking tobacco are discussed here. A. Nursery pests These insects are mainly found in the nursery. 1. Tobacco caterpillar Caterpillar is the most damaging pest attacking tobacco in the nursery. When the seedlings are small the caterpillars act as cutworms by cutting the tender stems. They voraciously feed along the veins of leaves when the seedlings are grown up. If left unchecked, they can defoliate nursery in a few days. Control 1.This pest can be controlled by spraying Endosulfan 35 EC at the rate of 30 ml or Carbaryl 50 % WP at the rate of 50 g or Monocrotophos 40 WSC at the rate of 22 ml in 22 litres of water. For the nursery area of 100 sqm, 30 to 45 litres of spray fluid is required. First spray should be given when the seedlings are 3-4 weeks old. Give another spray after 8-10 days. A third spraying may be needed 8-10 days afterwards. 2. Looper Green caterpillars with looping movement are seen feeding on the underside of tobacco leaves. Control Same control measures as recommended for tobacco caterpillar. 3. Stem borer Stem borer feeds on the tissues inside the stem and midribs. As a result, swelling appears where the borer stays. This swelling indicates the presence of this pest inside. It causes stunting and, unusual branching of the seedlings. It is seen in the nursery mostly and spreads to the planted crop through the affected seedlings. Control Same as for caterpillar. Final spray should be given just before pulling out of seedlings. Stem borer affected seedlings should be removed and destroyed. B. Field pests In the main field insects are attacking severely. These are discussed below. 1. Ground beetles

In the transplanted field, ground beetles migrate from the bunds and soil, arid attack freshly planted seedlings. They cut the tender stems of seedlings at the base. When the cut is deep, the seedlings die causing gaps in the field. Control a. Spraying of Endosulfan 35 EC at the rate of 1.5 litres or Chloropyrifos 20% EC at the rate of 1.8 litres in 1125 litres of water per hectare at the time of transplanting may be done. b. Application of pongamia cake powder or neem cake powder at the rate of 5 g mixed in a handful of sand, at the base of each plant immediately after trans- planting has been recommended for effective control of these beetles. 2. Green peach aphid These are louse-like insects which are pinkish to brown or green in colour. If the infestation is heavy hundreds of them can be seen on the underside of the leaves. They reproduce very rapidly. Lanka and Natu tobacco are highly susceptible and subjected to heavy aphid infestation every year. Of late, it has become a serious problem of flue-cured tobacco also. The incidence of aphids depends upon the time of setting in of winter. Generally they appear by the end of November or the first week of December multiplying and reaching peak from December to January. These aphids suck the sap of plant turning it pale, sticky and stunted. Black sooty mould develops due to the sugary secretion on the leaves. Such leaves become unfit for curing. Besides, aphids can also transmit virus diseases. Control Apply Thiometon 25 EC @ 500 ml/ha or Demeton- s-methyl 25 % EC @ 500 ml/ha,' or Dimethoate W/V 30% @ 312 m/ha or Phosphamidon 100 @ 112 ml/ha, dissolved in 500 litres of water. First application should be done as soon as aphids appear in the field. Second and third applications are given at 10-15 days intervals. Care should be taken that last spray is done at least 3 weeks before priming so as to avoid excessive build up of pesticide on the tobacco leaves. 3. Tobacco capsule borer The catepillars feed on the tender shoots and in- florescence of the plant. They bore into the developing capsules and feed on the immature seeds. They also feed on the top leaves if infestation is heavy. Control a. Caterpillars can be controlled by topping the plants and destroying them. b. Spraying of any of the pesticides recommended for tobacco caterpillar on the flower heads, helps in controlling this pest. C. Storage pest Even after storing the tobacco, a few insects attack on it. These insects are being explained here. 1. Cigarette beetle This beetle, also known as cigarette weevil, is a serious pest of cured leaves in the storage. It attacks important types of cigarette, cigar, chewing and snuff tobacco as well as manufactured tobacco. They rarely infest burley and Maryland tobacco.

The adult beetle is small dark brown in colour and measures 2-3, mm in length. Tiny white and oval eggs are laid in the leaf-folds and the veins. These eggs hatch out within 5-7 days and larvae with a black head and hair-like structures all over the body emerge. These larvae are seen rolling in the dust. After 3-4 weeks, larvae assume the form of pupae and adult beetles are formed. Adult beetles make holes in the leaves and generate powder from them, thereby reducing quantity of leaves. Holes cut in the high grade tobacco reduce its quality also. The dead bodies of insects, their refuse and dust mixed with leaves also degrade the quality of leaves. Control a. Since the beetle can breed even in small quantity of tobacco dust or waste, the go-downs arid surroundings should be kept free from tobacco bits and dust. b. Store tobacco at 16-18C temperature. c. Tobacco should be re-dried. d. Fumigate stored tobacco with aluminum phosphide tablets at the rate of 20-30 tablets for 28 cubic metres volume for 96 hours. Keep the go down open for 72 hours after fumigation. e. Doors and windows should be covered with 20 mesh screens. Walls and ceiling should be sprayed with Carbaryl 50 % wp @ 450 g in 4.5litres of water for every 93 sqm area once in a month. Care should be taken to avoid spray of Carbaryl on tobacco leaves in storage. XIV. Harvesting The stage of maturity and the method of harvesting differ with the type of tobacco. The right stage for harvesting the crop is when the leaves area mature i.e. when the normal green colour changes to yellowish-green or slightly yellowish and the leaves become thick, spotted and sticky. If such leaves are bent under thumb a crack- ing sound is produced. There are two methods of harvesting tobacco, priming and stalk-cut method. 1. Priming In tobacco, generally lower leaves mature first followed by upper once. Therefore, when it is essential for quality that all the leaves at harvest should be of correct maturity. Harvesting is done by removing a few leaves as and when' they mature. This method of harvesting is called priming. In. this method, harvesting starts from bottom and each time two to three leaves are harvested at weekly intervals. The harvesting is completed in 5-6 primings. This method of harvesting is followed in the case of cigarette and wrapper tobacco. Soon after harvesting, the leaves are strung on bamboo sticks at the rate of 100 leaves per stick and loaded in the barn for cutting. 2. Stalk-cut method Hookah, bidi, cigar, cheroot and chewing tobacco are harvested by this method. In this method, the entire plant is cut close to the ground with stick and left over- night in the field for wilting. The bidi tobacco is ready for red rusty spots known as spangles. The cigar and cheroot tobacco are generally harvested when the leaves, turn yellowish green, pucker and become brittle which break on folding. The chewing tobacco is harvested when there is indication of yellowish-brown sports of puckering of leaves. XV. Crop Rotation A proper crop rotation for tobacco must check weeds, control and reduce infestation of diseases and insect pests and maintain soil fertility at a level that will not have any adverse effect on the growth of the tobacco crop and the quality of the cured-leaf. The type of crops that

should follow in rotation and the duration of each cycle will depend on the type of tobacco, fertility of the soil, climate, pests and diseases prevalent in the locality. Thus, rotations with legumes immediately preceding cigarette tobacco are not generally recommended as it would build extra nitrogen in the soil that may have adverse effect on the tobacco leaf of green-cast varieties. It is, however, found useful once in two years for light cast varieties in India. Crops such as corn, cowpea, soyabean, tomato and sweet potato, favour development of root knot on light soils. Similarly groundnut, pepper, sweet potato and tomato preceding tobacco crop are likely to increase the hazard from wilt in the areas where the disease is prevalent. These crops are, therefore, avoided from the rotation adopted for tobacco. Some of the most common rotations suitable in various parts of the country are given below. 1. Maize-tobacco 2. Maize-potato-tobacco 3. Maize-tobacco-maize 4. Paddy-tobacco 5. Jowar-tobacco . 6. Sesamum-tobacco 7. Ragi-tobacco 8. Jute-tobacco 9. Bajra-tobacco XVI. Curing Curing is the process by which harvested tobacco leaves are made ready for the market. Curing is done in order to impart the desirable colour, texture and aroma to the final product. It is essentially a drying process whereby most of the moisture of the leaf is removed. Different methods of curing are adopted for different types of tobacco depending on its quality requirements and the intended use. There are four common methods of tobacco curing. A. Flue curing The flue cured tobacco is raised with low level of nitrogen and harvested by priming. Mainly cigarette tobacco is flue cured. The harvested leaves are strung on sticks which are then stacked into a flue curing barn. The barn is artificially heated. The green leaves should be loaded in the upper half of the barn and the lighter ones in the lower half. The born developed by Central Tobacco Research Institute, Andhra Pradesh has inner dimensions of 7.32 x 4.88 x 3.2 m. According to the need, the height of the barn can be altered from 3.20 m. to I3.33 m. This kind of barn is called low propile barn. The advantages of this barn over conventional barn are loading and unloading will be easy, 25-30 % economy in fuel, reduction in fuel, reduction in curing time by about 20 hrs and accommodating 120 more number of sticks. It is. highly suitable for light cast varieties. The process of flue curing consists of three stages in succession which are described below. 1. Yellowing During yellowing leaves are kept at a low temperature (85 to 105 degree P) and high humidity for about 35 to 40 h9urs till they attain a bright lemon. yellow colour. 2. Fixing colour

After yellowing, the temperature is raised gradually and humidity of barn is lowered by opening the ventilators. Great care is required in raising the temperature during this stage. It is raised by not more than 1 to 2P every hour. Rapid rise in the temperature, when the leaves are still wet, results in a bluish black colouration of leaves called scalding. This stage takes about 10 hours. 3. Drying This is the last stage in flue curing process which may lost for 35-40 hours. The ventilations are closed and temperature is again gradually raised to 160 degree F to dry the veins and midribs of leaves. This completes the process. Now ventilators are opened to cool down the barn. The leaves are left in barn overnight for absorbing moisture and to come to normal condition for handling and storage. B. Air curing Two types of tobacco, the Lanka tobacco in Andhra Pradesh and wrapper tobacco in West Bengal are air cured. Wrapper tobacco is harvested by priming method slightly on the green side of maturity. The leaves are divided into groups according to their size. They are strung on a string secured on a bamboo stick. These sticks are taken to barn with closed sides and roof. The leaves are cured under atmospheric temperature. Relative humidity of 70~80 % is maintained by sprinkling water inside barn. The entire process is over in about five to six weeks. Lanka tobacco leaves in Andhra Pradesh are strung on ropes in a shade for 8 to 10 weeks. During this period, the leaves turn yellowish brown. After this process, the leaves are placed in a pit for 24 hours and then transferred to the second pit for 48 hours. At the end, the leaves attain a dark brown colour and fruity smell. C. Fire curing This method is adopted in case of chewing type of tobacco. The leaves are harvested in such a way that a small portion of stem remains attached to the leaves. 3. Drying This is the last stage in 'flue curing process which may be lost for 35-40 hours. The ventilations are closed and temperature is again gradually raised to 160 degree F to dry the veins and midribs of leaves. This completes the process. Now ventilators are opened to cool down the barn. The leaves are left in barn over night for absorbing moisture and to come to normal condition for handling and storage. B. Air curing Two types of tobacco, the Lanka tobacco in Andhra Pradesh and wrapper tobacco in West Bengal are air cured. Wrapper tobacco is harvested by priming method slightly on the green side of maturity. The leaves are divided into groups according to their size. They are strung on a string secured on a bamboo stick. These sticks are taken to barn with closed sides and roof. The leaves are cured under atmospheri9 temperature. Relative humidity of 70:-80 % is maintained by sprinkling water inside barn. The entire process is over in about five to six weeks. Lanka tobacco leaves in Andhra Pradesh are strung on ropes in a shade for 8 to 10 weeks. During this period, the leaves turn yellowish brown. After this process, the leaves are placed in a pit for 24 hours and then transferred to the second pit for 48 hours. At the end, the leaves attain a dark brown colour and fruity smell.

C. Fire curing This method is adopted in case of chewing type of tobacco. The leaves are harvested in such a way that a small portion of stem remains attached to the leaves. The leaves are wilted for a few hours in the field then tied into bundles and hung in a smoke hut. They are smoked for about 12 hours by burning dried leaves of tree. After the smoke treatment, the leaves are fermented for three to four weeks. The fermented leaves are given treatment with salt water or with jaggery. D. Sun curing A number of tobacco are sun-cured. There are several modifications in sun curing method. 1. Curing whole plants on racks in cigar and chewing tobacco. After initial wilting the field the plants are strung on bamboo poles are cured in the sun. The entire process takes about 15-20 days. 2. Curing leaves with pieces of stems on racks as in Natu tobacco. In this curing, racks are not exposed to the direct sun, therefore, it takes longer period (6-8 weeks). 3. Curing whole plant on the ground as in bidi and hookah tobacco. In this curing leaves are allowed to dry in the sun on the ground and are turned over twice a day. This process continues for about a week and the heaps are made which are opened the next day and re-heaped. This process of heaping, opening of heaps, spreading and re-heaping continues for about 10-15 days. By the end of this period, leaves become completely cured. XVII. Economics of Cultivation The economics of tobacco cultivation can be calculated with the help of the format given below using points applicable to a particular condition. A. Fixed costs 1. Cost of the land Rs 2. Cost of farm building storage structure, etc. Rs 3. Cost of fencing the field Rs, 4. Cost of clearing, leveling and bunding the land. Rs 5. Cost of farm implements Rs 6. Cost of permanent irrigation system Rs B. Recurring costs 1. Cost of seed or seedlings Rs 2. Cost of fertilizers and manures Rs. 3. Cost of insecticides, fungicides and herbicides Rs 4. Cost of farm power: a. diesel petrol, electricity Rs b. livestock and their feeds Rs 5. Transportation charges on different articles Rs 6. Cost of farm labour (paid and unpaid) a. Seed bed preparation Rs b. Seed sowing Rs c. Seedlings raising and preparing them for transplanting Rs d. Main field preparation Rs

Transplanting Rs Irrigation Rs Application of manures and fertilizers Rs Application of insecticides and fungicides Rs Other intercultural operations such as weeding, mulching, desuckering, topping, etc. Rs j. Harvesting Rs k. Curing and processing Rs l. Storage and marketing Rs m. Any other labour involvement Rs 7. Interest on fixed costs (@10%) Rs 8. Rent or revenue paid for the land Rs 9. Depreciation a. Farm structure Rs b. Farm implements Rs 10. Repairs and maintenance charges Rs 11. Crop insurance Rs Total recurring costs Rs C. Income 1. Yield of tobacco leaves Rs . Net profit = Total income-total recurring costs. Depreciation = Purchase value-Junk Value ------------------------------------------Life span

e. f. g. h. i.

Note: Junk value is calculated only on those articles that are saleable after their life span. Life span of building and machinery is 15 and 10 years respectively. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%