CONTINUITY EQUATION

Fluid Flow

Continuity Equation Summary

Density changes in a fluid are inversely proportional to temperature changes. Buoyancy is the tendency of a body to float or rise when submerged in a fluid. The pressure exerted by a column of water is directly proportional to the height of the column and the density of the water. h g P = gc Pascals law states that pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished throughout the confining vessel of a system. Volumetric flow rate is the volume of fluid per unit time passing a point in a fluid system. Mass flow rate is the mass of fluid per unit time passing a point in a fluid system. The volumetric flow rate is calculated by the product of the average fluid velocity and the cross-sectional area for flow. V A v

The mass flow rate is calculated by the product of the volumetric flow rate and the fluid density. m A v

The principle of conservation of mass states that all mass flow rates into a control volume are equal to all mass flow rates out of the control volume plus the rate of change of mass within the control volume. For a control volume with a single inlet and outlet, the continuity equation can be expressed as follows: m inlet m outlet

For a control volume with multiple inlets and outlets, the continuity equation is: m inlets m outlets
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LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

Fluid Flow

where: NR v D gc = = = = = = Reynolds number (unitless) average velocity (ft/sec) diameter of pipe (ft) absolute viscosity of fluid (lbf-sec/ft2) fluid mass density (lbm/ft3) gravitational constant (32.2 ft-lbm/lbf-sec2)

For practical purposes, if the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar. If it is greater than 3500, the flow is turbulent. Flows with Reynolds numbers between 2000 and 3500 are sometimes referred to as transitional flows. Most fluid systems in nuclear facilities operate with turbulent flow. Reynolds numbers can be conveniently determined using a Moody Chart; an example of which is shown in Appendix B. Additional detail on the use of the Moody Chart is provided in subsequent text.

Summary
The main points of this chapter are summarized below.

Laminar and Turbulent Flow Summary

Laminar Flow Layers of water flow over one another at different speeds with virtually no mixing between layers. The flow velocity profile for laminar flow in circular pipes is parabolic in shape, with a maximum flow in the center of the pipe and a minimum flow at the pipe walls. The average flow velocity is approximately one half of the maximum velocity. Turbulent Flow The flow is characterized by the irregular movement of particles of the fluid. The flow velocity profile for turbulent flow is fairly flat across the center section of a pipe and drops rapidly extremely close to the walls. The average flow velocity is approximately equal to the velocity at the center of the pipe. Viscosity is the fluid property that measures the resistance of the fluid to deforming due to a shear force. For most fluids, temperature and viscosity are inversely proportional. An ideal fluid is one that is incompressible and has no viscosity. An increasing Reynolds number indicates an increasing turbulence of flow.

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BERNOULLIS EQUATION

Fluid Flow

Summary
The main points of this chapter are summarized below.

Bernoullis Equation Summary

Bernoullis equation is an application of the First Law of Thermodynamics. Bernoullis equation is an application of the general energy equation to a steady flow system in which no work is done on or by the fluid, no heat is transferred to or from the fluid, and no change occurs in the internal energy of the fluid. Head is the term used to describe pressure exerted on or by a fluid. As fluid flows in a piping system, changes in elevation, velocity, and pressure heads must be consistent so that Bernoullis equation is satisfied. Bernoullis equation can be modified to take into account friction losses and pump work. A venturi can be used to determine mass flow rates due to changes in pressure and fluid velocity. The volumetric flow rate through a venturi is directly proportional to the square root of the differential pressure between the venturis inlet and its throat.

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Fluid Flow

HEAD LOSS

TABLE 1 Typical Values of

Item Leq D Leq D

Globe Valve Conventional Y-Pattern Gate Valve Fully Open 75% Open 50% Open 25% Open Standard Tee Flow through Run Flow through Branch 90 Standard Elbow 45 Standard Elbow Return Bend Example: A fully-open gate valve is in a pipe with a diameter of 10 inches. What equivalent length of pipe would cause the same head loss as the gate valve? Solution: From Table 1, we find that the value of Leq/D for a fully-open gate valve is 10. Leq = (L/D) D = 10 (10 inches) = 100 inches 10 60 30 16 50 10 35 150 900 400 160

By adding the equivalent lengths of all components to the actual length of pipe in a system we can obtain the Leq value for the entire piping system.

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HEAD LOSS

Fluid Flow

Summary
The main points of this chapter are summarized below.

Head Loss Summary

Head loss is the reduction in the total head (sum of potential head, velocity head, and pressure head) of a fluid caused by the friction present in the fluids motion. Frictional loss is that part of the total head loss that occurs as the fluid flows through straight pipes. Minor losses are the head losses that occur due to bends, elbows, joints, valves, and other components. Any time the flow experiences a change in direction or a change in cross-sectional area, it will experience a head loss. The friction factor for fluid flow can be determined using a Moody Chart if the relative roughness of the pipe and the Reynolds number of the flow can be determined. Darcys equation can be used to calculate frictional losses. A special form of Darcys equation can be used to calculate minor losses. The length of pipe that would cause the same head loss as a valve or fitting can be determined by multiplying the value of L/D for the component found in handbooks or vendor manuals by the diameter of the pipe.

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NATURAL CIRCULATION

Fluid Flow

Both of these actions will help ensure steam/vapor pockets are not formed in the RCS where they would restrict RCS flow. Thirdly, maintain steam generator water level normal range. This provides an adequate heat sink to ensure heat removal is sufficient to prevent boiling of the RCS.

Summary
The main points of this chapter are listed below.

Natural Circulation Flow Summary

Natural circulation flow is circulation of a fluid without the use of mechanical devices. Forced circulation flow is circulation of a fluid through a system by pumps. Thermal driving head is the driving force for natural circulation caused by the difference in density between two areas of fluid. Three items are necessary to support natural circulation: There must be a heat sink and a heat source. The heat source must be located below the heat sink. Flowpaths must exist between the warm fluid and the cold fluid. Generally, the greater the temperature difference, the higher the natural circulation flow rate. Natural circulation in a PWR can be verified by monitoring: RCS T 25%-80% full power value THot / TCold steady or slowly decreasing S/G steam pressure - tracking RCS temperature Natural circulation in a PWR can be enhanced by: maintain pressurizer level >50% maintain RCS 15oF subcooling maintain adequate heat sink, S/G level normal range

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TWO-PHASE FLUID FLOW

Fluid Flow

Summary
The main points from this chapter are summarized below.

Two-Phase Fluid Flow Summary

The combination of liquid and vapor flowing through a pipe is called two-phase flow. Types of two-phase flow include: Bubbly flow: there is a dispersion of vapor bubbles in a continuum of liquid. Slug flow: the bubbles grow by coalescence and ultimately become of the same order of diameter as the tube, generating bullet shaped bubbles. Annular flow: the liquid is distributed between a liquid film flowing up the wall and a dispersion of droplets flowing in the vapor core of the flow.

Core flow oscillations and instabilities can cause: undesirable mechanical vibration of components. a reduction in the heat flux required to cause DNB. interruptions to actual circulation flow.

Flow oscillations and instabilities can occur during the following conditions: core is outside design conditions, power > 150% mechanical failure, causing flow blockage inadequate core cooling during natural circulation, such that boiling is occurring

Pipe whip is the displacement of piping created by the reaction forces of a high velocity fluid jet following a pipe rupture. Water hammer is a liquid shock wave resulting from a sudden starting or stopping of flow.

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CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Fluid Flow

Summary
The main points from this chapter are summarized below.

Centrifugal Pumps Summary

Net positive suction head is the difference between the pump suction pressure and the saturation pressure for the fluid. Cavitation is the formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles on the impeller of a pump as the local pressure falls below and then rises above the saturation pressure of the fluid being pumped. The pump laws can be used to determine the effect of varying the speed of a centrifugal pump on the flow, head, and power. n 2 V1 n 1 n 2 2 Hp n 1
1

V 2

Hp

n 3 2 p1 n 1

p2

The combined pump curve for two centrifugal pumps in parallel can be determined by adding the individual flows for any given head. The combined pump curve for two centrifugal pumps in series can be determined by adding the individual heads for any given flow. The operating point (head and flow) of a system can be determined by plotting the pump curve and the system head loss curve on the same axes. The system will operate at the intersection of the two curves.

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