H1295 1. List the properties Non-Newtonian fluids based on which they are classified.

The fluids that do not maintain a fixed ratio of shear stress to flow rate are called Non-Newtonaian. Linear relation to flow will not be maintained and the value depends on whether the flow rate is increasing or decreasing. The consistency of non- Newtonian fluids vary even though the static pressure and temperature are fixed, as a function of the applied shear stress. 2. Define Absolute humidity & Relative humidity. Absolute Humidity : Weight of water vapour in unit wait of gas. H=Wr / Wg Relative Humidity: This is the ratio of moisture content of gas to maximum moisture content of the gas at that temperature 3. Name the types of Orifice plates Concentric orifice Eccentric Segmental Quadrant edge 4. Define stagnation point in pitot tube Fluid approaching the object starts losing its velocity till directly in front of the body where the velocity is zero. This point is known as stagnation point. 5. Name the flow meter used to measure the flow rate of liquids with suspended materials Target flow meter Electromagnetic flow meter 6. List the advantages of rotameter. Low cost Low pressure drop Rangeability is better Suitable for small flow rates Easily equipped with alarms and switches or any transmitting devices Measure the flow rate of corrosive fluids Used in some light slurry services.

7. What is the principle of ultrasonic flow meter? It operates on the principle that the velocity of sound in a fluid in motion is the resultant of the velocity of sound in the fluid at rest plus or minus the velocity of the fluid itself. 8. Give any 2 applications of electromagnetic flow meter.

The electromagnetic flow meter being non intrusive type, can be used in general for any fluid which is having a reasonable electrical conductivity above 10 microsiemens/cm Fluids like sand water slurry, coal powder, slurry, sewage, wood pulp, chemicals, water other than distilled water in large pipes, hot fluids, high viscous fluids specially in food processing industries, cryogenic fluids can be metered by the electromagnetic flow meter.

9. Will you use capacitive type flow gauge for conductive liquids? Justify your answer. Capacitive flow gauges can be used to measure the level of conductive liquid. For all level measurements of conductive fluids or solids which can be moist, insulated probes must be used. The value of total capacitance (Ce) is largely unaffected by the effective resistance of the process fluid. 10. Give two purging fluid used in air-purge level measurement. Water Light mineral oil PART - B 11.(i) Explain the construction and working principle of the wire electrode type hygrometer. Lithium Chloride dew-point sensor: (Dewcel) Another method of dew-point measurement is based on the fact that dew-point and vapour pressure are closely related. For example, saturated air at TOC contains 'X' kg water vapour per kg of dry air. If this amount of water vapour should decrease as a result of atmospheric changes, the remaining water vapour would expand and consequently lower the vapour pressure. It is true that relative humidity is equivalent to the ratio of the amount water vapour that could exist in the air at a given temperature. But it can also be defined as the relation between the existing water vapour pressure and the water vapour pressure of saturated air at the same temperature. Suppose a hygroscopic material would be exposed to a given atmosphere, it would absorb a certain amount of moisture. It would then be attempted to dry this material by the application of heat. The amount of heat to be applied would depend in the first place on the quantity of moisture absorbed and in the second place on the water vapour pressure of the surrounding air. Once the material is dried the minimum amount of heat applied to keep it in this state depends solely on the vapour pressure. This vapour-pressure method is applied in 'Dewcel' dew-point sensor. The other names by which sensors are called include 'Solution-conductivity' type and 'Lithium chloride' type. The Dewcel construction is similar to an electric hygrometer. A thin-walled metal tube is covered with a woven glass tape impregnated with lithium chloride solution. The assembly is wound with a pair of silver wires over the tape and covered with perforated metal guard. The element differs in operation from the electric hygrometer in that it carries an alternating current large enough to heat the hygroscopic material to a point where the absorbed water tends to escape to the atmosphere. As the hygroscopic material dries, the current decreases because the conductivity of the hygroscopic material diminishes. An equilibrium point is reached where just the right amount of current is passed to provide a temperature at which the escaping tendency of the water is equal to the tendency of the hygroscopic material to take on water from the atmosphere. The centre of the Dewcel is normally a resistance thermometer which serves to measure the temperature of the equilibrium point of the Dewcel. This

temperature, which is an indication of the water vapour pressure, corresponds to the dew-point temperature. The output calibration can also be in terms of water vapour pressure or specific humidity. Relative humidity is obtained by the use of chart converting sample operating and dewpoint temperature readings to percent relative humidity. Therefore, a sample temperature measurement is required if reading in terms of relative humidity is required. The construction of a Lithium Chloride sensor is shown in Fig. and the probe with fixing arrangements in Fig.

The selection of a flow meter for an industrial application is influenced by complex desired data. While purchasing a flow meter, it is better to get advice from an expert on the selection based on the availability of flow meter and draw out a complete specification of the flow metering application.

11.(ii) Explain the principle of operation of the Saybolts viscometer with neat sketch Out of syllabus. 12.a (i) Explain the principle of operation of any two types of head flow meters with neat sketch.

Orifice plate

Flat-plate, sharp-edge orifice

An orifice meter is a device used to measure the rate of fluid flow. It uses the same principle as a Venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's principle which says that there is a relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the velocity of the fluid. When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa. An orifice plate is basically a thin plate with a hole in the middle. It is usually placed in a pipe in which fluid flows. As fluid flows through the pipe, it has a certain velocity and a certain pressure. When the fluid reaches the orifice plate, with the hole in the middle, the fluid is forced to converge to go through the small hole; the point of maximum convergence actually occurs shortly downstream of the physical orifice, at the so-called vena contracta point (see drawing to the right). As it does so, the velocity and the pressure changes. Beyond the vena contracta, the fluid expands and the velocity and pressure change once again. By measuring the difference in fluid pressure between the normal pipe section and at the vena contracta, the volumetric and mass flow rates can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation. Orifice plates are most commonly used for continuous measurement of fluid in pipes. They are also used in some small river systems to measure flow at locations where the river passes through a culvert or drain. Only a small number of rivers are appropriate for the use of the technology since the plate must remain completely immersed i.e the approach pipe must be full, and the river must be substantially free of debris. In the natural environment large orifice plates are used to control onward flow in flood relief dams. in these structures a low dam is placed across a river and in normal operation the water flows through the orifice plate unimpeded as the orifice is substantially larger than the normal flow cross section. However, in floods, the flow rate rises and floods out the orifice plate which can then only pass a flow determined by the physical dimensions of the orifice. Flow is then held back behind the low dam in a temporary reservoir which is slowly discharged through the orifice when the flood subsides. Incompressible flow through an orifice By assuming steady-state, incompressible (constant fluid density), inviscid, laminar flow in a horizontal pipe (no change in elevation) with negligible frictional losses, Bernoulli's equation reduces to an equation relating the conservation of energy between two points on the same streamline:

or:

By continuity equation: or

V1 = Q / A1 and V2 = Q / A2 :

Solving for Q:

and:

The above expression for Q gives the theoretical volume flow rate. Introducing the beta factor = d2 / d1 as well as the coefficient of discharge Cd:

And finally introducing the meter coefficient C which is defined as obtain the final equation for the volumetric flow of the fluid through the orifice:

to

Multiplying by the density of the fluid to obtain the equation for the mass flow rate at any section in the pipe:[1][2][3][4]

where:

Q Cd C A1 A2 d1 d2

= volumetric flow rate (at any cross-section), m/s = mass flow rate (at any cross-section), kg/s = coefficient of discharge, dimensionless = orifice flow coefficient, dimensionless = cross-sectional area of the pipe, m = cross-sectional area of the orifice hole, m = diameter of the pipe, m = diameter of the orifice hole, m

 V1 V2 P1 P2

= ratio of orifice hole diameter to pipe diameter, dimensionless = upstream fluid velocity, m/s = fluid velocity through the orifice hole, m/s = fluid upstream pressure, Pa with dimensions of kg/(ms ) = fluid downstream pressure, Pa with dimensions of kg/(ms ) = fluid density, kg/m

Deriving the above equations used the cross-section of the orifice opening and is not as realistic as using the minimum cross-section at the vena contracta. In addition, frictional losses may not be negligible and viscosity and turbulence effects may be present. For that reason, the coefficient of discharge Cd is introduced. Methods exist for determining the coefficient of discharge as a function of the Reynolds number The parameter is often referred to as the velocity of approach factor[1] and dividing the coefficient of discharge by that parameter (as was done above) produces the flow coefficient C. Methods also exist for determining the flow coefficient as a function of the beta function and the location of the downstream pressure sensing tap. For rough approximations, the flow coefficient may be assumed to be between 0.60 and 0.75. For a first approximation, a flow coefficient of 0.62 can be used as this approximates to fully developed flow. An orifice only works well when supplied with a fully developed flow profile. This is achieved by a long upstream length (20 to 40 pipe diameters, depending on Reynolds number) or the use of a flow conditioner. Orifice plates are small and inexpensive but do not recover the pressure drop as well as a venturi nozzle does. If space permits, a venturi meter is more efficient than a flowmeter. Flow of gases through an orifice In general, equation (2) is applicable only for incompressible flows. It can be modified by introducing the expansion factor Y to account for the compressibility of gases.

Y is 1.0 for incompressible fluids and it can be calculated for compressible gases.[2]
Calculation of expansion factor The expansion factor Y, which allows for the change in the density of an ideal gas as it expands isentropically, is given by:[2]

For values of less than 0.25, 4 approaches 0 and the last bracketed term in the above equation approaches 1. Thus, for the large majority of orifice plate installations:

where:

Y r k

= Expansion factor, dimensionless = P2

/ P1 / cv), dimensionless

= specific heat ratio (cp

Substituting

equation

(4)

into

the

mass

flow

rate

equation

(3):

and:

and thus, the final equation for the non-choked (i.e., sub-sonic) flow of ideal gases through an orifice for values of less than 0.25:

Using the ideal gas law and the compressibility factor (which corrects for non-ideal gases), a practical equation is obtained for the non-choked flow of real gases through an orifice for values of less than 0.25:[3][4][5]

where:

k C A2 1 P1 P2 M R T1 Z

= specific heat ratio (cp

/ cv), dimensionless

= mass flow rate at any section, kg/s = orifice flow coefficient, dimensionless = cross-sectional area of the orifice hole, m = upstream real gas density, kg/m = upstream gas pressure, Pa with dimensions of kg/(ms) = downstream pressure, Pa with dimensions of kg/(ms) = the gas molecular mass, kg/mol (also known as the molecular weight)

= the Universal Gas Law Constant = 8.3145 J/(molK) = absolute upstream gas temperature, K = the gas compressibility factor at P1 and T1, dimensionless

A detailed explanation of choked and non-choked flow of gases, as well as the equation for the choked flow of gases through restriction orifices, is available at Choked flow. The flow of real gases through thin-plate orifices never becomes fully choked. The mass flow rate through the orifice continues to increase as the downstream pressure is lowered to a perfect vacuum, though the mass flow rate increases slowly as the downstream pressure is reduced below the critical pressure.[6] "Cunningham (1951) first drew attention to the fact that choked flow will not occur across a standard, thin, square-edged orifice."[7] Permanent pressure drop for incompressible fluids For a square-edge orifice plate with flange taps[8]:

where:

Pp = permanent pressure drop Pi = indicated pressure drop at the flange taps = d2 / d1

12.a.(ii) Discuss the piping arrangements of different fluids in head flow meters.

Installation of Head Flowmeters : The head flow meter consists of a primary element such as an orifice, venturi, or pitot tube used with a differential pressure meter to measure the differential head caused by the flowing fluid at the primary element. The differential pressure meter may be any of the various meters such as the enlarged leg-mercury manometer, the bell gauge, the hollow gauge, the diaphragm gauge, the tilting V-type gauge or electronic differential pressure flow transmitters. The differential pressure meter and the primary element require careful connection and installation. It must be remembered that the meter is used for the purpose of measuring differential pressure. Any extraneous or false head introduced by the connecting piping causes a serious error. Pressure Pipe Layout Pressure piping is the pipe which connects the pipe tapping of the head producers to the meter or the differential pressure transducers. The important points to be carefully noted in laying the pressure piping in order to avoid the false readings are: 1. Condensation of water vapour in the case of air or gas, and 2. Air or vapour locks in the case ofliquids and steam. The following rules should be strictly followed in laying the pressure pipe, so as to avoid the above difficulties. Meter below the pipe If the meter or the differential transducer is to be located below the level of the main or pipe line which the orifices is installed, the pressure pipe should be laid as follows. (a) Liquids and Steam Pressure pipes should fall continuously from orifice to meter at a slope of not less than 1/10 as shown in Fig If the horizontal distance is too high to allow this slope by direct connection between the orifice and the meter, then pressure pipes may be first taken below the meter and then risen to the meter.

(b) Air and Gases The pressure pipe must first be raised above 0.5 m vertically up from the orifice as illustrated in Fig.and then continuously fall at the slope of not less than 1 : 10 to the meter.

Meter above the pipe (a) Liquids and Steam It may be noted that the special requirement for steam metering in the necessity of interposing cooling chambers for the purpose of condensing the steam and providing an adequate volume of water for supplying the meter displacement for all variations of load. With cooling chambers, the piping remains full of water and the steam does not act on the meter. In this case, the pipe is first laid vertically downwards to a distance of about 0.5 m in order to minimize the possibility of entrance of air or gas from the main, and the pipe is raised continuously at a slope of not less than 1 : 10 to the meter. The meter is fitted with air vessels as shown in Fig

Air and Gases

(b)

The impulse pipe is continuously raised at a slope of not less than 1 : 10 from orifice to meter as shown in Fig. The pressure pipes should be fitted with sumps at the lowest points, and the sumps should be drained at suitable intervals, which is already shown in the Fig..

1. Installation of condensation Pots Condensation pots should be used when flow rate of steam is to be measured by means of differential pressure transmitters. The condensation pots secure smooth column of condensate in both the impulse lines connecting the differential pressure transmitters. Four types of condensation pots are manufactured to suit the various pressure ranges. (i) Made of cast iron for pressure upto 16 kg/cm2 (ii) Made of carbon steel for pressure upto 64 kg/cm2 (iii) Made of stainless steel for pressure above 64 kg/cm2 and below 100kg/cm2. (iv) Made of molybdenum steel for pressure upto 200 kg/cm2 In the case of vertical steam mains, it is essential that both the condensation pots placed at the level of the upper orifice connection. Its installation is illustrated in Fig.

A leg of large bore is used to convey the pressure from the lower connection to the appropriate condensation pot. The bore should not be less than 14 mm throughout. If possible, for obtaining better results, this pipe may be run in contact with the main within the main lagging. Installation of Sealing Pots Sealing pot is intended for protecting primary instruments like, pressure gauges, pressure or differential pressure transmitters etc. from the influences of chemically aggressive medium under measurement.

They are also used in the metering of oils or tarry liquids, which are of low viscosity in the mains due to high temperature; but owing to atmospheric cooling in pressure pipes these become viscous and as such make meter sluggish in response. The sealing pots transmit the orifice pressures to a second and less viscous liquid, the separating surfaces occurring in parallel.bore of the sealing vessels and serving as friction less pistons. These are usually connected very close to the mains. The sealing liquid must be noncorrosive and immiscible with the fluid to be metered. It should preferably be of moderately low viscosity such as transformer oil, spindle oil, kerosene, paraffin oil, glycerine etc.

Factors to be Considered in Piping Arrangement The factors for selecting proper piping arrangement are listed below considering only the important ones: The piping arrangement must be absolutely free ofleaks. The connecting lines must be clean and free from obstructions. Use as few fittings as possible. The connecting lines must pitch a 50 mm to prevent gas packets and drainage. The connecting lines should not be more than 15 m long, preferably less. The connecting lines must be maintained at a temperature between a and 50C. The differential-pressure meter should be installed below the level of the primary element if possible. Drain legs should be installed at the meter when dirt and sediment exist in the connecting lines. Condenser chambers used for steam lines must be in level. Sealing chambers used for corrosive fluids must be in level and should be vented.

Fig shows the arrangements for different mediums for accurate measurement. If the pipe is tapped at the bottom, any solid matter flowing in the line might choke the tap. If the pipe is tapped at the top, any dissolved gas might escape through the tap and reach the manometer upsetting the true reading. Generally, recommended taps are at the side of the pipe. The pipes are arranged

so that in case of an eventuality the meter can be removed without much difficulty. Large chambers containing sealing liquids are mounted in the pipe lines so that the liquid does not come in contact with the manometric fluid. These chambers are known as sealing pots, and sealing liquids are chosen such that they do not mix with the process fluid or the manometric fluid and are unaffected by them. The sealing liquids commonly chosen are ethylene glycol, glycerin, dibultyl phthalate, chloro naphthalene and chlorinated oils. Generally the sealing fluid should be heavier than the flowing fluid. The sealing chambers are generally half filled through filling plugs with visual checks such as gauge glasses.

12.b.(i) Explain the principle of operation of pitot tube with neat sketch. PITOT TUBE A pitot tube is a pressure measurement instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity. The pitot tube was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in the early 1700s and was modified to its modern form in the mid 1800s by French scientist Henry Darcy . It is widely used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft and to measure air and gas velocities in industrial applications.

Types of pitot tubes The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow. As this tube contains fluid, a pressure can be measured; the moving fluid is brought to rest (stagnates) as there is no outlet to allow flow to continue. This pressure is the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as the total pressure or (particularly in aviation) the pitot pressure. Aircraft use pitot tubes to measure airspeed. The example in this photo combines a pitot tube with a static port and an angle-of-attack vane The measured stagnation pressure cannot of itself be used to determine the fluid velocity (airspeed in aviation). However, Bernoulli's equation states: Stagnation Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure Which can also be written

Solving that for velocity we get:

Where and and and

is fluid velocity is stagnation or total pressure is static pressure

is fluid density

The dynamic pressure, then, is the difference between the stagnation pressure and the static pressure. The static pressure is generally measured using the static ports on the side of the fuselage. The dynamic pressure is then determined using a diaphragm inside an enclosed container. If the air on one side of the diaphragm is at the static pressure, and the other at the stagnation pressure, then the deflection of the diaphragm is proportional to the dynamic pressure, which can then be used to determine the indicated airspeed of the aircraft. The diaphragm arrangement is typically contained within the airspeed indicator, which converts the dynamic pressure to an airspeed reading by means of mechanical levers. Instead of static ports, a pitot-static tube (also called a Prandtl tube) may be employed, which has a second tube coaxial with the pitot tube with holes on the sides, outside the direct airflow, to measure the static pressure. Industry applications: In industry, the velocities being measured are often those flowing in ducts and tubing where measurements by an anemometer would be difficult to obtain. In these kinds of measurements, the most practical instrument to use is the pitot tube. The pitot tube can be inserted through a small hole in the duct with the pitot connected to a U-tube water gauge or some other differential pressure gauge (alnor) for determining the velocity inside the ducted wind tunnel. One use of this technique is to determine the amount of cooling that is happening to a room. The fluid flow rate in a duct can then be estimated from: Volume Flow Rate (cubic feet per minute) = Duct Area (square feet) Velocity (feet per minute) Volume Flow Rate (cubic meters per second) = Duct Area (square meters) Velocity (meters per second) In aviation, air speed is typically measured in knots.

12.b.(ii) Discuss the installation of head flow meters. Installation of Head Flowmeters : The head flow meter consists of a primary element such as an orifice, venturi, or pitot tube used with a differential pressure meter to measure the differential head caused by the flowing fluid at the primary element. The differential pressure meter may be any of the various meters such as the enlarged leg-mercury manometer, the bell gauge, the hollow gauge, the diaphragm gauge, the tilting V-type gauge or electronic differential pressure flow transmitters. The differential pressure meter and the primary element require careful connection and installation. It must be remembered that the meter is used for the purpose of measuring differential pressure. Any extraneous or false head introduced by the connecting piping causes a serious error. Pressure Pipe Layout Pressure piping is the pipe which connects the pipe tapping of the head producers to the meter or the differential pressure transducers. The important points to be carefully noted in laying the pressure piping in order to avoid the false readings are: 3. Condensation of water vapour in the case of air or gas, and 4. Air or vapour locks in the case ofliquids and steam. The following rules should be strictly followed in laying the pressure pipe, so as to avoid the above difficulties. Meter below the pipe If the meter or the differential transducer is to be located below the level of the main or pipe line i.l which the orifices is installed, the pressure pipe should be laid as follows. (a) Liquids and Steam Pressure pipes should fall continuously from orifice to meter at a slope of not less than 1/10 as shown in Fig If the horizontal distance is too high to allow this slope by direct connection between the orifice and the meter, then pressure pipes may be first taken below the meter and then risen to the meter.

(b) Air and Gases The pressure pipe must first be raised above 0.5 m vertically up from the orifice as illustrated in Fig. 5.14 and then continuously fall at the slope of not less than 1 : 10 to the meter.

Meter above the pipe (a) Liquids and Steam It may be noted that the special requirement for steam metering in the necessity of interposing cooling chambers for the purpose of condensing the steam and providing an adequate volume of water for supplying the meter displacement for all variations of load. With cooling chambers, the piping remains full of water and the steam does not act on the meter. In this case, the pipe is first laid vertically downwards to a distance of about 0.5 m in order to minimize the possibility of entrance of air or gas from the main, and the pipe is raised continuously at a slope of not less than 1 : 10 to the meter. The meter is fitted with air vessels as shown in Fig

Air and Gases

The impulse pipe is continuously raised at a slope of not less than 1 : 10 from orifice to meter as shown in Fig. The pressure pipes should be fitted with sumps at the lowest points, and the sumps should be drained at suitable intervals, which is already shown in the Fig..

2. Installation of condensation Pots Condensation pots should be used when flow rate of steam is to be measured by means of differential pressure transmitters. The condensation pots secure smooth column of condensate in both the impulse lines connecting the differential pressure transmitters. Four types of condensation pots are manufactured to suit the various pressure ranges. (i) Made of cast iron for pressure upto 16 kg/cm2 (ii) Made of carbon steel for pressure upto 64 kg/cm2 (iii) Made of stainless steel for pressure above 64 kg/cm2 and below 100kg/cm2. (iv) Made of molybdenum steel for pressure upto 200 kg/cm2 In the case of vertical steam mains, it is essential that both the condensation pots placed at the level of the upper orifice connection. Its installation is illustrated in Fig.

A leg of large bore is used to convey the pressure from the lower connection to the appropriate condensation pot. The bore should not be less than 14 mm'throughout. Ifpossible, for obtaining better results, this pipe may be run in contact with the main within the main lagging. Installation of Sealing Pots Sealing pot is intended for protecting primary instruments like, pressure gauges, pressure or differential pressure transmitters etc. from the influences of chemically aggressive medium under measurement.

They are also used in the metering of oils or tarry liquids, which are of low viscosity in the mains due to high temperature; but owing to atmospheric cooling in pressure pipes these become viscous and as such make meter sluggish in response. The sealing pots transmit the orifice pressures to a second and less viscous liquid, the separating surfaces occurring in parallel.bore of the sealing vessels and serving as friction less pistons. These are usually connected very close to the mains. The sealing liquid must be noncorrosive and immiscible with the fluid to be metered. It should preferably be of moderately low viscosity such as transformer oil, spindle oil, kerosene, paraffin oil, glycerine etc.

Factors to be Considered in Piping Arrangement The factors for selecting proper piping arrangement are listed below considering only the important ones: The piping arrangement must be absolutely free ofleaks. The connecting lines must be clean and free from obstructions. Use as few fittings as possible. The connecting lines must pitch a 50 mm to prevent gas packets and drainage. The connecting lines should not be more than 15 m long, preferably less. The connecting lines must be maintained at a temperature between a and 50C. The differential-pressure meter should be installed below the level of the primary element if possible. Drain legs should be installed at the meter when dirt and sediment exist in the connecting lines. Condenser chambers used for steam lines must be in level. Sealing chambers used for corrosive fluids must be in level and should be vented.

Fig shows the arrangements for different mediums for accurate measurement. If the pipe is tapped at the bottom, any solid matter flowing in the line might choke the tap. If the pipe is tapped at the top, any dissolved gas might escape through the tap and reach the manometer upsetting the true reading. Generally, recommended taps are at the side of the pipe. The pipes are arranged

so that in case of an eventuality the meter can be removed without much difficulty. Large chambers containing sealing liquids are mounted in the pipe lines so that the liquid does not come in contact with the manometric fluid. These chambers are known as sealing pots, and sealing liquids are chosen such that they do not mix with the process fluid or the manometric fluid and are unaffected by them. The sealing liquids commonly chosen are ethylene glycol, glycerin, dibultyl phthalate, chloro naphthalene and chlorinated oils. Generally the sealing fluid should be heavier than the flowing fluid. The sealing chambers are generally half filled through filling plugs with visual checks such as gauge glasses.

13.a. Explain the principle of operation of different types of positive displacement type flow meters with near sketch. Positive Displacement Meters Positive displacement type flow meters are generally used for accurate measurement of steady flow. These flow meters are working under the following principle. Positive displacement meters split the flow ofliquids into separate known volumes based on the physical dimensions ofthe meter, and count them or totalize them. They are mechanical meters in that one or more moving parts, located in the flow stream, physically separate the fluid into increments. Energy to drive these parts is extracted from the flow stream and shows up as pressure loss between the inlet and the outlet of the meter. The general accuracy of these meters is dependent upon minimizing clearances between the moving and stationary parts and maximizing the length of the flowing path. For this reason, accuracy tends to increase as size increases. Positive displacement meters may be divided into following categories: (i) Nutating disc type. (ii)Reciprocating piston type. (iii) Oval gear type and (iv) Helix type. Nutating Disk Type This meter, also known as disk meter, is used extensively for residential water service. The moving assembly, which separates the fluid into increments consists of an assembly of radially slotted disk with an integral ball bearing and an axial pin. Fig.shows the nutating disk type meter

This part fits into and divides the metering chamber into four volumes, two above the disk on the inlet side and two below the disk on the outlet side. As the liquid attempts to flow through the meter, the pressure drop from inlet to outlet causes the disk to wobble or nutate, and for each cycle to display a volume equal to the volume of the metering chamber minus the volume of the disk assembly; The end ofthe axial pin, which moves in a circular motion, drives a cam that is connected to a gear train and the totalizing register. Inaccuracy: 1 to 2%. Temperature range: - 150 to 120C. Max working pressure: 10 kg/cm2. Reciprocating Piston Meter In the reciprocating piston meter shown schematically in Fig. the reciprocating piston passes the liquid alternately through each end of the cylinder from the inlet to the outlet and also the slide valve which controls the inlet and outlet ports and operates the counter. A number of piston operations on a center crank are generally incorporated in this type of meter. For low flow, the differential pressure is small, for which large diameter pistons and small piston strokes are chosen with minimum offriction. Accuracy ofthis flow meter is within 0.5%.

Oval-Gear Flow Meters A special variety of the rotating tube flow meter is the oval - geared metering elements. These oval-geared meters are generally used on very viscous liquid, which is difficult to measure using other flow meters. In this design, as shown in Fig. a precise volume of liquid is captured by the gap formed between housing and the gear

In position A, uniform forces are applied equally on the top and bottom of oval gear B, so that the gear does n,)t rotate. Rotor A has entrapped a known volume of liquid between the rotor and the meter body, and there is a balanced force on the bottom of the gear. However, there is a force on the bottom of gear A, causing it to rotate clockwise (CW). This causes gear B to rotate in a counter clock wise (CCW) direction to position B. In position B, fluid enters the space between gear B and the meter body, as the fluid that was. entrapped between gear A and the body simultaneously leave the area of entrapment. The higher upstream pressure oppose the lower downstream pressure at the ends of gear A and gear B, which makes gear A and gear B continue to rotate in CW and CCW directions respectively, to position C. In position C, a known amount of fluid has been entrapped between gear B and the meter body. This operation is then repeated, with each revolution of the gears representing the passage of four times the amount of fluid that fills the space between the gear and the meter body. Therefore, the fluid flow is directly proportional to the rotational velocity of the gears. If slippage between the oval-gears and the housing is small, and the flow rate and viscosity are high, these flow meters can provide high accuracies. (0.1%). These flow meters are available in the sizes suitable for 6 mm to 400 mm diameters pipelines. Their materials of construction include brass, carbon steel, and 316 stainless steel. Operating pressures are available up to 100 kg/cm2 and temperatures up to 300C. Helix Type Flow Meters The Helix flow meter is a positive displacement device utilizing two uniquely nested, radically pitched helical rotors as the measuring elements. Close machining tolerances ensure minimum slippage and thus high accuracy. Fig. illustrates the photographic view of a helix type flow meter.

13.b.(i) Explain the principle of operation of rotameter with neat sketch.

A Rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed tube. It is occasionally misspelled as "rotometer." It belongs to a class of meters called variable area meters, which measure flow rate by allowing the cross-sectional area the fluid travels through to vary, causing some measurable effect. A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass, with a float inside that is pushed up by flow and pulled down by gravity. At a higher flow rate more area (between the float and the tube) is needed to accommodate the flow, so the float rises. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and ellipsoids being the most common. The float is shaped so that it rotates axially as the fluid passes. This allows you to tell if the float is stuck since it will only rotate if it is free. Readings are usually taken from the top of the float. Some manufacturers may use a different standard, so it is always best to check the documentation provided with the device.

The head causing the flow through an area meter is relatively constant such that the rate of flow is directly proportional to the metering area. The variation in area is produced by the rise and fall of a floating element. This type of flow meter must be mounted so that the floating element moves vertically and friction is minimal. Rotameter The rotameter, illustrated in Figure 6, is an area flow Figure Rotameter meter so named because a rotating float is the indicating element. The rotameter consists of a metal float and a conical glass tube, constructed such that the diameter increases with height. When there is no fluid passing through the rotameter, the float rests at the bottom of the tube. As fluid enters the tube, the higher density of the float will

cause the float to remain on the bottom. The space between the float and the tube allows for flow past the float. As flow increases in the tube, the pressure drop increases. When the pressure drop is sufficient, the float will rise to indicate the amount of flow. The higher the flow rate the greater the pressure drop. The higher the pressure drop the farther up the tube the float rise

Note that the "float" does not actually float in the fluid: it has to have a higher density than the fluid, otherwise it will float to the top even if there is no flow. Advantages

A rotameter requires no external power or fuel, it uses only the inherent properties of the fluid, along with gravity, to measure flow rate. A rotameter is also a relatively simple device that can be mass manufactured out of cheap materials, allowing for its widespread use.

Disadvantages

Due to its use of gravity, a rotameter must always be vertically oriented and right way up, with the fluid flowing upward. Due to its reliance on the ability of the fluid or gas to displace the float, graduations on a given rotameter will only be accurate for a given substance. The main property of importance is the density of the fluid; however, viscosity may also be significant. Floats are ideally designed to be insensitive to viscosity; however, this is seldom verifiable from manufacturers specs. Either separate rotameters for different densities and viscosities may be used, or multiple scales on the same rotameter can be used. Rotameters normally require the use of glass (or other transparent material), otherwise the user cannot see the float. This limits their use in many industries to benign fluids, such as water. Rotameters are not easily adapted for reading by machine; although magnetic floats that drive a follower outside the tube are available.

13.b.(ii) Write short notes on calibration of flow meters. Methods of Calibration of Flow Meter With Liquids Dynamic Weighing (Gravimetric) Method A commercial calibrator for precise primary calibration of flow meters using liquids is shown in These units use a convenient dynamic weighing scheme, and are available in different models to cover the range from 0.5 to 70,000 kg/hr and have an overall accuracy of 0.1%. The sequence of the calibration procedure is explained below: (a) Running operation before Test: Fig.

Fluid contained in the reservoir is pumped through a closed hydraulic circuit. First, it enters the filter and then the heat exchanger equipment, which controls temperature within 20C. It then passes through the control valves, the meter under test, the back pressure valve, the weigh tank, and then back into the reservoir. (b) Start of preliminary fill : When the (:ontrol valves have been adjusted for desired flow, a tare weight is placed on the weigh pan. Then the cycle start button is pushed, resetting the timer, closing the dump valve which starts the filling of the weigh tank.

As the weigh tank fills, the weigh pan rises, tripping the timer actuator, and the electronic timer begins counting in milliseconds, starting the actual weighing cycle. The preliminary fill balanced out by the tare weight before actual weighing begins, permits a net measurement of the new fluid added after preliminary fill. The preliminary fill method permit the measurement of only a portion of the cycle, eliminating the mechanical errors in the start and stop portions and allowing dynamic errors to be self cancelling. Weighing cycle in Operation: The weighing cycle is continued as a precision weight is placed on the weigh pan, again deflecting the beam. The uniquely designed cone shaped deflector at the inlet of the weigh tank permits the even distribution of measured fluid. As the tank fills, the weigh pan rises, until it again trips the timer actuator, stopping the timer and the indicating the time within a thousandth of a second. By combining the precision test weight with the timed interval, the actual flow rate in kg/hr is easily and accurately determined. From these basic mass units, other flow units can be accurately calculated.

(f) Emptying for Recycling: Fig. After the beam movement trips the timer, the weigh tank automatically empties in less than 25 seconds, even at maximum flow. The calibrator is now ready for the next flow setting. This fast recycling cuts total calibrating time as much as 50%. Pipe Prover Method Another type of calibrator called pipe prover is particularly useful for fast response, high resolution flow meters such as turbine, positive displacement, vortex shedding types, where steady state can be achieved quickly. The integration of the flow rate to get total flow is accomplished accurately by accumulating the meter pulse-rate output in counter. Although they can be used with flow rate meters, in practice their use is largely confined to the calibration of quantity meters. A 'dedicated prover' is permanently built in large petroleum metering stations. One such pipe prover (bidirectional) which is currently most popular is shown in Fig. A hollow sphere of synthetic rubber is inflated with water under pressure until its diameter is about 2% larger than that of the epoxy-liner pipe from which the prover is constructed. When the sphere is forced into the pipe, it seals it and acts as a kind of piston which is capable of going round the bends. A four way valve i used to control the flow of liquid after it has passed through the meter which is to be calibrated, by causing the liquid to travel

Before starting the calibration run, the flow is allowed to by-pass the prover. At the start of a test, the flow is directed through the prover in such a way that the sphere travels the whole length of the prover. Soon after the start of its run, it passes a sphere detector, which operates an electrical gating circuit and causes the electrical pulse from the meter on test to be counted. Near the end of the run, a second sphere detector is operated which stops the count of pulses. The pulse count from the meter is then compared with the known volume of the prover between sphere detectors, which has been determined from a previous static calibration ofthe prover. Additional accuracy is gained by totalising the pulse counts and the prover volumes during two successive runs one in each direction. Directional effects in the sphere detectors are thus largely cancelled out. The accuracy of the bidirectional prover is as high as 0.1 % of flow rate and between 0.05 and 0.02% on total volume.

14.a.(i).Discuss the excitation schemes used in the electromagnetic flow meter Ac dc excitation . In all of the pulsed DC approaches, the concept is to take a measurement when the coils are excited and store (hold) the information and then take a second measurement of the induced voltage when the coils are not excited. The voltage induced when the coils are energized is a combination of both noise and signal. The induced voltage when the coils are not energized is noise only. Subtracting the noise measurement from the signal plus noise yields signal only which is illustrated in Fig.

The pulsed DC-type systems establish zero during each on-off cycle. This occurs several times every second. Because zero is known, the end result is that pulsed DC systems are potential percent-of-rate systems. The AC type systems must be periodically re-zeroed by stopping flow and maintaining a full pipe in order to zero out any voltage present at that time. The noise voltage can change with time, resulting in a potential offset. Therefore AC-type systems normally are percent-of full scale systems. Dual-Frequency Excitation : ::::: Changing the method of excitation from line frequency (AC) to low frequency (DC) provided dramatic improvements in both the accuracy and the zero stability of electromagnetic ,flow meters. A limitation of low frequency (DC) designs is their relatively low speed of response (0.2-2 see) and their sensitivity to measurement noise caused by slurries or low conductivity fluids.

The idea behind dual-frequency excitation is to apply both and thereby benefit from both of their advantages. The zero stability of low-frequency excitation and the good noise rejection and high speed of response of high-frequency excitation. This is achieved by exciting the magnetic field coils by a current with such a compound

waveform as illustrated in Fig.One component is a low-frequency waveform, much below 50 Hz, which guarantees good zero stability. The output generated by the lowfrequency signal is integrated via a long time constant to provide a smooth and stable flow signal. The high-frequency component is superimposed on the low-frequency signal to provide immunity to noise caused by low conductivity, viscosity, slurries or electrochemical reactions. The output generated by a high-frequency component is sampled at a high frequency and is processed in a differentiating circuit having the same time constant as the integrating circuit. By adding the two signals, the result is an output that is free of , Slurry' noise and has good zero stability plus good speed of response Another method of rate adjustment utilizes belt speed variation with belt load as controlled constant. Still another involves variation of both belt speed and belt load wherein the rate signal is the multiplicand of the belt speed and belt load measurement signals generated by the feeder.

14.a.(ii) What are all the variations in a target flow meter? Explain the principle of operation of any one with neat sketch. . (ii) Target Flow meter. Principle of Working. Material buildup in front of orifice plates can cause both measurement errors and plugging when the process stream is a liquid slurry or a gas carrying wet solids. The annular orifice, was introduced to solve this problem by providing an annular opening for the solids to pass through. Target flow meters are similar in design except that the pressure taps have also been eliminated and the detection of differential pressure been replaced by force measurement. Both of these designs are suited for dirty or low turbulence flow metering applications, if high precision is not required.

Construction. The target meter combines in a single unit an annular orifice and a forcebalance transducer. Output is either an electric or pneumatic signal proportional to the square of the flow. Target meters are available in sizes

from 1/2 to 8 inch pipe diameter. The annular orifice is formed by a circular disk supported in the center of a tubular section having the same diameter. Flow through the open ring between disk and tube develops a force on the disk proportional to velocity head (the square of the flow). The disk is mounted on a rod passing out through a flexible seal. The force on the disk is measured from the rod outside the seal, using a standard force-balance transducer integrally mounted on the flow tube. Applications. The target meter is applied in a number of fields for measurement of liquids, vapours and gases. It allows unimpeded flow of condensates and extraneous material along the bottom of a pipe and at the same time allows unimpeded flow of gas or vapour along the top of the pipe; Operating temperature range: 3000 C. Operating pressures: 15 kg/cm2 Targets with diameters of 0.6,0.7 and 0.8 times tube diameter are available. Overall accuracy of calibrated target meters is better than that of orifice-type systems.

14.b.(i) Write notes on: Solid flow measurement Solids Flow Measurement Introduction Continuous determination of flow rate of dry materials such as coal, cement, powdered chemicals, paper and fruits is necessary in many industrial processes. Meters for measuring flow of dry materials are essentially of the weighing type, in that they determine the weight of material passing a given point. Belt feeders are compact factory-assembled devices utilizing belts to transport the material across a weight-sensing mechanism. In the case of meters, an uncontrolled solids flow passes across a constant speed belt and the belt load signal is thus a function of gravimetric flow rate. The feeder in its most basic form consists of a meter to which a controller and volumetric solids flow regulator is added. The flow regulator is normally a simple gate, but may be in the form of a rotary gate, screw or other volumetric control device capable of being fitted with a suitable actuator. Belt Type Gravimetric Feeder Fig illustrates a simpler feeder. It incorporates a constant speed belt coupled with a gate to modulate the solids flow rate such that belt load is balanced by an adjustable poise weight. The feeder, which is still used in some industrial applications today, is unique in its simplicity but includes number of disadvantages relative to more modern designs as follows:

1. The entire feeder is weighed rather than only a portion of the belt; consequently, the low ratio of live load to tare coupled with mechanical friction in the linkage pivots results in relatively low sensitivity in the belt load detection system. 2. The position of the gate control element is proportional to the belt load error. In the same manner that a float-operated level control valve cannot maintain the level at set point if valve supply pressure vary, this feeder cannot maintain set gravimetric rate if the bulk density of the solids varies. It should be noted that the basic principle involving the weighing of the entire feeder has been applied in modern designs. Successful operation of these versions has been achieved by adding belt load error detecting instrumentation and by actuating the control gate from an external power source. A controller with reset function eliminates the set point error. Belt Type Electromechanical Gravimetric Feeder Fig.describes the basic construction of the electromechanical gravimetric feeder. Here the belt load is balanced by a mechanical beam and poise weight system which energizes one or other of two clutches via a pair of mercury switches energized by a magnet attached to the beam. These clutches actuate and establish the direction of travel of the gate-positioning Gate actuator and clutch unit

mechanism. The gate modulates as required to maintain the desired belt load as established by the position of the poise weight on the balance beam. It can be seen that this feeder will maintain belt load regardless of changes in material density, subject to the volumetric control limits of the gate. Belt load set point is indicated by a mechanical counter geared to the beam poise weight drive. A second counter geared to the belt drive totalizes the length of the belt traveled. By varying drive gears, these counters can be provided to read directly. Total weight fed can thus be calculated by multiplying the readings of the two counters. Remote belt load set point and readout functions are available as well as a belt travel contact switch may be used to operate a remote counter or to shut down the feeder via a predetermining counter after the desired total weight of material has been fed. Adjustable micro switches actuated by gate position may be utilized to activate alarms indicating either a stoppage of the material supply to the feeder or over travel of the control gate resulting from abnormal low material density. Belt Type Gravimetric Feeder with Pneumatic system Fig. illustrates the gravimetric meter which is available with either pneumatic or electronic weight detection and transmission system. In the case of the pneumatic version shown, the preliminary calibration procedure involves adjustment of the tare weight with the beam in center position, pnd location of the nozzle relative to the flapper. This establishes a condition such that balance is achieved when balancing piston pressure is 0.2 kg/cm2. When material crosses the belt, beam movement throttles the nozzle. Nozzle back pressure is imposed on the pneumatic relay, which in turn increases its output pressure until the balancing piston rebalances the beam. The balancing pressure is thus proportional to belt load and since the belt speed is constant, balancing pressure is proportional to measured weight-rate. Also shown is an optional ball and disc integrator.

The disc is driven by the front belt roll of the feeder and the ball is positioned by a pneumatic positioner. This ball and disc type integrates continuously. It is especially recommended for user with gravimetric meters in applications involving the measurement of rapidly varying instantaneous flow rates. The integrator is supplied with a digital totalizer and can be furnished with a pulse transmitting switch to operate a remote counter. The feed rate of all belt-type gravimetric feeders is a function of the belt speed and the belt load. Belt speed is normally expressed in terms of meter per minute, while belt load is defined as kg per metre of belt. Feed rate = Belt speed x Belt load In the case of the constant speed belt feeders, rate is directly pl'opol'tional to belt load. Rate set point is thus in terms of belt load, and the belt load signal generated by the device can be read out as rate. 14.b.(ii) Write notes on: Selection guide lines of flow meters. Factors to be Considered There are many factors which are to be considered before drawing up specifications for a flow meter. They are: 1.Measurement requirements 2.External conditions of the flow pipe 3.Internal conditions of the flow pipe 4.Properties ofthe flowing fluid 5.Installation and accessories and 6.Cost consideration. Measurement Requirements The requirements of measurement can be addressed based on. (i) The measured variable like point velocity, average velocity or volume rate. (ii) The range of operation. For wide range of operation, electromagnetic, ultrasonic, cross-correlation, turbine type etc. are suitable. (iii) Cost computation. If it is for costing purpose, the meter should have low and consistent uncertainty in measurement. (iv) Pressure head loss and maximum pressure of flowing fluid. For high pressure fluids the meter body and inner construction should be sturdy. (v) Accuracy, Precision and facilities available for maintenance. (vi) Speed of response. For fluctuating flow, response of the meter should be good with small time constants. (vii) Calibration facilities and Installation. External Conditions of the Flow Pipe Before selection of a flow meter, it is important to examine the environment and the place where the meter is going to get installed. The following points need to be considered. (i) Approachability. It is better to know that once the meter is installed whether it is accessible for removal, recalibration etc. (ii) It is important to note that the installation ofthe meter either in an air conditioned space or in a place which is vulnerable for wide temperature variation. (iii) Humidity condition, vibration, hostile environment and water facility are the im-

portant parameters to be considered. Conditions Internal to the Flow Pipe The conditions internal to the pipe affect the accuracy of measurement of flow meters. Some of the factors that affect the accuracy are protrusions, pipe bore, size, roundness, toughness, hydrodynamic noise pulsations etc. Properties of the Fluid The properties ofthe fluid to be metered should be clearly understood by the person who is to select the meter. Many flow problems are due to the impurities present in the fluid, the effect of which cannot always be quantitatively established. 1. Viscosity. Viscosity ofthe flowing fluid is a critical factor. Ifthe viscosity ofthe fluid changes, the Reynolds number changes, which in turn affect the calibration curve of the flow meter. 2. Fluid activity. The fluid to be metered may be radioactive or chemically reactive. Radioactivity presents special problems. For metering the velocity of fluids having high levels of radiation, flow meters offering long periods of reliable operation witbout maintenance are required. If the fluid is corrosive, then Electromagnetic flow meter or Vortex flow meter can be used. 3. Flammability. Fluids which are inflammable or react violently with other materials need flow meters like turbine and vortex flow meter. They are suitable for operation in hazardous areas. 4. Scaling Deposits. Special care should be taken for fluids having a property to deposit scales since scaling can block pressure lines and ducts. 5. Other properties. The fluid properties like compressibility, abrasiveness, transparency, electrical conductivity, magnetic properties and lubricity should be noted before selection of flow meter is made. Accessories When a flow meter is chosen, the associated accessories should also be chosen which are compatible with the meter. All the precautions and points considered for the meter should be considered for the accessories also. Some of the accessories for a flow meter are: 1. Valves and manifolds for equalizing, draining, venting and isolation. 2. Sumps, gas vents, poles and drains. 3. Cooling chambers when measuring condensible vapours. 4. Straighteners for improving velocity profile. 5. Piezometer rings for averaging the flow velocity profile for orifice plates. 6. Gas detectors to provide a warning if the flow meter is not running full. Economic Factors Any decision on the purchase or selection of flow meter will certainly take the economic aspects. When computlng the cost of flow meters, the cost of accessories, transmitters etc. if needed, the maintenance cost for a period should also be taken into consideration.

List of Desirable Characteristics

A partial list of characteristics that are desirable in a flow meter selection is given below: (i) A wide operating temperature range. (ii) A wide dynamic range of measurement. (iii) Insensitivity to flow profit, viscosity, and other physical properties of the fluid. (iv) Non-corrodible and non-degradable materials of construction. (v) Small irrecoverable head loss. (vi) Suitability for liquids and gases. (vii) Availability in all practical sizes. (viii) Safety in all practical sizes. (ix) Immunity to pulsating flow effects. (x) Immunity to vibration. (xi) Fast respo:lse to flow changes. (xii) Accuracy. (xiii) Calibration. (xiv) Low cost to purchase and maintain. Of course, no flow meter is available which meets all these requirements and it is unlikely that one will ever be developed. Highest Possible Accuracy 1. ORIFICE 2. VENTURI 3. NOZZLE 4. PITOT 5. EM 6. UF 7. CC 8. VS 9. ROTAMETER 10. HOTWIRE 11. GILFLOW 12. NMR 13. LDU 14. PD 15. TURBINE 16. MASSFLOW

2.0% 1.0% 1.5% 0.5% 0.5% 1.0% 0.5% 1.0% 2.0% 2.0% 1.0% 0.5% 0.05% 0.1% 2.0% 1.0%

15.a(i) Explain the principle of operation of displacer type level measuring scheme with neat sketch. Construction : Fig. gives a schematic representation of the displacer and torque tube. The torque tube shown in figure uses a torsion spring to support the displacer. By using a hollow torsion tube, it is feasible to support the displacer, which is always heavier than the process fluid, and to provide a frictionless pressure seal. This makes it possible to transfer the changes in the apparent weight of the displacer through the wall of the pressure vessel into a measuring device. The displacers are cylindrical and can be furnished in a wide

selection of plastic and alloy materials. Although any length displacer upto 18 ill can be obtained, the most common lengths used are 4 m, 10 m, 15 m and 18 m and consequently the diameter is reduced as the length increases

Materials of Construction The standard torque tube material is Inconel, but th torqu tub is also available in IItainlosii steel, Hnstolloy, Monel, Nickel or Durimot, Principle A body fully or partially immersed in a fluid is buoyed by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. In equation form, the buoyancy force B, is given by B = V where is the density of the displaced fluid and V is the volume of the displaced fluid. Working The torque arm connects the displacer to the torque tube and absorbs lateral forces. Friction is minimized by the use of a knife-edged bearing support. A limit stop prevents accidental over stressing of the torque tube by limiting the downward motion of the torque arm. The angular displacements of the torque tube and torque arm are the same at the knife edge end of the tube. At the flange end, the tube does not rotate at all because it is solidly held, but the torque rod is free to rotate the same amount as it did at the knife edge. The angular displacement, which amounts to about 5 or 6 degrees, is linearly proportional to apparent weight of the displacer and thus to level. With the difficult pressure sealing problem solved, it is easy to convert the angular displacement to a usable electronic or pneumatic analog signal. Advantages 1.They have high accuracy. 2.They are reliable in clean fluids. 3.They can be mounted internally or externally. 4.Externally mounted units can be disconnected from the process for maintenance. 5.They are adaptable to liquid interface measurement. Disadvantages 1. These instruments have limited ranges; devices exceeding 1.2 m in length are bulky and difficult to handle. 2. The cost of these devices increases appreciably for externally mounted units as pressure rating increases.

3. External units may require heating to avoid freezing. 4. External units may be in error because of temperature differences between the vessel fluid and the level chamber fluid. 5. Internal units may require stilling chambers. 15.a.(ii) Explain the level measurement using nuclear radiation method. Radiometric Level Detection and Measurement Principle When the product is present it will attenuate the beam of gamma radiation passing through the tank or silo. This is the only measuring technique that is completely non-invasive. No part ofthe system is in contact with the medium and the process atmosphere. Radiation-Type Instruments Nuclear radiation is used in several level-measuring instruments. Such instruments have the ability to "see" through tank walls and thus can be mounted outside the process equipment. This saves on installation and repair costs. These systems can be used to detect level on a wide variety of products, from liquids to bulk solids and slurries. Nuclear systems use a low-level gamma-ray source on one side of the vessel and a radiation detector on the other side, as shown in Fig. A more accurate level measurement can be obtained by placing several gamma sources at different heights, as shown in Fig.. The material in the tank has a transmissibility different from that of air, so that the instrument can provide an output signal proportional to the level of the material in the container.

Practical Application A beam of gamma radiation is emitted at an exit angle of approximately 5 (or 20 or 40 in case of level indication), from a source of gamma radiation in a source container. A gamma radiation detector is positioned opposite the source which is electrically connected to a level switch or level indicator to provide an output signal. The strength of the radiation source is calculated so that when the tank is empty, the. detector transmits just enough pulses to the switching amplifier or level indicator to process a signal. As the level rises, the radiation will be attenuated and the detector senses the level accordingly,. When it reaches the maximum, the detector will no longer receive the radiation and the instrument will indicate high level. Thus the system forms a level switch or level indicator which does not come into contact with the product and is external to the tank or reactor, so that the tank or reactor requires no mechanical modification. Gamma radiation level measurement systems are used in situations where probes or other transducers cannot be placed inside a tank or reactor due to: Very corrosive or extremely adhesive products.

 In reactors or furnaces at very high pressures and/or temperatures. With very coarse and abrasive bulk materials such as ores, limestone and coal.

Gamma radiation is not only used for level detection and level indication but also used for density measurement and interface measurement as the radiated energy is dependent on the density of the attenuating material. Of course for the latter there must be a certain difference in density of the two liquids. There are 3 types of nucleonic radiation that are able to penetrate through matter: alpha, beta and gamma rays. The gamma radiation has the highest penetration power and in contrast to alpha and beta radiation, gamma radiation is unaffected by electric or magnetic fields. For this reason the gamma radiation ideally meets the requirements of a nucleonic level system or density measuring instrument. Gamma radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation emitted from certain elements as a result of transitions in the nucleus of the atom. This measurement technique uses only artificially produced sources or isotopes. The radiation emitted is of a very short wavelength of the order of 10-10 to 10-13 m, with an energy of between 0.66 and 2.5 MeV. It is therefore capable of penetrating vessel walls. It is this property of gamma radiation on which this technique is based The Components of a Nucleonic Level System Any nucleonic level measuring system will consist of the following components. One or more radioactive sources One or more source containers One or more detectors An electronic switch or measuring unit. Mounting and Practical Examples Mounting of nucleonic level systems is straight forward, as they can be mounted free of the tank or reactor. On the other hand the source holder and the opposite mounting place of the detector must be lined up so that the detector

senses the radiation signal. The source holder has a weight of about 40 or 90 kg and the mounting assembly has to be of appropriate mechanical strength. The space between the flange of the source holder and the tank or reactor must be screened off to prevent accidental exposure, as the radiation beam has its highest dose at that place because there is no attenuation. Sources used for density or interface measurement are much higher in strengths compared to sources for level systems, as there still has to be radiation at the detector in case of highest product density. This results in a slowly increasing measuring signal if the product density goes down.

The critical aspect in density or interface measurement is when there is no product at all, there will be a very high dose level at the detector side since there is no basic density (attenuation) at all. For that reason, an additional low sensitive detector is used which indicates this situation and automatically shuts off the source holder. Source holders for level indication always have to be mounted under declined angle to guarantee the upper beam of the output angle will .be horizontal Source holders for density and interface measurement may be mounted symmetrically (Fig.) Also in this application, for safety reasons, the radiation direction has a point downwards or towards a wall. 15.b. Explain the methods of hydrostatic type of liquid level measurement system Hyrostatic Pressure Method Principle This method is based on the measurement of the hydrostatic pressure produced by a column of liquid of a given height. The pressure is calculated using formula : P=h P = Pressure kg/m2 h = height of the liquid column in mWg = density in kg/m3. From this formula it can be seen that if the density of the medium does not vary, the only variable in the formula will be height h. Therefore the pressure measured will be directly proportional to height h. the level of the liquid in the

tank. Hydrostatic Pressure Measurement in Open Tank Fig. illustrates the measurement oflevel using hydrostatic pressure measurement principle in open tank. The pressure transmitter (PT) senses the level (height of the liquid column) and converts it into an electrical signal which is read by an indicator.

Hydrostatic Pressure Measurement in Closed Tank Fig. illustrates that the pressure measured is equal to the pressure of the liquid column + the surface pressure. The pressure on the surface of liquids in tanks open to the atmosphere will be zero. This surface pressure is usually negligible, as most pressure sensors compensate for atmospheric pressure. If the pressure on the surface of the liquid is greater than atmospheric pressure, the total pressure will be greater than the head ofliquid column. In this case, the pressure acting on the surface is subtracted from the total pressure, leaving only the pressure due to the column ofliquid. PI = P u + ph and P 2 = P u are measured by two different transmitters. P1 - P2 = ph is determined by the functional block and is read by the indicator as a direct measurement of level 'h' since 'p' is constant.

Practical Application Hydrostatic pressure transducers always consist of a membrane which is mechanically or hydraulically coimected to a sensor element which can be based on an inductive, capacitive, strain gauge or semiconductor principles. Here, only the strain gauge principle, in multi-layer semiconductor technique is mentioned. A change in pressure will therefore create a change in the strain-gauge (i.e., the resistance) of the transducer element and is converted into a measurement signal in a pre-amplifier. This in turn is transmitted to a remote measurement amplifier to provide 4-20 mA output or a digital field bus signal for direct read-out or to provide a signal for further processing a control system. A second membrane is used to separate the

sensor from the atmosphere but still to have a relative pressure function by means of a filter in the housing and a small plastic tube lead direct behind the cell. So a true delta-P configuration is created making the system insensitive to atmospheric influences and condensation due to temperature changes Applications : Pressure sensors or hydrostatic level gauges are used in many branches of industry for level measurement in open or closed tanks or reservoirs. They can be supplied for levels from a few mm head of water up to 0-160 metres water column for 0-100% indication. In food applications where changes in viscosity are common hydrostatic pressure sensors are often favoured. Pressure sensors are not sensitive to changes in conductivity, foam or product composition, but are sensitive to changes in specific gravity of the product as, although the system is used as a level gauge, it actually measures pressure, which is equal to the height and density of the product and specific gravity. This can be an advantage in cases where the product weight is required rather than its volume. For application in corrosive products where the standard stainless steel unit is not sufficiently resistant, versions are available in e.g., Monel or Hastelloy with platinum or tantalum membranes. The remaining part of the sensor body, including the boss mount or flange connector, can be made of a corrosionresistant plastic.