Change in length, %

0.15 0.10 0.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0

2 3 1 6 5 4

1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6:

D IN D IN D IN D IN D IN D IN

1 05 WC r6 4 0C rMO V 21. 14 2 10 CrW 46 X 1 00 CrMo V 5 .1 5 0N i Cr13 1 65 CrMo V 46

100

200

300

400

500

600

Tempering temperature, C

FIGURE 6.49 Change in length of different steels during tempering as a function of tempering tem rmeperature. (Designation of steels according to DIN.) (From H.J. Eckstein (Ed.), Technologie der Wa r Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig, 1987.) behandlung von Stahl, 2nd ed., VEB Deutscher Verlag fu

austenite again causes a certain volume increase, and in the third tempering stage the progressive decomposition of martensite leads to the volume decrease. For high-alloy tool steels (e.g., 210CrW46, curve 3 of Figure 6.49), a stabilization of austenite is evident, so that the effect of the volume increase (due to austenitebainite or austenitemartensite transformation) takes place only at higher temperatures. In most cases, as can be seen from Figure 6.49, a reduction in length, i.e., a volume decrease, can be found after tempering. It should be noted that the changes in length shown in Figure 6.49 represent only the order of magnitude of the expected changes, because the actual value depends in each case on the specific heat treatment conditions. The austenitizing temperature, which determines the amount of carbon dissolved and the amount of retained austenite, has a strong influence on expected volume changes.

6.2 6.2.1

ANNEALING PROCESSES STRESS-RELIEF ANNEALING

Stress-relief annealing is an annealing process below the transformation temperature Ac1, with subsequent slow cooling, the aim of which is to reduce the internal residual stresses in a workpiece without intentionally changing its structure and mechanical properties. Residual stresses in a workpiece may be caused by 1. Thermal factors (e.g., thermal stresses caused by temperature gradients within the workpiece during heating or cooling) 2. Mechanical factors (e.g., cold-working) 3. Metallurgical factors (e.g., transformation of the microstructure) In processes that involve heat, residual stresses are usually caused by the simultaneous existence of thermal and transformational stresses (e.g., during the solidification of liquid metals, hot forming, hardening, or welding). Thermal stresses are always directly proportional to the existing temperature gradient, which further depends on the cross-sectional size and on the heating or cooling rate. In workpieces made of steel, for the above reasons, local residual stresses may amount to between about 10 N/mm2 and values close to the yield strength at room temperature. The consequences of residual stresses may include 1. 2. 3. 4. Dimensional changes and warpage of the workpiece Formation of macroscopic and microscopic cracks Asymmetric rotation of shafts Impairment of the fatigue strength of engineering components

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Residual stresses in a workpiece can be reduced only by a plastic deformation in the microstructure. This requires that the yield strength of the material be lowered below the value of the residual stresses. The more the yield strength is lowered, the greater the plastic deformation and correspondingly the greater the possibility or reducing the residual stresses. The yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength of the steel both decrease with increasing temperature, as shown in Figure 6.50 for a low-carbon unalloyed steel. Because of this, stressrelief annealing means a through-heating process at a correspondingly high temperature. For plain carbon and low-alloy steels this temperature is usually between 450 and 6508C (842 and 12008F), whereas for hot-working tool steels and high-speed steels it is between 600 and 7508C (1112 and 13828F). This treatment will not cause any phase changes, but recrystallization may take place. Tools and machine components that are to be subjected to stress-relief annealing should be left with a machining allowance sufficient to compensate for any warping resulting from stress relief. When dealing with hardened and tempered steel, the temperature of stress-relief annealing should be about 258C (778F) below that used for tempering. If the tempering temperature was quite low, after stress-relief annealing quite a high level of residual stresses will remain. In some other cases, for instance with a gray iron, the maximum temperature of the stress-relief annealing should be limited because of possible strength loss. Therefore gray iron must not be stress-relief annealed above 5508C (10228F). In the heat treatment of metals, quenching or rapid cooling is the cause of the greatest residual stresses. A high level of residual stress is generally to be expected with workpieces that have a large cross section, are quenched at a high cooling rate, and are made of a steel of low hardenability. In such a case high-temperature gradients will arise on the one side, and on the other side structural transformations will occur at different points of the cross section at different temperatures and different times. In contrast to heat treatment processes with continuous cooling, processes with IT (e.g., austempering) result in a low level of residual stresses. To activate plastic deformations, the local residual stresses must be above the yield strength of the material. Because of this fact, steels that have a high yield strength at elevated temperatures can withstand higher levels of residual stress than those that have a low yield strength at elevated temperatures.

1000

50 40

Yield strength and ultimate tensile strength, MPa

800

30 20 10 0

600

Rm

400

sso

200

ssu

0 200 100

100 200 300 400 500 600

Temperature, C

FIGURE 6.50 Change in some mechanical properties of low-carbon unalloyed steel with increasing temperature, according to Christen. A, Elongation; Rm, ultimate tensile strength; sso, upper yield rmebehandlung von strength; ssu, lower yield strength. (From H.J. Eckstein (Ed.), Technologie der Wa r Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig, 1987.) Stahl, 2nd ed., VEB Deutscher Verlag fu

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Elongation, %

120 Increase of the yield strength, N/mm2

100 80 60
Ti Mn V

40
Cu

20 0 300
Ni

Cr

350

400 450 Temperature, C

500

550

FIGURE 6.51 Increase in yield strength at elevated temperatures when 0.5% of each alloying element ferle (Eds.), Handbuch der Fertigungindicated is added to an unalloyed steel. (From G. Spur and T. Sto rmebehandeln, Carl Hanser, Munich, 1987.) stechnik, Vol. 4/2, Wa

The level of yield strength at elevated temperatures depends on the alloying elements in the steel. Figure 6.51 shows the increase in yield strength at temperatures of 3005508C (572 10228F) when 0.5% of each element was added to an unalloyed steel. It can be seen from this diagram that additions of Mo and V are most effective in increasing the yield strength at elevated temperatures. To reduce residual stresses in a workpiece by stress-relief annealing, a temperature must be reached above the temperature corresponding to the yield strength that is adequate to the maximum of the residual stresses present. In other words, every level of residual stress in a workpiece corresponds to a yield strength that in turn depends on temperature. In addition to temperature, soaking time also has an influence on the effect of stress-relief annealing, i.e., on the reduction of residual stresses, as shown in Figure 6.52. The relation between temperature and soaking time during stress-relief annealing can be described by Hollomons parameter: P T (C log t) (6:33)

where P is Hollomons parameter (heat treatment processes with the same Hollomon parameter value have the same effect), C is the HollomonJaffe constant, T is temperature (K), and t is time (h). The HollomonJaffe constant can be calculated as C 21:3 (5:8 % carbon) (6:34)

Figure 6.53 shows (according to LarsonMiller method) calculated values of the yield strength at elevated temperatures (for 0.2% strain) for three grades of alloyed structural steels for hardening and tempering (designations according to DIN). Using this diagram, the abscissa of which represents the actual Hollomon parameter P, knowing the temperature and time of the stress-relief annealing, one can read off the level of residual stresses that will remain in the workpiece after this annealing process, i.e., the level up to which the residual stresses will be reduced by this stress-relief annealing. If, for instance, for DIN 24CrMoV5.5 steel, a

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10 20 Reduction of residual stresses, % 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 Temperature, C
1h 10 h 24 h 48 h

700

FIGURE 6.52 Effect of soaking time (at different temperatures) of stress-relief annealing on the ferle reduction of residual stresses for hardening and tempering steels. (From G. Spur and T. Sto rmebehandeln, Carl Hanser, Munich, 1987.) (Eds.), Handbuch der Fertigungstechnik, Vol. 4/2, Wa
400
P = T(20+log t)103

Yield strength or minimum residual stress after stress-relief annealing, N/mm2

200
30 Cr

100 80 60 50 40 30
28N

Mo V5 Ni .11
24 CrM

20

a b

iCr 7.4 Mo

oV 5.5

(a) Holding time, t

h 1015 0.1 5 10 20

16

17 18 19 20 21 Hollomon's parameter P 550 600 650 700 550 600 550 650

22

23

700 700 700

600 650

(b)

550 600 650 Temperature T, C

FIGURE 6.53 Yield strength at elevated temperatures (for 0.2% strain) calculated according to the LarsonMiller method for three grades of alloyed structural steels for hardening and tempering (designations according to DIN). (a) Calculated values and (b) experimentally obtained values. (From ferle (Eds.), Handbuch der Fertigungstechnik, Vol. 4/2, Wa rmebehandeln, Carl Hanser, G. Spur and T. Sto Munich, 1987.)

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temperature of 6008C (11128F) and a soaking time of 10 h are chosen for stress-relief annealing, the residual stresses will, after this annealing, be reduced to a maximum of 70 N/mm2. Higher temperatures and longer times of annealing may reduce residual stresses to lower levels, as can be seen from Figure 6.53. As in all heat treatment processes where Hollomons parameter is involved, selection of a higher temperature may dramatically shorten the soaking time and contribute substantially to the economy of the annealing process. Dealing with structural steels for hardening and tempering, the stress-relief process and the tempering process can be performed simultaneously as one operation, because Hollomons parameter is also applicable to tempering. In such a case the stress-relief diagram may be used in combination with the tempering diagram to optimize both the hardness and the level of reduced residual stresses. The residual stress level after stress-relief annealing will be maintained only if the cooldown from the annealing temperature is controlled and slow enough that no new internal stresses arise. New stresses that may be induced during cooling depend on the cooling rate, on the cross-sectional size of the workpiece, and on the composition of the steel. Figure 6.54 shows the effect of cooling rate and cross-sectional diameter of forgings made of a CrMoNiV steel on the level of tangential residual stresses after stress-relief annealing. A general conclusion about stress-relief annealing is the following: In the temperature range 4506508C (84212008F), the yield strength of unalloyed and low-alloyed steels is lowered so much that a great deal of residual stress may be reduced by plastic deformation. The influence of the steel composition on the level of residual stresses after annealing can be considerable. While unalloyed and low-alloy steels with Ni, Mn, and Cr after stress-relief annealing above 5008C (9328F) may get the residual stresses reduced to a low level, steels alloyed with Mo or Mo V will retain a much higher level of the residual stresses after stressrelief annealing at the same temperature because of their much higher yield strength at elevated temperature.

6.2.2

NORMALIZING

Normalizing or normalizing annealing is a heat treatment process consisting of austenitizing at temperatures of 30808C (861768F) above the Ac3 transformation temperature (for

Tangential residual stresses, N/mm2

mm . = 100 0

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 10

0m m

80

60

Dia m

40

20

m 0m

20 30 40 50 60 Average cooling rate to 400, C/h

80

FIGURE 6.54 Tangential residual stresses in a CrMoNiV alloy steel depending on the cooling rate and ferle (Eds.), Handbuch der Fertigungstechnik, Vol. 4/2, cross-section diameter. (From G. Spur and T. Sto rmebehandeln, Carl Hanser, Munich, 1987.) Wa

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