HandbookCompiled v1.2

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Under the same sky

Handbook of activities for teaching
basic concepts in astronomy
www.galileo-mobile.org
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Presentation
GalileoMobile is an itinerant educational project to share astronomy with everyone, in particular children
and young people in regions lacking educational resources or with little access to outreach programs.
Through the beauty and wonders of our Universe, we want to foster curiousity, mind-openness, critical
thinking and a will of learning -- essential ingredients for a better world. The core spirit of the project is
that science and astronomy constitute a unifying vector of exchange across cultures, under the same sky.
The GalileoMobile Handbook is the cornerstone didactic resource of the project. During our expeditions, it
is used as a basis both to perform activities with school students as well as for teacher workshops.
The compilation of activities composing this handbook is the result of an extensive search through various
online sources devoted to teaching physics and astronomy. They have been selected according to the
following three criteria. First, the activities have to be hands-on and playful, for the students to learn by
doing while enjoying the fun side of science. Second, most of the activities require interactivity among
the students and between students and the teachers, in order to instigate a feeling of learning together
under a same sky. Third, the activities have to use only low-cost and easy-to-find materials that are
affordable anywhere in the world, including developing countries. This criterion conveys the message that
scientific experimentation and (personal) discoveries can be done without the need of costly facilities and
are thus accessible to everyone. If you wish to look up the original source of any of the activities, you will
find the references at the bottom of each page.
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The handbook activities are organized in four chapters according to the astronomical topic:
(1) Stars and Constellations
(2) Solar System (the Sun and the planets)
(3) Beyond the Solar System (nebulae, galaxies...)
(4) Light and Optics
All the activities have been adapted into a common classroom-friendly layout and expanded where needed.
Each activity starts with a cover page featuring a short and concise description of the activity, as well as a
table summarizing the activity basics: the intended age group, the activity duration, necessary materials,
and methodological category.
The methodological categories are:
(1) Experiments
(2) Creation
(3) Inquiry-based
(4) Teach-yourself (can be done individually and without the help of a teacher)
Experiments activities involve something to build and play with, or require measurements. The Creation
activities stimulate creativity, e.g. by adding colours, cutting pieces in various shapes etc. Inquiry-based
activities imply parts of a research process (e.g. hypotheses, designing measurements, making predictions,
etc.). Activities belonging to the Teach-yourself category can be performed without the need of an
external teacher. Note that these methodological categories are not mutually exclusive.
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Following the activity cover page is a page listing Learning goals. These are intended as hints for school
teachers about the concepts, process skills (know-how) and attitudes that can be conveyed through the
activity. These goals can be used as benchmarks to evaluate the success of an activity towards those goals.
Most activities follow an inductive didactic scheme with: (i) a preamble phase (questions eliciting the
activity), (ii) a step-by-step procedure to conduct the experiment/take measurements, (iii) an analysis
phase with questions/reflections about the main body of the activity, and in some activities (iv) a
deepening/extension phase. All activities include explanations of background concepts (notably in phase (i)),
since preliminary knowledge is often required to understand the activity in depth. In general the concepts
described in the GalileoMobile Handbook are treated in a simple and clear way. However, if you find that a
topic or concept is not sufficiently explained, we hope the information we provide can serve as an
inspiration to find out more about it in other ways (e.g., books, internet, or by asking experts of the field).
You can find the extra material required for some of the activities in the appendix to the Handbook.
Any comments, questions, or suggestions for improving the "GalileoMobile Handbook" are more than
welcome. To contact us, please find our emails at the project website www.galileo-mobile.org, or write
directly to: contact@galileo-mobile.org.
The GalileoMobile Team
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Coordination
Mara Das Espuig
Patricia Figueir Spinelli
Philippe Kobel
Compilation
Ada del Pilar Becerra Becerra
Mara Das Espuig
Nuno Gomes
Philippe Kobel
Eva Ntormousi
English Translation
Sandra Bentez
Linda Strubbe
Mayte Vasquez
Megha Bhatt
Philippe Kobel
Pedagogical Advice
Linda Strubbe
Ada del Pilar Becerra Becerra
Adaptation of contents
Mara Das Espuig
Nuno Gomes
Jesus Zendejas
Philippe Kobel
Megha Bhatt
Mayte Vasquez
Layout and Design
Mara Das Espuig
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Table of Contents
1. Stars and Constellations 8
Creating 3D constellations 9
Why don't we see stars during the day? 21
Why do stars twinkle? 27
2. The Solar System 33
Astronauts in space 34
The Earth as a Peppercorn! 40
Building a heliocentric model 62
2.1 The Sun 74
The Solar Cycle 75
Equatorial Sundial 80
The Rotation of the Sun 90
2.2 The Planets 100
The Rings of Saturn 101
Exploring the Moon 109
How to measure the rotation of the Sun and the planets 120
The Earth's orbit 126
Your weight on other planets 139
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3. Beyond the Solar System 146
Galaxy Classification 147
The Expansion of the Universe 154
Images from the VLT 160
The Timeline of Astronomy 169
4. Light and Optics 174
The Filter Wheel 175
Multicolored Light 188
Jelly Lenses 197
5. Credits 203
6. Acknowledgements 204
Table of Contents
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1. Stars and Constellations
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If you could observe the sky from Mars or from somewhere else in the Universe, do you
think the sky would look the same as it does from where you live? What if you were on a
spaceship-- how would the constellations look then?
In this activity, we'll learn that although our eyes see stars as points of light at fixed
places in the sky, the stars are actually located at different distances from us.
We'll see this by building scale models of two constellations: The swan and Orion.
Creating 3D constellations
Activity adapted from http://www.csic.es/unawe/Actividades/constelaciones%20en%203D.pdf
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Learning Goals
Factual/conceptual content
Stars are located at enormous distances from us.
The stars forming constellations are not grouped together in space. They appear near to each
other only because of our point of view.
Science process skills
Think in three dimensions.

Attitudes
Imagine the vastness of the Universe.
Distinguish between mythological astronomy (based on perceptions and imagination) and scientific
astronomy (based on measurements).
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Since ancient times, mankind has imagined people, animals and
objects from their daily lives, beliefs, and culture, in the sky.
They constructed these figures by connecting stars, and we call
the figures constellations. Constellations and their names can
be found printed on a planisphere or celestial chart.
Before the time of clocks, maps and calendars, observing the
sky was very important for helping people to orient themselves
in time and space. The constellations were a way to find specific
stars and regions of the sky, and a way to figure out your
position. In the middle of the desert, the mountains, or the sea,
travellers and sailors arrived at their destination guided by the
stars. Whether particular stars are visible in the sky or not
depends on our location on the planet, the time of day, and the
time of year.
Today, thanks to powerful telescopes, we know that there are
many more stars in the sky than the ancients marked on their
planispheres.
As you can see above, it requires
a lot of imagination to recognize
these figures in the sky.
In the image above, there are 5
examples of constellations, which
were drawn by the Greeks in the
second century BC. You can also
connect stars yourself and trace
out your own constellations.
Stars + Imagination =
Constellation
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The two figures above show the constellations described by the ancient Greek astronomers (such
as Ptolemy). The left panel shows a scheme of connecting stars with lines to form constellations.
On the right, we see the constellations of the northern hemisphere the way the ancient Greeks
imagined them.
http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3135/2815353376_6efc003035.jpg
The Greek View
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In this activity, we'll see how to trace out the

constellations and why they look as they do from
the Earth.
To do this, we'll make a three-dimensional model

of a constellation known as Cygnus or the Swan.
The star corresponding to the swan's tail is called
Deneb, and is one of the brightest stars in the
Milky Way.
http://images4.wikia.nocookie.net/lostpedia/images/3/35/Cygnus.jpg
Age 10 years old and up. Can be done individually or in pairs.
Duration ~ 45 min.
Activity Experiment / Creation
Materials
- Template of the Swan (in Appendices), one per student/student pair
- Tiny balls (e.g., beads or balls of paper or fluorescent plasticine), 8 per
student/student pair
- Scissors, tape
- Ruler (tape measure)
- Coloured strings
Optional
(for the mobile)
- Nylon string (if hanging the mobile)
- Pieces of cardboard (one per student/student pair)
A Swan in the Milky Way
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Procedure:
Give each student/student pair a Swan constellation template, together with 8 long pieces of whool
strings.
- Using the tape measure, cut the coloured strings to the lengths indicated in the template next to
each star (in cm).
- Attach the strings to the 8 corresponding star positions (taping them or passing them through the
paper and making a nod)
- Attach a bead or a paper ball or (fluorescent) plasticine to the end of each string.
- Either tape the Swan to a low roof (as in the picture below), or mount it on a piece of cardboard
and hang it with a nylon string. You've just built a Swan mobile!
Template of the Swan
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Let's analyse:
- Lie on the floor below your mobile. What do you see?
Do the balls at the ends of the strings (stars) draw an imaginary
swan?
Yes, we should be able to see the constellation the Swan, as it
looks to us here on Earth.
- If we now look at the same stars from the side, do we still see
the Swan? Why or why not?
We no longer see the Swan because our position in space has
changed. From this new point of view, the stars are now at
different distances from us compared to when we looked from
underneath. That is to say, the shapes of the constellations we
see are only apparent and relative.
- The strings represent the distances separating us from the
stars. Each cm of string corresponds to 60 light years ( 5.7
followed by 15 0's kms!!) in 'real' space!
Can you calculate the distance separating us from each of the
stars of the Swan constellation?
- Invite other people to look at your mobile. Tell them that the
size and distance of everything we see in the sky is relative.
Appearances can sometimes be deceptive, can't they?
The Swan
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In this activity, we'll see the differences
between the two-dimensional and three-
dimensional distributions of celestial objects.
To do so, we'll make a three-dimensional
model of the constellation called Orion, the
Hunter, a giant in Greek mythology.
http://www.jms7.com/atlas/orion1.jpg
Activity adaptaed from http://www.csic.es/unawe/Actividades/CONSTELACIONDEORION.pdf
Orion, the Hunter
Age 10 years and up, in groups of 10 or fewer participants
Duration ~ 45 min.
Activity Type Experiments / Creation
Materials
- Transparent pieces of thick plastic
- 9 or 10 balls of styrofoam or plastic, 10 cm in
diameter
- Coloured strings
- Tape measure or ruler
- Adhesive tape and scissors
Optional material (to paint the balls) - Blue, red, and green paint, and paintbrushes
Here is the data for the principal stars in the constellation Orion. Remember that we measure the
distance between the stars and the earth in light-years (ly), which is the distance light can travel in one
Earth year, travelling at a speed of 300 000 km/s.
The final column shows how long the pieces of string should be for a scale model in which 5 light-years
equals 1 cm (or equivalently, 1 light-year : 2 mm).
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Let's analyse:
- The students behind the plastic can learn what the constellation Orion looks like by naming
each star. Which student is holding up Betelgeuse? How about Rigel? Alnilam?
- Next, the students should observe the constellation from points A and B. They should draw
what they see from each place. Do they still see the constellation Orion? Why or why not?
We no longer see Orion because our position in space has changed. From the new vewpoint, we
see the stars at different positions and distances than when we observe from in front of the
plastic. How we see the constellation from our planet doesn't correspond to the real
positions of the stars -- we see the stars as though they're all at the same distance from
the Earth, but that's not really the case!
- You can do this activity with other constellations, too. Which constellations on the next
page do you know already?
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Orion, the Hunter
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The Southern
Cross
Principal stars:
Acrux, blue-white in color, at
magnitude 0.8. Mimosa, blue-
white, at magnitude 1.3.
Gacrux, red at magnitude 1.6.
The Bull
Principal stars:
Aldebaran ( Tau), a red giant at
magnitude 1. Elnath ( Tau) forms
the horns of the Bull along with .
The Bull contains two of the most
famous open clusters in the sky,
the Pleiades and the Hyades.
To continue, here's some information about some other constellations. You can make your own
scale model and share what you've learned about the positions of stars in the sky.
It can be really interesting to learn the names of stars and constellations, learn about the
mythology behind their names, and the characteristics and locations of the stars. Try to get a
planisphere that can serve as your map for navigating across the sky.
The Big Dog
Principal star:
Sirius is the star that
appears brightest from the
Earth, at magnitude -1.46.
It's one of the largest
stars visible to the naked
eye.
Other constellations
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Where are the stars during the day?
The bright lights in big cities make it possible to see only the brightest stars at night. In more remote
areas, without artificial light all around, it's possible to see fainter stars.
During the day, the bright light of the Sun outshines the light of the stars so that we can't see them.
In this activity, we'll learn why we can't see stars during the day.
To do so, we'll design an experiment to help us simulate how the brightness of the sunlight scattering
in the atmosphere keeps us from seeing stars during the day.
Age 4-10 years
Duration ~ 20 min.
Method Category Experiments / Creation
Materials
- Black cardboard
- Something pointy to make
holes in the cardboard
- Lamp
- Torch or candle
This image shows a group of stars which
you can see on a clear night without a
telescope. This cluster of stars is known as
Messier 45 (technical name), the Pleiades
(from Greek mythology), the Seven Sisters
(Mayan culture), or Qollqa (Andean culture).
Credits of the image & Copyright: Credits of the image & Copyright:
Robert Gendler Robert Gendler
Why don't we see
stars during the day?
Activity adapted from GTTP: http://www.site.galileoteachers.org/images/stories/package/docs/visibility_stars.pdf copyright Mathan Association
!
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Learning Goals
Stars are always there, even when we can't see them -- but they are faint, and additional light
(from the Sun, Moon, or artificial light) makes them impossible (daytime) or difficult (Moon or
artificial lights) to see.
Model-building -- We can simulate effects that happen far away with simple smaller-scale
materials.
Making predictions (about what would happen by adding lights).

Attitudes
Gain an appreciation of dark skies where we can observe lots of stars, and feel concerned about
light pollution.
Activity adapted from http://www.schoolsobservatory.org.uk/staff/teach/maths/act_wtpl.shtml
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Even though we don't see the stars during the
day, they're still there in the sky, in the same
place as during the night.
It's not possible to see the stars during the
day because the Sun's rays are scattered by
the atmosphere (which is composed of water
vapor, gas, and dust) in all directions. That's
why we see the sky as bright and blue.
After the Sun sets, the stars become visible
in the sky. As it gets darker, the number of
stars we can see increases.
By contrast, as sunrise approaches, the
number of stars we can see decreases. At
sunrise, we can see only a few of the brightest
stars. Finally, all of the stars disappear
completely in the bright sunlight.

Lots of sunlight, just like light from cities,
reduces the visibility of the stars. During the
night, if there's a lot of artificial light, it is
not possible to see the fainter stars. In the
same way, during the day, the light from the
Sun completely obscures the light from all the
stars.
Actividad adaptada de GTTP: http://www.site.galileoteachers.org/images/stories/package/docs/visibility_stars.pdf copyright Mathan Association
Image credit: Lucas Saldanha Werneck Image credit: Lucas Saldanha Werneck
The Light of the Stars
!
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Did you know that the Sun is a star,
too? Its bright light keeps us from
seeing other stars during the day.
Procedure:
This activity should be done in a room that can be made
completely dark. Before starting, gather your materials close to
you so that you can find them once you've darkened the room.
- Make small holes in the piece of cardboard. These will simulate
stars. You can use a sky chart to draw some real-life
constellations, or you can invent your own groups of stars.
- Place your materials close to the wall on which you're going to
project your model stars.
- Once the room is dark, shine the torch through the cardboard
so that you can see dots projected on the wall through the holes
in the cardboard. These dots on the wall will represent stars in
your model.
- With the torch still on, light a candle and hold it close to the
wall. The stars don't look as bright anymore, do they? This shows
how the light of cities reduces the visibility of the stars.
- Next, blow out the candle and switch on the light in the room.
The stars have completely disappeared, haven't they?
This shows how the brightness of the atmosphere doesn't allow
us to see stars during the day.
Activity Description
!
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Let's analyse:
- What happened to the stars projected on the wall when you lit the candle? What
happened when you switched on the room light? It looks like the stars disappeared. But how
can that be, since we know the stars were actually still there?
What happens is that the light of the room drowns out the brightness of the stars
projected on the wall. In the same way, the Sun's light drowns out the light of the stars,
and that's why we can't see them during the day.
The light of the candle represents light from cities which also obscures the light of the
stars. It's often not possible to see even a single star at night. There are various reasons
for this, like the presence of clouds, the brightness of the Moon, or because of too much
artificial light (light pollution). This is why, if you want to make astronomical observations,
you need to choose a special location, avoiding places where high humidity or lots of light
from cities can reduce the quality of your observations.
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The Crab Nebula is the
result of the explosion of a
star. The explosion was so
powerful that it was visible
during the day.
Let's analyse:
- Could it be possible to see a star during the day
other than the Sun?
Yes, this can happen when an old star explodes and
becomes an extremely bright object. This event,
called a supernova explosion, is so bright that it can
be seen without a telescope. The explosion can
remain visible for weeks or months. With time, the
brightness decreases until its brightess is
comparable to that of a normal star.
The Crab Nebula (in the image on the right) is the
result of a supernova explosion which took place in
the year 1054 AD, and was so bright that it was
observable during the day. The observation was
documented by Chinese and Arab astronomers on
July 4, 1054. The explosion remained visible for 22
months.
NASA, ESA, J. Hester and A. Loll
(Arizona State University)
!
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Let's discover together why stars twinkle, by trying a
simple and fun experiment!

First we'll talk about the materials we need for our

experiment.
Let's pay close attention to everything that happens as

our experiment is progressing.
When we're done, we'll have discovered the explanation

for why stars twinkle.
Age All ages
Duration ~ 40 min.
Method Category Experiments - Do-it-yourself
Materials
- 1 lamp (or candle)
- 1 piece of cardboard
- Something pointy for making holes
- 1 container of hot water
Why do stars twinkle?
Activity adapted from GTTP: http://www.site.galileoteachers.org/images/stories/package/docs/why_stars_twinkle.pdf copyright Mathan Association &
http://ractually.wordpress.com/2006/01/29/%C2%BFpor-que-las-estrellas-titilan
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Learning Goals
Stars twinkle because their light passes through the moving Earth's atmosphere, which bends the
light in different directions and smears it out.
Planets twinkle less than planets because their apparent size is larger.
Model-building -- We can simulate effects that happen far away (in the atmosphere) with simple
smaller-scale materials.
Making predictions (about what would happen by adding the candle).

Attitudes
Feel empowered to understand a phenomenon they can commonly observe (the twinkling of stars).
Feel curious to ask more questions about twinkling stars and to experiment further with the model.
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The atmosphere is a gaseous sheath that
surrounds the Earth.
Our atmosphere protects us from the
Sun's damaging ultraviolet radiation.
It also helps keep the temperature at
night and temperature in the day fairly
similar.
The atmosphere acts as a shield against
material from space (like meteorites) which
impacts the Earth every day.
The atmosphere is composed of various
gases, including oxygen, hydrogen, and
nitrogen.
! The atmosphere reaches several
kilometers up above the Earth's
surface!
The Earth's Atmosphere
Activity adapted from GTTP: http://www.site.galileoteachers.org/images/stories/package/docs/why_stars_twinkle.pdf copyright Mathan Association &
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! The light of the star is bent as it
travels through the different
atmospheric altitudes.
How the atmosphere refracts
light
Activity adapted from GTTP: http://www.site.galileoteachers.org/images/stories/package/docs/why_stars_twinkle.pdf copyright Mathan Association y
Light is bent when entering the Earth's
atmosphere due to refraction.
The index of refraction is a function of air
density, pressure, temperature and humidity.
Consequently, different altitudes in the
atmosphere have different indices of
refraction.
The random refraction of the starlight
passing through the atmosphere to the
observer's location is what causes the stars
to twinkle.
Stars near the horizon twinkle more than
stars located overhead. This is because light
from stars near the horizon travels on longer
paths through the atmosphere, and
therefore is more affected by refraction.
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Procedure:
- Make a small hole in the piece of
cardboard with something pointy.
- Place the cardboard (with the hole in
it) between you and a light source (lamp
or candle).
- To see the effect the best, the room
should be dark. You should now see a
star (from the light through the
cardboard) appear in front of you.
- Put the container of hot water
between yourself and the cardboard.
Watch what happens to the image of
the star.
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Let's analyse:
- Could you see the difference between before and after you put the hot water
between yourself and the illuminated cardboard? What did you observe?
You should have seen that the image of the star began to dance. This is because
of the water vapour between you and the piece of cardboard. A similar effect
happens when starlight passes through the Earth's atmosphere.
- Why do stars twinkle and planets do not?
Planets are located much closer to us than stars are. Because stars are so far
away, they look to us like points (rather than circles), and so the effect of
refraction produced by the atmosphere is more noticeable.
! If we were astronauts in space, we would not see stars twinkling.
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2. The Solar System
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In this activity, we'll learn about what sensations astronauts feel when
they're in space!

When astronauts go on a mission to space, they experience particular
effects on their bodies due to the reduced gravity.
We'll learn about these effects and sensations that astronauts feel
in an easy and fun experiment.
At the end of the activity, we'll know more about what astronauts
feel on their trips into space!
Age All ages
Duration ~ 40 min.
Method Category Experiments
Materials
- Paper
- Pencils
- Measuring tape
Astronauts in space
Activity adapted from http://education.jsc.nasa.gov/explorers/sp/index2.html
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Learning Goals
Feel curious to ask more questions about twinkling stars and to experiment further with the model.
Gravity (and lack thereof) has a significant effect on our bodies.

Model-building -- We can simulate effects that happen in space here on Earth (in this case, by
sitting upside-down).
Attitudes
Become interested in learning more about astronauts and space travel.
Raise ones interest in science by imagine oneself as an astronaut.
Develop a taste for modeling natural phenomena through the fun of model-building (in this case,
sitting upside-down).
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The Space Race began in the middle of the last

century between what were then the world's two
superpowers, the United States and the USSR.
Since then, other countries have begun their

own space programs and have launched various
manned space voyages, most of them for
scientific purposes.
Astronauts are people who train physically and

mentally to make voyages into space, staying in
orbit for days or even months.

When astronauts are in space, they experience

many changes in their bodies because they are no
longer subject to the strong effect of gravity
that we feel here on Earth.
! Voyages in the space shuttle last less
than a month, but astronauts in the
International Space Station can stay in
orbit there for more than three months.
Astronauts & Voyages into
Space
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Astronauts in space feel various effects on
their bodies because they do not feel the force
of gravity while they are in orbit.
The lack of gravity lets fluids in the body
(e.g., water and blood) move to the upper part
of the body, so that astronauts often have
swollen faces, and sometimes also headaches or
the feeling of being sick with a cold.
In space, your bones don't have to support
your body, and so if an astronaut spends a long
time in space, their bones can start to weaken.
Similarly, your muscles don't have to do much
work in space, and so astronauts have to do
physical exercises in space to keep their bodies
in shape.
! On Earth, gravity keeps the
fluids in your body down below
your heart. But in space that
doesn't work!
The Human Body in Space
38
Procedure:
- Try to relax and stay standing up for 10
minutes. While you're standing, choose
three points on your legs and measure the
distance between each point and your
calf. Write down the measurements on a
piece of paper.
- Now lie on the floor and put your piece
of paper, measuring tape, and pencil, close
to you. Extend your legs towards the
ceiling, making a 90 degree angle. Hold
this position for 10 minutes.
- Now get up and measure the distances
on your legs that you measured at the
beginning of the experiment.
- Compare your results from before and
after lying on the ground!
What do you think happened?
! Astronauts can actually grow by several
centimeters because gravity isn't pulling on
their vertebrae in their spinal column, and so
their vertebrae separate a little from each
other. When astronauts return from their
space voyage, their vertebrae go back to
normal.
Lie down on the floor and
extend your legs towards
the ceiling at an angle of
90 degrees, resting them
against a wall or a chair.
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Let's analyse:
- How do your measurements from before and after lying on the floor compare to each
other? What do you think caused this change?
While you're lying on your back, much of the blood that started out in your legs flows to the
top of your legs and into your upper body, changing the length of your legs. This happens to
astronauts in space as well.
- If you went into space for a long time, do you think you'd experience any changes to your
body?
The answer is yes; in this activity we've learned all the changes that astronauts can undergo
when they go into space. Now we know that the changes are primarily due to the absence of
gravity, which causes changes in your body's fluids, bones, and muscles.
Actividad adaptada de http://www.schoolsobservatory.org.uk/staff/teach/workshop/ y http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets
The Earth as a Peppercorn!
Activity adapted from http://astro.if.ufrgs.br/grao.htm & http://www.noao.edu/education/peppercorn/pcmain.html
In this activity, we'll build a reduced-scale model of the Solar system. To do so, we'll imagine that
the Earth is as small and vulnerable as a peppercorn.
By taking a walking journey across our model, we'll discover how incredibly large it is and how
ridiculously small the Earth appears in comparison.
At the end, we'll have learned surprising things about the Solar system where we live...
Age
From 8 years old (building reduced model of Solar system and walk through)
From 12 years old (calculating scaled distances and sizes of the planets)
Duration ~ 45min (Build a Scaled solar system), 15 min (Investigating the Solar system)
Method Category Experiments / Inquiry-based
Materials
- A ball (~230mm) or printed Sun (in Appendices)
For each student group, give either (depending on what is easier to find):
- Clay/playdoh (if possible of different colours), or
- A set of seeds of different sizes: pinhead (0.8mm), peppercorns (2mm),
sesame seeds (1mm), walnuts (24mm), hazelnuts (30mm), peanuts (9mm), poppy
seeds (0.5mm)
If working with secondary school students, give each group:
- A Model worksheet (in Appendices)
- A pencil
Optional materials
(in Appendices)
- Solar system images, printed Sun and Earth template, printed Solar system
data sheet
41
Learning Goals
Distinguish the different types of bodies composing the Solar system and learn about their
properties: the Sun, the 8 planets, asteroids and comets.
Besides their composition, the different types of bodies differ mainly by their size: Gaseous
(outer) planets are much bigger than the rocky (inner) planets, which are much bigger than
asteroids and comets.
All these objects are ridiculously small compared to the Sun!

Model-building -- Construct a reduced-scale model of our solar system.
Practice mathematics of proportions and scale by scaling down all the real distances to the size
of their model.
Compare models with real observations to test their validity.

Attitudes
Get a sense for the vastness and emptiness of space: the distances between planets are enormous
compared to their sizes!
Raise ones awareness for the fragility of our planet (only a peppercorn at this scale!)
It is almost impossible to imagine such large distances in km. What could we build to help us
represent such distances? (Guide students to the idea of making a reduced scale model).
We'll start by imagining that the Earth is as small as a peppercorn. (You can show the small Earth
printout from the Sun-Earth template in the Appendices.)
Actividad adaptada de http://astro.if.ufrgs.br/grao.htm y http://www.noao.edu/education/peppercorn/pcmain.html
Building a scaled Solar system
Procedure (1-3):
A large space (~100 m long) is needed for this activity, preferably outside. Divide the students in
groups of 3-4 and give each group a set of seeds or clay/play-doh.
1) Making a guess model
This first part is about building anticipation and revealing the preconceptions of students. Students
should not be told the real distances at this point. They will only use their existing knowledge to make
a best-estimate scale model of our Solar system.
- Challenge each group to build a guess scale model of the Solar system, taking as reference size the
Earth a peppercorn.
- For each group, make a mark or put a stone on the floor to locate the Sun, but don't tell them the
size of the Sun yet. Realizing just how big the Sun is will come as a great surprise at the end.
- Students are free to choose which seed represents which planet, or to make playdoh balls of the
desired size. They should place the seeds/balls on the floor at the guessed distances from the Sun.
- At the end, let the different groups debate about their model, justifying the sizes and distances
they chose.
Procedure (2-3):
2) Calculating scales (secondary school)
With secondary school students, it is really possible to make them work on scales and proportions by
making them scaling down the real distances and sizes of the planets to the reduced scale model.
By doing so, students should figure out that a scale model means that the ratios between real
distances/sizes and the model ones are always the same.
- Make the student groups use the Model worksheet to calculate what the size of the model objects
should be, and then attribute it the proper seed (or make the proper size play-doh ball).
- Likewise, let the students calculate what the scaled distances should be.
NB: With the distance worksheet, they can either calculate the scale of the model as the ratio
between the Earth's real size and model size, or as the ratio between the real Earth-Mars distance
and the model one.
- Let the groups compare their calculations and methods: Are the methods equivalent? Is there a
more precise one?
- If you wish, before the students start calculate, you can make them walk the distances from the
Sun, Mercury, Mars and the Earth. This starter should create a surprise (as their guess models are
surely smaller) and elicit curiousity to find out what the correct scales are.
Procedure (3-3):
3) Experimenting scales (primary and secondary school)
Accompany the students in a walk through the (correctly) scaled Solar system. Starting from the Sun,
you will go from one planet to the next by following the Scale-model distances indicated hereafter.
With primary school students (who did not calculate the model distances), you can create an effect of
surprise by not telling in advance the number of meters you are going to walk.
Students can make a big step to count a meter.
- When reaching each planet, show the correct seed (or playdoh ball of equivalent size) it corresponds
to in the scaled Solar system (see Model sizes next page).
- You can show the planet image (to print from the Appendices) and tell a fun fact about it.
- Place a landmark on the floor such that students can keep track of the distances at the end (for
instance place a woodstick or a stone and perhaps tape the planet image on it).
- After having reached Neptune (or a planet closer to the Sun if you lack space or time), take a look
back to the model you have built.
- From that perspective, ask the students: How big should the Sun be?
Make the students guess or calculate (secondary). Surprise them by showing a ball of the appropriate
size or the printed solar disk.
Real size Model object Real distance Model distance
Sun 1,391,000 km
Sun - Mercury
58 000 000 km
Sun-Mercury
Mercury 4,879 km
Mercury - Venus
50 000 000 km
Mercury-Venus
Venus 12,104 km
Venus - Earth
41 000 000 km
Venus-Earth
Earth 12,742 km Peppercorn (2 mm)
Earth - Mars
78 000 000 km
Earth-Mars
13 m
Mars 6,779 km
Mars - Jupiter
550 000 000 km
Mars-Jupiter
Jupiter 139,822 km
Jupiter - Saturn
649 000 000 km
Jupiter-Saturn
Saturn 116,464 km
Saturn - Uranus
1 443 000 000 km
Saturn-Uranus
Uranus 50,724 km
Uranus - Neptune
1 627 000 000 km
Uranus-Neptune
Neptune 49,244 km
Model worksheet
Pluto
Neptune - Pluto
1 404 000 000 km
Moon
Earth - Moon
384 000 km
Next star
(Proxima Centauri)
Earth - Star
4.22 light- years
Earth - Star
6 700 000 m
4 496 000 000 km 749 m
!
Model object Real distance Model distance
Sun Ball (230 mm)
Sun - Mercury
58 000 000 km
Sun - Mercury:
10 m
Mercury Pin head (0,8 mm)
Mercury - Venus
50 000 000 km
Mercury - Venus
8 m
Venus Peppercorn (2 mm)
Venus - Earth
41 000 000 km
Venus - Earth
7 m
Earth Peppercorn (2 mm)
Earth - Mars
78 000 000 km
Earth - Mars
13 m
Mars Sesame seed (1 mm)
Mars - Jupiter
550 000 000 km
Mars - Jupiter
92
Jupiter Walnut (24 mm)
Jupiter - Saturn
649 000 000 km
Jupiter - Saturn
108 m
Saturn Hazelnut (20 mm)
Saturn - Uranus
1 443 000 000 km
Saturn - Uranus
240 m
Uranus Peanut (9 mm)
Uranus - Neptune
1 627 000 000 km
Uranus - Neptune
271 m
Neptune Peanut (8 mm)
4 496 000 000 km Total 749 m
Pluto Poppy seed (0,4 mm)
Neptune - Pluto
1 404 000 000 km
Neptune - Pluto
234 m
Moon Poppy seed (0,6 mm)
Earth - Moon
384 000 km
Earth - Moon
64 m
Next star
(Proxima Centauri)
Earth - Star
4.22 light- years
Earth - Star
6 700 000 m
!
Let's analyse:
- Having travelled through the huge distances of the Solar system and looking back to the Earth, how
do you feel about your home planet?
All the living species we know live at the surface of this tiny peppercorn. From this perspective, can
you imagine that greedy people fight to become the momentary masters of a fraction of this seed?
(adapted from Carl Sagan A Pale Blue Dot, 1997)
- Let's think about the speed at which light traverses the huge distances of the Universe. Up to
current knowledge, light is the fastest thing in our Universe, yet it still takes time to travel. At the
speed of 300'000 km/s, it takes about 4 years to arrive from the next star (Proxima Centauri) to us!
Can you calculate at which speed light would travel at the scale of our model?
In our model, the next star is 6700 km away and the light takes 4.2 years to cross this distance, so
that its speed at our model scale is (v = x/t) 0.2 km/h!
- The average speed of a walking adult is about 5 km/h. Can you try to walk at 0.2 km/h?
That's about the speed of an ant...What do you think about the speed of light now?
- The Sun is so much larger than the planets that it entails 99% of the mass of the entire Solar
system! How does this mass affect the planets and why does it matter?
The gravitational force exerted by the Sun is sufficient to maintain all the planets in orbit around it
despite their huge distances.
If you dispose from A4 printouts of the Sun and planet datasheets (hereafter and in the
Appendices), this is an additional simple activity to learn fun facts about the Sun and planets while
working proportions and ratios.
Investigating the Solar system
Procedure:
Divide the students into 9 groups and distribute to each group the datasheet of the Sun or a planet
(or make them choose the one they want).
- Each group should pic one property of their planet or the Sun (such as mass, temperature...) that is
on their datasheet and relate it to the Earth's value for that same property.
- Each group should explain to the rest of the students which property they chose, why they chose it,
compare its value to the Earth's one and discuss what they think about it (for instance: Venus is
surprisingly hot! Its average temperature is more than 30 times higher than on Earth!)
Let's analyse:
- How do you think we know all these properties of the planets (their distances, sizes, mass,
temperatures etc.)? Let the students a moment to think about it in groups.
Sending space probes is an obvious way to measure things closely (like temperature). Yet astronomers
determined the planet distances from Earth using trigonometry (!) and more recently via radar. By
using telescopes, the planet sizes could be measured and their masses were deduced from the motion
of their moons (Kepler's law) . From their sizes and masses one could find out their densities and
composition. Finally, spectrographs can analyse the light and determine the temperature (see the
activity Multicoloured light). You can read more detailed information at
http://www.astronomynotes.com/solarsys/s2.htm
- According to the properties of the planets we've learned about, how would you classify them?
The most direct classification is according to their size. One can identify three groups: the small ones
= {Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars}, the big ones = {Saturn, Jupiter} and the intermediates = {Uranus,
Neptune}. However there is another possible classification according to their composition: Mercury,
Venus, the Earth and Mars are rocky planets, while Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are gaseous.
- How would you explain that the closest planets to the Sun (so-called inner planets) are rocky while
the furthest (outer planets) are gaseous?
Let the students wonder about how the planets formed in the early Solar system .
Let's analyse:
This is still an open question! The most popular theory of planetary formation is based on the Sun's
gravity (attracting more strongly the denser rocky materials than the gaseous ones) and the
decreasing temperature away from the Sun (close to the Sun, only rocky materials with high melting
temperatures could survive). However, in recent years, some giant gas planets have been found at
close distance to other stars (exoplanets), which has led astronomers to re-think their ideas.
You can read more details in the online Space book of the Las Cumbres Observatory:
http://lcogt.net/spacebook/planets-and-how-they-formed.
- In addition to the planets, are there other bodies in our Solar System?
Yes, our Solar System contains other smaller bodies, too. Some of these are the comets and
asteroids, which orbit the Sun, like the planets do.
- Do you know why Pluto is no longer considered a planet?
In 2006, during an assembly of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), it was decided that Pluto
should be placed in a new category of Solar System objects called dwarf planets. Although Pluto has
physical characteristics like a planet, it's missing something important. At the assembly, the IAU
decided that in order to be considered a planet, a body also needs to have cleared other bodies from
its orbital region by its gravitational effects. Pluto misses on this last point (there are other bodies
that orbit close to Pluto's orbit), and so it is no longer considered the Solar System's ninth and
smallest planet. The IAU's decision was prompted by the recent discovery of Eris, a Solar System
body outside Pluto's orbit that is actually larger than Pluto.
Did you know that the Sun is responsible for life on Earth? The Sun allows plants to
produce the oxygen that we breathe through the process of photosynthesis. The Sun also
provides Earth with the energy that keeps conditions here warm enough for life.
The Sun
Mass
~ 2x10
30
kg
Radius 6 960 000 km
Distance from Earth 149 597 871 km
Surface gravity
274 m/s
2
Surface temperature ~ 6000 C
Core temperature
~ 1.6x10
7
C
!
Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and is also the smallest planet. Because
Mercury lacks an atmosphere, the temperature between day and night on the
planet differs by more than 500 C.
Mercury
Mass
3.303x10
23
kg
Radius 2 439.7 km
Distance from the Sun 57 909 100 km
Rotation period 58.646 days
Orbital period 87.969 days
Number of satellites 0
Surface gravity
3.7 m/s
2
Average temperature -170 C to 350 C
!
Venus is the planet that is most similar to Earth in size and composition. The major difference
between Venus and Earth is Venus's dense atmosphere, whose pressure on the surface of the
planet is 94 times the surface pressure of Earth's atmosphere.
Venus
Mass
4.869x10
23
kg
Radius 6301.8 km
Rotation period 243.018 days
Surface gravity
8.87 m/s
2
Average temperature ~ 460 C
!
Earth is the only planet in the Solar System (for now at least!) where we know that there is
life. It seems that life can exist here because of liquid water on the Earth's surface and the
atmosphere that surrounds our planet.
Earth
Mass
5.973x10
23
kg
Radius 6 371 km
Rotation period 23.96 hours
Surface gravity
9.78 m/s
2
Average temperature ~ 15 C
!
Mars is known as the Red Planet because of the large amount of oxidized iron (rust) on its
surface. On a clear night, it's possible to distinguish Mars from the other objects in the sky by its
striking red color.
Mars
Mass
6.4185x10
23
kg
Radius 3 396.2 km
Surface gravity
3.71 m/s
2
Average temperature ~-140 C to 20 C
!
Jupiter is the largest and most massive planet in the Solar System. Its mass is so large
that if we could stand on its surface, we would weigh almost 3 times as much as we do on
Earth.
Jupiter
Mass
1.8986x10
27
kg
Radius 71 492 km
Orbital period 4 331.5 days
Surface gravity
24.79 m/s
2
Average temperature ~ -110 C
!
The most striking feature of Saturn is its beautiful system of rings, made up primarily of ice,
small rocks, and dust. On a clear night with even a small telescope, you can easily see Saturn's
system of rings.
Saturn
Mass
5.684x10
26
kg
Radius 60 268 km
Distance from the Sun 1 433 449 370 km
Number of satellites ~ 200
Surface gravity
10.44 m/s
2
!
Uranus has a system of rings, as Saturn does, but Uranus's are much harder to see.
Perhaps Uranus's most interesting feature is the fact that its rotation axis is inclined by
almost 90 degrees with respect to its orbit around the Sun.
Uranus
Mass
8.681x10
25
kg
Radius 25 559 km
Surface gravity
8.69 m/s
2
!
Neptune is the furthest planet from the Sun, and so its orbital period is the longest of
all. One Neptune year lasts almost 165 Earth years!
Neptune
Mass
1.0243x10
26
kg
Radius 24 764 km
Orbital period 60 190 days
Surface gravity
11.15 m/s
2
!
Comets and asteroids are small objects that orbit the
Sun, as the planets do, and form part of the Solar
System.
The primary difference between comets and asteroids
is their chemical composition and type of orbit around the
Sun.
Comets have orbits that are very elliptical (eccentric).
Comets are composed primarily of silicates, ice, and
compounds such as methane and ammonia. When close to
the Sun, these materials sublimate and ionize, producing
the comet's beautiful tail that we can see.
Asteroids are rocky or metallic bodies that are less
massive than the planets.
Most asteroids in the Solar System orbit between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter, in a region called the
Asteroid Belt.
Comets and Asteroids
62
Building a heliocentric model
Age 10 years and up
Duration ~ 45-60 min (more time is needed for the activities extensions).
Materials
- Garbage bags or pieces of black cloth to darken the room
- Small ball (e.g., tennis ball or small styrofoam ball)
- Bulb lamp or torch (ideally one per student group)
For each student group (one set per group):
- Large ball (white styrofoam)
- Ruler
- Notesheets (in Appendices) or paper, Drawings of Galileo (in Appendices)
- Pencils
Optional materials
- Earth globe
- Strings
- Printed solar disks
Activity adapted from http://solar-center.stanford.edu/activities/venus.html
By asking questions about the sky, astronomers can learn about our position
in the Universe (within the solar system and the galaxy).
To do so, they must compare their observations with models, in which large
celestial bodies and distances are represented at reduced scale.
In this activity, you will build models with styrofoam balls to check whether
the planets are orbiting the Earth or the Sun. You will compare your models
with Galileo's observations to determine which one is right!
63
Learning Goals
Venus exhibits phases like the Moon, which are due to its position relative to the Earth and the
Sun.
Venus, like all planets, revolves around the Sun. The Earth is not the center of the Universe!
Model-building -- represent the system Venus-Earth-Sun with Styrofoam balls.
Take ones own observations.

Attitudes
See science as a dialogue between modelling natural phenomena and experimenting/observing them.
Realize that this process of modeling and experimenting can bring answers to some old questions
like our position in the Universe!
64
65
Because of how the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets
appear to move through the sky each day, people in
ancient times believed that these bodies revolved
around our planet Earth.
This view of the Universe is called the Ptolemaic
model, after the Greek astronomer, mathematician
and geographer Claudius Ptolemy (100 170 AD),
one of the first to propose it.
Later, the Polish astronomer Nicholas
Copernicus (1473-1543), was the first to claim
that all the planets revolve around the Sun. We
call this the Copernican model.
His ideas were considered an heresy by the
people who wanted the Earth to be at the
center of the Universe...
Which system is right and how do we know?
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http://www.wisegorilla.com/images/solarsystem/copernican%20solar
%20system%20atlas%20coalestic%201660.jpg
1) Geocentrism vs. Heliocentrism:
Ptolemy and Copernicus
66
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/ima
ges/Galileo_Telescope_art_BR.jpg
2) Venus and Galileo
- To determine which view of the Universe is right we need a clue or piece of evidence, like in
detective work... In astronomy, our clues are observations of the sky!
- Copernicus and Ptolemy only made naked-eye observations, without the help of telescopes. Yet in
1609, the astronomer, philosopher and mathematician Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) used lenses to
construct a telescope for observing the sky, that magnified almost 30 times! Galileo Galilei used his
telescope to observe the planet Venus, and made the above drawings. (Give the students copies of
these drawings, in Appendix.) The images are separated by an interval of several months.
- Have you ever seen the planet Venus? (Check at the end of the activity.)
- Let's first examine Galileo's observations carefully: what differences do you see between the
drawings?
The students should come up with the idea that the apparent size and shape are important
characteristics that change between drawings.
- To find out whether Galileo's observations agree with Ptolemy or Copernicus, you will build your own
models to see if they can reproduce Galileo's observations! Do you know what a model is?
67
A familiar example: the Moon-Earth-Sun system
Have all the students sit together in the middle of the room.
- First, let's see what a model is with an example you're familiar with. Do you know a famous
celestial body that orbits the Earth?
- Have you ever noticed that the Moon seems to change its shape (phases of the Moon) during the
month?
- To understand why the Moon changes shape as it orbits the Earth, we can build a model, where we
represent the big things in space by small ones that we can hold and move around. A model is valid if
it can reproduce the characteristics of the observations.
Walk around the students while holding the small ball (styrofoam or tennis) in your hand, telling the
students that they're located on the Earth (optional: give them the Earth globe).
Now switch off the lights/close the door to darken the room totally.
- Can you see the Moon now? What else do we need to see it (sunlight)?
Ask an instructor or a student to hold the lamp/torch at a distance, and keep turning around with
the small ball.
- Look at the part of the Moon that is illuminated by the Sun. Do you notice how it changes?
Depending on the relative position of the Sun-Moon-Earth during the Moon's orbit, the part of the
Moon's disc that we see illuminated varies. These are the phases of the Moon. To learn more about
the Moon, please visit the activity Exploring the Moon.
3) What is a model?
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap990
129.html
70
Model notesheet
Ptolemaic model:
Venus revolving around the Earth
Copernican model:
Venus revolving around the Sun
Apparent diameter of Venus at 4 orbit positions
as seen from the Earth (in cm)
1) 2) 3) 4)
Apparent diameter of Venus at 4 orbit positions
as seen from the Earth (in cm)
1) 2) 3) 4)
Drawings of Venus
1) 2)
3) 4)
Drawings of Venus
1) 2)
3) 4)
71
Validating the models by comparing with observations
- Now it is time to share with each other what we've found out!
You can, for instance, ask one group to sketch their Ptolemaic model on the blackboard, another
group to write their measurements and draw the shape of Venus, then ask other groups for the
Copernican model. Use this as a discussion starter between groups. Don't tell the answer yet...
- Do you observe any difference in the apparent size of Venus in the Ptolemaic model?
No, it remains essentially constant. That's what we'd expect for an object in a circular orbit
around the Earth!
- Compare your measurements and drawings with Galileo's: what can you conclude?
Galileo's observations of Venus, and also others of Jupiter and its satellites, provided the
observational proof that the Copernican Model of the Solar System is the correct one. This led
to a total historical revolution of the way we were seeing the Universe and our place within it!

- How could you further improve your models? --The models we've made were not to scale! If your
head were to represent the size of the Earth, Venus would be between 0.9 and 5.1 km away from
you, and the Sun should be at 3 km with a size of 30 m diameter! Another 'source of error' is that
students holding Venus are not walking circularly. They can use a string to keep a constant radius in
walking.
5) Which model is valid?
72
73
Let's observe Venus!
Follow-on to the previous activity: observe how Venus really
looks through a telescope or in a simulated sky.
With a telescope
The galileoscope is a replica of

Galileo's own telescope: use it to
repeat Galileo's observations of
Venus!
You will find a detailed
procedure in the Galileoscope
observing guide
(www.galileoscope.org)
To see changes in the phases

of Venus, you will need to
observe every week/two weeks
during several months.
Make sketches of the phases

and compile your drawing to
make classroom posters!
How can you know if Venus will

appear in the morning or evening
sky? Check it out with
Stellarium!
With Stellarium
Download for free: www.stellarium.org
A/ Observe Venus as with a telescope
Search for Venus and track on it (space bar)
Does Venus appears before sunrise or after sunset?

Set the time (hours and minutes) so that Venus appears
as a bright spot above the horizon.
Zoom (mouse roll) way in until you see the phase of Venus.
Note the date and time and make a sketch.
Make 2 month-steps in time

(also adjust hours and minutes) and make new sketches.
When the Sun appears together with Venus in the sky, switch
from sunrise to sunset or vice-versa.
B/ Animation of Venus phases
Switch off the ground and atmosphere .
Zoom until you see the surface of Venus.
Accelerate the time by pushing 6 times. (such that a

month passes in a few seconds).
You will see Venus's phases changing before your eyes!

http://www.astroenlazador.com/UserFiles/Im
age/img-
eventos/07/venusphases100507.jpg
74
2.1 The Sun
75
A sunspot is a region of the Sun which is
colder (4300 C) than its surroundings
(5500 C).
Sunspots look like dark areas. The
central darkest part is called the umbra
and it is surrounded by a somewhat
brighter area called the penumbra.
Sunspots appear on the surface of the
Sun in groups that can be as wide as
120 000 km-- 10 times the diameter of the
Earth!
Manchas solares
Image of the solar disc
Plants, animals, and even our own bodies
are regulated by cycles.
The Sun also has a cycle, related to the
spots that appear on its surface.
Approximate size of the Earth.
The Solar Cycle
Activity adapted from www.schoolsobservatory.org.uk & www.windows.ucar.edu
To learn about sunspots and see them in your computer, check out the activity The rotation of the Sun.
76
Learning Goals
The sunspot number is an example of periodic phenomenon, reaching a maximum every 11 years.
Plotting tools -- Plot a time series (here number of spot vs. time) using Excel.
Extract information from a graph (time period, amplitude and duration of cycles).
Attitudes
See the Sun as an alive celestial object animated with a cycle of sunspots (among other
phenomena)
Gain a first insight into solar activity (of which sunspots are but one manifestation) and its
variation.
Become curious about the origin of the solar cycle (why is there a cycle?) and be aware that this is
yet a scientific mystery.
Feel concerned about the consequences of the solar cycle (Do we feel the solar magnetism or its
effects on Earth?).
77
Procedure:
- In the Appendices you'll find 3 files. Two of these contain the data for the
activity, and the third provides the solution.
- In the text file dates.txt is a column that lists dates of observations from
1965 through 2001.
- In the text file number_sunspots.txt is a column that lists the observed
number of sunspots at the dates given in the file dates.txt.
- Copy the columns into a table in Excel and create a graph of the number of
spots (on the y-axis) as a function of time (on the x-axis).
- You can also download the data as well as well as valuable presentations from
the website:
http://www.schoolsobservatory.org.uk/activ/sunspots/
http://www.sciencedaily.com
/images/2008/06/08060912
4551-large.jpg
http://curious.astro.cornell.
edu/images/xraysun.gif
Age 14 years old and up
Duration ~ 40 min.
Materials
- Computer with Windows Excel or similar
- Sunspot data (in Appendices)
In this activity, you'll learn how to calculate the solar cycle using official data on
the number of visible sunspots. You'll create a graph to show your results.
Calculating the Solar Cycle
78
Let's analyse:
- Can you see any pattern repeating in your graph? If so, how often does the pattern repeat?
You're seeing the solar cycle every 11 years!
- Observe each cycle. What differences and similarities do you see between them? Do they all
have the same amplitude or duration?
There are cycles that have peaks of activity (number of spots) higher than others, and there
are cycles that last longer than others, even though the average cycle lasts 11 years. See the
next page to learn more.
Did you know that Galileo
Galilei observed sunspots in
1613 with his own telescope?
He published his observations
and drawings in a book.
!
79
As you've seen, the number of

sunspots is not constant in time.
As time passes, new spots and groups

of spots appear, while older spots
diminish and become smaller.
When we study the variation in

sunspots over short periods (just
weeks or months), the variation in
number of spots can look random.
We need to observe sunspots for

longer than a decade to reveal an
impressive feature of the Sun:
The number of sunspots varies
periodically, and is known as the
11-year cycle.
http://www.phys.ncku.edu.tw/~astrolab/mirrors/apod_e/image/0712/solarcycle_soho_
big.jpg
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/sun/images/sunspotnumbers.sp.jpg
!
80
Age
From 8 years old (building sundial)
From 12 years (understanding equatorial sundial principle)
Duration ~ 45 mins.
Activity Type Experiments / Creation
Materials
- Sundial Templates (in Appendices)
- Scissors
- Pencil
- Cardboard and tape or glue
- Compass (to locate north/south direction)
Optional materials - Earth globe
- Paper solar disc
Activity adapted from http://www.skyandtelescope.com/letsgo/familyfun/Make_Your_Own_Sundial.html
Equatorial sundial
By playing with the shadow that the Sun projects on an object, you
can measure the time of the day without having to look at a regular
clock on the wall.
You will learn how to build your personal solar clock out of a piece of
paper and a pencil, based on the apparent movement of the Sun that is
tracked by the pencil's shadow.
81
Learning Goals
Venus exhibits phases like the Moon, which are due to its position relative to the Earth and the
Sun.
Venus, like all planets, revolves around the Sun. The Earth is not the center of the Universe!
Model-building -- represent the system Venus-Earth-Sun with Styrofoam balls.
Take ones own observations.

Attitudes
See science as a dialogue between modelling natural phenomena and experimenting/observing them.
Realize that this process of modeling and experimenting can bring answers to some old questions
like our position in the Universe!
82
Fig. 2
How can we use the motion of the Sun to make a
clock?
We can use a stick (see Fig 2). As the sun appears
to move through the sky, its shadow will also move
throughout the day. We can make marks on the
ground along the Sun's path to divide the length of
the day. Try it yourself in the courtyard!
What is the problem with a vertical stick? What
will the shadow look like at noon? Therefore, in this
activity, let's incline the stick (see next page).
Do not look directly at the Sun!!
How can we measure the time
(without a wristwatch)?
We need to observe a phenomenon that
repeats itself at a constant rate, i.e.., a
periodic event.
The sky gives us several examples: day and
night, the apparent motion of the Sun and
stars. As an example, Fig. 1 shows the
movement of the sun throughout the day.
These motions are apparent because they
are due to the rotation of the Earth on its
axis. They are periodic because the Earth
rotation repeats every 24 hours.
Fig. 1
Measuring time
83
S
o
u
t
h
/
N
o
r
t
h

84
What's the time?
Teacher tip: Use an Earth globe and a
printed solar disc to demonstrate the
apparent motion of the Sun and the
revolution of the Earth around the Sun.
Let's analyse:
- What time does the sundial show? Is it different
from the time shown by your wristwatch?
- The time officially used is the product of a
"fictitious Sun" that moves through the sky at a
uniform speed. In contrast, the "true Sun does so
with small variations in time (these are due to the
fact that the Earth orbit is slightly elliptic and its
orbital speed therefore varies).
- In some countries, due to their non-equatorial
latitude, the official time is changed during the
year to take advantage of the best sunlight. One
hour is moved ahead in summer with respect to the
sun.
- Also, notice that you are located at a longitude
which is different from the one officially used to
set the time of your time zone.
85
87
Ancient sundials and solar observatories:
- The sundial you've built is similar to those constructed by ancient civilizations around the world. Yet
their sundials were much more precise (down to 2 seconds for the Samrat Yantra, see above)!
- Some ancient cultures like the Tiwanakotas (1500 900 BC) or the Incas (1438-1533 AD) also used
solar observatories to record periodic changes in the elevation of the Sun during the year. They were
then able to divide the year according to solstices and equinoxes, which also defined harvest, fertility
and festivity times.
Rigui,
equatorial sundial
in Beijing (around
600 AD).
88
15
20
25
1. Cut the paper along the dotted line. Do not cut the solid lines!
2. Fold the template along the horizontal solid lines that splits it into two parts
outwards.
3. Fold the sides along the solid vertical lines.
4. In the side sections, select the line marking the latitude closest to yours. Fold the
selected side tab inwards.
5. Attach the paper with adhesive tape or glue, as shown in the image.
6. Insert a sharp pencil in the small circle at the top center. Rotate the pencil while
pushing. Remove the pencil and insert it again attached to the eraser first.
10
30
35
40
45
50
15
20
25
10
30
35
40
45
50
Template for the Southern Hemisphere
89
15
20
25
1. Cut the paper along the dotted line. Do not cut the solid lines!
2. Fold the template along the horizontal solid lines that splits it into two parts
outwards.
3. Fold the sides along the solid vertical lines.
4. In the side sections, select the line marking the latitude closest to yours. Fold the
selected side tab inwards.
5. Attach the paper with adhesive tape or glue, as shown in the image.
6. Insert a sharp pencil in the small circle at the top center. Rotate the pencil while
pushing. Remove the pencil and insert it again attached to the eraser first.
10
30
35
40
45
50
15
20
25
10
30
35
40
45
50
Template for the Northern Hemisphere
90
The Earth rotates on its axis, and so do

the other planets-- what about the Sun?
In this activity we will discover that the

Sun also rotates about its own axis.
For this we'll use a technique similar to

that used by astronomers in the 19th
century: Following the movement of the
spots!
Duration ~ 45 mins.
Materials
(one set for each student pair)
- 18 Images of the sun (at the end of the activity and in Appendices).
- Ruler
- Pencil
- Notesheet (given in Appendices), or piece of paper
- Calculator
Optional material SDO digital images for 'The Sun in your computer!' (Appendices)
Sunspots are found on the surface of the Sun and so we

can use their motion to observe the Sun's rotation.
We will use the spots as a reference point to measure the

time it takes the Sun to complete a full rotation, i.e., its
"rotation period". For more information on sunspots you
can check out the activity "Calculating the solar cycle".
The Rotation of the Sun
Activity adapted from http://solar-center.stanford.edu/teachers/lessons.html
91
Learning Goals
Kinematic concept of average speed.
The Sun rotates on itself, like the Earth and all objects in the Universe.
Measure the rotation of an object by tracking features on its surface.
Identify sources of error in an experiment; distinguish between measurement errors and model
assumptions.
Attitudes
See the Sun as an "alive" and dynamic celestial object with a rotating motion and evolving surface
features.
Grasp the power and limitation (errors) of applying simple mathematics in modelling complex
phenomena.
92
Galileo's puzzle
Sunspots coincide with the presence of intense magnetic fields on the solar surface. These fields
inhibit the thermal motions of matter, which cools the spot regions. Therefore the spots appear
dark in contrast to the brightness of the solar surface.
Sunspots are dynamic and evolve with the magnetic field: they appear, disappear and their number
can vary (see also activity "Calculating the solar cycle").
!
The first astronomer to observe sunspots through a
telescope and make drawings of them was Galileo Galilei in
1612. In Galileo's epoch, the church and people believed that
the Sun was a still, perfectly immaculate object!
He made drawings of the spots moving on the solar surface
every day, but he was perplexed about their nature...what do
you think: are they meteors, small asteroids/bodies, clouds?
Today we are able to determine* the location of
magnetic fields on the Sun. Compare the magnetic field
map (left) and the simultaneous image(right):
what can you deduce?
* by recording the light emitted by the Sun, whose
properties (polarisation) are altered by magnetic fields.
Data from the SDO satellite (13
th
january 2013)
93
Procedure (1-2):
This activity is designed to be performed by students in groups of two. Distribute a complete set of
materials (including the 15 images of the Sun found at the end of the activity) to each student pair.
1) Identify the date on which each picture was taken and organize them in chronological order.
Watch as the sunspots move from left to right across the solar disc. Do you have ideas of how we
could measure the rotation period of the Sun?
2) We'll need an equation to calculate the Sun's rotation. It relies on the concept of (average)
speed as the travelled distance (x
2
-x
1
) over an interval of time (t
2
-t
1
). Because the spots are located
near the Sun's equator, they travel in the images a distance nearly equal to the Sun's diameter D in
a time equal to half the rotation period T (provided they don't disappear sooner).
The average speed of the spots in the images can then be written as:
We can manipulate this formula to obtain an equation for the rotation period T:
This equation allows us to calculate T because we can measure all the other quantities as follows:
x
2
x
1
t
2
t
1
=
D
T / 2
T=2D
(t
2
t
1
)
( x
2
x
1
)
94
Procedure (2-2):
3) In order to list your measurements and make the calculations easier, you can create a table like the
one below (or use the notesheets in the Appendices).
4) Choose a sunspot group that you label A and write down the number which is next to it in the image
(the sunspot group number). Find the image in which "A" is closest to the left edge. Measure (with the
ruler oriented horizontally) the distance from A to the edge x
1
. Write it down in the table.
5) Take the image in which A is closest to the right edge and again, measure the distance to the left
edge x
2
.
6) Now measure "D", the total distance across the solar disc, so that the ruler passes through the
center of the Sun.
7) For the time interval: t
1
is the date corresponding to point 3) and t
2
is the one corresponding
to point 4). Express the difference in Earth days.
8) Now all you have to do is apply the formula given in the previous slide, which will give you an estimate
of the time it takes the Sun to complete a rotation: 1 solar day in terrestrial days!
Sunspot
number
x
1
[cm] x
2
[cm] t
1
[date] t
2
[date] t
2
-t
1
[days] x
2
-x
1
[cm]
T = 2D(t
2
-t
1
)/(x
2
-x
1
) [days]
A:
B:
Actividad adaptada de http://solar-center.stanford.edu/teachers/lessons.html
95
Let's Analyse:
- What result did you get? Find some classmates that used the same sunspot group as you (same
sunspot group number) and compare your results.
- Why do you think the results differ from one another (even when using the same sunspot group)?
Think first about the precision of your ruler, the size of the spots in the images, the way you
measured the diameter D (you probably did not place the ruler at the exact same position as your
classmates)...These are measurement errors.
As seen from the Earth, the Sun completes one rotation on its
own axis in about 27 Earth days-- that is, a solar day is equal to 27
days on Earth. But because the Earth orbits the Sun in the same
direction as the Sun rotates, its rotation period as seen from the
Earth is longer than what it really is: the real rotation period of
the Sun is actually 25 days.
How long are the days on other planets in Earth days? See the
activity "Your weight on other planets" .
Drawing of sunspots by an observatory in Hungary. As in the
activity, the sunspot groups are numbered to make them easier
to follow.
!
96
Let's Analyse:
- Did you notice that your measurements are always less than 27 days (the Sun's rotation period as
seen from the Earth)? Do you think this can be accounted for by measurement errors?
Compare the difference between your result and your classmates' result (due to measurement
errors) and the difference between your result and the actual rotation period (27 days).
- The formula for T also introduces errors because it is based on some assumptions:
(i) It assumes that the average speed of the spot taken between any two points x
2
and x
1
is always
the same (equals 2D/T), as if the Sun were flat! Due to the Sun's spherical shape, the speed of the
sunspots in the images is larger near the center of the disc than near the edges.
This leads to an underestimation of the rotation period T in your calculations.
- Now repeat your measurements and calculation with another sunspot group "B".
- Why do you think the results differ between sunspot groups?
(ii) The formula also assumes that the Sun rotates like a solid ball! But the Sun is fluid (made of
gas) with internal motions such that the rotation period is shorter near the equator (about 25 Earth
days) than near the poles (about 34 Earth days). This phenomenon is called differential rotation.
- Compare the sunspots you and your classmates have chosen: the farther they are from the
equator of the Sun (middle dotted line in the images), the longer the calculated period should be.
97
SDO Images
These images were taken by the SDO satellite orbiting the Earth in the period January 1 18, 2013.
Each sunspot group is numbered to follow it more easily. You can download more recent or older images at:
http://www.solarmonitor.org. For more information visit: http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/
98
The size and darkness of sunspots (You will need the SDO FITS files in the Apendices.)
- Open the file 'saia_04500_fd_20130113_200007.fts'
- Choose a sunspot and zoom way into it until you see that the image is composed of little
squares. These are pixels or picture elements, each being recorded by a small element of the
satellite detector (the detector is in fact an array of these small elements).
- Zoom out (Ctrl -) and measure the diameter of the Sun by drawing a line with the tool
followed by 'Analyze -> Measure': this gives you the 'Length' of your line in number of pixels.
Knowing the actual diameter of the Sun, 1 391 000 km, calculate the width of a pixel in km.
- Now you can measure the size of a sunspot in pixels and in kilometers: how large are they?
Note: You could actually also measure the rotation period of the Sun directly on your computer by
using these measurement tools instead of a ruler on paper!
- Select a rectangular area containing various sunspots with the tool
- Make a surface plot with 'Analyze-> Surface plot'. The vertical axis indicates (in arbitrary units)
the brightness of the solar surface.
- Do you notice how the brightness drops in the sunspots? Why does it do that? (because sunspots
have a lower temperature than their surroundings) Does it drop all the way to 0?
- Do the sunspots have different brightness minima (depth of the peak)? Can you find a relation
between the size of the sunspot and its brightness minimum?
The Sun in your computer!
This is an extension of the activity that uses the SalsaJ software.
SalsaJ can be found in the Appendices or downloaded at http://www.euhou.net
99
Making a movie of the rotating Sun! (You will need the SDO FITS files in the Apendices.)
By looking at still images, it is very difficult to 'feel' the rotation of the Sun. But what if we were
able to make a movie of the Sun and play it rapidly?
- Open all the 27 SDO images (in the 'Open' window, click on the first file, then hold the shift
button and click on the last file to select them all)
- Combine all these images into a movie using 'Image->Stacks->Images to Stack'
- Start the movie: 'Image->Stacks->Start animation'...Can you feel the Sun rotating?
You are looking at a complete rotation of the Sun (27 Earth days) at a speed of 7 days per second.
- Adjust the speed of the animation until you comfortably see the sunspots moving:
'Image->Stacks->Animation Options' and change the 'Speed' in frames per second (fps)
- Are you missing colours? Try to add colours to your movie with 'Image->Lookup tables'!
- You can also zoom to see your movie even bigger with and click at the center of the Sun.
The Sun in your computer!
SalsaJ can be found in the Apendices or downloaded at http://www.euhou.net
100
2.2 The Planets
101
The planet Saturn has something very special that can be seen with a simple
telescope: a beautiful system of rings!
The rings are composed of ice and dust, separated by gaps where there is no
material.
In this activity, you will build a model of Saturn's rings, which will help you to
understand some of their features.
Duration ~ 30 mins.
Materials
- Scissors
- Compass
- Cardboard
- Ruler
- 3 Pencils
- Adhesive tape
- Salt/wet sand
- 1 Tray or flat surface
Additional Material - A poster of Saturn
The rings of Saturn
Activity adapted from http://www.csic.es/unawe/Actividades/ANILLOS%20SATURNO%20REVISADO.pdf & http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary
102
Learning Goals
Saturn has rings composed of particles of ice, dust and rocks, each in orbit around the planet.
It also has a number of small satellites orbiting within the rings.

Build a model of Saturn's rings using simple materials.
Critical thinking -- discuss the simplicity of the model (do you think it represents well reality?).
Attitudes
Appreciate the beauty of Saturn rings.

103
Saturn is the sixth planet out from the Sun in
our Solar System; it is the second largest in
size and mass after Jupiter and the only one
with a ring system visible from our planet.
Before the invention of telescopes, Saturn was
the most distant of all known planets.
The first to observe the rings was Galileo
Galilei in 1610. The low inclination of the rings
and the low resolution of the telescope made
him think at first that they were large moons.
Characteristics of Saturn The Earth
Size: equatorial radius 60,268 km 6,378 km
Average distance from the Sun 1 433 500 000 km 149 600 000 km
Day: period of rotation about its axis 10.66 hours 24 hours
Year: orbit around the Sun 29.46 years 1 year
Mean surface temperature -140 C 15 C
Surface Gravity at the Equator 10.44 m/s
2
9.8 m/s
2
NASA, ESA, and E. Karkoschka (University of
Arizona)
Saturn
104
Saturn's rings are not continuous nor solid. They are
formed by trillions of particles of dust, rock and ice, each
in orbit around the planet. These particles vary in size
ranging from as small as a grain of sand to as large as a
house.
The dust and ice particles orbit around Saturn for the
same reason that the planets orbit around the sun: the
force of gravity!
Ice is what makes the rings appear so bright, as they
reflect sunlight.
There are 7 main rings: A, B, C, D, E, F and G. Between
them, there are empty gaps. The biggest and most famous
is located between the rings A and B. This gap is known as
the Cassini Division.
Saturn has small moons that move between the rings,
sweeping and pushing the particles that they find in their
way, causing the separations between the rings. These
moons are known as shepherd satellites.
The shepherd moons clear out the dust
and ice in their orbits, causing gaps
between the rings.
The rings do not sit still. They circle
around Saturn at very high speeds. A
closer look shows that each large ring is
made up of many small rings.
Cassini-Huygens/NASA
The rings
!
105
Saturn: fun facts
Saturn is mainly composed of hydrogen and helium.

While it has heavier materials in the core, Saturn has no
surface on which you could stand.
Saturn's rings are huge yet tiny: the main rings could
cover almost the entire distance between Earth and the
Moon yet they are less than a kilometer thick.
Saturn is the only planet in our Solar System that is

less dense than water-- which means that Saturn would
float if you could build a ridiculously large bathtub. Its
density is only 0.13 that of Earth.
Saturn goes around the Sun very slowly, but spins on its
axis extremely fast. A Saturn year lasts for more than
29 Earth years, but a Saturn day only lasts 10 hours and
14 minutes.
Titan is the largest moon of Saturn. It is the second

largest moon in the solar system. Also, it is larger than
either Mercury or Pluto.
This slide is adapted from http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/kids/fun-facts-saturn.cfm
Saturn is the second largest planet in
our Solar System after Jupiter. If you
could line them up, more than nine Earths
would fit across Saturn.
!
106
Procedure:
This activity should be done with at least two people.
- Draw a circle 10 cm in radius on a piece of cardboard;
then cut it out.
- Join two pencils with adhesive tape.
- Use the third pen to fix the center of the circle (see
figure). Place it on the tray. Sprinkle a little bit of salt on
the disc. The salt simulates the dust and ice particles
that revolve around Saturn.
- Ask your partner to give the circle a full turn while you
hold the tips of the two pencils together on the
cardboard (try not to move).
What happens to the lines that you're tracing out? Are
they continuous or not? Are there a few empty areas?
The pencils represent the moons orbiting the planet.
- When the pencils push the grains of salt, they cause
separation in the same way that occurs between the rings.
107
Let's Analyse:
- Do you know if there are any other planets in the solar system that also have
rings?
Although Saturn's rings are the most well known, three other planets also have
rings: Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune. The ring systems of these three planets are
not very well known because they are not as bright and wide as those of Saturn. In
order to be able to observe them you need the help of larger and more
sophisticated telescopes.
- In this activity, we've seen that Saturn has rings and satellites (moons). How
many moons do you think Saturn has? Do you know why the rings and moons orbit
the planet?
In total, Saturn has sixty-two satellites (moons) confirmed as of this writing.
(Maybe there are more still to be discovered!) The satellites and ring particles
orbit the planet because of Saturn's gravity.
108
Many people like the rings of Saturn, but it is not the only planet with rings in the Solar System.
In addition to Saturn, Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune have rings as well. But Saturn's rings are the
biggest and brightest. The image on the right shows Neptune's rings, which are very faint and weak,
consisting mainly of dust particles. The image on the left shows Uranus with its ring system which is
also very weak, composed of dust and other large objects, like small dust meteoroids.
NASA and Erich Karkoschka, University of Arizona

More rings
!
109
Let's explore the Moon using a giant mosaic!
We have 25 A4-sized images taken with a telescope in

Liverpool in 2006.
But beware, the images are not in order! We will have to

figure out how to arrange them so they fit together like a
puzzle.
When we're done, we'll have a nice poster for the class,
which will allow us to see that the Moon has craters,
mountains (highlands), and seas (mare regions)!
Duration ~ 30 mins.
Method Category Creation
Materials
- Glue or tape
- 25 images of the Moon (in Appendices).
- Posters of the Moon showing both the hemispheres.
Exploring the Moon
110
Learning Goals
The Moon has mountains and volcanic rocks, just like Earth.
The Moon also has darker area (maria) and craters.

Observations and connection-making -- Reconstitute the Moons face visible to us by combining

images in order.
Discussion with peers and teachers -- why do mountain/crater regions look brighter than maria?
Attitudes
Appreciate the beauty of the Moon and the diversity of the details of the Moons surface.
Develop a will of observing the Moon more regularly.
Stimulate ones curiosity about the difference between natural and artificial satellite.
111
The Moon: our own satellite

http://www.astro.ugto.mx/~papaqui/astrokids/DreamHC/
Activity adapted from http://www.schoolsobservatory.org.uk/staff/teach/workshop/ & http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets
A satellite is a natural body that revolves

around a planet; also called a moon.
The Moon is our only natural satellite. Other

planets have as many as 62 moons (Jupiter), or
none at all (Mercury and Venus).
The Moon is 4.5 billion years old!
Our Moon is located at a distance of 384 400

km- approximately 30 Earths could fit in that
space!
The Moon has a diameter of 3474 km about

1/4
th
the diameter of Earth. It means about 64
Moons are required to fill up the Earth.
The Moons gravity is about 1/6

th
of Earths - if
you weighed 54 kg on Earth you would weigh
about 9 kg on the Moon.
112

The Moon spins on its axis (rotates) once

every 29.5 earth days.

The Moon orbits (revolves around) Earth

every 27.3 earth days.
As the Moon takes approximately the

same amount of time to rotate on its own
axis and around Earth, we always see the
same side of the Moon from Earth known
as the 'Near side'. The side forever
turned away from us is known as the 'far
side'.
The orbit of the Moon is elliptical! This

is the reason we observing a varying
distance between Earth and the Moon. At
perigee (Closest to Earth), the Moon is
356,410 km away and at apogee (the
farthest position), it is 406,697 km away.

The Moon: Rotation and orbit
Near side
Far side
356,410 km 406,697 km
113
The surface of the Moon and
its topography
When Galileo observed the Moon with his telescope in 1610, he distinguished some bright and dark
regions:
- He called the dark regions maria (Latin for seas), although they do not have water! The dark colored
plains are made of a fine-grained, dark, volcanic rock called basalt the same rock that is found on Earths
ocean floors and that makes up the Hawaiian islands.
- The bright regions (known as highland) are more elevated areas consisting of many craters. The
highlands are the old lunar crust the crust that formed from a magma ocean soon after the Moon
formed 4.5 billion years ago! Craters are depressions caused by meteorite impacts.
There are also mountain ridges on the Moon's surface. These cast shadows when illuminated by the Sun
(as do the walls of craters).
Tsiolkovsky Crater
http://cmex-www.arc.nasa.gov/
Tycho Crater
Mare Imbrium, the
Copernicus crater and
Carpatus mountains
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/
Mare Tranquilitatis
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/
114
115
Let's analyse:
- Note that the Moon is spherical, as are the Earth and other planets.
- Highlight the different textures of the surface: craters, maria, mountains. Can you
locate the maria and largest craters?
1. Mares: Oceanus Procellarum (diameter: 2568 km), Mare Frigoris (diameter: 1596 km),
Mare Imbrium (diameter: 1123 km), Mare Fecunditatis (diameter: 909 km). On the next
page you will find a map of the visible face (near side) of the moon with the major seas
indicated.
2. Craters: Bailly (diameter: 287 km), Schickard (diam.:206 km), Clavius (diam.: 225 km),
Humboldt (diam.: 189 km). Also shown are images of 3 craters from the near side of the
Moon.
Why do only few craters show a ray pattern (rather than all craters)?
Because they are young craters (few hundred million years old)! Crater Tycho with its
most spectacular ray systems, is one of the very youngest large craters on the Moon.
- Observe the shadows cast by the craters and mountains. Why do we see shadows?
Shadows are dark figures projected by objects when they are illuminated by a light
source. In the case of the Moon, the light comes from the Sun. The Sun lights up the
mountains and craters walls and casts the shadows that we see.
116
Maria on the Moon
The major maria of the Moon are listed in the image below. Can you identify any
of these in your giant mosaic?
Contrary to what
astronomers thought in
the time of Galileo, the
so-called maria (Latin for
seas) do not contain
water! They are ponds of
very old solidified lava
(2-4 billion years old).
Why is the crater

density less in mare
regions than in the
highlands? Because they
are younger than the
highlands!
Activity adapted from http://www.schoolsobservatory.org.uk/staff/teach/workshop/ & www.ascensionrecta.com
117
http://www.serviastro.am.ub.es/imatges/faqs/eclipsis_lluna/mesura_ombra_terra/craters.jpg
Plato
(Diameter: 109 km)
Copernicus
(Diameter: 107 km)
Billy
(Diameter: 45 km)
Below are three of the many craters found on the Moon, marked with boxes and their
names. Can you identify any of these in your giant mosaic?
The largest crater on the Moon is the
South Pole-Aitken basin. it is the largest
(2,500 km diameter), oldest (about 3.9
billion years), and deepest (13 km)
recognisable basin on the Moon. The area
is mainly located on the far side of the
Moon.
Craters on the Moon
Tycho
(Diameter: 85 km)
118
You may have noticed already that we cannot always see the full Moon. The Moon goes
through phases, which means that sometimes we can only see part of its surface.
This is because the Moon (like the Earth) is illuminated by the Sun. On one side it is
nighttime, and on the other side it's daytime.
But the illuminated side is not always facing toward us!
As the Moon rotates around the Earth, the illuminated side that we see varies.
Activity adapted from http://www.schoolsobservatory.org.uk/staff/teach/workshop/ & http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap990
129.html
The Phases of the Moon
120
Duration ~ 30 mins.
Materials
- Colored paper
- Cords or clips
- Timers
- Cardboard tubes
- Paper and pencil to take notes
Optional - Rotation movies (in Appendices)
http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook
In this activity we will familiarise ourselves with the concept of rotation and a
method to measure the speed of rotation.
A group will form a circle that will rotate -- a model of the rotation.
From the observations, the other participants will determine the rotation
time of the circle in order to figure out how to measure the rotation of the Sun
and other planets in the Solar System.
How to measure the rotation
of the Sun and the planets
Activity adapted from http://btc.montana.edu/CERES/html/Faces/faces1.html#activity2 & http://solar.physics.montana.edu/ypop/Classroom/Lessons/Rotation/
121
Learning Goals
The two essential concepts of rotation:

- The axis of rotation is the axis (imaginary or not) about which an object rotates
- The rotation period is the time it takes to complete a full rotation
Design an measurement strategy given specific instruments (timer, paper tube).
Explain ones method to peers by drawing schematics on the blackboard.
Average multiple measurements to reduce the error.

Attitudes
See all planets and celestial bodies as non-still, rotating bodies.
Realize the relevance of space research, notably by providing the first view of the Earth rotating!
Think about why celestial objects rotate and where this rotation comes from.
122
How long does it take the Earth to rotate once?
How do we know?
In 1994, scientists were able to film the rotation
of the Earth when the Galileo probe flew past the
Earth en route to Jupiter. The Galileo probe was a
spacecraft launched and controlled by NASA in
1989 to explore Jupiter.
The time of rotation or rotation period is
the time that it takes an astronomical object
to complete one turn on its axis.
What strategy can be used to determine the
rotation period of a distant planet?
The planet
Jupiter. We
can see its
Great Red Spot
move as the
planet rotates!
http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/jupiter_worldbook.html
http://www.cca.org.mx/cca/cursos/AIDA/Astronomia/cursoAidaIT
ESM/imagenes/rotacion.jpg
What is rotation?
124
Let's analyse:
- Each team should now present their results on the blackboard.
- First, they have to describe the method used to measure the rotation period and the measured
values.
The simplest method is to choose one of the colorful signs as a reference-- for example, the one
that represents a mountain. A person on the observation team would use the stopwatch to measure
the time it takes for the mountain sign to complete a full turn. Another team member would mark
the starting time (when the sign is in front of him/her) and the completion time (when the sign has
completed a full circle and is back in front of him/her).
- On a blackboard, participants can create two sketches of the circle in rotation: (1) as seen from
the front and (2) as seen from the top.
(1) We see students
forming a circle and
moving from left to right.
(2) We see students
moving in a circle. In this
configuration you would
not see the signs!
125
What methods do scientists use to measure the

rotation of planets and the Sun?
Scientists pick a particular feature of the

planet (a large crater, a mountain, a point) or the
Sun (sunspots). They determine how long it takes
to move from one end of the disc to the other.
This is one half of the rotation period.
Galileo determined the period of rotation of

the Sun in 1610 using this method! He used the
sunspots on its surface to measure it. The images
on the left were taken by the Yohkoh satellite
and they show the layer of the Sun called the
photosphere. They are taken on consecutive
days-- you can see how the spots have moved
between the two images, due to the Sun's
rotation.
On the CD you will find some videos that show

the rotation of Mars, Saturn and Neptune.
Analyse the methods
126
The planets are not fixed points! Instead, they actually rotate continuously about their axes, and
they move around the Sun following their orbits.
In this activity, the students get to be detectives and investigate the following question: what is the
shape of the path that the Earth follows around the Sun?
To solve this problem, we'll learn how to measure the shape of the Earth's orbit based on satellite
images of the Sun.
Age
10 -14 years (1st part)
14 -18 years (2nd part)
Duration
~ 20 mins. for the 1
st
part
~ 30 mins. for the 2
nd
part
Materials
(for each team of
student)
- 1 sheet of paper and a pencil
- Ruler
- Calculator
- 4 images of the Sun (in
Appendices)
Optional material
- paper cone and elastic string
- Earth globe
Activity adapted from http://solar.physics.montana.edu/ypop/Classroom/Lessons/Eccentricity/Eccentricityprint.html
The Earth's orbit
A
B
D
C
127
Learning Goals
The orbits of planets follow ellipses, as a consequence of the gravitational force (of the Sun)
modifying their velocity.
Mathematics: definition of an ellipse, relation between angles and apparent size
Seasons on Earth are not due to the Earth being closer or farther from the Sun, as the Sun-
Earth distance only slightly varies in the course of the year.
Develop a scientific method of hypothesis-and-testing: (1) formulate a hypothesis; (2) design a test
based on observations/data; (3) take ones own measurements; (4) draw conclusions from evidences.
Interpret a formula (ellipse eccentricity) by considering limiting cases (corresponding to minimum and
maximum eccentricities).
Attitudes
Realize that any statement or hypothesis requires experiment-based evidence to be supported or

ruled out.
Critical thinking -- can the Earths eccentricity explain seasons?

128
Procedure:
Make teams of 2-4 students and distribute the 4 images of
the Sun (see at the end and in Appendices) to each team.
- Let's first examine these 4 images of the Sun. When were
they taken?
Each of them is separated by 3 months, corresponding to 4
equally spaced points on the Earth's orbit (you can make a
drawing like Fig. 1).
- How do you think we can use these 4 images to investigate
the shape of the Earth's orbit?
Let the teams think about it for five minutes, and move
between them to offer guidance with their ideas.
- To start our investigation, what we often do in science is to
formulate a hypothesis.
An orbit is a path that a celestial body follows around another celestial body, while under the
influence of the gravitational force.
As an expert detective, your task will be to investigate the shape of the Earth's orbit.
Your only pieces of evidence are 4 images of the sun taken in 1992 over the course of a year.
Part 1: Elliptical Orbit
Sun
Earth
Fig. 1: The Earth orbit and the four
points corresponding to the Sun images
129
Procedure:
-- Making a hypothesis means proposing a possible answer to the question we want to investigate.
We can then test our hypothesis with an experiment (using our images) to see if it is true or not!
- What is the simplest hypothesis we could make here? (That the Earth's orbit is a circle!)
- How would you use these 4 images to test this hypothesis?
Again, let the teams think for a while. Guide them to the idea that a circular orbit implies a
constant distance between the Earth and the Sun and consequently a constant apparent size of the
Sun. You can, for instance, draw a circle on the black board by attaching a piece of chalk to a string
(constant distance). Check that they also understand the relation between distance and apparent
size (you can make them predict how your apparent size would vary if you go farther from them).
- Why do you think we need 4 images, and not only 2 images six months apart?
Two points are not sufficient to verify the hypothesis of a circle, since you can also draw an oval
passing through these two points.
- How would you measure the Sun's apparent size?
Let each team figure out their own way to estimate the Sun's apparent size so that they feel
ownership of their measurements (with the rulers, they can measure the largest distance through
the solar disk, or the diameter, or some average between vertical and horizontal etc.)
- On a paper, write down your measurements along with the date for each image.
- Based on your measurements, try to draw what the shape of the Earth orbit should be.
Part 1: Elliptical Orbit
130
Fig. 2: The Sun at aphelion (when
the Earth is furthest from the
Sun) and perihelion (when the
Earth is nearest to the Sun).
(Picture taken by Enrique Luque
Cervign)
Part 1: Elliptical orbits
Let's analyse:
- Let's share our results: is the apparent size of the Sun the
same in all 4 images?
Ask the teams to explain to the class how they measured the
Sun's diameter and what they found. List all results on the
black board.
-The different apparent diameters of the Sun at different
times of the year may be due to:
(1) The Earth's orbit is circular - our hypothesis is right - and
the Sun changes in size...Unlikely!
(2) The Earth's orbit is not circular our hypothesis is wrong...
This is indeed the case!
Ask one team to sketch on the black board the shape of the
Earth's orbit based on their measurements (along with dates).
- How is this orbit different from a perfect circle?
It is elongated and the Sun is not at the center!
- When is is that the Earth is closest and farthest from the
Sun? These are the perihelion and aphelion (see Fig. 2).
- This particular shape is called an ellipse.
131
The path that all the planets (not only the
Earth!) follow around the Sun is a shape called an
ellipse. An ellipse is a closed curve that results
from cutting a cone by a plane (see Fig. 3): if the
plane is perpendicular to the cone's axis of
symmetry, we get a circle, otherwise an ellipse.
The mathematician and astronomer Johannes
Kepler (1571-1630) was the first to calculate the
elliptical orbits of the planets. Later, the English
philosopher and mathematician Isaac Newton
(1643-1727) showed that the elliptical shape is due
to the force of gravity-- the force of attraction
that massive bodies exert on each other.
What is an ellipse?
Teacher tip: We can illustrate the ellipse to
students in a simple way using a paper cone and an
elastic rubber. By placing the rubber horizontally
and looking from above, you should see a circle.
Incline it and you should produce an ellipse (Fig. 4)!
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
132
Why does gravity give rise to elliptical orbits? Newton
explained it with a thought experiment
(an experiment we can only perform with our imagination):
Imagine a mountain so high that its summit is above the
atmosphere. Now imagine that there is a cannon that fires
bullets in the horizontal direction.
If the initial velocity is small (A), the trajectory is
curved and the bullet hits the ground.
By increasing the speed, the bullet will strike the ground
farther and farther from the cannon (B).
If you shoot with the right speed, the bullet's
trajectory will curve just as much as the Earth's surface
and will never intersect the ground (C). The bullet will be
in a perfectly circular orbit.
If you increase the shooting speed yet further, elliptical
orbits (D) will be produced. The farthest point of the orbit
is on the opposite side of the Earth from the cannon.
A
B
C
D
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Newton_Cannon.svg
Why are orbits elliptical?
Fig. 5
133
Procedure:
- Take the image that has the largest apparent diameter (perihelion) and the smallest apparent
diameter (aphelion).
- Calculate d1 and d2 according to Fig. 6 above, knowing the apparent diameter (in cm) at perihelion
and aphelion.
The actual diameter of the Sun is: D= 1.4x10
6
km. Each centimeter in the image corresponds to an
angle of 0.0009 radians. The results are as follows:
1= 10,5 cm * 0,0009 rad = 0.0095 rad d1= D/1 = 1,47*10
8

km
2= 10,2 cm * 0,0009 rad = 0,0092 rad d2= D/2= 1,52*10
8

km
- We can now calculate the eccentricity as the difference of Sun-Earth distance between
perihelion and aphelion, d1-d2, relative to the total distance d1+d2: e= (d1-d2) / (d1+d2).
The answer is: e = 0.0167, or 1.67%
Perihelion
Aphelion
From detectives to mathematical experts!
We will now measure how far from us the Sun
is at aphelion relative to at perihelion,
namely, how elongated the Earth's orbit is.
The students will first need to be familiar
with the relation between apparent size and
distance (see below)
Part 2: Eccentricity
Fig. 6
134
The apparent size of an object that we see, like the Sun, corresponds to a certain angle ()
measured in radians. This one is defined as:
= D/d
where D is the diameter of the object and d the distance of the object to us. Note that
because the angle is defined as a ratio of lengths (having units of meter), the units cancel out
in the division. Thus the angle is only a number: neither radians nor degrees are physical units
(such as meter, second etc..)
If an object is farther away (position 2), it appears smaller because it occupies a smaller
angle.
This is shown in the sketch of Fig. 7. The angle formed by the solid lines is greater than the
one formed by the dotted lines.
Position 1 Position 2
O
b
s
e
r
v
e
r
Apparent size and distance
Fig. 7
135
Let's analyse:
- Let's give some meaning to the eccentricity formula:
What is the eccentricity of a perfect circle?
What is the maximum value of eccentricity that an ellipse can
have according to this definition?
A perfect circle is in fact a special case of an ellipse with 0 eccentricity. It is not elongated .
An eccentricity of 1 corresponds to an infinitely elongated ellipse where d1 << d2 , so that d1-d2 ~
d1+d2 ~ d2. Hence, the values of e can vary between 0 and 1.
Note that because the eccentricity is defined relative to the total distance d1+d2, it is just a
number. It has no units! This is very practical to compare the eccentricities of different orbits who
can be very different in size.
For instance, the eccentricity of the Earth is e = 0.0167 and that of Mercury e = 0.2, 12 times bigger!
- What variation would we see in the apparent diameter of the sun (d2/d1) if we lived on Mercury?
Mercury has d1=46x10
6
km (aphelion) and d2=70x10
6
km (perihelion). The size of the Sun would vary
by a factor of d1/d2=1.5.
- What else would we notice if we were on Mercury?
Mercury is about 3 times closer to the Sun than the Earth. We would see the Sun 3 times bigger
than from Earth.
136
Let's analyse:
- What do you think about the eccentricity of the Earth's
orbit: is it large or small?
It is quite small: so small that it represents a variation of
only 1.67 mm of a circle of 10cm diameter. We would barely
notice it on a drawing, so all our drawings were quite
exaggerated!
- Do you think that the different seasons could be due to
the Earth's orbit eccentricity, that is to the fact that we
are closer to the Sun at perihelion than at aphelion? Why?
No! First the eccentricity is too small and second, if it
were the case we should have the same seasons in the
northern and southern hemisphere. It is not the case: when
it is winter in the northern hemisphere it is summer in the
southern one.
The seasons are in fact due to the inclination of the Earth
rotation axis with respect to the orbital plane (ecliptic) by
23.5 (see Fig. 8). During summer in the northern/southern
hemisphere, that part of the Earth is tilted towards the
Sun and it is tilted away from the Sun during winter.
Teacher tip: You can demonstrate
this effect by taping a temperature
strip (for babies, available in
pharmacies) on an Earth globe and
inclining it towards a torch.
Fig. 8
137
138
139
The solar system contains 8 planets of

different sizes. Since some planets are
large and others are small ... Would we
weigh the same on Earth as on Jupiter?
In this activity we will investigate the

law of gravity and the difference
between mass and weight.
We will discover that our weight is

different on each planet
Your weight on other planets
Duration time ~ 30 mins.
Materials
- Calculator
- Paper and pencil
- Body weight scale (if you do not
know your weight)
!
140
Learning Goals
The gravitational force and the gravitational acceleration (check students understanding of
Newtons 2nd law and possible misconceptions).
The difference between mass and weight.

Apply a formula using tabulated values.
Order measurements (weight in different planets) as a function of different variables (planet

mass, planet size) to see if the measured quantity depends on these variables.
Attitudes
Imagine oneself on other worlds (trying to jump on Mars and on Jupiter).
See gravity as a universal force acting everywhere in the Universe, in particular on every planet.
141
Planet
Distance to the
Sun (km)
Diameter
(km)
Orbital
period
Rotational
period
Surface
gravitational
acceleration
Mass
(earths)
Mercury 57 910 000 4 880 88 days 56.5 days 3.7 m/s
2
0.055
Venus 108 200 00 12 100 225 days 243 days 8.9 m/s
2
0.815
Earth 149 600 000 12 700 1 year 24 hours 9.8 m/s
2
1
Mars 227 940 000 6 794 687 days 24 hours 3.7 m/s
2
0.11
Jupiter 778 833 000 142 984 12 years 10 hours 20.9 m/s
2
318
Saturn 1 429 400 000 120 536 29.4 years 10 hours 10.4 m/s
2
95.2
Uranus 2 870 990 000 51 118 84 years 17 hours 8.4 m/s
2
14.5
Neptune 4 504 300 000 49 528 164.8 years 16 hours 10.7 m/s
2
17.1
Characteristics of the
planets of the Solar System
142
Gravity is a fundamental force of nature that acts on all objects that have mass.
The force is attractive: it pulls objects towards each other.
The mass of an object and the distance between objects affect the intensity of the
gravitational force:
- Large masses attract more strongly.
- The farther away two objects are from each other, the weaker the gravitational force is.
An object that feels the gravitational force will accelerate: it will fall faster and faster.
The more massive an object is (consider different planets), the stronger it will accelerate
smaller objects towards its center.
Gravity
Earth's gravity accelerates objects
toward its center. So if we throw
something into the air, it will fall
downwards !
143
An object will feel more weight if its mass

is larger and if it is accelerated more
strongly by the attracting body:
W = m * g (kg*m/s
2
)
where g is the value of the gravitational
acceleration in m/s
2.
This equation follows from Newton's second
law (F = ma) and the definition of weight.
Since the acceleration of gravity is

different on each planet, your weight will be
different too.
In order to calculate it, we only need to

know how to calculate our mass. Any ideas?
Mass (m) is a characteristic property of a

body that measures the amount of matter in it.
It is measured in kilograms (kg). If you move
to other planets or even to empty space your
mass won't change.
Weight (W) is the force exerted on a body by

gravity. An object's weight depends on its
mass and on the strength of gravity.
Mass and weight
144
Procedure:
- Each participant weighs himself/herself on the scale. Write down the value in the corresponding
box at the bottom.
- The weight scale is adjusted to show our mass by solving the following equation (the weight you
obtain from the scale is already calibrated to the strength of gravity on Earth. Therefore, what we
usually refer to as weight is actually representing your mass):
m = W/g
T
(kg)
where W is the weight and g
T
the value of gravitational acceleration on the surface of the Earth.
- Knowing the mass, we can now calculate the weight a scale would register on the other rocky
planets. We do this using the same formula (W = m g
p
, where g
p
is the value of gravity at the
surface of another planet) by using the different gravity values for each planet.
- In the table, write down the values of your weight on each planet obtained with the equation on
previous page and calculate how many times heavier or lighter you would be on other planets
(W
fraction
= W
planet
/ W
Earth
).
Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars J upiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
Your weight
Weight
fraction
X
Actividad adaptada de http://www.schoolsobservatory.org.uk/staff/teach/maths/act_wtpl.shtml
145
Let's Analyse:
- Arrange the planets so that the first one is where you weigh the most and the last one where you weigh
the least. Is the list in the same order for all participants? On which planet do you weigh the most? On
which do you weigh the least? Compare to the masses of the planets!
The order should be the same for all : Jupiter, Neptune, Saturn, Earth, Venus, Uranus, Mars and Mercury.
The planet where we weigh the most is Jupiter, and the planets where we weigh the least are Mercury and
Mars. Now, if we arrange the planets by their masses, we see that the order is not the same. In addition,
if we arrange them by size (diameter) we see that the order is not the same. This is due to the fact that
what really counts for gravity is both the mass and size of the planet.
(The more massive it is and the closer the surface is to the center, the stronger the attraction.)
- Since we weigh more or less depending on which planet we're on, does this mean that we become fatter
or thinner on other planets? Remember the formula for weight.
No, our mass is the same everywhere we go. What changes is the force with which the planet pulls us
towards its center (that is, our weight).
146
3. Beyond the Solar System
147
Lets classify some galaxies the
way astronomers do!
In this activity we will learn the
different shapes, sizes and
colours of galaxies.
We are going to use pictures of
galaxies taken with the Palomar
Telescope in 1991.
Duration ~ 30 min.
Method Category Teach-yourself
Materials Galaxy images
Image credit: NASA and The Hubble Heritage Image credit: NASA and The Hubble Heritage
Team. Team.
Galaxy Classification
Activity developed by Patricia Figueir Spinelli (GalileoMobile)
! The
galaxy M64
is a typical
example of a
so-called
spiral
galaxy. Why
do you think
it's called
that?
148
Learning Goals
Galaxies in the Universe have different shapes -- primarily, ellipticals, spirals, barred spirals, and
irregulars.
Our Milky Way galaxy is a spiral galaxy.

Classification -- Students identify common patterns in galaxies to try to find a classification

scheme. Then they learn how to classify galaxies according to a given scheme.
Discussion with peers what are the shortcomings of the scheme?

Attitudes
Imagine oneself on other worlds (trying to jump on Mars and on Jupiter).
Realize the arbitrariness of classification.
Raise ones curiosity about the formation of galaxies and the origin of their shapes.
149
Galaxies are enormous collections of stars, dust and gas
held together by the force of gravity (see the activity
Your weight on other planets).
A galaxy like the one we live in contains about a

HUNDRED BILLION stars similar to the Sun!
There are hundreds of billions of galaxies in the

Universe, having a wide variety of sizes, from dwarf
galaxies to giant galaxies.
Image credit: Stphane Guisard Image credit: Stphane Guisard
Our home galaxy is called the Milky Way, so named by the ancients because they
thought the band of stars across the sky looked like milk. You can see it yourself on a clear
night far from city lights!
!
Galaxies in the Universe
150
We cannot directly see the shape of our
galaxy because we are inside it. Before
humans sent satellites into space, we also
didn't know what our planet looked like
from outside.
To really see the shape of the Milky Way,

we would need to travel outside it with a
rocket and look at it from above.
Unfortunately, this is not going to be
possible with technology anytime soon!
However, we can use other clues to show us
what the Milky Way really looks like.
Indirect observations show that the
Milky Way is a spiral galaxy (similar to the
one shown at right).
! If we could travel
outside our galaxy, it
would look much like the
galaxy in the image (called
M51).

! This picture
taken from space
shows an
astronaut
repairing the
Hubble Space
Telescope (and a
portion of the
Earth).
Image credit: NASA and The Hubble Image credit: NASA and The Hubble
Heritage Heritage
Image credit: NASA and The Image credit: NASA and The
Hubble Heritage Hubble Heritage
Our Galaxy, The Milky Way
151
Procedure:
- Look at the galaxy classification scheme below. The American
astronomer Edwin Hubble proposed this scheme to classify galaxies into
various types: ellipticals, spirals, barred spirals and irregulars.
- Now, try to classify the galaxies on the next page.
Ellipticals
Spirals
Description of the Activity
! Galaxy classification
scheme by Hubble. Note the
existence of a morphological
sequence (though it doesn't
mean one type of galaxy evolves
into another). On the left side
are elliptical galaxies, in the
middle are disc galaxies, and on
the right are spiral galaxies
(above without a bar, and below
with a bar). Galaxies that do
not fit in any type of the Hubble
sequence are called irregulars.
152
A B C D E
1
2
3
4
5
A
n
s
w
e
r
s
:
1
a

-

S
0

/

1
b

-

I
r
r

/

1
c

-

S
a

/

1
d

-

E

/

1
e

S
B
0

/

2
a

-

E

/

2
b

-

S
d

/

2
c

-

S
b

/

2
d

-

S
0

/

2
e

-

S
c

/

3
a

-

S
c

/

3
b

-

S
B
b

/

3
c

-

S
c

/

3
d

-

S
0

/

3
e

-

S
b

/

4
a

S
b
a

/

4
b

-

S
B
b

/

4
c

-

S
a

/

4
d

-

S
0

/

4
e

-

E

/

5
a

-

S
B
c

/

5
b

-

S
c

/

5
c

S
B
b

/

5
d

-

S
B
d

/

5
e

-

S
B
0

/
153
Let's analyse:
- Is it possible to create a single classification system for all
galaxies?
No, because the morphology of some galaxies may be a
mixture of two or more of the types proposed by Hubble. For
example, Galaxy 5E is a mixture of elliptical and spiral. There
are also some galaxies, such as 4C, which do not have visible
spiral arms, since they can only be seen edge-on (as shown in
the picture). At first glance, this type of galaxy may be
counted as ellipticals; however, by studying their light,
astronomers have determined that this galaxy is an edge-on
spiral.
- Can you guess why galaxies have different colours?
When you look at the stars in the night sky, you can see that
they have different colours. The colour of a galaxy comes
from the colours of the stars in it: Red is the colour of the
oldest and coolest stars, blue is the colour of the youngest
and hottest stars, and yellow is the colour of Sun-like stars.
! The galaxy NGC
3079 is a spiral galaxy
that appears tilted to
us (making it hard to
see the spiral arms).
Image credit: NASA Image credit: NASA
154
Duration ~ 20 min.
Materials
- 1 balloon
- Marker
The Universe is populated by hundreds of billions of galaxies which are moving away from each
other. Galaxies are moving apart due to the expansion of the space itself that lies between them.
In this activity we will simulate the expansion of the Universe. To do this, we will draw dots on a
balloon; the dots represent galaxies in the Universe, and the balloon represents space.
! The image on the left shows a small region of the Universe
called "The Hubble Deep Field." We can see that the Universe is
composed of truly a huge number of galaxies.
Image credit: NASA, ESA, S. Beckwith (STScI)
and the HUDF Team
The Expansion of the Universe
155
Learning Goals
The Universe is expanding, which means that galaxies are moving apart from each other.
Bonus (if advanced) --The expansion of the Universe is an expansion of space, which carries
galaxies apart, rather than galaxies themselves moving in fixed space.
The expansion of the Universe operates against gravity, which is trying to pull the contents of the
Universe back together to a point.
Model-building -- we can represent processes in space with processes here on Earth in order to
understand them better.
Discussion and Critical thinking What are the shortcoming/simplifications of this balloon
representation of the Universe?
Attitudes
Become interested in learning more about the Big Bang and the expansion of the Universe.
156
Astronomers believe that at the beginning, the Universe

was simply a point. All matter, energy, time and space were
contained in this one point; the Universe was extremely hot
and dense.
The Universe began expanding. As it expanded, the

temperature dropped, and the density of matter and energy
decreased. This eventually allowed stars and galaxies to
form.
We call the moment when the Universe was born and

started expanding the Big Bang. Before the expansion, the
Universe was a singularity, a state where the laws of physics
we know may not apply.
The Big Bang continues to be an important subject of

research for astronomers. What happened during the first
moments of the Universe is being studied. What happened
before the Big Bang is difficult or even impossible to study
scientifically.
!

Astronomers point their
telescopes towards the sky
every night to study the
Universe.
Actividad adaptada de GTTP: http://www.site.galileoteachers.org copyright Mathan Association
Image credit: ESO/Y. Beletsky
Big Bang:
The Beginning of the Universe
157
Procedure:
- Take the balloon and draw a
few points on it.
- Blow up the balloon. As you
blow, you will see the points
moving away from each other.
- How does the distance
between the points when the
balloon is deflated compare to
the distance when the balloon is
inflated?
!
! When the balloon is not inflated the points are closer to each other than when the balloon is fully
inflated. As the balloon inflates, the points spread apart because the space between them is increasing.
The points represent galaxies in the Universe: the galaxies are receding from each other because the
space between them is growing, mostly not because the galaxies have their own speed relative to space.
Astronomers deduced that the Universe is expanding based on the observation that galaxies are receding
from us.
158
Let's analyse:
- What would happen if the Universe continued to expand forever?
If the Universe continues to expand forever, the distance between the galaxies
will grow and grow.
- What would happen if the expansion of the Universe stopped?
If the Universe stopped expanding, the gravitational force of everything in the
Universe would pull everything back together again . Eventually, all matter in
the Universe would be compressed back into one point, as before the Big Bang.
This scenario is called the Big Crunch.

159
Consider:
- The astronomer Carl Sagan said that we are made of
"stardust". All the matter contained in our bodies was produced
somewhere in the Universe and later became part of us. Take a
moment to discuss with your fellow students the idea that we
are all made of cosmic matter.
We have discussed the idea that the origin of the Universe was
a single point that began to expand. As it expanded, the
Universe cooled and became less dense, ultimately allowing
stars, galaxies, interstellar dust, planets, etc. to form.

Early on, the Universe contained only hydrogen and helium; the
first stars formed from these lightest elements. Later the
stars evolved; after their deaths, they released heavier
chemical elements like carbon, the basic element in the cells in
our bodies. --Our planet, and hence we, formed from chemical
elements in the dust released by stars!
Carl Sagan
160
In this activity, we will discover space together with
the help of one of the biggest telescopes in the world!

We have four images taken with the Very Large
Telescope (VLT).
We will look at each image in detail. All of them are
spectacular!
At the end of the activity, we will have learned to
recognise some objects that are part of the Universe,
with the help of the VLT.
.+A+ +
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http://web.educastur.princast.es/proyectos/grupotecn
e/archivos/investiga/190paranal512.jpg
Age All ages
Duration ~ 40 min.
Method Category Teach-yourself
Materials - Images taken with the VLT

!
! This image shows the four VLT
telescopes at the Paranal
Observatory in Chile.
Images from the VLT
Activity adapted from http://www.eso.cl/galeria_top1.php
161
Learning Goals
We can learn more details about distant objects by using bigger and bigger telescopes.
Great telescopes can be located in different places of the world (very dry if possible).
Observation - grasp different features of nebulae, supernovae, planet images.

Attitudes
Develop a will to observe the night sky with a telescope.
Appreciate the beauty and diversity of the images that can be obtained with the greatest
telescope of the world.
162
Learning Goals
Distinguish the different types of bodies composing the Solar system and learn about their
properties: the Sun, the 8 planets, asteroids and comets.
Besides their composition, the different types of bodies differ mainly by their size: Gaseous
(outer) planets are much bigger than the rocky (inner) planets, which are much bigger than asteroids
and comets.
All these objects are ridiculously small compared to the Sun!

Model-building -- Construct a reduced-scale model of our solar system.
Practice mathematics of proportions and scale by scaling down all the real distances to the size
of their model.
Attitudes
Get a sense for the vastness and emptiness of scape: the distances between planets are
ridiculously large!
Raise ones awareness for the fragility of our planet (only a peppercorn at this scale!).
163
The Very Large Telescope (VLT) is an astronomical
instrument belonging to the European Southern
Observatory (ESO), the biggest European organisation
for astronomy.
The VLT is located at Cerro Paranal, 2635 meters high
in the Atacama Desert in Chile.
It consists of four reflecting telescopes, each having

a primary mirror 8.2 m diameter. VLT also has four
smaller movable auxiliary telescopes with 1.8 m mirrors.
They can operate in different ways. The main

telescopes can work as single telescopes or all together
as an interferometer. An interferometer is used to
measure the different wavelengths of light very
accurately (see activity in the "Light" section).
.+A+ +
+ug+++OAl +
+g+uO u
http://www.mat.ucm.es/~aig/divulgacion/ASTRO_XX/AS
TROXX_graf/VLT.gif

!
! This photo shows one of the
telescopes of the VLT. The
VLT is currently the most
advanced optical instrument in
the world!
Very Large Telescope (VLT)
164
! Nebulae are clouds composed of gases (mainly hydrogen and helium) and dust. They are very
important in astronomy. Some nebulae are places where new stars are being born (the Horsehead
Nebula is an example of this type of nebula; so is the Orion Nebula which we'll see in a moment).
Other nebulae are the remnants of dead stars (e.g., the Crab Nebula which we'll also see later).
165
Is it Saturn?
This picture actually shows the

planet Uranus with its rings and
some of its moons. The high
contrast of the picture allows us
to see the rings of Uranus
clearly, which are usually dark
and so hard to see.
!
! Uranus has seven moons or
satellites. In the image,
Titania and Oberon are the
brightest moons. The smallest
moons, called Puck and Portia,
are almost invisible in the
image.
Which planet is it?
166
! At the core of this nebula are thousands of young stars, called the
Trapezium cluster It's incredibly dense: all those stars live in a region
smaller than the space separating the Sun and its nearest neighbour stars.
167
!
! A supernova is an immense stellar explosion: if it's close enough, we can even see it with the
naked eye (as Chinese and Arab astronomers did in 1054 AD).
168
Let's analyse:
- Now can you recognise some celestial objects in our galaxy?
By studying these images obtained by the VLT, we can easily identify various objects that
are part of our galaxy and even some objects that are outside our galaxy at incredibly
large distances.
During the activity, we studied four different objects that can be found in our galaxy.
One of them is a member of our solar system, Uranus, with some of its satellites. We also
studied two star-forming nebulae and a supernova remnant.
Now we know how to identify some of the objects that inhabit our galaxy and the
Universe-- all with the help of the amazing images taken with the VLT!
169
We're going to put history in order!
In this activity we'll learn what a timeline is.
We're going to make a timeline with history's
most important astronomers and astronomical
discoveries.
This will help us to see how ideas have
evolved: our view of the Universe and our place
in it.
1738
1
5
6
4
1
4
7
3
1969
Age All ages
Activity Duration ~ 50 min.
Method Category Creation
Materials
- Adhesive tape or glue.
- White sheets, preferably A3 size.
- Pens in one or more colors.
- Access to an encyclopedia or the Internet.
The Timeline of Astronomy
Activity adapted from http://www.schoolsobservatory.org.uk/staff/teach/maths/act_time.shtml
170
Learning Goals
This activity is more oriented towards process skills and attitudes than physics / astronomy
concepts.
Learn what a timeline is, and practice putting events in order.
Information search -- practice using various resources (the internet, books) to find information (in
this case, the names and accomplishments of important astronomers in history).
Attitudes
See how our understanding of the Universe has evolved over decades, centuries, and even
millennia.
Realize that astronomy is part of every culture of the world and that great astronomers have lived
in different corners of the planet!
Feel that they can identify with some of these astronomers.

171
A timeline is a way to represent a series of events along a line (either horizontally or vertically)
that allows the reader to quickly see when in time the events occurred.
! A timeline allows us to
see a set of many
events at a glance,
organized by when they
happened. As an
example, on the timeline
at left, you can see the
evolution of the
Universe from the Big
Bang up through today.
What is a Timeline?
172
Procedure:
- Start by setting the time range you're going to cover.
Which date shall we start with? We could choose 600 BC
with Thales of Miletus, or in 2137 BC when a solar eclipse was
first documented by the Chinese. The last date will be today.
- Determine the style of the timeline: horizontal or vertical.
If you want to hang it in the classroom, it may be more
appropriate to make it horizontal, so it will fit along the wall.
- Paste the A3 sheets in a strip of the desired length.
- Look in an encyclopedia for major figures in the history of
astronomy (in next page we suggest a few): record the year in
which they were born and the work they are famous for.
- As in the example on the previous page, draw a line along
the strip of sheets and enter the information you collect in
chronological order.
- Now put this information in the timeline in a clear and
concise way, and decorate it in your own style!
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173
ASTRONOMER YEAR WORK AND DISCOVERIES
OF BIRTH
Copernicus 1473 the Earth revolves around the sun!
Brahe 1546 comets are beyond Earth's atmosphere!
Hubble 1889 classification of galaxies
Shapley 1885 size of the Milky Way and Earth's position in it
Galileo 1564 sunspots, craters on the Moon, Jupiter's moons
Ptolemy 90 star catalog, Earth in the center of the Universe
Kepler 1571 three laws of planetary motion, elliptical orbits
Eratosthenes 276 B.C. circumference of Earth
Herschel 1738 discovery of the planet Uranus, infrared light
Armstrong 1930 first person on the Moon!
Tombaugh 1906 discovery of the planet Pluto
Einstein 1879 theory of relativity
Leavitt 1868 distances to Cepheid variable stars
Cannon 1863 stellar classification
Here we list some of the most important astronomers you can start with. But of course there are
many more you can add to the list!
Astronomers not to miss!
174
4. Light and Optics
175
The light and its colours are nearly the only source of information
we have about the Universe.
Yet telescopes are only sensitive to brightness and not to colour.

To obtain colour images, telescopes are equipped with a filter wheel.
Here students will build a paper replica of a filter wheel.
They will investigate the effect of the different filters in order to

find out how filter wheels are used to reconstitute colour images.
Finally, they will discuss how filters can be used to gain information
about specific regions of an astronomical object.
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The Filter Wheel
Activity adapted from http://solar.physics.montana.edu/ypop/Classroom/Lessons/Filters/
Age From 12 years old
Duration ~ 60 min.
Materials
(one set for each
student group)
- 2 paper plates
- 3 pieces of cellophane: blue, red and yellow
- 1 brass fastener
- pencils (coloured) and paper
- Scissors and glue or tape
- Images of the Crab Nebula and coloured landscape (in Appendices)
176
Learning Goals
Filters allow specific colours (wavelengths) of light to be observed and thereby provide images of
the regions where this light originates.
Very hot objects (temperatures of several thousand degrees) radiate light at visible wavelengths,
from the red to the blue for the colder to the hotter objects.
Take ones own observations with the filter wheel.
Figure out how astronomical colour images (such as the Crab nebula one) are reconstituted by
comparing images obtained with the filter wheel.
Attitudes
Raise ones curiousity for the colours that we can see around us and in astronomical images.
Realize that light is the only source of information about the Universe: colours are therefore
important!
177
Nebulae are clouds of gas: One type of

nebula is formed when a star dies and
ejects material into space.
The nebula in the image on the right is

called the Crab Nebula. It is the remnant
of a star that exploded back in 1054 AD.
The explosion was so bright that Chinese

astronomers recorded seeing it shining in
the sky during the day!
We see gas of different colours because each region of the nebula has a different temperature:
the hottest part is blue and the coolest part is red. This is the same way that colours and
temperatures work in a candle.
Careful: This relation between colour and temperature only holds for very hot objects with
temperatures of several thousand degrees.
Looking at astronomical images
Divide the students in groups of 3 and give each group a printout of the Crab Nebula image.
Let the students gaze at the magnificent colours of these images and tell them about nebulae.
178
Looking at astronomical images
Where do the colours of astronomical images come from?:

Ask students questions about the colours they see in the image:
- What do you think of the colours of this image?
- Where do they come from?
Tell them a disappointing secret: These colours are fake!
The light detectors of astronomical telescopes are not sensitive to colours but only to the
brightness of the objects: they see in black and white. Hence the colours were added a posteriori.
- How is it then possible to reconstitute the colours of the objects we observe?
To do this, telescopes are equipped with a special instrument called a filter wheel (see image).
Challenge the students: Their task will be to build a filter wheel and to find out how it can be
used to reconsitute the colours of an astronomical object.
(They can keep the filter wheel if they succeed to find out!)
179
Making the filter wheel:
- Cut out a section of one of the paper plates in the shape of a wedge (about one third of the
plate: see figure below left).
- Now place the plate you've just cut on top of one of the other plates and draw the edges of
the wedge with a pencil through the hole in the top plate. Turn the top plate 120 and draw the
the wedge again. Repeat that once more. Now you've drawn 3 wedges.
- Cut out each of the wedges, and then glue or tape a different coloured piece of cellophane
behind each opening.
- Punch a small hole in the center of each plate and fasten them as shown in the figure below
right.
- Now you have the filter wheel to start the activity!
180
We see different parts of an image
according to its colour and the colour of the
filter we are using.
Activity description
Procedure (1-3):
1) How do filters work?
When building a new instrument, the first thing
engineers do is to use it on a simple case to
characterize how the instrument works: this is a
calibration test.
Give each group a printout of the coloured landscape.
This will be their test image.
- Tell the groups to look at the image through each
window of their filter wheel. They can also look around.
- Let them think about what the filter do to the light
coming from the image.
- Provoke a discussion between the groups: What is the
effect of each filter? What is the role of a filter?
- Optionally, ask the group to formulate their
explanation in terms of wavelength. For this you can
give them a printout of the rainbow spectrum (in
Appendices, folder Multicoloured light).
!
181
A colour filter is a type of material that only lets one colour of light pass through it.
For example, a red filter absorbs all colours except red (see figure). Therefore it looks red
and will only let us see the red light coming from an object (we see shades of red).
In the visible range (electromagnetic waves between 400 and 600 nm), waves of different
wavelength are seen by our eyes as distinct colours.
Therefore, in terms of wavelength, a filter only lets pass light waves having wavelengths in a
narrow wavelength interval. This is a more general definition of a filter that also applies to
non-visible light (see at the end).
Colour Filters
W
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t
e
l
i
g
h
t
Only red light is visible through the
filter
Red filter
182
Procedure (2-3):
2) Filtering the Crab nebula
Having calibrated their instrument, students are now ready to apply it to an astronomical image.
Give the student groups printouts of the 3 small filtered images of the Crab nebula (below).
- Each group should observe and study the Crab nebula image with the different filters.
- To facilitate their investigation, they can draw their observations on paper and compare them to the
3 filtered images of the Crab nebula.
- What details students can see with one filter that they cannot see with another filter?
One sees a different image according to the colour filter used. With a particular filter, we see regions
of the original image that we can't see through a different filter. For instance, when looking through
the blue filter we miss the red shades since they're absorbed by the filter; the opposite effect
occurs when you look through the red filter.
183
Procedure (3-3):
3) How do astronomers reconstitute colour images?
- Make students compare the details of the small Crab nebula filtered images with the original colour
Crab nebula image.
- Challenge each group to propose an idea of how the Crab nebula image was reconstituted. Let them
think for a while.
- Finally, incite the groups to discuss their ideas between them.
Was it different from their original idea?
The filter wheel allows scientists to measure the brightness of an object through different filters.
Knowing the colours these filters correspond to, we can then artificially add colour to each filter
image and combine them to form a reconstituted colour image.
184
Let's analyse:
- How do you think our eyes reconstitute colour images?
Our retina at the back of our eyes contains cells which act as filters: they are only sensitive to
either red, green, or blue. Based on the information given by these filter cells, our brains are able
to reconstitute colour images!
185
Let's analyse:
- For what other purposes (than making colour images) do scientists use filters? Imagine that you
are only interested in the deep hot layers of the Crab nebula, what would you do?
- Look at the 3 images of the Sun shown below. They are taken using different filters. What
differences and similarities do you see between the images?
Remember how filters allowed us to see regions at different temperatures in the Crab Nebula?
This works similarly: We are seeing layers of the Sun that have different temperatures! On the
next page, we show the layers of the Sun and their main features.
No filter
Blue filter
(393.4 nm)
X-ray filter
(0.1 - 10 nm)
PHOTOSPHERE CORONA CHROMOSPHERE
186
The PHOTOSPHERE:
The deepest layer we can
see. It has a temperature
of about 6,000 C!
2. CHROMOSPHERE
3. CORONA
The CHROMOSPHERE:
Thin layer of the solar atmosphere
that extends about 2,000 km above
the photosphere. It can reach
20,000 C!
The CORONA:
The outermost layer
of the sun. It is only
visible during an
eclipse!
1. PHOTOSPHERE
http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/explore/images/layers.gif
The Layers of the Sun
187
Here students will be able to reconstitute their own colour images on a computer using real
astronomical data observed with a filter wheel.
- Open the 3 files in the folder M27 in the Appendices .
- Click on Window Tile to display the 3 images next to each other.
- Adjust the brightness of each image by clicking on it, then click Image Adjust
Brightness/Contrast. Then click once on Auto.
- Make the students predict what the outcome will be when combining these filtered images into a
single colour image (they should look at the differences between the filtered images).
- Combine the filtered images into one colour image:
click Image Color RGB Merge.
Select the image ...-Blue.fts next to Blue:
and idem for red and green.
Check Keep source images.
- You can zoom in the image you obtained using .
- You can repeat with the images of M42.
Making colour images!
SalsaJ can be found in the Appendices or downloaded at http://www.euhou.net
188
Sunlight is composed of all colours in the rainbow-- however, sunlight looks white...Where are the
colours? How can we see them? --By passing the white light through a prism (see figure above and
also the 'colours of visible light' at the end and in Appendices).
Light is composed of electromagnetic waves: tiny electrical and magnetic oscillations of different
possible wavelengths (the distance between crests).
Human eyes cannot see all wavelengths: The set of wavelengths that we can see is called visible
light. In this range, each wavelength corresponds to a different colour!
Here we present two activities that show two methods to separate light into the colours of the
rainbow: with water and with a CD.
635 - 700 nm
560 - 590 nm
450 - 490 nm
10,000 times shorter than
the thickness of a hair!
(http://www.joseplainez.org/GRUP%20MOIANES/RECOPILACIO_TECNICA/images/)
Multicoloured light
Activity adapted from http://www.csic.es/unawe/Actividades
189
White light can be decomposed into

different colours using a prism, a triangular
piece of transparent material that deflects
the light rays.
When it rains and is sunny at the same time,

the raindrops act as tiny prisms. The sun's
rays enter the drops and they change
direction, or refract.
Each colour refracts a different amount and

so we see light separated into its different
colours when the light exits the prism (or
raindrop).
That's why when we see a rainbow, the sun

must be behind us.
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivo:Rainbow1.png
http://www.fondosdepantalla.biz/images/wallpapers/
Arcoiris_en_Kauai_Hawaii-1024x768-390571.jpeg
Rainbows
190
Colours and temperatures
Colours indicate star temperatures.
For example, different types of stars appear as different colours: blue stars are the hottest, while red
stars are the coolest.
From the figure above, can you see the relationship between the star colour and the colours of the
spectrum? Blue stars emit more energy in the blue part of the spectrum. On the other hand, yellow stars
(like our Sun), emit more energy in the green part of the spectrum, but because other colours from the
spectrum are contributing to the overall colour, we do not see them as green.
Light a match and notice its colours. Do you see more than one colour? If so, which colours and what
temperatures do they indicate? Cold? Hot?
http://docs.kde.org/stable/en/kdeedu/kstars/ai-colourandtemp.html
(Colours are exaggerated)
191
Activity adapted from http://www.csic.es/unawe/Actividades/colourES%20DEL%20SOL%20REVISADO.pdf
192
Learning Goals
Light is composed of (electro-magnetic) waves.
The human eye only perceives a restricted set of wavelengths for which our brain associates
colours.
Explain a phenomenon (decomposition of colours through water) by making a sketch.

Attitudes
Through partial understanding of it, feel an enhanced sense of beauty in front of coloured natural
phenomena such as rainbows.
By playing with the spectroscope, develop a thrill to find out how it works and how it works best
(Which orientation, aperture?
Realize that light is the only source of information about the Universe: colours are therefore
important!
193
195
Let's analyse:
- Did you manage to see the colours? What happened?
As in the rainbow experiment, sunlight enters through the slit and the CD surface refracts the light,
decomposing it into different colours.
- Can you see dark lines between the colours? What might they be?
The dark lines are holes, colours or wavelengths that sunlight does not contain. More sophisticated
spectroscopes are used to analyse the light from different objects to identify which colours (or
wavelengths) are missing: different objects have unique colour spectra, like a fingerprint.
Lets Build Spectroscopes
196
The colours of visible light
http://www.chm.davidson.edu/vce/coordchem/spectrum.jpg
197
Duration ~ 1 hour
Method
Category
Experiments
Materials
- 3 packets of jelly (use
light colours and sugar-free
varieties; gelatin of animal
origin gets stiffer)
- Hot water (use the
amount indicated on the
jelly packets)
- A cup
- A spoon
- A knife
- A baking dish (about 20
cm x 20 cm)
- A refrigerator (with
enough space for the dish)
- A cutting board
- A lantern
- Black Tape
Lenses are objects that bend light (e.g., to magnify images). Most optical devices are made of one or
more lenses, although modern telescopes use mirrors instead.
In this activity, we'll learn how light behaves when it passes through different types of lenses, which
for us are going to be made of jelly.
Jelly (Gelatin) Lenses
Activity adapted from OpticsForKids.org: http://www.optics4kids.org/home/futurescientists/advanced/shimmering-lenses/ Acknowledgement: OSA
198
Learning Goals
Distinguish between two types of lenses: convergent (convex) and divergent (concave).
Light travels in a straight path (rays) until encountering the lens.
Convergent lenses deviate the rays in a convergent way (until the rays concentrate in the focal
point), while divergent lenses deviate the ray in a divergent way.
Abstract spatial reasoning -- imagining and/or drawing the path of light rays.
Attitudes
Enjoy the funof experimentation -- Try different shapes, try to put different types of lenses
and see what come out.
199
!

The strength of the lens depends on its
shape and the material it is made of.
There are two basic types of simple lenses:

convergent and divergent.
In a CONVERGENT or POSITIVE lens, the

light rays converge (or focus) to a single point.
After crossing this common point, they spread
out again (see the figure above). Lenses can
make an image on a screen, like in the cinema.
In a DIVERGENT or NEGATIVE lens, the light
rays spread out, never converging to a single
point. However, they spread out as if they had
been emitted from a single common point (see
figure at right).
Basic Types of Lenses
Convergent Lens
Divergent Lens
200
- Refrigerate the jelly overnight.
- To remove the gelatin from the mould, dip the bottom of the dish in warm water for 15 seconds and
then run a knife around the inside edges. Now you can transfer the jelly to the cutting board.
Procedure:
- Mix 3 packets of jelly with the appropriate amount of hot water. Do not add
cold water; otherwise the jelly will not get stiff! Stir until the powder dissolves
and then pour the jelly into a baking dish like the one shown in the figure at
right.
- Use your knife to cut the gelatin into lenses of convex and concave shape. In addition, cut a long
and thin rectangle of jelly (see the figures and try to copy the shapes as closely as you can).
201
- Cover the end of the torch (flashlight) with black tape, leaving just a tiny gap (see the figure).
In this way, you will get a very narrow light beam.
- Now turn off the light in the room and turn on the torch.
- Shine the light through your jelly lenses and watch how the light leaves each one.
- Try different light entry angles in the lens, moving the torch up and down.
- Now shine light through any of the two shortest sides of the rectangle. While the light is passing
through the rectangle, carefully bend the rectangle. What happens to the light inside?
- Try turning on the lantern with and without tape. What happens to the light rays in the jelly?
What happens to the rectangle? What happens if you bend the rectangle so much that it breaks?
202
Let's analyse:
- What happens to the light rays in the jelly when we turn on the flashlight with and without the
tape? If we use the flashlight without tape, the whole room will be lit and we won't be able to
see the effects of the lens. (They still happen, but we can't see them.) To be able to observe
the path of the light through the lens, we need to make a narrow beam of light.
- What happens to the light inside the rectangle?
(1) If we shine perpendicular to one side of the rectangle, the light passes through it without
changing direction. (2) If we shine on the side but now at an angle, the light changes its
trajectory within the rectangle but keeps travelling in the same direction as before. (3) If we
bend the rectangle, light propagates along it, reflecting on its interior walls. (4) If the rectangle
is bent to the breaking point, light exits through the wall of the jelly.
- The good thing about these simple lenses is that you can put them together to manipulate light
in many ways. Try placing various convergent and divergent lenses in front of each other so that
the beam of light passes through them see what happens.
- Scientists put together different types of lenses to create and improve devices like
binoculars, microscopes and cameras.
203
Credits
The activities in this handbook were designed by the following people or institutions. The web pages where the original activities
can be found are at the bottom of each of the activities of the Handbook.
Rosa M. Ros, Albert Capell, Josep Colom, Milagros Lorenzo, Ricardo Moreno, Juan A. Navarro & Jos M. Rodrguez & Explora el
Universo.
Carl Sanderson, Sue Cronin The National School's Observatory (NSO)
Deborah Scherrer, Ken Brandt & Jerry Vinski Solar Stanford Center (http://solar-center.stanford.edu)
Robert T. Sparks y Stephen M. Pompea https://www.galileoscope.org y National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO)
Tony Flanders SKY & Telescope magazine (http://www.skyandtelescope.com)
Guy Ottewell http://www.caes.uga.edu/ College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences
NASA Johnson Space Flight Center & National Space Biomedical Research Institute NSBRI
21
st
Century Explorer: http://education.jsc.nasa.gov/explorers/
The Galileoscope: https://www.galileoscope.org
National School's Observatory (NSO): http://www.schoolsobservatory.org.uk
Montana State University (MSU): http://btc.montana.edu
Yohkoh Public Outreach Project (YPOP) and MSU Solar Physics Group: http://solar.physics.montana.edu/YPOP/index.html
Galileo Teacher Training Program (GTTP): http://www.site.galileoteachers.org
UNAWE: http://www.unawe.org/
European Southern Observatory (ESO): http://www.eso.cl/galeria_top1.php
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientficas (CSIC): http://www.csic.es/astrosecundaria/simulaciones/biografia.htm
Gua interactiva de Astronoma:
http://www.isftic.mepsyd.es/w3/eos/MaterialesEducativos/mem2000/astronomia/chicos/basicas/vocabulario.htm

204
Acknowledgements
To the children, youth, teachers and educational communities of the state of

Karnataka that took part in the workshop activities GalileoMobile in July 2012.
To the authors of the activities we adapted. Thanks also to UNAWE, GTTP and
other institutions that developed these activities. Thanks for your global
initiatives on education and rising awareness on astronomy and for being an
inspiration to us.
To the people who collaborated with the review of contents of this Handbook:
Andrs Balaguera-Antolinez, Leonardo Castaeda, Giovanny Pinzn & Alexis
Larraaga.

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1

Under the same sky

Stars are located at enormous distances from us.

Think in three dimensions.

Imagine the vastness of the Universe.

In this activity, we'll see how to trace out the

To do this, we'll make a three-dimensional model

Making predictions (about what would happen by adding lights).

First we'll talk about the materials we need for our

Let's pay close attention to everything that happens as

When we're done, we'll have discovered the explanation

Making predictions (about what would happen by adding the candle).

Gravity (and lack thereof) has a significant effect on our bodies.

Become interested in learning more about astronauts and space travel.

Raise ones interest in science by imagine oneself as an astronaut.

The Space Race began in the middle of the last

Since then, other countries have begun their

Astronauts are people who train physically and

When astronauts are in space, they experience

All these objects are ridiculously small compared to the Sun!

Model-building -- Construct a reduced-scale model of our solar system.

Compare models with real observations to test their validity.

Model-building -- represent the system Venus-Earth-Sun with Styrofoam balls.

Take ones own observations.

Compare models with real observations to test their validity.

The galileoscope is a replica of

To see changes in the phases

Make sketches of the phases

How can you know if Venus will

Search for Venus and track on it (space bar)

Does Venus appears before sunrise or after sunset?

Make 2 month-steps in time

Switch off the ground and atmosphere .

Zoom until you see the surface of Venus.

Accelerate the time by pushing 6 times. (such that a

You will see Venus's phases changing before your eyes!

As you've seen, the number of

As time passes, new spots and groups

When we study the variation in

We need to observe sunspots for

Model-building -- represent the system Venus-Earth-Sun with Styrofoam balls.

Take ones own observations.

Compare models with real observations to test their validity.

The Earth rotates on its axis, and so do

In this activity we will discover that the

For this we'll use a technique similar to

Sunspots are found on the surface of the Sun and so we

We will use the spots as a reference point to measure the

Kinematic concept of average speed.

Measure the rotation of an object by tracking features on its surface.

It also has a number of small satellites orbiting within the rings.

Build a model of Saturn's rings using simple materials.

Appreciate the beauty of Saturn rings.

Saturn is mainly composed of hydrogen and helium.

Saturn is the only planet in our Solar System that is

Titan is the largest moon of Saturn. It is the second

NASA and Erich Karkoschka, University of Arizona

Let's explore the Moon using a giant mosaic!

We have 25 A4-sized images taken with a telescope in