Ten Commandments For Boat Owners

1. Check your boat thoroughly and never leave your mooring until you have
done so.
2. Never over-load your boa and at all times be especially careful about non-
swimmers and children.
3. Carry a life preserver for every person on board. Be sure they're worn when
doing deck duty in rough weather.
4. Carry filled fire extinguishers, according to Taw.
5. Exercise extreme caution when filling fuel tanks no smoking turn off all
fires and electric accessories hold filling nozzle firmly against fill pipe (ground
it) wipe up spillage thoroughly ventilate engine compartment and all
enclosed spaces before restarting motors.
6. Observe carefully weather, wind, tide and current conditions before starting.
Plan emergency harbors on long hops.
7. Keep to the right when meeting another boa and give the right-of-way to
vessels approaching in your danger zone on the starboard (right) side.
8. Always be Courteous, Careful and Competent. Watch your wash! Slow down
to 4 mph in harbors. Keep away from large vessels, which are not as
maneuverable as smaller craft. Keep away from all sail boats small ones may
be swamped by the wash from a motor boa and large sailing yachts do not have
the maneuverability of a motor boa.
9. Never make a turn at high speed. Small craft can easily be and have been
swamped by their own wash.
10. Approach dock or mooring slowly against the wind or current, whichever is
strongest.
The contents of SEAMANSHP is based largely on that of the more complete
book by the same author, Piloting, Seamanship and Small Boat Handling, the
text-book used for many years by the United States Power Squadrons and more
lately by members of Coast Guard Auxiliary and others interested in the various
branches of the Navy and Merchant Marine. Much of the material in Piloting,
Seamanship and Small Boat Handling has been condensed and parts omitted to
keep this book elementary in scope and small in size.
For those who desire a more complete treatise on the subject, we recommend
Piloting, Seamanship and Small Boat Handling, also published by MoToR
BoatinG.
Chapter - 01
Names And Terms; Types And Rigs Of Boats
Landsmen's terms grate hard sometimes on the ear of one trained to speak the
language of the sea, who thinks naturally in nautical terms. When the guest who
unnecessarily remarks that he doesn't know "the front from the back" of the boat,
goes "downstairs" into what he is pleased to call the "kitchen" and adds insult to
injury by calling the chart a "map," the boatman's reaction must be akin to that of
the well-bred English professor who must listen to "ain'ts" and "he don'ts" hurled
with reckless abandon into his learned conversation.
How many times have you heard a boatman, in describing his boat to a friend,
remark that "she made 10 knots per hour on a measured mile," or perhaps, that
his run from port to port was a distance of 12 knots? Often, no doubt.
As a matter of fact, a strict interpretation of his terms would be the equivalent of
"she made 10 nautical miles per hour per hour." You see, the knot is a measure
of speed, equal to one nautical mile per hour. Similarly, the second statement is
not according to the best usage. The speaker should have said "12 nautical
miles" because the knot isn't a measure of distance, in this sense.
Landsmen are not the only offenders in the use of incorrect nautical terminology
as our first reference to knots and miles shows. Few persons speak absolutely
pure Englishfew are always precisely right in their seafaring language. The
words carline and beam are often used interchangeably by men with a broad
background of nautical knowledge, yet a distinction could be drawn in their
meanings.
Within the limits of our space here, we hope to cover just as many as possible of
the more common terms used aboard boats. We do not pretend to offer verbatim
definitions as might be taken from a dictionary. Rather the sense will be
condensed into the briefest possible terms for the benefit of those to whom sea
language is still a jargon. This is done at the risk of being taken to task by
hairsplitting "sea lawyers" who might feel that brevity leaves the explanation
vague. Glossaries are available to those who wish precise, long-winded
definitions.
Bow And Stern; Port And Starboard
The landsman guest previously referred to might have incurred less of his host's
displeasure had he called the front and back of the boat, the bow and stern,
respectively. Port and starboard (starb'd) are terms in constant useport
designating the left; starboard, the right side, facing the bow or, to express it
otherwise, facing forward. Turning around and facing the stern, we look aft. The
bow is the fore part of the boat, the stern the after part. When one point on the
boat is further aft than another it is said to be abaft. Thus we might say that the
deckhouse is abaft the main cabin. When an object lies on a line parallel to the
keel we refer to it as fore-and-aft, as distinguished from athwartships, which is at
right angles to the keel line. Planks in a deck run fore and aft; the beams
supporting deck planks run athwartships.
The term amidships has a double meaning. n one sense, it refers to an object in
the line of the keel, midway between the sides, as an engine is mounted
amidships in the centerline over the keel. Often, however, it relates to something
mid-way between bow and stern. The galley, for example, might be located
amidships, though off to the port or starboard side. The midship section would be
the view of a boat presented by cutting it transversely through the middle.
To express the idea upward, overhead, or above the deck, one says aloft. Below
means below deck. A seaman goes aloft in the rigging, below to his berth in the
cabin.
We never say that a person is on or in a boatrather, he is aboard, though on
board is an alternate expression. nboard and outboard draw a distinction
between objects near or toward amidships and those which are out from the
boat, away from the centerline. nboard engines are those permanently installed
within the hull; out-boards being temporarily attached at the stern, outside the
hull.
Points Around The Boat
To convey the idea opposite or at right angles, we say abreast. An object at right
angles to the centerline (keel) of the boat is abeam. f we draw ahead to a point
where that object is midway between its position abeam and another directly
astern, then it is broad on the quarter, starboard or port as the case may be.
Dead ahead, of course, refers to any point which the boat is approaching directly
on a straight course. Midway between dead ahead and a point abeam, an object
is broad on the bow (port or starboard).
To express the direction of another vessel or any object relative to our position
we say it bears so-and-so. Directions through 360 degrees around the horizon
are divided into 32 points. Each point or direction is named. Thus a lighthouse
might be said to ' bear two points abaft the starboard beam, broad on the port
bow, etc.
Windward means toward the wind, the direction from which the wind blows;
leeward, away from the wind, or the direction toward which the wind blows. The
lee side of a boat or island is protected; the windward or weather side is
exposed, unprotected. Note, however, that while one runs into the lee of an
island or point for an anchorage protected from the wind, a lee shore refers to a
shore line to leeward of a vessel, consequently a dangerous one exposed to the
wind. While this may seem confusing at first, the logic of it is apparent with a little
thought.
Some of the common terms by which the dimensions of a vessel and
characteristics of her design are expressed are obvious in their meanings. Others
baffle the tyro. The length of a boat is often given in two dimensions: on the
waterline (W. L.), the meaning of which is apparent; and overall (O.A.),
measuring from the fore part of the stem to the after part of the stern. The
breadth of a vessel is its beam; draft, the depth of water required to float it. This
is not to be confused with the term depth as applied to larger vessels,. which is
measured vertically inside the hull from deck to bottom or floors. Headroom, in a
small boat, is the vertical space between floor boards or deck and the cabin or
canopy top, or other overhead structure.
Sheer, Flare And Flam
Sheer is the term properly used to designate the curve or sweep of the deck of a
vessel. The side planking of a boat between the waterline and deck or rail is
called the topsides. f they are drawn in toward the centerline away from a
perpendicular, as they often do at the stern of a boat, they are said to tumble
home. Forward they are more likely to incline outward to make the bow more
buoyant and keep the hull dry by throwing spray aside. This is flare. Flam is that
part of the flare just below the deck. The height of a boat's topsides from
waterline to deck is called the freeboard. The significance of the term deadrise
can be appreciated by visualizing a section transversely across a hull. f the
bottom planking were flat, extending horizontally from the keel, there would be no
deadrise.

n a round or vee bottom boat, when the bottom rises at an angle to such a
horizontal line, the amount of rise is the deadrise.
The bilge is the turn of a boat's hull just below the waterline. Bilge water
accumulates in the bilges, the deepest part of the hull inside along the keel. Aft
where the lines converge toward the stern, under the overhang is the counter.
The lines converging toward the stern post are called the boat's run. The buttock
is the rounding part of a boat's stern; buttock lines, drawn by the architect, may
be visualized if one pictures longitudinal saw cuts vertically through a boat's
planking at a distance from the keel, parallel to the plane of stem and keel.
Parts Of The Hull
We have been talking about the hull, but haven't defined it. This term refers
generally to the principal structure of the boat whereas cabins, deckhouses, etc.,
built above the deck are referred to as the superstructure. The main longitudinal
timber in a hull, first laid in construction, is the keel. When another timber is
fastened along the top of the keel to strengthen it, or as a necessary part of the
construction, this is the keelson, sometimes apron. One-piece timbers running
the full length of the keel are not always available. n this case, shorter pieces are
bevelled and bolted together in a joint called a scarph. Deadwood, in small boats,
is usually the solid timber above the keel at the stern. The propeller post stands
vertically behind the deadwood, is joined to it and also to the keel.
The frame is the skeleton of a hull, comprising its principal structural members.
The transverse members to which the planking is fastened are called framesin
some instances ribs, though some con- tend that a boat has frames, an animal
ribs. The stem is one of the main frame members, at the bow. When the stern is
shaped like the bow, drawing to a point as in a canoe, the boat is a double-ender.
The transom type of stern is more common.
Knees reinforce the joints between members butting or intersecting at or near a
right angle. Clamps and shelves are the longitudinal members joining the frames
on which the deck beams rest. Misunderstanding often exists in connection with
the use of the term floor. A floor in boat construction is one of the transverse
frame members tying the lower ends of frames together at the keel. t has
nothing to do with the decking. Limber holes are cut in the lower edge of frames
to allow bilge water to flow into the deepest part of the hull from which point it can
be pumped out.
Planks are applied to the outside of frames in constructing the hull, each
continuous line of planks from bow to stern being called a stroke. f short planks
are used in one strake, the ends are butted and joined on butt blocks. The lowest
strake, next to the keel, is called the gar-board. Strakes between the bottom and
topsides are called wales, and the gunwale (pronounced gun'l) is the upper part
of the sheer strake or top plank of the topsides. When the topsides are carried
above the deck, they are called bulwarks; the top of the bulwarks, the rail. The
taffrail is the rail at the stern, furthest aft. Spaces between planks are called
seams; to make them watertight, these are caulked by rolling or driving cotton
into them (oakum in large boats) after which the seams are payed (filled) with
white lead or seam composition.

Frame members such as the keel and stem are rabbetted to receive the edges
and ends of planks. This rabbet is merely a longitudinal recess or cut into the
wood of proper size to take the plank. Plankends at the stem and stern are the
hood ends. We have already referred, in passing, to beams and carlines. Deck
beams are the thwartship members which carry the decks; carlines, properly, are
fore-and-aft timbers placed between the deck beams.
Vertical partitions, corresponding to the walls in a house, in a boat are called
bulkheads. Scuppers are holes permitting water to drain overboard from decks
and cockpits, the latter of course being the open space outside the cabins and
deckhouses, not decked over flush. Flush decks are unbroken by either cockpits
or deck erections such as the cabin or other houses.
Coamings (often misspelled combings, probably through confusion with the word
comber, which is the name for a long curling wave) are vertical members around
cockpits, hatches, etc., to prevent water on deck from running below. Deck
openings are commonly referred to as hatches. Companion ladders are
stairways or steps leading below from the deck. These are also referred to as
companionways.
Ceiling Is ot O!erhead
Another misunderstood term is ceiling. For this the landsman would be inclined to
look overhead; as a matter of fact, this is actually a light sheathing of staving or
planking applied to the inside of frames, for strength and interior finish.
On deck, lines are made fast to cleats or bitts {samson posts) and led through
chocks, either open or closed, to reduce chafing. n larger craft hawse pipes are
often provided in the bow through which the anchor chain runs, and into which
the anchor is hauled.
The forecastle (pronounced fo'c's'l), if any small boat may properly be said to
have one, is the compartment furtherest forward, in the bow. n olden days, the
forecastle head was an elevated structure forward, providing a platform from
which men could fight. As construed today, it generally is considered to mean the
crew's quarters forward.
Berths and bunks are the seagoing names for beds aboard a boat. Lockers are
closets or chests to provide space for stowage. Afloat one does not pack or put
away; he stows.
When a vessel is hauled out of the water she is shored up with supports to hold
her upright. f she is not supported properly, sc that she is held amidships while
bow and stern settle, the boat will assume a shape described as hogged.
e!er "i!e Steering Orders B# $sing The %ord Helm
Helm is an obsolete term relating to the tiller, by which some sailboats are
steered. More loosely, the term covers a wheel aboard a motor boat or any other
method of steering. n the old days, the command port your helm meant put the
tiller to port, thus throwing the rudder and the boat's head to starboard. Universal
practise today dictates the command right rudder to carry the obvious meaning,
left rudder the opposite. This eliminates much confusion.
Compasses are mounted near the helmsman's position, in boxes or other
protective casings which are known as binnacles. Compasses are swung in
gimbals, or pivoted rings, which permit the compass bowl and card to remain
level regardless of the boat's motion. To enable the helmsman at the wheel to
steer a compass course, a lubber line is painted on the inner side of the compass
bowl to indicate the boat's bow.
We've spent considerable time getting familiar with the proper names for various
parts of the boat and its construction, so let's pass to a consideration of more
general terms dealing with the action and behavior of boats, the handling of lines
and anchors, the action of water, navigational terms, etc.
When a boat moves through the water she is said to be under way (or weigh).
According to the Pilot Rules she is under way when not aground, at anchor, or
made fast to the shore. The direction in which she is moving may be made more
specific by stating that she makes headway (when moving forward), sternway
(backward), or leeway (when she is being set off her course by the wind). The
track or disturbance which she leaves in the water as a result of her movement is
called the wake. When she is not made fast to the bottom, shore, a dock or any
other fixed object, she is said to be adrift. She grounds when she touches
bottom, and is then aground.
Trim relates to the way in which a boat floats in the water. When she floats
properly as designed, she is on an even keel, but if inclined to port or starboard
she lists. Heel (not keel) conveys the same idea as list, that is, a sidewise
inclination from the vertical. f she is too heavily loaded forward, she trims by the
head, whereas if her draft is greater than normal aft, she trims by the stern.
A stiff vessel returns quickly to her normal upright position; if she rolls in a
seaway without quick action or sudden movement, her roll is easy. When a boat's
center of gravity is too high and stability low, she is tender; crank conveys the
same idea. Sidewise motion in a seaway is called roll; while the vertical motion
as the head rises and falls in the waves is pitch. Quick upward motion in pitching
is scending. She yaws when she runs off her course as a vessel might if she
didn't steer properly in a following sea. f she yaws too widely and is thrown
broadside into the trough of the sea (between crests of the waves and parallel
with them) she broaches to, a situation which should always be carefully avoided.
When subjected to heavy strains in working through a seaway, a vessel is said to
labor.
A boat scuds when she runs before a gale; is driven when she is pressed hard
with much sail. A ship may capsize without foundering in the first instance she
turns over; in the latter she is overwhelmed by a heavy sea, fills and sinks.
Before she is reduced to such straits, the wise skipper heaves to, in order to
enable a vessel to ride the seas more comfortably, generally head to the wind, or
near it, with shortened sail and possibly lying to a sea anchor which prevents the
head from falling off from the wind. The sea anchor does not go to the bottom,
merely serves as a drag.
&o'es Are Lines On Boats
Generally speaking, the word rope is used but little aboard a boat, being referred
to rather as line. Hawsers are heavy lines, in common use on larger vessels, but
rarely aboard small pleasure craft. Heaving lines are light lines with a knot or
weight at the end which helps to carry them when thrown from one boat to
another or to a dock. Heave is the nautical term for throw. The knot which
encloses the weight at the end of a heaving line is a monkey's fist. Painters are
lines at the bow of the boat for the purpose of towing or making fast. Thus
dinghies are usually equipped with painters. The line by which a boat is made
fast to her mooring is called a pennant. Spring lines are among those used at
docks, leading from the bow aft to the dock or from the stern forward to the dock,
to prevent the boat from moving ahead or astern.
The bitter end of a line is the extreme end, the end made fast to a bin when all
line is paid out. Belay has a double meaning. A line is belayed when it is made
fast; as a command it signifies stop, cease. Ends of lines are whipped when
twine is wrapped about them to prevent the strands from untwisting. Ragged
ends of lines are said to be fagged. When a line is made fast with light line or
twine to another line or any other object, it is seized. Joining two ends to make
one continuous line by tucking strands under without knotting is called splicing.
When an end is worked back into the line itself to form a loop, it is called an eye-
splice. One does not tie a line to another aboard a boat; he bends it on. Line is
coiled down on deck, each complete turn being a fake or flake.
When a line is let out, one pays it out; it is cast off when let go. Blocks (pulleys)
are provided with sheaves. These are the wheels or rollers of the block and the
term is pronounced as though spelled shiv. When a line is passed through a
block or hole it is reeved; render indicates that it passes freely through the block
or hole. f a strain is put on a line heavy enough to break it, then it parts. Lines
have standing parts and hauling parts; the standing part being the fixed part, that
is, the one which is made fast; the hauling part, that part of a tackle which is
hauled upon. A bight is any part within the ends of a line, that is to say, a bend.
Lines are foul when tangled, clear when in order ready to run.
Ground tackle is a general term embracing anchors, lines, etc., used in
anchoring. On small boats, the anchor line is a rode. Moorings are the permanent
anchorages at which boats lie, consisting of a heavy anchor (usually mushroom
type), chain, shackles, swivels, a mooring buoy, and pennant of manila or wire
rope. Larger vessels are said to be moored when lying with two anchors down.
They may also be moored to piers when made fast with stout mooring lines.
Grapnels are light anchors with claw-like hooks or prongs. A kedge is a light
anchor often used for getting off a shoal. The kedge is carried out in the dinghy
and power to haul the boat off is then applied either by man power or winch (a
device for raising the anchor). This is called k edging. Warping consists of turning
a boat at a dock by applying power to lines fast to the dock. Bowers are heavy
anchors carried forward; the heavier one, the best bower. Years ago sheet
anchors, the heaviest aboard, were carried in the waist of a ship (amidships) for
emergencies. Stream anchors are heavier than kedges, lighter than bowers.
(es)ribing %ater *o!ements
Various terms are used to describe specific water movements or conditions of
the surface. Rips are short, steep waves caused by the meeting or crossing of
currents. The confused water action found at places where tidal currents meet is
also called a chop. Sea is a general term often used to describe waves and water
action on the surface but, properly, it should be applied only to waves produced
by the wind. Swell is the long heavy undulation of the surface resulting from
disturbances elsewhere on the sea. Surf is produced when waves leave deep
water, breaking on the shore as the crests curl over. A following sea is one which
comes up from astern, running in the same direction as the boat's course; a head
sea is just the opposite, where the progress of the waves is against that of the
boat, the boat meeting them bow on. Cross seas are confused and irregular.
The word tide has probably been misused as much as any nautical term, so
much so that its misuse has come to be accepted without question as a matter of
course. Commonly it has been used to describe the inflow and outflow of water
caused by the gravitational influence of the moon and sun. Better usage would
restrict the term to the vertical rise and fall of water produced by these causes.
Current is the proper term for a horizontal flow of water. Thus a current resulting
from tidal influences is a tidal current. t is better to say two-knot current than two-
knot tide.
The incoming tidal current running toward shore is the flood; the retreating
current flowing away from the land is the ebb. The direction in which the current
flows is the set; drift, its velocity. (The amount of leeway a vessel makes is also
called its drift.) Slack is the period between flood and ebb when the current is not
flowing; stand the period when no rise or fall in tide level is apparent.
Spring tides are those produced when the moon is new or full and have a greater
range (difference between the heights of high and low water) than average. Neap
tides, caused when the positions of sun and moon relative to the earth are such
as to offset each other in effect, have a smaller range than average. Too often
every huge wave is referred to as a tidal wave. Generally, it is used in the wrong
sense, as this term should be limited to waves resulting from tidal action, rather
than indiscriminately applied to the great waves which build up as a result of wind
storms.
Piloting Terms
Range, mentioned above, is also a navigational term and is used when two or
more objects are brought into line to indicate a safe course. The distinction
between knots and miles has already been made. A fathom is six feet; this is a
measure of depth. One heaves a lead to determine depth, the process being
known as sounding. The lead (a weight at the end of the lead line) is armed by
greasing the bottom with tallow or some other sticky substance to bring up a
sample at the bottom. n navigation, one plots a course on the chart (never map),
takes bearings to determine his position {fix), takes a departure to establish an
exact point from which to commence his dead reckoning (calculation of courses
and distances sailed), has an offing when he is well to seaward, though yet in
sight of land.
Entries are made in a log (book) to record all events during a cruise; the patent
log is an instrument to record distance travelled. One raises a light or landmark
when it first becomes visible, makes a landfall when land is first sighted coming
in from sea. Passage is generally construed to mean a run from port to port;
voyage includes both the outward and homeward passage. Watches are four-
hour periods of duty aboard ship; dog watches are two-hour periods between
4:00 and 8 :00 P.M. A period of duty at the wheel is a trick.
When any part of the vessel's gear or equipment breaks or gives way, it carries
away; an object goes by the board when it goes overboard. f a boat is stove
(planking broken in from outside) the boat springs a leak, or makes water. When
water is dipped out of a small boat, the process is called bailing.
By general usage, the term Corinthian has come to mean amateur sailor. A boat
is ship-shape when everything is in good order, well found if well equipped. One
swabs the deck when he washes it down with a mop (called a swab aboard ship).
Clean is a term applied, not to a snip's condition, but rather to her lines. f the
lines are fine, so that she slips through the water with little disturbance, the lines
are clean.
The term clear has many meanings. Before leaving for a foreign port, a ship must
be cleared through the Customs authorities. She clears the land when she leaves
it, clears a shoal when she passes it safely. The bilges may be cleared of water
by pumping it out. Tangled {foul) lines are cleared by straightening them out and
getting them ready for use.
The meaning of the word lay also depends on its usage. One lays aft, when he
goes to the stern of the boat; lays down the lines of a boat full size before
building; lays up the boat when putting her out of commission. A vessel lays her
course if, in sailing, she can make her objective without tacking. When an
oarsman stops rowing, he lays on his oars. Lay to is synonymous with heave to,
previously defined.
A boat stands by when she remains with another vessel prepared to give her
assistance if necessary. When used as a command, stand by means to be
prepared to carry out an order. A vessel is said to hail from her home port. One
hails a vessel at sea to get her attention, speaks her when communicating with
her.
Sailing Terms
Space does not permit a long discussion of sails, wind, and the rigs of vessels,
but a few of the more common terms will be touched on briefly. Wind veers when
it shifts, changing its direction clockwise; it backs when it shifts in a counter-
clockwise direction. Wind changing from abeam forward, hauls; from abeam aft,
veers. A vessel is sailing off the wind when her sheets (lines controlling the sail,
not the sail itself) are slacked off {eased). She is on the wind when sailing close-
hauled, as close to the wind as possible. When before the wind, the wind comes
from aft and is called a fair, free or leading wind. A following wind blows in the
direction of the ship's course. Sailing down the wind, a vessel sails to leeward. A
beam wind obviously is one which blows athwart the boat's course. An offshore
wind blows from the land; an onshore wind, toward it.
Canvas is a general term for a boat's sails. Sails draw when they fill with the wind
providing power to drive the boat through the water. One makes sail when the
sails are set; shortens sail when the amount of sail set is reduced; reefs by partly
lowering the sail and securing it so that its area is reduced; dowses it when it is
lowered quickly; furls it when it is rolled up and secured to a boom or yard.
A sailboat tacks by sailing in a zig-zag direction to make good a course directly
into the wind. This is also called beating. f the wind comes from the starboard
side, she is on the starboard tack; from the port side, the port tack. Tacking, she
goes about. f she attempts to tack and the head does not fall off on the other
tack she is caught in (or misses) stays, or is said to be in irons. When preparing
to tack the order is given, ready about; then, as the helmsman puts the helm over
to change the boat's course, hard alee. Wearing ship is another means of
bringing a vessel on the other tack, but in this case she does it by changing
course so that the wind is brought astern, from one side to the other. As the
boom swings from one side to the other as the wind comes dead aft in this
maneuver (sometimes it occurs accidentally when running before the wind) she
jibes.
When the wind comes from abeam or forward of the beam, the boat is reaching;
running when she is sailing dead before the wind. A vessel is sailing free when
the wind is well aft; full and by or close hauled when all sails are drawing and her
course is as close to the wind as she can sail. She is pinched when she is
brought so close to the wind that the sails shiver. A vessel is luffed when she is
brought up into the wind so as to spill some of it out of the sail, thus relieving the
pressure and easing her. Sailing before the wind, sails are sometimes set on
opposite sides of the boat; this is called wing and wing. One boat blankets
another when, being just to windward, she takes the wind out of the other's sails.
She outfoots another by sailing faster, outpoints her by sailing closer to the wind.
The term spars is used generally to cover masts, booms, gaffs, yards, etc. Masts,
of course, are the principal vertical spars from which sails are set. They are
stepped when set in position, raked when the mast is not plumb, but inclined aft
at an angle. Gaffs are spars supporting the head (upper edge) of a fore-and-aft
sail. Triangular sails requiring no gaff, in which the head of the sail is a point, are
Marconi sails (jib-headed). Yards are the horizontal spars supporting the head of
square sails. The foot (lower edge) of fore-and-aft sails is usually attached to a
boom. f no boom is used, or if the sail is not laced or otherwise secured to it, the
sail is loose-footed. The luff is the forward edge of a fore-and-aft sail; the leach
the after edge. Roach in a sail is curvature of its edge. The peak is the upper aft
corner of a gaff-rigged sail; the tack, the lower forward corner; the clew, the lower
aft corner; the throat, the forward part of the head. Bolt rope is the rope sewed
around the edge of a sail to reinforce it. Battens (thin, flat wooden strips) are
placed in pockets along the leach of a sail to flatten the edge and give it shape.
Gear is the general term for miscellaneous lines, spars, sails and similar items.
Rigging refers to all the lines aboard a boat, used in connection with setting and
handling sail. Lines or wire staying the masts comprise the standing rigging; the
lines used in setting and furling sails, the running rigging. Halyards are lines or
tackles used to hoist sails; shrouds stay the mast at the sides. The wire ropes
commonly used to support the mast from a point forward are called stays. Those
supporting the mast from aft are backstays. When the slack in stays and shrouds
is taken up, the rigging is said to be set up.
One could go on indefinitely defining a multitude of terms that constitute the
vernacular of the sea, but space forbids. What has been covered here will serve
as a framework. As the novice gains experience in sailing and handling boats, his
vocabulary will broaden proportionately and naturally. We hope, however, that
his enthusiasm for the subject will not cause him to toss indiscriminate Avasts,
Ahoys and Belays into every conceivable nook and corner of his conversation.
The natural, proper use of correct terms is much to be desired; strained efforts to
affect a salty lingo are conspicuously inappropriate.
Parts Of Sailing And &owing Craft
What's the difference between a sheer plank and the plank sheer? Do the terms
carvel and clinker have any special significance to you? Do you know the
distinction between a keel and a keelson?
n the first part of this chapter on nautical terms, we have explained the meaning
of many of the more common nautical terms. n it special emphasis was laid on
those which should be part of every motor boatman's vocabulary, including
correct terminology applying to various parts of a motor boat.
Sailing and rowing craft, too, have their special nomenclature, some of the terms
seldom being encountered by the motor boatman not concerned with sailing. The
terms applicable to sailing and rowing craft are of particular interest to men going
into the Navy, Coast Guard and other branches of the service. Knowledge of the
correct technical terms to use in connection with the whaleboats, cutters,
dinghies, wherries and other small craft they will handle will stand them in good
stead.
There must of necessity be some overlapping in the terms discussed here and
those covered in the foregoing pages. Certain parts are common to all types of
boat, whether propelled by motor, sail or oars. n such cases some repetition is
unavoidable.
To begin at the logical beginning, let's consider some of the terms identified with
the boat's hull construction. The keel is the principal frame member of the boat,
usually the first one laid when construction is begun. Almost invariably it is on the
outside of the hull, though in cases (as in some P.T. boats) the keel is inside.
Often an extra piece is fastened to the bottom of the main keel to protect it. This
is a false keel.
Ordinarily a timber or stringer, bolted inside as a reinforcing member to the keel,
is called a keelson (pronounced kelson). Between the keel and keelson, blocks
are fitted athwartship (at right angles to the fore and aft centerline of the keel).
These blocks are called filling pieces.
Keel blocks are used to support the keel of a boat during construction. When
boats are stowed in cradles aboard a vessel, a keel stop is fitted at the after end
of the keel to locate the boat in a fore and aft position on the cradle. The keel
stop is a small metal fitting.
A stfm is common to all boats with the conventional type of bow, whereas the
square-nosed pram or punt type has a bow resembling its square stern. Flat
planking across the stern is called the transom, but in a doubleender the stern
construction is pointed, resembling the conventional bow. The stem is a vertical
member set up on the forward end of the keel. t is commonly of white oak in
wooden construction and may be straight or curved, depending on the shape
desired. t is plumb if set up perpendicular to the water-line, but is often raked at
an angle for better appearance. Ring bolts, having a ring through the eye of the
bolt, are fitted through the stems of many small boats, and often at the stern as
well.
Deadwood is solid timber placed on the keel to connect the end timbers. Most of
it is found at the stern of a boat, though it may also be used forward, in which
case it may take the form of a stem heel. Timbers connecting the stem knee to
the keel are often called sole pieces. An apron (sometimes called stemson) is an
inner stem fitted abaft (behind) the stem to reinforce it. t gives added surface on
which the hood ends of the planking can land, the hood ends being those ends
which fit into the rabbet, cut into the stem to receive them.
Stem bands of metal are usually fitted on the forward edge of the stem for
protection. The spars which project out over the bow on sailing craft to take the
stays from which jibs and other head sails are set, are called bowsprits. Breast
hooks are reinforcing knees set horizontally behind the stem.
Various kinds of knees are used throughout the hull construction to connect
members joined at an angle to each other. They may be of metal, though often a
natural growth of wood is selectedhackmatack, for examplein which the
grain runs in the desired shape for maximum strength. There are bosom knees
and carling knees, dagger knees and hanging knees, lodging knees, panting
knees, thwart knees, etc., each designating the special part of construction in
which it is employed, or its relative position.

Going aft, now to the stern of the boat, we have horn timbers, used to fasten the
shaft log to the transom knee. The transom has already been defined. Shaft logs
are timbers between keel and deadwood through which the propeller shaft (if the
boat is motor driven) passes. At the stern the principal vertical member is called
the stern post, set up on the after end of the keel or shaft log, to which it is
attached by the stern knee. A stern hook is not a hook at all but, in a double-
ended boat, is that reinforcing member which corresponds to the breast hook at
the bow. Breast hooks at the stern are also called crutches. f the boat has a
transom stern, she would have quarter knees at each side of the transom instead
of the one stern hook.
Frames are the timbers set up on the keel, providing the skeleton over which the
planking is laid. The frames may be curved as in a round bottom boat or straight
as in certain types of V-bottom design. Sometimes they are sawn to shape;
otherwise they are steam bent.
Floors, nautically speaking, are not laid as in a house to be walked upon. n a
boat they are important transverse structural members, tying together the keel
and the lower ends of the frames.
To Be Able To ome All Parts Of A Boat Is Im'ortant
The gunwale (pronounced gun'l) of an open boat is the upper edge of the side.
nwales are the longitudinal members fastened inside a canoe or small boat
along the gunwales. Sometimes they are referred to as clamps. The ends of deck
beams, on which decking is laid, rest upon the clamps, although a horizontal
shelf may be used above the clamp. Then deck beams rest upon the shelf.
Sometimes boatmen speak of deck or cabin carlines when they really mean
beams. The beams run thwart ships (at right angles to a center line passing
through the keel) whereas carlines, or carlings, are short pieces of timber running
fore and aft (lengthwise, parallel to the keel) between deck beams. Carlines, for
example, would be found at the port and starboard sides of hatch openings in a
deck.
Stringers are longitudinal members fastened inside the hull for additional
structural strength. f they run along the bilge (the turn of the hull below the
waterline) they are called bilge stringers. There are other types.
Open boats often have a finishing piece which runs along the gunwale, lying on
top of the clamp or inwale and covering the top edge of the planking and heads
of frames. This is a capping. n many small boats, capping is omitted, so that
there is nothing to catch dirt and water when the boat is turned over to be
emptied instead of bailing. Such a boat would be said to have open gunwales.
Planking, laid over the outside of frames in strokes (continuous narrow lengths
from stem to stern), provides the outer shell of the hull, which is the general term
describing the main structure of the boat. Planking is called carvel if the surface
finishes smooth with caulked seams between the strakes to make the hull
watertight. t is clinker or lapstrake if the successive strakes lap each other as the
clapboards of a house are lapped. Hulls are sometimes double planked, in which
case there is commonly an inner skin or layer of planking laid diagonal to the
keel, and an outer skin fore and aft, with waterproof glue, or glue and fabric,
between layers. Sometimes the two layers of planking are run diagonally at an
angle of forty-five degrees from keel to gunwale, planks of the two layers being at
right angles to each other. Frames are omitted in this type of construction.
Technical terms designating parts used in the construction of a double-ended
whaleboat. A flagstaff and awning stanchion may be set up abaft the fore matt.
And also in the stern aboft the backboard. Along each side h a row of air tanks (A
T) with other air tanks at bow and ttern
The sheer line is the line, as seen in profile, along the hull defined by the
gunwale or top edge of the topmost strake of planking, the sheer strake. Sheer
strakes are sometimes thicker than other strakes of planking. When a second
plank, next below the sheer strake, is fitted thicker than the others, it is called a
binding strake.
Bilge strakes would be the heavier planks fitted at the turn of the bilge, though
the term might be applied to ceiling inside in the bilge. Ceiling is not overhead, as
ashore; it is planking laid inside the frames. The garboard (pronounced garb'd)
strake is the lowest strake of planking, fitted next to the keel.
Strakes of planking between the bottom and topsides are called wales. Topsides
refers to the portion of the hull between the water-line and the rail or gunwale.
The term wales is also used to describe heavy strakes {rubbing strakes) below
the gunwale. Longitudinal timbers, extending outside the exposed faces of
planking, usually metal-shod to protect the topsides, are referred to as side
fenders or fender guards. n pleasure boating, the term fenders commonly calls
to mind the cork-filled canva devices, or those of rope or rubber, suspended over
the side to take shocks when lying against a dock or another boat.
We have already used the term bilge in speaking of the "turn of the bilge" and in
its association with "bilge strakes." However the bilge is also the lowest part of
the hull inside where bilge water accumulates. Boats carried out of water on
larger craft must have boat plugs, usually of metal, which can be removed to
drain water which might otherwise collect inside.
The sheer plank has been defined as the topmost strake along the hull where the
deck joins the topsides. Plank sheer, on the other hand, means the outermost
plank of the deck. Sometimes called a covering board, it covers the tops of
frames and upper edge of the sheer strake in a decked boat, as capping does in
an open boat. Covering boards are usually wider than any of the narrower deck
planks.
Chain plates are strips of bronze or iron bolted to the side of a boat, to which
rigging is attached, such as the shrouds or shroud whips (to be defined later).
Bottom boards (sometimes foot boards) are those laid in the bottom of the boat
to walk upon. n small boats they are often removable. Where there are no deep
floors, previously defined, boards may be laid directly upon the inside of the
frames to walk on. These are footlings.
Boats Handled B# Oars
The transverse seats in small craft are called thwarts. On them, oarsmen sit
when rowing. When two men pull one oar, the oars are double-banked, but the
boat is also double-banked if two men pull from one thwart. To support the
thwart, a vertical piece is often fitted under it amidships, called a thwart
stanchion. A man who is sculling would stand in the stern and propel the boat by
working a single oar back and forth, using either one or two hands. The term
sculling is also applied to the rowing of light racing shells.
Stretchers (also called foot boards, although this creates confusion with the
alternate term for bottom boards) are sometimes fitted in small boats,
athwartships, for the oarsmen to brace their feet against. The ends of thwarts
land on risers, or risings, which are fore and aft pieces or stringers fastened to
the inside of the frames.
Side benches, running fore and aft, are fitted at the sides of a boat over the air
tanks which float the boat if capsized. The benches protect the tanks. Planking
over tanks is also called ceiling. nstead of decks, some small boats have
platforms at the level of the thwarts forward of the foremast. A gang-board runs
down the centerline of the boat from the forward platform to the after thwart.
The terms rowlock and oarlock are synonymous. These are the fittings which
hold the oars when rowing. n place of oarlocks, wooden thole pins are
sometimes driven into holes or sockets. n certain types of boats, like surf boats
and whaleboats, used in rough water where a rudder might be out of water so
much as to destroy its effectiveness, a steering oar is used at the stern, shipped
(put or held in place) in a swiveled steering rowlock, sometimes called a crutch.
Trailing lines are attached to oars to keep them from going overboard. When
oars are muffled to prevent noise, pieces of canvas with strands of rope yarn
attached are placed between the oars and the oarlocks. These are thrum mats.
Sweeps are long oars.
Oars And &owing Orders
Oars are very simple in their construction, yet they have a special nomenclature
to designate their respective parts. The handle of course is the part gripped in the
hand when rowing. At the other end, in the water, is the flat blade. Spoon oars,
for racing, have curved blades. The round part of an oar between handle and
blade is usually called the loom, although the term loom may properly be applied
to the part from handle to oarlock, in the boat when rowing. The loom tapers as it
approaches the blade. Where loom and blade meet is the neck; at the end of the
blade is the tip, sometimes protected with a strip of sheet copper.
Oars is a command given to oarsmen to order them to stop pulling, holding the
oars horizontally with blades feathered (parallel with the water to reduce wind
resistance.) Out oars is a preliminary command given when the oars are to be
made ready in the oarlocks for pullingin other words, to ship them in the oars
position. Give way means start pulling.
Trail is an order to let go the oars while the boat is under way, allowing them to
swing around in a fore and aft position, with blades trailing alongside. (Hence the
term trailing line, defined above.) f there are no trailing lines, the handle of the
oar is held in the hand to execute this order. To check the way (movement
through the water) of a boateither headway if going forward, or sternway, if
going backwardthe command is hold water. Stern-board is an alternate term
for sternway. The command hold water is executed by holding the blades
vertically in the water with oars at right angles to the keel.
To go astern the command to oarsmen is stern all, whereupon they will back
water, using the oars in a manner just opposite to that when pulling to give the
boat headway. To make a turn the order is back starboard or back port
depending on whether the turn is to be made to starboard or port. A quick turn to
starboard can be made, provided the boat does not have too much headway, by
ordering back starboard, give way port. Back port, give way starboard will result
in a quick turn to port, as the port oarsmen are backing water while the starboard
oarsmen are pulling ahead. Stand by to give way calls for the position at the
beginning of a stroke as oarsmen, leaning forward, prepare to row.
S'rit+&igged *ainsail
When coming alongside a vessel, the command toss oars is given to order the
oarsmen to place their oars in a perpendicular position, blades fore and aft,
handles resting on the footlings. Commonly the command is preceded by a
cautionary stand-by to toss. Whenever a warning to the crew is desirable, before
issuing any command, the expression is stand by to. . . . For example, a
preparatory or warning command for the order or position oars is stand by to lay
on the oars.
Boat the oars means place them in the boat on the thwarts, blades forward.
When a boat has grounded, the order is point the oars, whereupon the oarsmen,
standing, set the oars at an angle, blade tips on the bottom, ready to shove the
boat off on command. Way enough means stop pulling and boat the oars.
Stand by the oars is a command given when shoving off from a ship or going
alongside, when the oarsmen grasp the handles of the oars and see that the
blades are clear of other oars. Blades are laid flat on the gunwale, handle over
the thwart. At up oars, they are raised vertically, blades trimmed fore and aft,
handles on the footlings. These commands make a boat ready for duty alongside
a ship.
At the command shove off the bowman lets go the painter and shoves the bow
off from a vessel's side with the boat hook while the coxswain aft, in charge of the
boat, sheers the boat off with the tiller. The duty of various oarsmen in such a
maneuver varies with their position in the boat. The order let fall is a command
given when the boat is clear of a vessel's side. This is an intermediate order
between up oars and oars as the blades are dropped outboard into the rowlocks.
n bows is ordered as a landing is made to instruct bowmen to toss oars at a
forty-five degree angle, boat them, pick up boat books and stand holding them
vertically in readiness for the landing or ready to receive lines.
The coxswain (pronounced cox'n), as explained, is the officer in charge of a boat.
He stands aft at the tiller to steer and issues the orders. The tiller of course is the
bar or handle on the rudder head by which the rudder is moved to steer the boat.
Sometimes the tiller is not shipped. nstead a thwartship piece of wood or metal
may be fitted on the rudder head. This is a yoke. Then the boat is steered by
means of lines called yoke ropes or lanyards attached to the yoke. n order to
provide sufficient thickness for a slot for the tiller to be shipped in, cheek blocks
may be bolted on the sides of the rudder.
Pintles and gudgeons are commonly used to hang the rudder of small boats. The
pintle is in the form of a hook or pin on the rudder, point downward. This fits into
the gudgeon on the stern post, which has an eye to receive the pintle. n other
boats, rudder hangers are used, providing a vertical rod of metal for attachment
to the stern post with rudder braces to fit over the hanger.
Nautical Terms Used n Connection With The Rigging And Handling Of Sailing
Craft. Various Types Of Sails And Rigs
We have covered in the preceding pages many of the nautical terms relating to
parts of the construction of rowing and sailing craft. Most of these terms are
applicable alike to the whaleboats, cutters, and other small craft used by the
Navy and Coast Guard, and to many types of small pleasure craft. Proceeding
now to the terms used in the rigging and handling of sailing craft, we encounter a
jargon quite unintelligible to the landsman.
For example, consider some of the rigs which distinguish various types of
sailboats by the arrangement of their masts and sails. Simplest of all is the
catboat, with its single heavy mast stepped well forward, and one sail. The
original type of catboat had a gaff-headed mainsail and no bowsprit or shrouds.
(These terms will be defined later.)
The sloop also has one mast, stepped further aft so that, in addition to its
mainsail abaft the mast, there is room for jibs and other head-sails forward of the
mast. Properly, the sloop has a bowsprit. Without a bowsprit, the rig is described
as a knockabout or stem-head sloop.
The cutter, like a sloop, has one mast but this is stepped more nearly amidship
so that the total sail area is almost equally divided between mainsail and
headsails. (A cutter is also a type of ship's boat.)
Ketches have two masts. Of these the taller (the mainmast) is forward. The
mizzen mast (the after one) is stepped forward of the rudder post. Yawls
resemble ketches, except that the mizzen mast or jigger is abaft the rudder post.
Yawls have proportionately less of their total sail area in the mizzen, and the rig
of the ketch is said to be inboard because it does not project much beyond the
stern of the boat as in a yawl.
Schooners have two or more masts, with the fore-and-aft rig which distinguishes
practically all modern sailing craft from the square rigs of the old windjammers. n
the latter, the square sails were set from yards, set horizontally across the mast.
Unlike yawls and ketches, the after mast (mainmast) of a schooner is always as
tall as, or taller than, the foremast.
Schooners are sometimes staysail rigged with triangular fore and aft staysails
between the fore and mainmast, jib-headed triangular {Marconi) mainsail and the
usual headsails. Schooners without topmasts above the lower masts are bald-
headed.
A sprit rig is used on some dinghies and other small craft. n this type of rig the
upper aft corner {peak) of the fore and aft sail is held aloft by a light spar called a
sprit, inserted in an eye called a grommet.. The sprit at its lower end is supported
by a snorter or becket consisting of a light line about the mast with an eye in the
lower end to take the sprit. Although the sail is quadrilateral, no gaff at the head
of the sail or boom at the foot is required, though a boom is sometimes used, as
in the illustration, its forward end held in a becket, the same as the sprit above it.
Lug rigs are of various types and their use is also confined to small craft. The
standing lug has a yard which crosses the mast obliquely while the tack (forward
lower corner) of the sail is made fast to the mast. f there is no boom, the sail is
said to be loosefooted. The balance lug differs in that the boom projects
somewhat forward of the mast. n a dipping lug the tack is made fast to the stem,
or ahead of the mast, so that the yard must be dipped around the mast when
tacking.
A sliding gunter has a triangular jib-headed sail, with topmast sliding aloft as an
extension of the lower mast. This is popular on many small racing dinghies.
Whale-boats are double ended pulling lifeboats, 24 to 30 feet in length, used by
the Navy. They often have a standing lug rig on two masts, but no jib. Cutters are
double-banked ships' boats, with transom sterns, used for general duty. (See
also previous definition of cutter rig.)
Wherries are a type of small pulling boat, 12 to 14 feet in length, used generally
by officers of Navy craft. Dinghies are not only the small boats towed by pleasure
craft, and propelled by oars, sails, or outboard motors. Dinghies used by the
Navy are 16 to 20 feet in length, have four oars, single-banked, and a sprit rig for
sailing. Gigs are ships' boats used by captains or commanding officers.
From bow to stern, the mast of a four-masted schooner would be named the fore,
main, mizzen, and jigger. The principal (lower) sails set on these are the foresail,
mainsail, mizzen sail and spanker, the latter being the after sail of a schooner
having more than three masts.
Topsails may be set above lower sails from topmasts, with names corresponding
to the masts on which they are set. A bowsprit projects out from the stem and a
jib-boom may be rigged out beyond the bowsprit.
Jibs are usually triangular sails set before the foremast, although in recent years
the clew (aft lower corner) has been cut off certain jibs, making them
quadrilateral. Some jibs are large, like the Genoa and balloon jib, overlapping the
mainsail.
f a schooner has four principal headsails before the foremast, they are, working
aft, the flying jib, outer jib, inner jib, and fore staysail.
Staysails, as previously mentioned, are triangular jib-shaped sails set from the
stays which support the masts. Spinnakers are large triangular sails set from
booms called spinnaker poles on the opposite side of the main or fore boom
when running before a fair wind.
Canvas is a term used in speaking about all sails in general. Plain sails are the
ordinary working sails, not including the lighter jibs and staysails. Storm canvas,
on the other hand, includes jibs, staysails, or trysails of extra heavy canvas for
use in heavy weather.
The head of a quadrilateral sail is its upper side, bent (made fast or secured) to a
gaff; in a jib-headed sail, the head is the upper corner. The foot is the lower edge,
bent to a boom. The forward side of a fore-and-aft sail is the luff, bent to the mast
by means of hoops, or the more modern sail track and slides. n either case the
method of bending the sail to the mast is such as to permit hoisting and lowering.
The small pieces of manila used to secure mast hoops to the luff of a sail are
called robands. The leech is the after side of a fore-and-aft sail.
n a gaff-rigged sail, the upper aft corner is the peak; the forward upper corner
where gaff and mast meet, the throat (also called nock.) The lower corner
forward where mast and boom meet is the tack; the lower corner aft, the clew.
Bolt rope is sewed to the edges of a sail to strengthen it. Tabling is the re-
enforced part of the sail to which the bolt rope is sewed. The leech of a fore-and-
aft sail (and the foot of a square sail) is usually cut with a curve called the roach.
To support the roach and preserve its shape by flattening the leech, wooden
battens (thin flat strips of wood) are inserted in pockets in the sail along the
leech. Brails are lines running from the leech to the mast, used to aid in gathering
sail in and securing it.
Sails today are usually cross-cutthat is, the cloths or strips which are seamed
together to make the sail are laid out so that the seams are perpendicular to the
leech. (See illustration of ketch-rigged whaleboat.) Cross-cut sails allow a freer
flow of wind across their surface. A variation of this practice is found in mitered
sails. n loose-footed sails, the general practice is to run the cloth strips two
ways, perpendicular to both leech and foot, joining at the miter which runs from
the clew to a point on the luff.
When wind pressure is too great on a sail, sail area is reduced by reefing, which
is accomplished by gathering in canvas along the boom as the sail is lowered
part way. Parallel to the foot of the sail, strips of canvas called reef bands are
sewed for reenforcement and short pieces of line are attached. These are reef
points, passed around the foot of the sail and secured. A reef cringle is an eye in
the leech or luff of a fore-and-aft sail in line with the reef points. Reef earings (or
pendants) are short pieces of line spliced into the cringles to permit the latter to
be secured to the boom.
The masts, gaffs, booms, yards, etc., from which sails are set are referred to
generally as spars. The mast, of course, is the principal vertical spar, supporting
the gaffs, booms, sails, etc. On larger craft there may be a topmast above the
lower mast, and even topgallant masts above the topmast. A jury mast is any
spar rigged temporarily as a mast in the event that the mast itself is carried away.
The boom has already been spoken of as the spar to which the foot of a fore-
and-aft sail is bent; the gaff, the one to which the head is bent. At the mast end,
jaws of the boom and gaff encircle the mast to keep these spars in place.
Goosenecks (also called Pacific irons) are swiveled metal fittings used on many
booms instead of jaws. Light spars used on a staysail or topsail or foot of the jib
are not booms, but clubs.
Square sails are set from yards, a term applied also to the light spars used at the
head of a lug rig sail. Bowsprits have been defined elsewhere as spars projecting
from the stem. Short spars sometimes project from the stern, particularly on
boats of the yawl type, where the mizzen boom overhangs the stern
considerably. These are boomkins.
The foot of a mastthat is to say, its lower endis called the heel; it fits in a step
on the keel. ts topmost end is the masthead, often capped by a truck, a flat
circular piece of wood. Hence the expression "from truck to keel," including
everything in a ship from top to bottom. At the masthead, a sheave, the grooved
wheel of a block, may be let into the mast to take halyards by which sails are
hoisted.
Mast cleats of wood are sometimes attached to masts at the point where shrouds
and stays (see definitions under rigging) are attached. Horizontal spars fitted on
the mast to spread the shrouds and stays are spreaders. Tangs are metal plates
attached to a mast where rigging is to be made fast. They distribute the strain
over a considerable area.
A mast hole in a deck or the thwart of a small boat is the hole through which the
mast is passed when stepped. When the primary function of a thwart is to serve
as a support for the mast, rather than as a seat, it is often spoken of as a mast
bench. nstead of a hole in the thwart, a semi-circular metal band is sometimes
hinged at the edge of a thwart to hold the mast. This is called a gate, sometimes
mast clamp.
All the various ropes of a vessel which secure masts and sails, taken together,
are referred to as rigging. The standing rigging includes that part, like shrouds
and stays, which is permanently secured, whereas the running rigging embraces
the part which is movable, such as the sheets, halyards, etc., running through
blocks.
Masts are supported by stays forward (headstays, jibstays, fore-stays, etc.),
usually of wire rope, with shrouds at the sides, and backstays from aft. A spring
stay is one running between a schooner's mastheads. Turnbuckles, as previously
indicated, may be used in rigging to set it up. Deadeyes (round blocks of lignum
vitae with holes through them and a groove around the edge) are used for the
same purpose. They are found between the shrouds and chain plates on the
vessel's side. Lanyards of rope reeve (pass) through the holes of the deadeyes
and provide a method of adjusting tension in the shrouds. Shroud whips are also
used to set up the shrouds.
While a mast is stayed in a vertical position, bowsprits are guyed horizontally (or
at an angle) by bowsprit shrouds at the sides and a bob-stay from below. Steeve
is the term that describes technically the angle the bowsprit makes with the
horizontal.
Sheets are not sails. Sheets, of rope, are made fast to booms or the clew of
loosefooted sails to control the angle at which the sail sets, relative to the wind
directions.
While a simple single sheet is used on some small sailboats, on larger craft it is
customary to provide additional power for handling the sails by reeving the sheet
through blocks, constituting a tackle (purchase). A gun tackle, as used in shroud
whips, is a purchase having two single blocks. There are main sheets, jib sheets,
etc., depending upon what particular sail the sheet is used to control.
A metal rod called a deck horse or boom horse is commonly bolted to the deck
and on it the ring of a sheet block can travel from side to side as the boom
swings over. This is the traveller. On small boats, a wire bridle often takes the
place of a deck horse. Ordinarily today one speaks of the deck fitting (horse) or
wire bridle on which the sheet block runs, as the traveller. Running rigging is
secured to belaying pins of metal or wood set in pin rails {fife rails) and is said to
be belayed, when made fast. Cleats are also used on small craft in place of
belaying pins. n small boats it is good judgment never to belay the sheets, as
sudden squalls may make it necessary to let them go in a hurry, to prevent
capsizing (turning over).
Halyards (also spelled halliards), another part of the running rigging, are the
ropes or tackles used to hoist sails or yards, while the tackle or rope that hauls
them down is called a downhaul. Outhauls haul the corner of a sail, the clew for
example, out to the end of a spar. Topping lifts are lines used to support or hoist
the outer end of a boom. Down from the topping lifts, light lines lead, in the form
of bridles, to the boom. These are lazy jacks, which control the sail as it is taken
in, preventing the sail from falling on deck.
Sailing Terminolog#
Whereas a motor boat has only to lay her course, regardless of wind and
weather, (except under unusual conditions), a sailboat's course is governed to a
large extent by the wind direction. For example, a sailboat can never go dead to
windward or into the wind's eye (in the direction from which the wind is blowing)
but would be said to point well if she could sail within four or five points of the
wind. Therefore, to reach an objective to windward, she must tack along a zig-
zag course, each leg of which is a board. Thus she goes alternately on the
starboard tack (when the wind comes over the starboard bow) and the port tack
(wind on the port bow) and is then said to be beating (or working) to windward.
When she is sailing as close to the wind as possible, a boat is close-hauled, on
the wind, or by the wind. Full and by is a synonymous expression indicating that
all sails are full {drawing) and the boat is pointing as high as possible.
Opposed to the idea of sailing as close to the wind as possible is the expression
sailing free, associated with the condition when the wind is aft. Or, under similar
conditions, if she is sailing with sheets well eased off (not hauled in close) she
may be said to be sailing large or off the wind. She runs before the wind when
sailing free with the wind well aft, that is, over the stern or quarter.
Sheets taken in as much as possible are hauled flat. Sails are trimmed in when
they are brought in more nearly parallel with the boat's fore and aft centerline, but
to allow the sails to swing off away from that centerline, the sheets are started.
n changing from one tack to another the boat goes about or comes about. To
prepare his crew to execute such a maneuver, the coxswain orders Ready about!
Then, putting the tiller down (away from the wind, toward the lee side of the
boat), he calls Hard alee and brings her about.
As the sails belly out, catching the wind as it shifts across the bow, they fill away,
or the boat is said to fill away as it gathers headway on the new tack. To miss
stays is to attempt to come about and fail to complete the maneuver. Then if the
boat is caught in a position where she will not fill away on either tack, she is in
irons. Should the wind catch the sails on the wrong side while she is in irons and
start to drive the boat astern, sails are said to be aback.
One fetches a given objective if he is running a course to windward and reaches
the mark without tacking. When working to windward, each leg or tack is a board
and, depending on the length of each leg, there may be long boards and short
boards.
f a gust of wind comes along, threatening to capsize the boat, the coxswain must
ease the pressure of wind on his sails, so he puts the tiller down (away from the
wind, toward the lee side). He is luffing then as the boat's bow swings into the
wind and the luffs of the sails shake so that wind is spilled. f he attempts to sail
too close to the wind, causing all the sails to shake, and spill wind, the
expression is all in the wind.
A reach is a course that can be made good when sailing off the wind, that is,
sailing free, not close-hauled. The wind then is nearly abeam. With the wind
forward of the beam, it is a close reach; abaft the beam, a broad reach.
Running before the wind, sails are sometimes set with booms on opposite sides,
wing and wing. t is considered the most dangerous point of sailing to have the
wind dead aft because of the risk, to an inexperienced boatman, of having the
boom accidentally swing across the stern to the opposite side. This is a jibe (or
gybe) and at the least can cause considerable damage to spars and rigging. f
the maneuver is executed deliberately, with the sail and boom kept under control,
there is no danger and this is exactly what happens when wearing. nstead of
tacking, with the bow passing through the wind, the stern in wearing is brought
through the wind.
Another point that must be watched in running before the wind is a tendency to
yaw, or veer suddenly off course. The boat is said to broach to if, through bad
steering or the force of a heavy sea, she is allowed to slew around with a
possibility, as she swings into the wind, of being caught broadside in the trough.
To bring to is to stop a boat by throwing her head into the wind, (or to come to an
anchorage). To heave to is to lay the boat with helm to leeward and sails trimmed
so that the boat alternately comes to and falls off, keeping out of the trough.
Vessels often heave to in heavy weather. Motor boats heave to when the boat's
head is brought into the wind or sea and held there by means of her engines.
Larger ships sometimes are allowed to drift in whatever position they will assume
relative to wind and sea, with wind on the quarter or even with the ship lying in
the trough. That may be their method of heaving to, depending on how the ship
will be most comfortable under stress of weather.
A sailboat lies to when, without anchoring, she is held in one position with no way
on. The bow pays off when it swings away (falls off) from the wind. She is kept a
rap full when sails are filled, not quite close-hauled, and is pinched when sailed
so close to the wind that the sails shiver. f a boat is carrying a heavy press of
canvas, the helmsman may ease her by luffing a little. Lines are eased off when
slacked.
Sails are bent to spars; lines belayed to cleats or bitts when made fast or
secured. Lines reeve through blocks or fairleads (which guide them in the desired
direction). Sails draw when they fill with wind and drive a boat; bag, when they
set too full, with taut (tight) leeches and canvas slack. Slack is the opposite of
taut. One looses sail when unfurling it. To furl sail is to roll it up and secure it to a
yard or boom, and unfurl conveys the opposite idea when the sail is made ready
for use.
A boat is under easy sail if she is not laboring or straining, but when the wind
freshens it may be necessary to shorten sail (reduce the amount of canvas
carried). Douse and strike are synonymous terms used when sail is shortened.
Reefing (spoken of elsewhere in connection with the parts of a sail) consists of
reducing the area of a sail by lowering it part way, gathering the foot of the sail
along the boom, and securing it with the reef points. There are usually several
bands of reef points; to close reef means to shorten down to the last band, rather
than just a single or double reef. When no sail is set, as happens on occasion
when a vessel scuds (drives) before a gale, she is under bare poles.
Most confusing are some of the terms having to do with directions relative to the
wind. As previously indicated, windward (pronounced windard) means toward the
wind, the direction from which the wind blows. A boat goes to windward, but in
speaking of the side of a vessel and the parts on that side on which the wind is
blowing, it is better to refer to the weather side.
Opposed to windward is leeward (pronounced looard), the direction away from
the wind, toward which it is blowing. The lee side, therefore, is away from the
wind, and a boat makes leeway when blown sideways off her course. A lee shore
is a good one to give a wide berth (keep well clear of it). Many use this term in a
mistaken sense, thinking that there is protection from the wind under a lee shore.
But since it is one on which the wind is blowing, it is dangerous. When a vessel is
caught on a lee shore and has to work her way clear, she is clawing off.
As a boat heels {not keels) to the wind in sailing, the weather side is up, the
leeward side down. Hence the expression, putting the helm or tiller up or down. A
boat carries weather helm if the tiller must be kept to windward in order to hold
her course; lee helm if it must be kept to leeward. n a good breeze it is well for a
sailboat to carry a little weather helm. Then if the tiller is let go the boat will tend
to come up into the wind instead of falling off. The trim of the boat, determined by
the distribution of the weight of crew and ballast, has much to do with what helm
the boat will carry.
Other Terms
Few will require to have the distinction between cabin and cockpit pointed out in
their application to small boats. Many small rowing and sailing craft are entirely
open or partly decked. On small decked boats a cabin is the enclosed space, the
cockpit open. n sailing vessels the cockpit is usually a small well aft where the
steering wheel is located.
A lot of misunderstanding revolves about the use of the term sheets. When
speaking of the parts of a boatnot sailsthe fore-sheets indicate that space
forward of the foremast thwart. The sternsheets is the space abaft the after
thwart.
When small boats are fitted with sails, the keel is usually not deep enough to
provide good sailing qualities so they are fitted with either centerboards or
dagger boards. Their function is the same, but the construction differs. The
centerboard lies in a vertical well, its long dimension fore and aft. t can be
hoisted or lowered as required, being pivoted at the forward end. The well or box
which houses the centerboard in its raised position is watertight and is called a
trunk. The trunk has head ledges (vertical members) at each end and a cap on
top. Dagger-boards fulfill the same function as a centerboard by increasing the
keel area, but are raised and lowered vertically in the trunk, not pivoted.
A painter is a line at the bow of the boat, used for towing or making the boat fast.
(One does not "tie a boat up.") A painter at the stern is called a stern fast. A sea
painter is used in life boats when launching them at sea. This is a long line
attached to a thwart by means of a toggle so that it can be cast off easily, the line
being led well forward on the ship, outside all stanchions, etc.
Chocks are metal fittings through which mooring or anchor lines are passed so
as to lead them in the proper direction toward a dock, other vessel, etc. Cleats, of
metal or wood, are fittings with two arms or horns on which lines can be made
fast, or belayed.
While cleats are satisfactory for making lines fast, wooden or metal bitts are often
preferred where heavy strains are to be carried. These are vertical posts,
sometimes single, sometimes double. They may take the form of a fitting bolted
securely to the deck but often, as in the case of the wooden samson post, pass
through the deck and are securely stepped at the keel or otherwise strongly
fastened.
Towing bitts are also called towing posts. Where feasible, towing bitts on a
towboat are located as near amidships as possible to permit the stern of the
towing boat to swing for better maneuvering. Sometimes round metal pins are
fitted through the head of a post or bitt to aid in belaying the line. Such a pin is a
norman pin. They are also used to secure rudder heads.
When boats are to be lifted from the water on davits or hoists, metal fittings must
be attached to the hull, usually the keel, to provide an eye into which hoisting
gear can be hooked. These are hoisting pads, though on small pleasure boats it
is often the practice to use lifting rings on deck, with rods passing down to the
keel. Cleat and lifting ring may be designed as a combined fitting. Hoisting
shackles are bolted to hoisting rods or pads; into these shackles the lower block
of the boat falls is hooked.
Boat falls are the blocks and tackle used to hoist and lower boats on davits. A
block consists of a wood or metal frame or shell containing one or more sheaves
(pronounced shivs) or rollers in the sheave hole (space) between the cheeks of
the block. Power to pull or hoist anything is greatly multiplied when a line is
passed continuously around the several sheaves of a pair of blocks. The blocks
with the line constitute a tackle (pronounced by seamen taykle). Boats, like
fishermen's dories, are nested when thwarts are removed and the boats stowed
one inside the other. Half a dozen boats, or more, may be so nested.
Slings of wire rope or chain are used when handling boats on booms or cranes.
Booms are also rigged out from a ship's side for small boats to ride to when
alongside. When a boat handled on davits aboard a ship is to be secured at the
davit heads, it is held in position by gripes against strongbacks, which are spars
lashed between davits. Gripes may be of canvas or tarred hemp with a wood mat
backed with canvas. f the boat is secured in a cradle or chocks on deck the gripe
may be of chain or metal, tightened down by means of turnbuckles. These are
threaded metal devices having left- and right-hand threads so that the eyebolts,
hooks or shackles at either end may be drawn together as the turnbuckle is
screwed up. Turn-buckles are commonly spliced into rigging on sailing craft so
shrouds and stays can be set up. When rigging is set up, the slack is taken out.
Boat hooks, mentioned elsewhere, hardly need definition. They are simply poles
with metal hook fittings on the end used when a boat comes into a dock to fend
off (prevent hitting) or to pick up a mooring. Fenders, of various kinds, have
already been defined.
Chapter - 02
Knots, Bends, Hithes And !p"ies
The real problem in advising the boatman as to the knots he should learn to tie
and use is to select the few that are of real utility on the average vessel and
exclude the numerous knots which, although serving a special purpose
excellently, are of little practical use to the average boatman.
The short list of knots described below and illustrated in the accompanying
sketches will meet all ordinary situations. Better know these knotspractice until
they can be tied with certainty in the dark or blindfoldedthan to have a
superficial knowledge of a greater number of knots, including many that are of
little practical value.
A knot or splice is never as strong as the rope itself. t is stated that the average
efficiency of knots varies from about 50 to 60 per cent of the rope itself, but a
well-made splice has about 85 to 95 per cent of the rope's strength. Splices,
therefore, are preferred for heavy loads.
t may be of some interest to recall that the strength of a rope is derived largely
from the friction that exists between the individual fibers, yarn and strands, of
which the rope is made. The twisting of these fibers into yarn, then into strands,
hawsers and finally cables is always carried out in such a manner as to increase
the amount and effectiveness of the friction between the rope elements. n the
tying of knots this principle of making use of friction is also applicable, for in this
manner, much more can be accomplished by the use of a simple knot, so tied
that the strain on the rope adds to the knot's holding power, than will ever
develop from a conglomeration of hitches, many of which serve no useful
purpose, and which, moreover, make it more practicable in the end to cut the
rope than to untie the knots. From the examples which follow it will be evident
that wherever possible the most effective use is made of friction between two or
more portions of a knot in order to increase its holding power.

The simple overhand knot is used to keep the end of a rope from unlaying. This
knot jams and may become almost impossible to untie. A better knot for the
purpose is: the figure eight knot. This does not jam.
,- O./&HA( 0 1- FI"$&/ /I"HT
The square or reef knot, perhaps the most useful knot known. The rope
manipulated by the right hand (this is the rope leading from the left side of the
sketch and terminating in the arrow in A) is turned over the other rope in tying
both the first and second half of the knot. Learn to always turn this rope over the
other and the knot can be tied with certainty in the dark. f the rope manipulated
by the right hand is first turned over and then under the other rope the
treacherous granny knot will result.
2- S3$A&/ O& &//F 4OT
Do not use the square knot to tie together lines of different sizes, as it will slip.
The reef or square knot is used for tying light lines together (not for tying heavy
hawsers), for tying awning stops, reef points, cord on packages, and in fact is put
to such numerous uses by sailors that many landsmen call it the sailor's knot.
The knot has one serious fault. t jams and is difficult to untie after being heavily
stressed.
5- SH//T O& B/C4/T B/(
The sheet or becket bend, known to landsmen as the weaver's knot, is used for
tying two lines together. t will not slip even if there is great difference in the sizes
of the lines. To make the knot secure for connecting hawsers for towing, the free
ends of the lines should be stopped down with twine in the manner illustrated in
the figure of the reeving line bend.
The bowline is a knot second in usefulness only to the square knot, The bowline
will not slip, does not pinch or kink the rope as much as some other knots, and
does not jam and become difficult to untie. By tying a bowline with a small loop
and passing the line through the loop the running bowline is obtained. This is an
excellent form of running noose.
6- BO%LI/
Bowlines are used wherever a secure loop or noose is needed in the end of a
line, such as a line which is to be secured to a bollard in making a boat fast to a
pier or wharf. They may also be used in securing lines to anchors where there is
no time to make a splice. Hawsers are sometimes connected by two bowlines,
the loop of one knot being passed through the loop of the other.
The clove hitch is used for making a line fast temporarily to a pile or bollard.
7- CLO./ HITCH 0 8- T%O HALF HITCH/S
Two half hitches are used for making a line fast to a bollard, pile, timber, or
stanchion. Note that the knot consists of a turn around the fixed object and a
clove hitch around the standing part of the line.
Correct method of making fast to a cleat: the half hitch which completes the
fastening is taken with the free part of the line. The line can then be freed without
taking up slack in the standing part.
9- CO&&/CT */THO( OF *A4I" FAST TO A CL/AT A(
:- ICO&&/CT */THO( OF *A4I" FAST TO A CL/AT
Common incorrect method of making fast to a cleat: the half hitch is taken with
the standing part of the line and the line consequently can not be freed without
taking up slack in the standing part. Accidents have been caused by the use of
this type of fastening on lines which must be freed quickly.
,;- &//.I" LI/ B/( F&// /(S *$ST B/ STOPP/( (O% %ITH
T%I/
The reeving line bend, so called because it is used to connect lines which must
pass through a small opening, such as a hawse pipe.
,,- FISH/&*A<S B/(
The fisherman's bend, also called the anchor bend, is handy for making fast to a
buoy or spar or the ring of an anchor. n some localities it is preferred to the
thimble and eye splice for attaching the anchor line to the ring. As is evident from
the illustration, it is made by taking two round turns around the ring, then passing
the end under both turns to form a half hitch around the standing part of the line.
For further security, a second half hitch is taken around the standing part only, or
in place of the last half hitch, the end may be stopped down or seized back to the
line with twine.
,,- T%O */THO(S OF %HIPPI" A &OP/ /(
All butt-ended ropes should of course be whipped to prevent raveling of the
strands. Two common methods for doing this are shown in the sketch. While
these figures are not strictly to scale this has been done purposely in order that
there should be no difficulty in following the several steps involved in either of the
two methods.
How To *a=e An /#e S'li)e
Start the splice by unlaying the strands, about six inches to a foot or more,
depending on the size of rope you are splicing. Now whip the end of each strand
to prevent its unlaying while being handled.
Next form a loop in the rope by laying the end back along the standing part. Hold
the standing part away from you in the left hand, loop toward you. The stranded
end can be worked with the right hand.
The size of loop is determined by the point where the opened strands are first
tucked under the standing part of the rope (point X, Figure 1). f the splice is
being made around a thimble, the rope is laid snugly in the thimble groove and
point X will be at the tapered end of the thimble.
Now lay the three opened strands across the standing part as shown in Figure 1
so that the center strand B lies over and directly along the standing part. Left-
hand strand A leads off to the left; right-hand strand C to the right of the standing
part.
Tucking of strand ends A, B and C under the strands of the standing part is the
next step. Get this right and the rest is easy. See Figure 2.
Start with the center strand B. Select the topmost strand (2) of the standing part
near point X and tuck B under it. Haul it up snug but not so tight as to distort the
natural lay of all strands. Note that the tuck is made from right to left, against the
lay of the standing part.
Now take left-hand strand A and tuck under strand (1), which lies to the left of
strand (2). Similarly take strand C and tuck under strand (3), which lies to the
right of strand (2). Be sure to tuck from right to left in every case.
The greatest risk of starting wrong is in the first tuck of strand C. t should go
under (3), from right to left. Of course, strands (1), (2), and (3) are arranged
symmetrically around the rope.
t may help to visualize this by referring to Figure 3, a cross-section through the
rope at X, seen from below.
f the first tuck of each of strands A, B and C is correctly made, the splice at this
point will look as shown in Figure 4.
The splice is completed by making at least two additional tucks with each of
strands A, B and C. As each tuck is made be sure it passes under one strand of
the standing part, then over the strand next above it, and so on, the tucked
strand running against the lay of the strands of the standing part. This is clearly
shown in Figure 5, the completed splice. Note C, C1 and C2, the same strand as
it appears after successive tucks.
SuggestionsThe splice can be made neater by tapering. This is done by cutting
out part of the yarns from the underside of the tucking strands, just before
tucking. n any case, the first tuck is made with the full strand. After that, some
prefer to cut out one-third of the yarns, make a second tuck; then cut out another
third of the yarns, and make the third tuck. This produces an even taper. Others
prefer to make two tucks with the full strands, and two more with strands halved.
Fishermen often take two or three full tucks without bothering to taper at all.
After the splice is finished, roll it on deck under foot to smooth it up. Then put a
strain on it and finally cut off the projecting ends of the strands.
f the rope is heavy or new and cannot be easily opened by twisting in order to
make the tucks, use a fid to open the strands. This is a smooth tapered tool of
hard wood about 12 or 2 inches at the butt, tapered to a point in a length of a foot
or more.
Completed Eye Splice
When unlaid strands tend to untwist, give them a little extra twist as the tucks are
made so that the strands keep their strand-like quality and do not appear as a
bunch of loose yarns in the finished splice. Watch this specially after cutting out
yarns.
When setting the tucked strands up taut, haul them successively back, toward
the loop, not in the direction of tucking. See that each set of tucks leaves all
strands neatly in place, not distorted by excessive strain on some strands, too
little on others.
n splicing heavy lines, a temporary whipping is sometimes put around the rope
itself to prevent strands from unlaying too far.
How To *a=e A Short S'li)e
A short splice is used where two ropes are to be permanently joined, provided
they do not have to pass through the sheave hole of a block. The splice will be
much stronger than any knot.
The short splice enlarges the rope's diameter at the splice, so in cases where the
spliced rope must pass through a sheave hole, a long splice should be used.
To start the short splice, unlay the strands of both rope ends for a short distance
as described for the eye splice. Whip the six strand ends to prevent unlaying. A
seizing should also be made around each of the ropes to prevent strands from
unlaying too far. These seizings can be cut after the splice is completed. Next
"marry" the ends so that the strands of each rope lie alternately between strands
of the other as shown in Figure 6. Now tie all three strands of one rope
temporarily to the other. (Some omit this step; it is not absolutely essential.)
Working with the three free strands, splice them into the other rope by tucking
strands exactly as described for the eye splice* working over and under
successive strands from right to left against the lay of the rope.
Next cut the temporary seizing of the other strands and repeat, splicing these
three remaining strands into the opposite rope.
Just as in the eye splice, the short splice can be tapered as desired by cutting out
yarns from the strands after the first full tuck is made. A third of the yarns may be
cut out before each of the second and third tucks, making a very neat job.
Figure 7 shows how the short splice would appear if not tapered, before finally
trimming off the ends of strands. Never cut strand ends off too close. Otherwise
when a heavy strain is put on the rope, the last tuck tends to work out.
The Long S'li)e
When the ropes are to be permanently joined without increasing the diameter, so
that it will render freely through a block, the long splice is useful. n this case,
unlay the strands of both rope ends about four times as far as required for a short
splice.
Now join them, with strands alternating, as though beginning a short splice. Next
unlay one strand of one rope and in its place lay the opposite strand from the
other rope. The process is repeated for two other strands, but in the opposite
direction.
This accounts for four strands. The remaining two are allowed to remain in the
position they took when the rope ends were first placed together, the result at this
stage appearing as in the sketch. However, instead of tucking the ends against
the lay as in a short splice, each tuck in a long splice is made with the lay of the
rope so that it follows continuously around the same strand. Tapering, as
previously described, can be done by cutting out part of the yarns.
,5- LO" SPLIC/
A Few Ti's
Practice these knots with a couple of short lengths of line and put them to
practical use. Always keep lines dry and clean. Keep ends of lines neatly served
or whipped with twine to prevent unlaying. Serving or whipping is preferable to
the crown knots or splices sometimes used to prevent unlaying as these knots
and splices prevent reeving the line through the openings of a block which would
otherwise take the line nicely.
The knots, hitches, bends and splices just described are sufficient for all practical
purposes aboard the average small boat. To make them with facility in a
seamanlike manner, have some experienced yachtsman, sailor or fisherman
show you how he'd do it, especially the bowline, clove hitch and splice.
Coiling (own
A line is generally coiled down, always with the lay, when it must be kept ready
for emergency use, clear for running. To make a straight coil, a circular bight of
the secured end is laid and successive bights are placed on top until all the line
has been used; the whole coil is then capsized to leave it clear for running. Care
must be taken to avoid kinks.
Fa=ing (own
A line is generally faked down when the entire length must be run out rapidly. To
fake down, a short length of the free end is laid out in a straight line and then
turned back to form a flat coil. Successive flat coils are then formed, laying the
end of each coil on top of the preceding coil. Care must be taken to prevent coils
from falling back and fouling preceding coils.
Flemishing
A line may be flemished down when it will not be needed on short notice and the
greatest neatness is desired. Successive circles of the line are wrapped about
each other with the free end at the center, the completed coil resembling a mat. t
should be noted that line flemished down on a canvas or wood deck and left
there some time will mark the deck as well as remain wet on the under side and,
therefore, deteriorate.
%orming
Worming: consists of following the lay of the rope, between the strands, with
small stuff, tarred, to keep the moisture out and for filling out the round of the
rope.
Par)eling
Parceling: consists of wrapping the rope spirally with long strips of canvas,
following the lay of the rope and overlapping.
Ser!ing
Serving: consists of wrapping small stuff over the parceling opposite to the lay of
the rope, to form a taut, protective cover.
Chapter - 0#
Reg$"ations And %&$ipment
A Comprehensive knowledge of seamanship embraces many subjects. Perhaps
the first and most important is an understanding of what constitutes the proper
equipment of a boat. This includes not only the equipment required by the Motor
Boat Act, which specifies what equipment must be carried, but also a
consideration of other equipment without which the boat cannot be safely,
properly and efficiently operated.
>a)hts &e?uire o Li)ensed Offi)ers
Logically considered with this is a study of those regulations which have been
drafted to govern the operation of certain types of boats which require licensed
operators, licensed officers and crew, and inspection of hull and machinery. The
motor boat or sailing craft which is operated for pleasure only is primarily
concerned with the equipment regulations alone, since she requires no licensed
operator, officers or crew, nor is any inspection of her hull and machinery
prescribed. She may, however, be boarded for inspection of the equipment
required by law.
The basic regulations prescribe that any boat propelled in whole or in part by
machinery shall carry on board certain specified equipment. Such a regulation
obviously would include those boats commonly known as "motor boats" of all
types. Similarly, the regulations exempt the out and out sail boats from the
carrying of said specified equipment or any government supervision whatsoever.
However, the sailing craft, equipped with an inboard or outboard motor as
auxiliary power, places such a craft in the category of a motor craft irrespective of
whether the motor is in operation or not, as far as being required to carry this
equipment on board and being subject to certain provisions of the Motor Boat Act
of 1940.
The Motorboat Act of 1910 was repealed by an Act of Congress on April 25,
1940. Regulations required for the proper administration of this Act now is
enforced by the United States Coast Guard. Listed on pages 48-49 are the new
regulations.
(i!ision Of *otor Boats Into Classes
Under the new Motor Boat Act of 1940, motor boats are divided into four classes
according to length. Equipment prescribed by law varies somewhat according to
the class. Class A includes boats less than 16 feet in length. Class 1 comprises
those of 16 feet or over, but less than 26 feet. Class 2 takes in those from 26 to
40 feet. Class 3 includes motor boats of 40 to 65 feet in length.
/?ui'ment On Inland La=es
Motor boats operating on other than federal waterways, that is, on inland lakes
which do not form part of the boundary line between two states or between this
country and Canada, are not required to carry the equipment required by the
Federal Government. Boats operating on such inland lakes are under the
jurisdiction of the various state governments, many of which require certain
specified equipment on boats navigating the waterways of such states.
*otorboats &ented B# Li!eries
Motorboats (including outboards) rented by launch liveries must, of course,
comply with the Motor Boat Act as to equipment, etc. On motor boats carrying
passengers for hire, a penalty of $200 may be imposed on the owner, operator,
or both, for violations having to do with life preservers, fire extinguishers, or
licensed operators.
Am'hibious .ehi)les
Amphibious vehicles, when they leave the land and hit the water, are classed as
motorboats and must comply with applicable Motor-boat and Numbering
Regulations.
Ins'e)tion Of /?ui'ment
The U. S. Coast Guard is charged with determining whether the proper
Government equipment is aboard every motor boat while under way.
t should be remembered that in this matter of equipment the Government has
jurisdiction only when boats are under way. A boat at anchor or on shore or tied
to the wharf is not obliged according to the law to have any Government
equipment on board. Therefore, inspection officers have the right to make an
inspection only when they have seen the particular boat under way immediately
preceding inspection or have good reason to believe that this boat had been
under way immediately preceding the inspection.
Other Articles Of Equipment Which Should Be Aboard Every Well-Found Boat,
Though Not Required By Law
The Motor Boat Act prescribes that motor boats must carry certain equipment for
the safety of those aboard. This includes life preservers, lights, whistle, bell, fire
extinguishers, name arresters on carburetors, ventilating cowls and ducts for the
bilges, and the certificate of registration. These requirements vary with the class
of boat, and certain exceptions are made in some classes.
n addition to this required equipment, however, there are other things which
should be aboard before a boat may be considered to be well-found. The extent
of cruising the boat does will determine the amount and kind of equipment, such
items as anchors and lines, boat hook, fenders, bilge pump, tool kit, spare engine
parts, piloting equipment, (See Chapter XV) auxiliary lighting equipment, and
such special safety equipment as ring buoys, flares, and a first aid kit.
n the same category with tools and spare parts we might include a few good
carpenter's tools, extra pieces of line of several sizes, a ball of marlin, an
assortment of nails, screws, bolts, washers, wire, caulking cotton, paint, etc. On
boats equipped with sails a small repair kit should be added containing twine,
wax, needles, palm, fid, and similar articles. All should be properly stowed to
keep it accessible and in good condition.
Other miscellaneous items would be a deck mop, pail (some prefer a canvas
bucket), a chamois for cleaning windows, brass polish, a supply of oil for engine,
grease (both the regular and waterproof varieties as required), some light
machine oil and penetrating oil for rusted parts, vaseline, distilled water, a
hydrometer, some clean rags and several rolls of paper towels. An emergency
tiller is often carried.
umbering
On 1 April 1960, under provisions of the Federal Boating Act of 1958, the Coast
Guard commenced assigning new identification numbers to all undocumented
vessels operated on the navigable waters of the United States which, regardless
of length, are propelled in whole or in part by machinery of more than 10
horsepower (in the aggregate) unless the State in which the vessel is principally
used had assumed numbering. A State may assume this function at any time by
the enactment of a suitable law and the approval of its numbering system by the
Secretary of the Treasury.
All numbering conforms to an overall system. n this new, uniform system the first
part of each number is an abbreviation of the State of principal use, as indicated
in the application. f principally used on the high seas, the vessel is numbered
according to the State in which it is usually docked, moored, housed, or garaged.
An undocumented vessel principally used in a State which has assumed
numbering will not be numbered by the Coast Guard.
Unpowered vessels and those of 10 horsepower or less will be numbered upon
request.
Every vessel of more than 10 horsepower having had a valid certificate of award
of number on March 31, 1960, retains such number and certificate for temporary
identification until renumbered, and may continue to be legally operated provided
application for renumbering has been made, the fee paid, and proof thereof
retained.
Vessels of more than 10 horsepower which have not previously been numbered
will, pending receipt of a permanent certificate, be furnished a temporary
certificate which must be carried on board whenever the vessel is in use.
Documentary proof of title and ownership is not required by the Coast Guard with
application for number.
A numbering fee may be charged by the State. Estimated Coast Guard fees are:
original numbering$5; renewal of number$3; reissue of lost or destroyed
certificate of number$1.
A number awarded by the Coast Guard will first be valid for 3 years from the date
of the owner's birthday next occurring after the certificate is issued. Each renewal
will be for 3 years.
A number issued by a State may be valid for not more than 3 years.
Certificates shall be pocket size, of water-resistant material, and must be on
board whenever the vessel is in use.
A change of address must be reported within 15 days. When a vessel is lost,
destroyed, abandoned, or transferred to another person, the certificate must be
surrendered within 15 days. f the certificate has been destroyed, notice to that
effect must be given to the numbering authority.
A change of motor is not required to be reported.
f the State of principal use is changed, the owner must make application for a
number for the new State and surrender the old certificate within 90 days.
A certificate may be canceled and the number voided prior to expiration for a
false or fraudulent certification in the application.
Application for renewal of a Coast Guard issued number may be made within 90
days before expiration. f not renewed, a number is automatically invalid on the
expiration date shown on the certificate. Applications for renewal received after
expiration will be treated as original and involve the higher fee. The same
number may be reissued if the renewal application is filed within 1 year after
expiration
Upon sale or transfer, where the vessel continues in use in the same State, the
old number will be issued to the new owner.
The number awarded (and no other) shall be painted on, or attached to, each
side of the bow (i.e. each side of the forward half of the vessel), so positioned as
to be clearly legible. The numbers shall be in block characters, at least 3 inches
high, of a color which will contrast with the background, and so maintained as to
be clearly visible and legible.
Numbers awarded to boat manufacturers or boat dealers may be printed upon or
attached to a removable sign temporarily but firmly mounted upon the boat being
demonstrated or tested.
Each State shall, for a period of at least 90 days, recognize the validity of a
number awarded to a vessel by another State or by the Coast Guard.
Nothing in this law interferes with, abrogates or limits the jurisdiction of any State.
Any State system will be approved which is compatible with the Federal
numbering system.
Boating A))idents
The operator of any boat involved in an accident must stop, render assistance,
and offer identification. A written report must be filed within 48 hours if the
accident caused death; if it injured any person so as to incapacitate for more than
72 hours or the accident resulted in physical damage to property in excess of
$100, the report must be submitted in 5 days.
Boating accident report forms (CG3865) are obtainable at any Coast Guard
office or unit. They must be submitted by the operator to the nearest Coast
Guard Officer in Charge, Marine nspection, unless the operator is required to file
an accident report with a State having an approved numbering system. Accident
reports furnish information for use in accident prevention.
The Coast Guard will compile and publish statistics on vessels numbered and on
boating accidents.
Law /nfor)ement
Coast Guard boarding vessels will be identified by the Coast Guard ensign, and
personnel will be in uniform. A vessel under way, upon being hailed by a Coast
Guard vessel or patrolboat, is required to stop immediately and lay to, or
maneuver in such a way as to permit the boarding officer to come aboard. Failure
to stop to permit boarding may subject the operator or owner to a penalty of
$100.
A civil penalty may be imposed by the Coast Guard for reckless or negligent
operation, for failure to obey the rules of the road, failure to comply with the
regulations, etc.
There is no change in the law which provides for a fine of up to $2000 and
imprisonment of not more than 1 year for the criminal offense of reckless or
negligent operation of a vessel which endangers the life, limb, or property of any
person.
(o)umenting
Not all vessels come within the provisions of the numbering act. For example,
there are vessels registered, enrolled, licensed or documented in the Custom
Houses; these with public vessels are not required to be numbered.
Yachts or boats used exclusively for pleasure which are of 20 net tons or over
may be enrolled and licensed as yachts. Yachts of 5 net tons or over and less
than 20 net tons may be licensed as yachts (except that those navigating waters
of the northern, northeastern or northwestern frontiers otherwise than by sea
would be enrolled and licensed). Vessels which are not used exclusively for
pleasure and which are of 5 net tons or over must be documented.
The license of the vessel obtained from the Collector of Customs called a
document is additional to and should not be confused with the license required
for the operator of a motor boat carrying passengers for hire.
All vessels, registered, enrolled, or licensed, except yachts, must display their
name and home port on the stern, and the name on each bow. Documented
yachts must have the name and also the home port conspicuously placed on the
hull. Tonnage measurement is necessary only in case of vessels required to be
registered, enrolled or licensed.
Customs And Immigration &egulations
When an American yacht crosses the national boundaries of the United States to
visit a foreign port, or a foreign yacht visits an American port, certain customs
and immigration regulations must be complied with. Due to various provisions
and exemptions applying to yachts, not engaged in trade, the procedure has
been made so easy that there is nothing in these legal requirements to deter a
pleasure craft from enjoying a cruise outside the limits of United States waters.
Severe penalties are provided for failure to observe regulations, however.
t should be noted that customs and immigration inspections are two separate
functions even though, in some of the smaller ports, they may be administered by
a single official or his office. Separate offices handle these duties where traffic
across the border is heavy.
Certain Ins'e)tion &e?uirements
While this information is published for the express information of owners of
motorboats operated solely for pleasure or commercial fishing purposes, in view
of the numerous inquiries received by the Coast Guard as to the application of
the inspection laws of the United States to motor-propelled vessels, a general
statement in this connection seems appropriate. Accordingly, owners and
prospective owners of motorboats and motor vessels of above 15 gross tons are
advised that if such vessels carry freight or passengers for hire, they are subject
to annual inspection by the U. S. Coast Guard under the provisions of R. S. 4426
(46 U. S. C. 404) and may not be navigated in such service until a certificate of
inspection has been issued. Motor-boats of not more than 65 feet in length,
which are less than 100 gross tons, when carrying passengers for hire are only
required to be operated by Coast Guard licensed operators. No other licensed
officers may be required. Machinery-propelled vessels of above 15 gross tons
and in excess of 65 feet in length, carrying freight or passengers for hire, must
also be manned with such officers and crew as is determined by the proper
Officer in Charge, Marine nspection, U. S. Coast Guard, upon inspection of the
vessel. The complement of such officers and crew is stated on the certificate of
inspection. Machinery-propelled vessels of 100 gross tons, or over, generally
speaking, are subject to all the provisions of the Seamen's Act of March 4, 1915,
as amended. Complete information on these subjects may be obtained from any
Officer in Charge, Marine nspection, U. S. Coast Guard.
Further information in respect to the laws and regulations applicable to
motorboats and motor vessels and for advice concerning the requirements for all
vessels engaged in carrying freight or passengers for hire may be obtained from
any Officer in Charge, Marine nspection, U. S. Coast Guard, or from the
Commandant (MV), U. S. Coast Guard, Washington 25, D. C.
.essels Carr#ing Passengers For Hire
Under the provisions of the Ray Act (Public Law 519) which became effective
May 10, 1956, inspection is required, at least every three years, of all vessels
carrying more than six persons for hire. Types of vessels specifically affected
include sailing vessels of 700 gross tons or less; barges of 100 gross tons or
less; and mechanically-propelled vessels of 15 gross tons or less (thus affecting,
for example, the usual types of charter fishing boats). For detailed regulations,
effective June 1, 1958, consult the Officer in Charge, Marine nspection, U. S.
Coast Guard.
Chapter - 0'
Rules Of The Road; Rights Of Way
All of us on land have had the experience upon walking down the street of
meeting another pedestrian, turning to the right and having him turn to his left,
then turning to the left and having him turn to his right and finally bumping him.
To the pedestrian on the sidewalk, such action and such a collision is comical but
between two boats on the water, it is serious, yet boats often behave like human
beings and do that very thing.
Besides, in the case of pedestrians on the sidewalk and even in the case of
automobiles in the street, it is a fairly simple matter to keep clear of such
approaching danger as both pedestrians and motor cars follow fairly well defined
paths or channels and by keeping to their own right, the danger of collision is
eliminated. However, on water it is a far different matter. Except in a very limited
number of cases, there are no narrow paths or channels to follow. Boats as a
rule have a wide expanse of water on which to navigate, with their paths or
courses constantly crossing those courses of many other craft which may be in
the immediate vicinity. Therefore, the caution which must be observed on the
water, even if the traffic may be much more limited than it is on land, is far more
serious and important than on the sidewalks and streets.
To prevent such things as collisions, very carefully considered rules have been
laid down so that the duty of the skipper in charge of any boat under any
meeting, overtaking or crossing situation is pretty definitely prescribed. The rules
which prescribe such duties and actions are of three general classes: First, there
are the nternational Rules of the Road adopted at conventions among maritime
nations. The second type is the nland Rules of the Road. These rules are
enacted by the Congress of the United States and are law. The nland Rules
authorize the Secretary of Commerce to issue regulations based upon the nland
Rules and these regulations are issued in what is commonly known as the Pilot
Rules.
(ut# Of *an At %heel
t should be remembered as the first principle to learn, that the man at the wheel
while he is on watch has but one duty in lifethe safe guidance of his ship.
Everything else should be absolutely out of his mind until his boat is brought to
her destination or the command is turned over to another person.
A Captain or person in charge is the absolute authority over the guidance of his
ship as well as being responsible not only for her safety but for the safety of all
on board. Under ordinary conditions the judgment, instructions and commands of
the Captain must be complied with and may not be questioned.
Safet# First
The Golden Rule for small boat handling is Safety First and Keep to the Right.
ndecision of action or those actions having an obscure motive may mislead the
other vessel and confusion may result. Time should never be considered wasted
if safety is at stake. When there are alternate methods of avoiding danger, the
safer of the two should be selected.
&ules Of &oad A''li)able To All T#'es Of .essels
The rules of the road are applicable to all types of vessels when under way.
Therefore, they apply with equal force whether a boat has headway or sternway.
They apply to craft which are adrift or not under control. They apply to boats
driven by steam, motor or sail power, ferry boats, pilot boats, tugs and tows,
sailing vessels and, to some extent, to a vessel propelled by hand power and the
current.
%hen Is A .essel $nderwa#@
A boat is considered underway when she is not at anchor, aground or made fast
to the shore. Under all other conditions except these three, a boat is considered
underway and the Rules of the Road are applicable.
%here Inland And International &ules Pre!ail
The nland Rules are those applicable to the navigation of all vessels on all
harbors, rivers and inland waters of the United States tributary to the sea,
including coastal waters inshore of the lines established by Congress as dividing
the inland waters from the high seas. Upon the high seas, that is, waters outside
of these established boundary lines laid down, the nternational Rules apply. The
inland rules also apply (generally speaking) at all buoyed entrances from
seaward to bays, sounds, rivers etc. for which specific lines are not prescribed by
the Pilot Rules, inshore of a line drawn approximately parallel with the general
trend of the shore, drawn through the outermost buoy or other aid to navigation
of any system of aids. The Pilot Rules list in detail the lines of demarcation which
have been established between the inland waters and high seas.
Generally speaking, waters wholly within any one state are not federal waters but
are under the jurisdiction of the State. For example, Lake Champlain located on
the boundary between the states of New York and Vermont is Federal water and
the nland Rules of the Road prevail. However, Lake George, wholly within the
State of New York, and Lake Hopatcong, wholly within the State of New Jersey,
are not Federal waterways. The former is controlled by the navigation laws of the
State of New York while Lake Hopatcong is under the jurisdiction of the State of
New Jersey.
n some respects the state navigation laws are similar to those of the Federal
government yet in other respects the laws of the states differ considerably among
themselves and with the nland Rules.
The nternational Rules prevail on waters outside the territorial waters of the
United States. n most instances the inland and nternational Rules are identical.
n others they differ.
Fundamental ObAe)ts Of &ules
The fundamental objects of the Rules of the Road whether they be the
nternational, nland or Pilot Rules are to prevent collisions at sea or on the
water. Therefore, it may be assumed that the Rules of the Road are applicable
only when danger of collision exists. Danger of collision may be deemed to exist
also when there is uncertainty or doubt from any cause.
In Case Of A))ident
n case of collision or other serious accident between vessels, it is the duty of the
person in charge of each vessel to stand by the other vessel until he has
ascertained that she is in no need of further assistance. He must render to the
other vessel, her master, crew and passengers such assistance as may be
practical and necessary so far as he can do so without danger to his own vessel.
He must also give the name of his own vessel and her port when requested.
Boats involved in a marine casualty or accident either to hull or machinery,
equipment, crew or any persons or when any persons are injured or any lives are
lost, immediate notice thereof must be forwarded to the nearest Local or District
Officer of the United States Coast Guard or to Coast Guard Headquarters,
Washington, D. C.
(uties Of Pri!ileged And Burdened .essels
n the eyes of the Rules of the Road, that is, the laws to prevent collision
between two vessels, one of the two vessels must necessarily be considered to
have the right of way. This vessel is called the privileged vessel. The other, which
is the vessel which must give way, is known as the burdened vessel. n all of the
rules, no matter is what phase of boating they refer, the privileged vessel must
hold her course and speed. The burdened vessel must adopt every means
known to keep out of the way of the privileged vessel.
%hen (e'arture From &ules Is Allowable
As the Rules of the Road are written to prevent collision rather than to cause it, it
follows that situations might develop of such a nature that, if the rules were
complied with, a collision would be inevitable. This has led Congress to adopt the
following rules to prevent collisions, which become effective when special
circumstances warrant:
"n obeying and construing these rules, due regard shall be had to all dangers of
navigation and collision and to any special circumstances which may render a
departure from the rules necessary in order to avoid immediate danger." Also the
following rule: "When, in consequence of thick weather or other causes, the
vessel which has the right of way finds herself so close that a collision cannot be
avoided by the action of the giving way vessel alone, she also shall take such
action as will best aid to avert collision."
Both .essels *a# Be &es'onsible
By the above two rules, to a greater or lesser degree, the responsibility for an
accident is up to the masters of both boats. f for any reason an accident cannot
be prevented by one of two boats, namely the boat which is supposed to give
way, then the other boat must do all in her power to prevent a collision. n the
case of motor boats which are, or at least should be, able to stop within almost
their own length as well as to maneuver readily, there is little to relieve them of
some of the responsibility for an accident, especially when a commercial or
vessel of large size is the other party to the situation.
The (anger Bone
The area around one's boat located clockwise from dead ahead to two points
abaft the starboard beam might well be called the Danger Zone. t is this area
which should give the skipper the greatest concern. Other boats located in this
Danger Zone which are approaching the course of your boat have the right of
way over your boat. Consequently your boat must keep clear of boats in the
Danger Zone.
Boats located outside of your Danger Zone which are approaching your course
must give way to you. You have the right of way over all such boats.
The fact that the Danger Zone is located in the area from dead ahead to two
points abaft the starboard beam is an excellent reason to locate the steering
wheel on the starboard side of one's boat instead of on the port side if the wheel
has to be located on one side or the other. With the steering being done where
the best and an unobstructed view of the Danger Zone can be obtained, it works
out for the greatest safety. Should the steering wheel be located to port, there
would be danger that deck obstructions, persons on deck, etc., would hide, to a
greater or lesser extent, this important Danger Zone.
At night, boats in your Danger Zone show you their red side lightthe danger
signal for you to give way. Boats outside the Danger Zone show their green side
lightthe clear signal to you that they must give way.
Points On The Bow, Beam Or 3uarter
The directions Dead Ahead and Astern are too well known to require any
explanation. Directions and bearings between dead ahead and astern are given
names, first depending upon whether they are on the boat's starboard (right) or
port (left) hand. Then the 180 degrees between dead ahead and astern on each
side are divided into 16 equal parts (114 degrees each) called points. The first
point to the right of dead ahead is known as 1 point on the starboard bow; then 2
points on the starboard bow; 3 points on the starboard bow. The 45 degree
direction is called 4 points or broad on the starboard bow. The next point aft is
called 3 points forward of the starboard beam, then 2 points forward of the
starboard beam; one point forward of the starboard beam. Then on the starboard
beam.
Working further aft the points become, in order, 1 point abaft the starboard beam;
2 points abaft the starboard beam; 3 points abaft the starboard beam; then 4
points or broad on the starboard quarter. The next point aft is known as 3 points
on the starboard quarter; 2 points on the starboard quarter; 1 point on the
starboard quarter, and astern.
The similar points on the port side have corresponding names.
Cross Signals
Motor vessels are forbidden to use what is known as cross signals; that is,
answering one whistle with two or answering two whistles with one. n cases
where a whistle is correct according to the rules which it is deemed injudicious to
comply with, instead of answering it with a cross signal, one should at once
sound the danger signal of four or more short and rapid blasts. n such a case,
both boats should be stopped or reversed and a boat should not proceed again
until the proper whistles have been given, answered and understood and
conditions have developed so that the boats can safely pass.
Sailing .essels Ha!e &ight Of %a# O!er *otor Craft
A sailing vessel has the right of way over a motor craft in all situations except
when the sailing vessel is over-taking the motor vessel, in which case the sailing
vessel must keep clear. A sailing vessel is not required to stand in stays, tack or
wear or jibe to allow another vessel to pass. A sailing vessel must observe the
difficulties under which the burdened vessel may be and give due attention
thereto. A motor vessel must observe any condition which would prevent a
sailing vessel from finishing its tack and must be prepared for a sailing vessel
accidently missing stays, jibing, etc. A sailing vessel must not endanger a motor
vessel by tacking suddenly in a narrow channel or fairway, directly in the path of
the motor vessel, without due warning, when an alternative action may be safely
taken by the sailing vessel.
%histle Signals As Salutes
Yachts should never exchange salutes by means of whistle signals. Commercial
craft often salute by the whistle; those on the east coast by three long blasts and
on the Great Lakes by three long followed by two short blasts.
Caution %hen Piloting At ight
Too much dependence should not be placed on the supposition that the colored
side lights are not showing across the bow. There are several reasons which, if
not taken care of, will cause the side lights to show across the bow. The position
of the lamp, as a whole, must necessarily be several inches at least from the
inboard screen, the width of the flame and the reflection from the after side of the
light-box all tend to make the lights show across the bow to a greater or less
degree.
At the left, above, range lights one above the other indicate a vessel (B 2)
approaching A head on. n B 1 and B 3 the position of the forward lower bow
light to the left or right of the aft (upper) range light shows her course directed to
port or starboard of A's course.
At right, above, A knows the other vessel (at B, C or D) is in her danger zone.
Although the relative positions of range lights and side lights here ore similar,
they aid A in changing course to keep clear
The white range lights, if properly placed, are most useful in determining the
exact position of an approaching vessel. When the lights are directly over each
other, it is clear that the vessel is approaching dead head-on, but when her
course is changed even in the slightest the range lights will open out, the lower
one drawing away from the upper in the same direction which the boat's bow is
changing. Without the range lights the ship's course might change several points
before this would be evident from the side lights. t is even possible that the
course of the approaching vessel is away from the course of one's own boat
when the side lights are first sighted, and that she swings around toward your
course without this being detected from the side lights as the boats draw closer
together. This is a very dangerous position and requires great caution.
&ules Prohibit /C)essi!e S'eed
The Rules of the Road make very little specific mention of speed, except when
navigating in the fog or heavy weather, when the rules state speed should be
reduced to the safety limit. However, good seamanship as well as good ethics
requires that the speed of a boat be reasonable for the time, place and
surrounding conditions. Court rulings have upheld these statements even though
the laws are silent on these points. Excessive speed is a fundamental fault which
may cause collision or accident. A speed reasonable in open waters, free from
traffic, would be considered an unreasonable speed in crowded waters, harbors,
narrow channels and particularly where yachts and motor boats are anchored.
Excessive speed in the vicinity of fishing vessels, boats aground, tied to piers or
floats should be avoided. A vessel is responsible for injury caused by her wash or
suction.
Generally speaking, the speed of a boat should not be greater than would enable
her to change from headway to sternway, when danger presents itself. The
requirement of reasonable speed applies with even greater force to sailing
vessels.
Excessive speed in anchorages or in the vicinity of docks or floats should be
avoided at all costs. Speed must be reduced so that the wash can cause no
discomfort or damage.
The Motor Boat Act of 1940 provides that anyone who shall operate any vessel in
a reckless manner may be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction
shall be punished by a fine not exceeding $2,000, or by imprisonment for not
over one year, or both.
&ight &udder And Left &udder
As mentioned, the expressions "port helm" and "starboard helm" are obsolete
and should not be used. These expressions have been replaced by "right rudder"
and "left rudder," both of which mean exactly what the term implies. "Right
rudder" always means to turn the steering wheel in that direction which will swing
the bow of the boat to the right or to the starboard. Similarly "left rudder" means
that the bow should be swung to the left or to port.
Head+On, Crossing And O!erta=ing
The three situationsmeeting head on, crossing and overtaking. Boats ore
considered meeting head on when their masts seem to be in line or nearly in line.
They ore overtaking when one boat is approaching the course of another from a
point more than two points abaft the beam of the leading boat or when at night
her side lights, if correctly placed, cannot be seen. n all other cases where the
courses intersect either ot right angles or obliquely, the situation is said to be
crossing. Only those boats shown in the lower right-hand corner of the illustration
should hold their course and speed relative to the boat in the center. All boats in
the other positions must alter their courses and keep clear)
When two motor vessels are approaching each other head-on or nearly so, it is
the duty of each skipper to swing the bow of his boat to starboard and thus pass
port side to port side. t is the duty of each to give one short blast of a whistle.
The head-on, overtaking and crossing situations are shown in the illustration.
Remember that the danger zone of every boat is on her own starboard bow, from
dead ahead around clockwise to 2-points abaft the starboard beam. Any boat (A)
in the danger zone of boat (B) is the privileged boat, has the right of way over
boat (B), must maintain her course and speed, and should sound one blast on
her whistle. Boat (B) which has the other boat in her own danger zone is the
burdened vessel and must keep clear of boat (A). Boat (B) must elect the safest
method of keeping clear of boat (A), by stopping, slowing down, reversing or
going astern of boat (A). When boat (A) sounds one blast of her whistle, boat (B)
should answer immediately with one blast on her own whistle. f for any reason
the whistle signals or proposed actions are not understood by either vessel, the
danger signal of four or more short blasts of the whistle should be sounded,
whereupon both boats should immediately stop and not proceed until the proper
whistle signals have been exchanged and the proposed course and actions of
each vessel understood. (Note:The tables on pages 70-71 give complete data
on the use of 1, 2, 3 and 4 blasts of the whistle and the proper actions to be
taken on the various head-on, crossing and overtaking situations.
%hen In (oubt As To %hether One Or Two Blasts Should Be "i!en
As to the action called for by one or two blasts of the whistle, there is a very
simple rule which if kept in mind will assist every skipper to remember whether
he is to pass port or starboard, ahead or astern of the craft giving him the signal.
The rule will also hold good when the man at the wheel of your boat wishes to
indicate to the other craft what action you are to take, as well as the course you
wish to follow, providing you are the right-of-way boat and have the right to
dictate to him.
Keeping in mind the two sides of the boatthat is, port and starboardwe have
the former word, port, of one syllable, and the other side of the boat indicated by
a word of two syllablesnamely, starboard. f one simply remembers that the
word of one syllable is always associated with one blast of the whistle and the
word of two syllables with two blasts of the whistle, he will have no difficulty in
giving and obeying the passing whistle signals. f the oncoming boat gives you
one blast of her whistle, it is your duty to answer with one blast of the whistle,
provided all is well. The signal of one blast is an indication that the boats must
pass port side to port side. f two whistles are given and answered, associate this
signal with the word of two syllables, and the boats will then pass starboard side
to starboard side. This rule holds good in all instances of meeting and crossing.
A .essel<s &ights ot Altered B# %histle Signals
An unanswered signal creates a situation of doubt and demands great caution.
The vessel must not conclude that any signal has been assented to by any
omission on the part of the other vessel secure an answer. On the other hand,
failure to respond to signals to answer. Signals should be repeated as often as is
necessary to by a privileged vessel is not an abandonment of her right of way.
Neither is the answering of a signal, whether it is as prescribed by the rules or
not, by a privileged vessel an abandonment of her privileges. Signals which are
required under the rules do not take away any rights from the privileged vessel,
neither do they confer any benefits upon the burdened ship. The vessel which
first signals gains no advantage or disadvantage. Should the burdened vessel
first whistle it does not relieve her of any burden even if she should attempt to
secure a privilege from the privileged vessel.
The method of passing whether to starboard or to port as provided by the rules
cannot be violated except by mutual consent by appropriate whistle signals given
and answered. Notwithstanding any such agreement, the vessel which changes
the method of passing prescribed by the rules, assumes all risk.
&ights Of %a# Of Soiling Croft
Sailing vessels do not indicate their course or intended action in passing either
another sailing vessel or a motor vessel by any whistle signal. The rights of way
between two sailing vessels are determined solely by the direction of the wind in
reference to the boats' sailing directions at the time. One which is running free
must give way to a close-hauled sailing vessel. When both sailing vessels are
close-hauled, the one on the port tack (having the wind over her port bow) must
keep clear of the sailing vessel on the starboard tack. n the case when both
sailing vessels are running free but with the wind on different sides, that one
which has the wind on her port side must keep clear. f both are running free with
the wind on the same side, the boat to windward shall keep clear of the vessel
which is to leeward.
%hen (oes (anger Of Collision /Cist@
Danger of collision may be deemed to exist when the bearing between two
vessels does not change. f there is no change of bearings as the boats proceed
on their course and at a uniform speed, a collision will ultimately result. f the
bearings change materially they will pass clear.
Whether there is a change of bearing may be easily determined by noting a
range or bearing on some part of the boat's structure, such as a stanchion, or
from the boat's compass to the other craft.
Arrows Indi)ate (ire)tion Of %ind
Above: The rights of way between two strictly sailing vessels is determined by
the direction of the wind in reference to the boats' sailing directions. sailing
vessel which is running free must keep out of the way of the one which is close-
hauled. A sailing vessel which is close-hauled on the port tack must keep out of
the way of a vessel which is close-hauled on the starboard tack. f both sailing
vessels are running free, with the wind on different sides, the one which has the
wind on the port side shall keep out of the way of the other. f both sailing vessels
are running free, with the wind on the same side, the vessel which is. to
windward shall keep out of the way of the vessel which is to leeward. A sailing
vessel having the wind aft shall keep out of the way of other sailing craft
Indi)ate >our Course
n addition to the sounding of the proper whistle signal, it is essential that the
helmsman of each boat should indicate what his course is to be by the swinging
of the bow of his boat sharply to port or starboard, as the case may be, for a
moment, as in many instances the whistle signals of a small boat cannot be
heard at a great distance. When the helmsman of an approaching boat sees its
bow swing to one side or the other, he immediately recognizes what the action of
this boat is to be, even if he has failed to hear or to understand the whistle
signals.
In Cases Of (oubt
Whenever two motor vessels are approaching each other and either fails to
understand the signals, course or intentions of the other for any reason, the
vessel in doubt should immediately give the danger signal of four or more short
blasts of the whistle.
Boats Ba)=ing
A boat backing sounds three short blasts of her whistle. n the case of a boat
backing, her stern for the time being is considered her bow. Passing signals are
exchanged exactly as if such a boat were proceeding ahead, considering that her
stern is her bow.
Note: See exception on Great Lakes, page 71.
(efinition Of *otor Boat
Under the Motor Boat Act of 1940, which superseded the original act of 1910,
any boat propelled by machinery and not more than 65 feet in length, with the
exception of tugs propelled by steam, is designated as a motor boat. Motor craft
of a greater length fall into the class of steamers.
The rules also provide that any such vessel (motor boat) propelled in whole or in
part by machinery shall be considered a motor vessela very clear and concise
statement, the meaning of which there can be no doubt.
$nder Sail And Power B# ight
The Motor Boat Act provides that a boat under 65 feet in length, while under both
motor and sail, shall carry only the lights of a sailing vessel, that is, the red and
green side lights but no white lights. However, such a boat is still a motor boat at
night and should not assume any of the privileges of a sailing craft even though
she is showing only the lights of a sailing vessel. Such lights may indicate to an
approaching boat that she is a sailing vessel and such approaching vessel may
assume that the rights of way of a sailing vessel will be followed. Such a situation
is a most dangerous one. A vessel using both sail and power at night and
showing only the running lights of a sailing vessel must use extreme caution and
take particular care that her status and action are understood by the approaching
motor vessel. Such an auxiliary should be prompt and generous with her whistle
signals and take every possible action in order to communicate her status to the
other vessel.
The Pilot Rules all provide that every vessel under steam, whether under sail or
not, is to be considered a steam vessel. These Pilot Rules define the term "steam
vessel" as including any vessel propelled by machinery. Motor boats under sail
and power thus fall within the definition of steam vessels in the Pilot Rules and
are therefore subject to all the provisions of the Pilot Rules except as the Pilot
Rules are modified by other statutes.
The Pilot Rules have been modified by the Motor Boat Law, insofar as the
requirements for running lights for motor boats under sail and power are
concerned. Yet the Motor Boat Law contains no provision for modifying the Pilot
Rules in regard to passing signals, rights of way, etc.
%hen ot To "i!e Passing Signals
Passing signals provided by the rules are never to be given except when the
vessels are in sight of each other and the course of each can be determined by
the sight of the vessel itself or at night by seeing the sailing lights. n fog, mist,
falling snow or heavy rainstorms, when vessels cannot actually see through, fog
signals only must be given. Whistle signals are not to be given unless danger of
collision exists. f there is doubt or uncertainty as to whether danger of collision
does exist, then it should be assumed to exist. Whistle signals between a motor
boat and sailing vessel or between two sailing vessels should never be given.
Chapter - 0(
Lights For Vessels
(isregarding, for the purposes of our discussion here, all special types such as
pilot vessels, ferry boats and other classes for which specific lights are
prescribed (see pages 78-84), the big, broad classifications of "vessels" in the
Pilot Rules would besteam vessels and sailing vessels. n so far as these rules
are concerned, a steam vessel includes any vessel propelled in whole or in part
by machinery. Furthermore a steam vessel under sail and not under steam is
considered a sailing vessel. Every vessel under steam, whether under sail or not,
is considered a steam vessel. This is explicit and easily interpreted.
The *otor Boat A)t
On "navigable" (Federal) waters of the United States, vessels propelled by
machinery, not over 65 feet in length (except tug boats and tow boats propelled
by steam) are classed as motor boats. They come within the provisions of the
Motor Boat Act of 1940, which divides them into four classes (A, up to 16 feet; 1,
16 to 26 feet; 2, 26 to 40 feet; and 3, 40 to 65 feet) and contains provisions
prescribing the equipment to be carried by each class. ncluded in this equipment
are the lights which must be exhibited by every motor boat in all weathers from
sunset to sunrise when under way. (A vessel is under way when not at anchor,
aground or made fast to the shore.) The law does not require lights to be aboard
during the day.
%hen Is A .essel DPro'elled B# *a)hiner#D@
Now, in order to determine whether a certain vessel should be lighted in
accordance with the Motor Boat Act or according to the Pilot Rules, it is
necessary to determine whether she is "propelled by machinery" and whether
she is under or over 65 feet.
According to an opinion given by the Bureau of Marine nspection and
Navigation, when asked about the status of auxiliaries, a vessel (under 65 feet) is
considered to be a motor boat when the motor is connected to the shaft and
propeller, regardless of whether the engine is actually in operation or not. Thus,
they say, in the case of a sailing vessel carrying an outboard motor, the vessel is
an auxiliary (and would be classed as a motor boat) when the outboard motor is
attached to the stern. A sailing vessel is also an auxiliary when it has an inboard
motor aboard connected with the shaft and propeller. (This definition or ruling is
also important from the angle of the Federal regulations which require
undocumented "motor boats" to carry a number assigned by the U. S. Coast
Guard District Commander.)
n the light of this interpretation, any auxiliarywhether its engine is running or
notis subject to the light requirements specified in the Motor Boat Act of April
25, 1940 for motor boats under sail alone or under sail and power. Lights for
auxiliaries prescribed under an amendment to the Motor Boat Act (Public Law
552, effective June 4, 1956) are discussed on pages 75 and 76.
All boats under 150 feet in length at anchor are required to display one white 32-
point light forward not more than 20 feet above the hull. This must be visible at
least 1 mile. n special anchorage areas designated by the Secretary of War,
however, no anchorage light is required on vessels under 65 feet in length.
Sailboats
Considering first the out-and-out sailboat that has no motive power of any kind
aboard (or perhaps may have an outboard motor stowed away somewhere in a
locker for emergency), since she is not "propelled by machinery" it makes no
difference whether she is under or over 65 feet. She does not come under the
definition of a motor boat and is not subject to the Motor Boat Act, but should
carry the lights specified by the Pilot Rules. The vessel mentioned parenthetically
above, with outboard stowed away, would be considered an auxiliary only when
the outboard was attached to the hull in its propelling position.
Now the Pilot Rules specify, for sailing vessels of all sizes, a red 10-point side
light to port and a green 10-point side light to starboard. They carry no white
lights except that a white light or flare is shown to overtaking vessels. This,
however, is not permanently fixed.
To provide for small craft where it might not be feasible to carry the separate red
and green side lights (which are ordinarily attached to the standing rigging) it has
been held, under the Pilot Rules for the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River,
that an open sailboat not over 18 feet in length is not required to carry the
separate red and green side lights. However, if she does not, she must carry a
lantern having a green slide on one side and a red slide on the other. This must
be shown in time to avert collision, in a manner that will prevent the red slide
from being seen across the starboard bow, and the green slide across the port
bow.
S'e)ial Pro!isions For Small Craft
Under the nland Pilot Rules for other Federal waters, provision is also made for
small craft. Whenever, as in the case of vessels of less than 10 gross tons under
way during bad weather, the green and red side lights cannot be fixed, these
lights must be kept at hand, lighted and ready for use. On the approach of or to
other vessels, these are shown on their respective sides in time to prevent
collision. Such lights should be screened and the lanterns painted outside with
the color of the light.
Furthermore, the Pilot Rules for inland waters other than the Mississippi River
and the Great Lakes also provide for open sailboats under 18 feet in length. t
has been held (Art. 7, Sec. 1, Act of June 7, 189733 U.S.C. 176) that under the
language of this article a small open sailboat of around 18 feet in length is, for the
purpose of this particular article, a row boat under sail. They are not required to
carry the regular separate red and green side lights, but should carry a white light
to be exhibited in time to prevent collision.
The paragraph dealing with vessels under 10 gross tons applies to small vessels
under way in bad weather only, whereas the ruling about open sailboats under
18 feet is generally applicable, even in clear weather.
*otor BoatsEot $nder Sail
Now we turn to the out-and-out motor boat, having no sail. t is propelled by
machinery and is, by definition, of necessity under 65 feet. t is lighted according
to the Motor Boat Act, and the nature of the lights varies with the size of the boat.
There are four classes: Class A, under 16 feet; Class 1, 16 to 26 feet; Class 2, 26
to 40 feet; Class 3, 40 to 65 feet.
Classes A and 1 (including all motor boats up to 26 feet) carry a combination
lantern forward which shows red from dead ahead to two points abaft the port
beam and green from dead ahead to two points abaft the starboard beam. Aft
they carry a white 32-point light, higher than the red-and-green combination light
forward.

Classes 2 and 3 (including all motor boats from 26 to 65 feet) carry a 20-point
white light forward showing from dead ahead to two points abaft the beam on
each side, and a white 32-point light aft, showing all around the horizon, higher
than the white bow light. Separate red and green side lights are prescribed, the
red showing 10 points from dead ahead to two points abaft the port beam, and
green showing from dead ahead to two points abaft the starboard beam.
*otorboatsE$nder Sail Onl#
There are times when a motorboat may be driven by sail only, as for example
when a motor sailer is sailing while her engine is not in operation.
n such cases motorboats of classes 2 and 3 (26 to 65 feet) carry the separate
red and green side lights only, but no white lights.
Motorboats of classes A and 1 (under 26 feet) under sail only, carry a red-and-
green combination bow light.
All classes carry a white lantern or flashlight which is shown in time to avert
collision.
AuCiliariesE$nder Sail Onl#
Like the motor sailer, the auxiliary subject to the Motor Boat Act (under 65 feet)
shows the colored side lights only, when driven by sail alone.
This means that the auxiliary from 26 to 65 feet (classes 2 and 3) carries
separate 10-point red and green side lights.
The auxiliary under 26 feet (classes A and 1) shows a combination red-and-
green light forward.
None carry permanently fixed white lights under sail alone, but all do have the
white lantern or flashlight at hand to be shown in time to avert collision.
AuxiliariesUnder Motor Only or Motor and Sail
Auxiliaries, when driven by motor only, or motor and sail both, are lighted like
motorboats of their respective classes driven by motor only. Thus, auxiliaries of
26 to 65 feet (classes 2 and 3) carry their separate red and green 10-point side
lights, a 20-point white bow light, and the 32-point white stern light.
Auxiliaries less than 26 feet in length (classes A and 1) carry the red-and-green
combination light forward and white 32-point stern light aft.
O'tional Lighting $nder *otor Boat A)t
Public Law 552 provides a new optional arrangement of lights which eliminates
the necessity of changing lights when motorboats of any class operate from
inland waters to the high seas.
On nland Waters, the Great Lakes, and Western Rivers, between sunset and
sunrise, motorboats of classes A, 1, 2 and 3 may continue to carry the lights
prescribed for their respective classes in the Motor Boat Act. However, they now
have the option of carrying, instead, the lights prescribed in nternational Rules
for the high seas. (These make provision for small power-driven boats under 40
gross tons, such as are carried by seagoing vessels and other provision for boats
of 40 gross tons or more.)
Basi) &ules
Colors are used to differentiate one light from another; they have distinct and
separate meanings. White, red and green lights are used and these are arranged
to show in four different ways. There are 10, 12, 20 and 32-point lights indicating
the arc of the compass through which they would be visiblethe 32-point light
being one visible from every point in the compass.
Diagram showing the arc covered by various lights. The 32-point white stern light
shows all around the horizon, the white bow light ahead through 20 points (10
points each side) and the colored side lights 10 points on their respective sides
Red and green side lights show through 10 points for all classes of vessels.
White lights which are designed to show only ahead are always made to show
through 20 points. Lights which show through 32 points are naturally visible from
ahead also.
&owboats
Under nland Rules a rowboat, under oars or sail, merely shows a white light at
the approach of another vessel. This does not have to be permanently fixed. A
lantern showing a white light may be kept at hand and displayed in sufficient time
to avert collision. A similar provision is made for rowboats under the nternational
Rules.
&ange Lights
When a vessel's lights are visible in the distance there may be reasonable doubt
as to its course. The relative location of the range lights will be the key. Where
only one of the side lights is seen it can be assumed that you are within the 10-
point sector of the other boat's side light.
Whether the relative courses of the two vessels will bring them together or not
will be determined by the location of the range lights. Should the lower forward
range light be to the left or right of the after range light the distance between
them will indicate the approximate angle of the other vessel with your line of
sight.
Should the range lights be directly over one another then it can be assumed that
the other vessel is approaching head on and danger of collision exists. When the
course is changed the range lights will separate and a shift to starboard will show
by the lower light moving to your left while a shift to port will show by the lower
light moving to your right.
Of particular value when the port light of a vessel shows is the relative location of
these range lights. t can be assumed that the other vessel is in your danger
zone and has the right of way.
Naturally, the relative speeds of the two boats must be taken into consideration.
Also, the angle of alignment of range lights of an approaching vessel off on the
beam may change rapidly, closing together and then opening again, indicating
that you are safely crossing ahead of her.

Chapter - 0)
Buoys And Lighthouses
Lighthouses, Their Signifi)an)e To The *ariner
L ighthouses are the signal stations by means of which mariners determine their
exact position. Mariners had once to be satisfied with natural landmarks, from
which to obtain their bearings. These often being lacking at points where most
needed, towers were built, and eventually lights were placed in many of them.
The modern lighthouse represents the scientific development of this same idea,
the signalling equipment being the culmination of many years of striving to
overcome the limitations of visibility and audibility.
Coloring Of Stru)tures
Color is applied to lighthouses and automatic light structures for the purpose of
making them readily distinguishable from the background against which they are
seen, and to distinguish one structure from others in the same general vicinity.
Solid colors, bands of color, and various patterns are applied solely for these
purposes. Minor light structures are sometimes painted black or red, to indicate
the sides of the channel which they mark, following the same system used in the
coloring of buoys. When so painted, red structures mark the right side of the
channel, and black structures the left side of the channel, entering from seaward.
Light Colors And Chara)teristi)s
The colors of the lights shown from lighthouses, and their characteristics or
manner in which they flash, are for the purpose of distinguishing one light from
others in the general vicinity and avoiding confusion with lights used for other
purposes. The length of the flashes and the intervals between may be accurately
timed, and positive identification made by consulting the Light Lists. The colors of
minor lights, when red or green, may also have the further significance of
indicating the side of the channel which the light marks, red being on the right,
and green on the left side entering from seaward.
Fog Signal Chara)teristi)s
Fog signals, both at lighthouses and on lightships, sound distinctive blasts. This
is for the purpose of distinguishing one station from another. The characteristic of
every fog signal is given in the Light Lists, and many of them are also given on
the charts. All signals sound on a definite schedule, and positive identification
may be made, even when the sending station is not visible, by timing the length
of the blasts and the intervals between. With practice, mariners may also
differentiate between the signals produced by the different types of apparatus.
Bea)ons
There are many aids to navigation which are not lighted. Structures (not buoys)
of this type are called beacons. They vary greatly in design and construction,
depending upon their location, and the distance to which they must be seen. A
beacon may consist of a single pile with a daymark at the top, a spar with a cask
at the top, a slatted tower, or a structure of masonry. Beacons are colored, as are
lighthouses, to distinguish them from their surroundings and to provide a means
of identification. Beacons marking the sides of channels are colored and
numbered in the same manner as buoys and minor light structures; red indicating
the right side entering, and black the left side entering.
Lightshi's
Lightships serve the same essential purpose as lighthouses. They take the form
of ships only because they are to occupy stations at which it would be
impracticable to build lighthouses. Hulls of all lightships in United States waters,
excepting Ambrose Lightship, are now painted red with the name of the station in
white on both sides. The superstructures are white, with the masts, lantern
galleries, ventilators and stacks in buff. All the signals, the masthead light, the fog
signal, and the radiobeacon have distinctive characteristics, so that the lightship
may readily be identified under all conditions. A riding-light on the forestay
indicates the direction that the ship is heading, and as lightships ride to a single
anchor, this also indicates the direction of the current.
Present day lightships are built of steel, with either steam or Diesel engine
propulsion. Power for the operation of the signals is obtained from suitable
auxiliary machinery. Each lightship has a crew of from 6 to 15 men.
.isibilit# And Candle'ower Of Lights
Under normal atmospheric conditions the visibility of a light depends upon its
height and intensit#; the distance due to the former being known as the
geographic range, and to the latter as the luminous range. As a rule, for the
principal lights the luminous range is greater than the. geographic, and the
distance from which the principal lights are visible is limited by the horizon only,
and under some conditions of atmospheric refraction, the glare or loom of the
light and occasionally the light itself may be visible far beyond the computed
geographic range of the light. On the other hand, and unfortunately more
frequently the case, these distances may be greatly lessened by unfavorable
weather conditions due to fog, rain, snow, haze or smoke. Weak and colored
lights are more easily obscured by such conditions. The distances of visibility are
given in nautical miles.
The intensity of lights is indicated in the Light Lists in terms of candlepower. The
chief purpose of these figures is to indicate the relative brilliance of various lights,
so that the mariner may judge if a light may be expected to be seen at a great
distance or only when approached fairly close to.
Light Chara)teristi)s
To avoid confusion, lights are given distinct characteristics, the following being
employed:
Fixed: A continuous steady light.
Flashing: Showing single flashes recurring not faster than thirty per minute, the
flashes being shorter than the eclipses.
Fixed and flashing: A fixed light varied at regular intervals by one or more
flashes of greater brilliance.
Group flashing: Showing at regular intervals groups of flashes.
Quick flashing: Showing not less than 60 short flashes per minute.
Interru'ted ?ui)= flashing: Showing quick flashes for about four seconds,
followed by a dark period of about four seconds.
Short+long flashing: Showing a short flash and then a long flash, this
combination recurring about eight times a minute.
Occulting: A steady light totally eclipsed at intervals, the intervals being no
longer than the light periods.
Group occulting: A steady light totally eclipsed by a group of two or more
eclipses.
Alternating: Lights in which two or more of the colors white, red, and green are
used.
The Signifi)an)e Of Buo#s
The primary function of buoys is to warn the mariner of some danger, some
obstruction, or change in the contours of the sea bottom, that he may avoid the
dangers and continue his course in safe waters. The utmost advantage is
obtained from buoys when they are considered as marking definitely identified
spots, for if a mariner be properly equipped with charts, and knows his precise
location at the moment, he can readily plot a safe course on which to proceed.
Such features as size, shape, coloring, numbering, and signalling equipment, are
but means to these ends of warning, guiding, and orienting.
T#'es Of Buo#s
The buoyage system as found in waters of the United States consists of several
different types of buoys, each kind designed to serve under definite conditions.
Broadly speaking, buoys serve as daymarks during the daytime, those having
lights are also available for navigation by night, and those having sound signals
are more readily located in time of fog as well as by night. The following are the
principal general types.
S'ar Buo#s
Spar buoys are usually large logs, trimmed, shaped, appropriately painted, and
moored with a suitable length of chain and a sinker. They vary in length from 20
to 50 feet, depending upon the depth of water in which they are moored. Spar
shaped buoys are also constructed of steel plates.
Can And un Buo#s
Can and nun buoys are built up of steel plates, in various sizes. They are moored
with chain affixed to a sinker of appropriate weight.
Bell Buo#s
Bell buoys serve with considerable effectiveness both by day and night, and also
during fog, and are much used because of their moderate maintenance cost.
Most bell buoys are sounded by the motion of the buoy in the sea, four clappers
being loosely hung so that they are readily set in motion. Newer types of bell
buoys are operated by compressed gas or electric batteries, their strokes
sounding at regular intervals, and are particularly useful in sheltered waters.
"ong Buo#s
Gong buoys are used to give a distinctive characteristic when there are several
bell buoys in one vicinity. n these buoys four gongs of different tones, with one
clapper for each gong, take the place of the bell. As the sea rocks the buoy, the
clappers strike against the gongs sounding four different notes. There is, of
course, no particular sequence to the notes, but the effect is quite distinctive.
%histle Buo#s
Whistle buoys provide a sound signal which is useful at night and also during fog
or low visibility. Such buoys also serve as daymarks. They are used principally in
open and exposed places where a ground swell normally exists, as the whistle is
sounded by compressed air produced by the motion of the buoy in the sea.
Whistle buoys have a conical shaped top, above which the whistle projects,
protected by cage work. These buoys have no shape significance. n
combination buoys, having lights as well as whistles, the whistle is located within
the lattice-work tower, immediately below the light. A type of sound buoy is now
being introduced in which a trumpet is sounded at regular intervals by
mechanical means.
Lighted Buo#s
The type of lighted buoy in general use today burns compressed acetylene gas,
contained in steel tanks inside the buoy. From the tanks the gas is conveyed by
tube to a flasher set in the lantern at the top of the buoy. A valve mechanism
operated by the gas pressure permits a definite amount of gas to pass the burner
at intervals, to be ignited by a pilot flame which burns continuously. The period
and length of the flash may be adjusted to produce a definite characteristic.
Flashing lights have a period of light shorter than the period of darkness while
occulting lights have a light period equal to or greater than the period of
darkness. A few buoys are lighted electrically and the number is increasing.
Combination Buo#s
These are lighted buoys which arc also fitted with some form of sound signal,
such as a bell, gongs, a whistle, or a trumpet.
The Lateral S#stem
The coloring and numbering of buoys are determined by their position with
respect to the navigable channel as such channels are entered and followed from
seaward toward the head of navigation. This method, known as the lateral
system, is uniform in all United States waters and is described in detail herein
under the headings Coloring and Numbering. As all channels do not lead from
seaward, arbitrary assumptions must be made in order that the system may be
consistently applied. n the coloring and numbering of offshore buoys along the
coasts and along traffic routes not leading distinctly from seaward or toward
headwaters, the following system has been adopted: Proceeding in a southerly
direction along the Atlantic coast, in a northerly and westerly direction along the
Gulf coast and in a northerly direction along the Pacific coast, will be considered
as proceeding from seaward, and accordingly coastal buoys which are to be kept
on the right hand side are red and have even numbers. On the Great Lakes
offshore buoys are colored and numbered from the outlet of each lake toward its
upper end. The ntracoastal Waterway is marked from the north Atlantic states to
the lower coast of Texas, regardless of the compass headings of individual
sections.
Coloring Of Buo#s
All buoys are painted distinctive colors to indicate their purpose or the side of the
channel which they mark.
Red buoys mark the right hand side of )hannels , entering from seaward.
Bla)= buo#s mark the left hand side of channels, entering from seaward .
Red-and-black horizontally banded buoys mark obstructions, or a junction of one
channel with another, and indicate that there is a channel on either side. f the
topmost band is red, the principal channel will be followed by keeping the buoy
on the right hand side of the vessel, when entering from seaward. f the topmost
band is black, the principal channel will be followed by keeping the buoy on the
left hand side of the vessel, when entering from seaward. (NOTE: When
proceeding toward the sea, it may not be possible to pass on either side of these
buoys, and the chart should always be consulted.)
Black-and-white vertically striped buoys indicate the middle of a channel, and
should be passed close to, but on either side, for safety.
%hite buo#s mark anchorages.
>ellow buo#s mark quarantine anchorages.
White buoys with green tops mark areas in which dredging is being carried on.
Black-and-white horizontally banded buoys mark the limits of areas in which fish
nets and traps are permitted.
Red or black (unlighted) buoys with white tops have the same significance as
similar buoys without the white top, the white painting being added so that the
buoys may be readily picked up at night by a ship's searchlight.
umbering Of Buo#s
Most buoys are given numbers, which are painted conspicuously upon them.
These numbers serve to indicate which side of the channel the buoys mark, and
also facilitate the locating of the buoys upon the charts.
Numbers increase from seaward and are kept in approximate sequence on the
two sides of the channel by omitting numbers as required.
Odd numbered buoys mark the left hand sides of channels entering from
seaward.
Even numbered buoys mark the right hand sides of channels entering from
seaward.
Numbers followed by letters, such as 24A, 24B, 24C, indicate that buoys have
been added to a channel and the series not at once renumbered.
Numbers followed by letters, such as 1 DR, are used on important buoys,
particularly those marking isolated offshore dangers. The letters are initials of the
station name, in this instance Duxbury Reef, and the number has the usual
significance.
Letters, without numbers, are applied in some cases to black-and-white vertically
striped buoys marking fairways, and to red-and-black horizontally banded buoys
marking junctions or bifurcations.
Sha'es Of Buo#s
Definite shape characteristics have been given to a large portion of the unlighted
buoys used in United States waters, to indicate which sides of the channels they
mark. Cylindrical buoys with flat tops are known as can buoys, and if painted
black, mark the left hand sides of channels entering from seaward. Conical buoys
with pointed tops are known as nun buoys, and if painted red, mark the right
hand sides of channels entering from seaward. Cylindrical or can buoys, painted
in red-and-black horizontal bands, with the topmast band black, are used to
indicate an obstruction or a junction of one channel with another, where the
principal channel entering from seaward lies to the right of the buoy. Conical or
nun buoys painted in red and black horizontal bands, with the topmost band red,
have the same meaning except that the principal channel lies to the left of the
buoy. (Spar buoys similarly marked have the same meanings.)
Can or nun buoys with black-and-white vertical stripes indicate the middle of a
channel, and may be passed safely on either side. n these the shape has no
significance.
No special significance is to be attached to the shapes of spar buoys, bell buoys,
whistle buoys, gong buoys, lighted buoys, or combination buoys, their purpose
being indicated by their coloring, numbering, or the characteristic of the light.
SiFes Of Buo#s
The various types of buoys are made in different sizes to fit them for service in
waters of different depths and varying degrees of exposure. These sizes in no
way affect the significance of the buoys and need not be taken into consideration
by mariners except as a means of judging distances.
Color Of Lights
For all buoys having lights, the following system of coloring is used. Green lights
are used only on buoys marking the left hand sides of channels entering from
seaward. Red lights are used only on buoys marking the right hand sides of
channels entering from seaward. White lights may be used on either side of the
channel, and such lights are frequently employed in place of colored lights at
points where a light of considerable brilliance is required, particularly as leading
or turning lights.
&efle)tors
Reflectors are placed upon many unlighted buoys, and greatly facilitate the
locating of the buoys at night by means of a searchlight. Reflectors may be white,
red, or green, and have the same significance as lights of these colors.
Light Chara)teristi)s
Fixed lights (lights that do not flash) may be found on either red or black buoys.
Flashing lights (flashing at regular intervals and at the rate of not more than 30
flashes per minute) are placed on either black buoys or on red buoys.
Quick flashing lights (not less than 60 flashes per minute) are placed on black
buoys and on red buoys at points where it is desired to indicate that special
caution is required, as at sharp turns or sudden constrictions.
nterrupted quick flashing lights (the groups consisting of a series of quick
flashes, with dark intervals between groups of about 4 seconds) and placed on
buoys painted in red-and-black horizontal bands, indicating obstructions or a
junction of one channel with another.
Short-long flashing lights (groups consisting of a short flash and a long flash, the
groups recurring at the rate of about 8 times per minute) are placed on buoys
painted in black-and-white vertical stripes, indicating a fairway or the middle of a
channel where the buoy should be passed close to. The light is always white.
Fish et Buo#s
Particularly, though not exclusively, in the Chesapeake Bay area, buoys are used
to mark the limits of areas in which fish nets and traps are permitted, such areas
and the buoys being indicated also upon the charts. These buoys are chiefly
spars, and are painted in black-and-white horizontal bands.
Intra)oastal %aterwa#s Aids
The aids to navigation marking the ntracoastal Waterway have a characteristic
yellow marking in addition to their usual coloring to indicate which side of the
channel they mark. Buoys have a yellow band at the top. Single pile beacons
have a yellow band at the top. Daymarks on light structures have a yellow
border.
n addition to the special ntracoastal Waterway coloring, all aids in this waterway
are painted in the usual manner to indicate which side of the channel they mark.
All aids in this waterway are colored and numbered from north to south along the
Atlantic coast and from east to west on the Gulf Coast.
Where the ntracoastal Waterway follows another waterway, the aids in which are
colored and numbered in the opposite direction, a yellow triangle is placed on
black buoys, and a yellow square on red buoys. This indicates that buoys with
the triangular markings are to be considered as nun buoys, and the square
marked buoys as can buoys, insofar as a vessel following the ntracoastal
Waterway is concerned.
Chapter - 0*
Anchors And Anchoring
The anchor is the seaman's oldest, simplest and most efficient instrument. How it
works can best be illustrated by the laborer's pick. Take an ordinary pickax, drive,
it down to the head in the earth and attach a fifty-foot line to the handle. No pull
on that line will ever move the pick. On the other hand, if you place yourself
above the pick and pull the line straight up, as is the case when you are raising
an anchor, the pick, like the anchor, is broken out with small effort. That is the
action of the anchor.
%ind Strain Is Small
The wind strain on an anchor is very small, if there is no sea. Wind seldom
breaks out an anchor or causes a boat to drag. The average motor boat, even of
fairly large size, in a good strong wind and no sea perhaps does not put a strain
on an anchor of much more than five hundred pounds. t is the sea that breaks
the anchor out and not the strain of the wind.
Of course the form of a vessel, to a large degree, governs the size of the
anchors. A boat that is deep and narrow with low bow and no deckhouses can
carry much lighter anchors than a vessel that is broad or has a high bow or high
superstructure.
Another thing we must remember is that sail boats at anchor lie pretty well with
head to wind and don't yaw around, while the modern motor boat is a vessel that
tacks all over the harbor. Consequently, she should have proper ground tackle to
hold her, allowing for the action of wind and wave on this type of vessel.
Sea A)tion Brea=s Out The An)hor
The action of the sea is what breaks out the anchor, causing it to drag. As the
vessel is moved up and down by the action of the sea, it naturally tends to lift the
rope or chain connecting the boat to the anchor. Or, to go back to our illustration,
it lifts the anchor as one does the handle of the pick. As long as you can keep the
anchor line down to a small angle with the bottom, your anchor will not break out.
The average yachtsman makes no study of anchoring. He may study navigation
but he does not consider the problem of how to stay safely in the harbor when he
gets there. That study is one that every yachtsman ought to take up for his own
protection.
How *an# An)hors
We come now to the subject of how many anchors a boat should have. Every
boat should carry at least two. Every boat that does real cruising and knocking
around, particularly if it is done single-handed, should carry four.
The question arises as to how heavy these anchors should be. No fixed rule can
be made, but for a normal type of boat, assuming anchors of the usual type (not
patent) of good design with proper length of ropes, the regular anchor should
weigh about a pound per over-all foot. The kedge anchor is more or less used for
fishing or kedging off a bar and is admittedly designed to save labor in handling
larger anchors. This should weigh one-half pound per foot and be of a rather
spidery typelong thin arms, small palm and pointed bill.
Chain !s- Line
Leaving the subject of mooring, the next question is the rope-versus-chain
proposition. That is an argument that has been going on for ages, and nothing
has ever come of it. t is largely a matter of preference. can only tell you what
my preference is, without saying that my preference is correct.
like rope rather than chain up to certain limits. Roughly speaking, that limit is a
boat of 45 to 50 feet in length. The reason that rope cannot be used to advantage
in a larger boat is because the size of the rope has to be such that it makes it
very unwieldy. But, for ordinary anchoring, and assuming that you buy good rope
and that you do not use the rope forever, you can anchor a boat up to 50 feet in
length with a one-inch diameter rope.
Rope in the olden days used to be named by its circumference. n other words, a
rope that was three inches in circumference was called a 3-inch rope. Lately, the
custom has been changed and now they speak of rope in terms of diameter. A
one-inch diameter rope would be a 3-inch rope in the old style term.
Ta=e Care Of >our Line
You must take care of your line. f you haul it in and pass it right down to the
locker without drying, the rope won't last. One of the reasons do not like chain is
because it scars the boat's bow and deck and chafes the stem. Also chain has no
stretch to it.
remember having seen a friend of mine anchored in a small racing sloop in
Lloyd's. n a fathom and a half of water he had about thirty or forty fathoms of
half-inch rope out ahead. A good breeze was blowing and quite a sea running but
the rope would stretch like an elastic band and he rode as easily as could be.
On the other hand if you use chain you have much more weight out ahead and
there is less of a tendency to lift and so break out the anchor. But my personal
preference is rope for boats up to around 45 to 50 feet, and larger than that,
chain.
*a=ing The An)hor Cable Fast
Only a few boats have the anchor cables properly rigged for making fast to the
anchors. Every cable should have an eye splice around a thimble and a shackle
in the thimble. The thread on the shackle should be graphited and in the eye of
the shackle there should be a small piece of cotton line, so that when you put the
pin in the shackle you can make fast around some convenient part and keep the
pin in the shackle from turning and working out. t isn't likely to happen, but it
happened once to a friend of mine. He lost all his gear and his boat went ashore.
Above: Two of the common methods of bending a manila anchor line to an
anchor ring. The eye splice, with thimble and shackle, is also popular
A common practice among both yachtsmen and fishermen, in some localities, is
to bend their anchor line to the ring of the anchor, in preference to the use of eye
splice, thimble and shackle. The anchor bend, fishermen's bend, and bowline
with extra turn in the bight about the ring are all used in this way. Advocates of
this practice point out that, with the line thus quickly detachable from the anchor,
it is more easily stowed or used for towing. The line can be cleaned of mud and
dried thoroughly; then reversed and used with the anchor on the opposite end.
This lengthens the life of the line as sand in the strands cuts them from the
inside.
Pre'aring To An)hor
When entering a harbor and preparing to anchor, there are many things you must
do. t sounds like a lot of useless rigmarole, but after awhile you get so that you
do these things automatically. Before coming into the harbor, unlash the hook on
deck, put in the stock, and lash the pin, ready to let go. Your line, shackled to the
anchor, should be hauled on deck, coiled down and nicely fixed so that it will
render freely when you put your anchor overboard.
By every maritime law and custom a man anchoring has a right to the spot over
which he anchors and free swinging room on all sides, always assuming he
anchors free and clear of other boats and out of the channel. All vessels
anchoring subsequently must keep clear not alone when anchoring, but in stress
of weather afterward. Consequently if another vessel drags down on you that
vessel is liable for the damage. No boat drags and fouls another, except in the
rarest of cases, unless it be through carelessness or neglect.
"i!e Plent# Of S)o'e
Scope is the one most important item in anchoring. With ground tackle of poor
design or improper weight, still if you give any hook scope enough it is likely to
hold. For anchoring in ordinary conditions the general rule is seven times the
depth of water. Needless to say, you should always know in advance, by
consulting the chart or by use of the lead, how deep the water is in which you
propose to lie. When it comes on to blow and the sea makes up you will pay out
more chain or cable till the 7 to 1 ratio is doubled or more. Assuming you are not
anchored in open water and the holding bottom is good and your hooks are even
fair for design and weight, if she drags much after you have a scope of 15 times
the depth something is wrong. Perhaps the anchors are fouled, or the pin has
come out and the stock also. Then the better policy is to get your ground tackle
on deck, seek a more sheltered spot and anchor again. Speaking of getting
hooks on deck reminds me of another thing. Don't ever take turns on the
windlass or bitt over another set of turns. Remove the old turns first and don't
ever put half hitches in an anchor ropeor any other kind that tension and water
will make tighter.
The advantages of a long scope are generally recognized by most motor-boat
men, but probably few realize in just what ways such scope contributes to the
safety of the ship and her ease of riding at an anchor.
The longer the scope the more nearly parallel to the bottom the pull will be, and
the smaller therefore will be the tendency to break the anchor out. f a chain is
used, its weight will help some, but this factor should not be altogether relied
upon, as it has been found out that in a moderate wind, with ten times as much
scope as depth of water, that not a single link of chain rested on the bottom. One
of the chief values of a long scope is the elasticity of the line, which greatly
reduces the pull on the anchor itself and keeps same at a uniform amount,
especially in a seaway or when the boat is yawing around considerably.
$se A Tri' Line
n anchoring on a rocky bottom always use a trip line. n case the anchor should
be caught in a cleft of the rocks no amount of pulling will bring it out unless it is
badly bent. A line made fast to the crown and a little longer than the depth of
water with float will enable you to pull the hook out backwards by slacking away
on the anchor line and hauling on the trip line. n putting out two anchors there is
a great difference of opinion as to whether the lines should be parallel out ahead
or at a small angle with each other. Experts seem to favor the parallel line idea
and agree with them if the vessel is such that she lays head to wind. But if she
has a tendency to tack like the motor boats, am inclined to think a small angle
between the lines is better.
4ee' The Bitter /nd *ade Fast
t may sound ridiculous to say that when dropping the anchor you should not
drop the cable or chain overboard with it, but hundreds and thousands of men
have done it for the simple reason that the bitter end was not made fast.
The Sea An)hor
There is another type of anchor we have not mentioned and that is the sea-
anchor. This is not an anchor at all, but a drag or drogue the purpose of which is
to hold the boat's head to the sea or at a reasonably small angle to it, say around
45 degrees. Because of the deeper sections aft and the drag of the screw an
auxiliary or motor-vessel without sail or power will drift at an angle greater than
90 degrees to the wind and the sea anchor is designed to correct this. t is made
with a heavy large iron hoop to which is fastened a heavy canvas cornucopia-
shaped bag. At the end of this is a ring to which the trip-line is rigged for taking it
aboard. The sea anchor has no place on anything but a small vessel going off-
shore and its bulkiness and difficulty of stowing as well as its ineffectiveness,
unless of rather large size, makes it a poor shipmate on any vessel.
n Anchoring on rocky bottom always use a buoyed trip line
When anchoring take bearings on prominent objects; then you can tell if you are
holding
Ta=e A Bearing
When anchoring take a bearing on some prominent object or, better yet, a cross
bearing. n this way it is easy to tell if you are holding. Should night shut out the
objects used or no objects be available, the small harbor lead (with which every
boat should be equipped) dropped overside will tell you whether you are making
sternway.
Old+Fashioned An)hor
When the old-fashioned style of anchor is let go in water fairly deep the crown of
the anchor generally strikes the bottom first and then the anchor falls over until it
rests on the end of the stock, the arms and flukes lying horizontalthat is, on the
surface of the bottom. As the first drag on the anchor line occurs the anchor
tends to capsize, so to speak, pulling the stock down horizontal and driving one
of the flukes into the bottom. Such a condition will only exist provided the pull is
parallel to the bottom, which results from a sufficient length of anchor line or
scope, as it called. Especially when the anchor is first taking hold a good scope is
desirable. n good holding ground an anchor will completely bury itself, as the
tendency of the old-fashioned anchor is to work down with the pull. This tendency
does not always occur with the double-fluke types.
Holding Power
The holding power is not always proportional to the area of the flukes or palms,
and in some cases an excess of area may be a disadvantage. "When an anchor
drags, and most of them do slightly when first taking hold, an excessively large
fluke breaks up the ground through which it moves and carries the soil along,
leaving a broad furrow behind through which the arms and crown move without
much resistance. A small and well-designed fluke will allow the soil to close in
behind, which keeps a constant friction on the other parts of the anchor. A large
palm will often carry along a shapeless mass of mud, which may add to its
weight, but when the anchor is slipping does not allow it to get a fresh hold, and
in such a case the anchor must be picked up, cleared and let go again.
t is a common rule to allow under ordinary circumstances a length of cable equal
to five times the depth of water, and this should be increased in some cases. t is
always easier to prevent an anchor from dragging than to make it hold after it has
once begun to drag.
f an anchor is known to have dragged in a clayey bottom, it should be picked up
as quickly as possible, for it is certain to be "shod" and to have lost much of its
proper holding power. n letting go where the bottom is of this kind, it is important
to give a good scope from the very beginning to prevent even the little dragging
which is to be commonly expected as the anchor digs down to get its hold.
The Sto)=less An)hor
While all double-fluked anchors are not necessarily stockless, yet most of them
are. This type of anchor has come into general use today, chiefly on account of
the convenience of stowing it. As the ship swings around, often the upward pull
will tend to break out the flukes because the anchor is rolled over. A stock
prevents rolling over. Give the stockless anchor two or three times the scope you
would give to the old-fashioned kedge. To make a stockless anchor first take
hold will probably require scope equal to ten times the depth of the water.
Light %eight An)hors
n recent years a number of light weight anchors of entirely new type have
appeared in which holding power depends less on mass and weight, and more
on scientific design. Examples of the new type of anchor are the Northill, which is
made of stainless steel, and the Seacurity, made of Monel metal. Their holding
power, for a given weight of anchor and scope of line, is many times greater than
that of earlier types. n tests, they have demonstrated holding powers ranging
from five to twenty times as great as older designs of equal weight.
Some idea of the convenience of these anchors may be had when it is realized
that weights of only 12 to 15 pounds are in common use for normal anchoring
requirements aboard 38 and 40-foot cruisers. Their small size, compactness and
light weight are great advantages from the standpoint of easier handling and
better stowage.
&iding Out A "ale
n riding out a gale it may be necessary to let go a second anchor, but where
unlimited space is available the boat will be much safer and easier on one anchor
with a long scope than on two anchors on separate cables. Two cables will hold
a boat longer if bent on the same cable and veered out to double length on a
single anchor than if used separately each with its own anchor down. However, it
must not be overlooked that in such a case all the strain comes on one cable,
while with two down it is distributed over them both.
When there is a possibility that dragging may exist, a sharp lookout should be
kept that will insure instant detection should it happen. The drift lead, good
bearing of objects on shore, or a range may be used for this purpose.
An)horing &ules
1. Examine all parts of ground tackle each time before use. See that the key is
secure and the pin in shackle fastening rope or chain to hook well wired to
prevent backing out and the rope well fastened at bitter end.
2. Always head vessel into wind, or into tide if that be stronger.
A safe and easy rule is to head vessel same as other boats in harbor are lying.
3. Never anchor while vessel has slightest headway. Wait till she has sternway
(reversing motor for this purpose) and then drop the hook, keeping a tension on
the line or chain if possible till hook has touched bottom. Then pay out slowly till
hook bites, when scope can be given more smartly till required length is out.
Make fast on the bitts and let her fetch up well on the line to make the hook dig
in.
4. n shortening hawser do not put new turns over oldalways remove old turns
first and never half hitch the cable.
5. f using rope always serve with canvas to prevent chafe.
6. Give plenty of scopeat least seven times the depth. You can't give too much.
Vessels on a day with light airs from different directions or by action of tide may
swing around their anchors and foul the upright arm with cable. f so, hook will
have no holding power. This will happen, no matter what the scope and should
always be looked to after a day of these conditions.
7. Never drop a hook stock down or put it over in careless manner. Line is sure to
foul on stock and lessen or entirely destroy holding power.
8. Ascertain depth before anchoring and take ranges on shore to fix position.
9. Examine line on bitts and for chafe before turning in or leaving vessel for any
length of time.
10. Always use trip line on rocky bottom or where there are wrecks and other
obstructions to catch the anchor.
Permanent *oorings
To moor permanently, for example, at a yacht club anchorage, you should use a
mushroom anchor of a weight depending upon the size and type of boat, holding
bottom and exposure of the location from winds, currents, etc. The weights of
such mushroom anchors for an average condition will vary from 125 pounds for a
light racing 25 foot sail boat up to 550 pounds for 55 foot cruising motor boat, or
say 10 pounds per foot of length.
Chain and not line should be used, although it is good practice to use a manila or
stainless steel pennant shackled to the upper end of chain (at the buoy if one is
used). This pennant is then carried to bow cleat or mooring bitt on the boat. Of
course such pennant must be watched closely and replaced every season or
oftener if it shows signs of wear.
The size of chain is important. Never use less than &" chain even for the
smallest craft. t is good practice to use a length of large diameter chain at the
mushroom end and shackle a length of smaller diameter chain to this. This
arrangement permits the use of a shorter total length of chain which is an
advantage when mooring space in a club anchorage is limited.
Chapter - 0+
Charts
%hen the broad subject of navigation is considered carefully it will be agreed that
the chart is perhaps the most important item of piloting equipment. Without a
chart, we could seldom know from which point we depart, and we would not
know where we were when we got there. n other words, without some visual
means of representing the surface of the earth, navigation would be hopeless,
except along a known course. There are dozens of different types of charts, and
cartography is an art in itself. However, the mariner is principally interested in
Mercator charts, which are used about 98 per cent of the time, and on which are
located shore lines, prominent landmarks, lights, buoys, radio stations, and other
aids to navigation, together with depths of the water.
Constru)ting A *er)ator Chart
The construction of the Mercator chart is not difficult. However, it is not
necessary for the skilled navigator to construct a chart in these days, and even
should this knowledge be useful, there is a very simple way of constructing a
Mercator chart which is sufficiently accurate for navigation. Referring to Fig. 1,
the Mercator chart may be constructed as follows:
1. Draw a horizontal line near the bottom of the chart for the lower latitude
parallel, say 40 N.
2. Draw a vertical line near the left of the page for the west meridian, say 82 W,
and draw other parallel meridians at any selected scale.
3. Draw a line from the lower left corner, A, making an angle equal to the mid-
latitude (402) with the horizontal line, and cutting the second meridian from the
left at B. The distance AB measured on the west meridian, AC, is the latitude
corresponding to the longitude for latitude 4O2.

4. From C, draw the mid-latitude at an angle equal to the mid-latitude of the next
highest latitude parallel, 42, and continue this process as needed, and number
the longitude lines as required.
As a test of this simple method of constructing a Mercator chart, see how this
construction compares with an ordinary Mercator chart.
Fig- , Pra)ti)al )onstru)tion of a *er)ator )hart
The method is absolutely accurate for a spherical earth, and for practical
purposes of navigation, the earth may be considered round. t is, in fact, as
nearly spherical as an eight inch globe could be constructed without excessive
cost.
Other ProAe)tions
n the past, principal use has been made of the Mercator, polyconic and
gnomonic projections. The principle of the Mercator projection is illustrated in Fig.
2, although actually the Mercator chart is not a projection, but only a
mathematical proportion. The polyconic chart is a development of the earth's
surface on a series of cones, with the point of projection at the center of the
earth, against a series of cones tangent to the earth's surface, in the desired
latitude. These charts are very little used at present, and are being replaced by
Lambert charts which are the development of the earth's surface on one cone
cutting two parallels of latitude with the point of projection at the center of the
earth as shown in
by careful study of Fig. 2, the parallels of latitude on the Lambert chart are
concentric circles, and the meridians of longitude are converging radii of these
circles.
Fig- 1- "reat Cir)le Charts
Heretofore considerable use was made of the great circle chart based on the
gnomonic projection which is a development of the earth's surface on a plane
tangent to the earth at one point, and with the point of projection at the center of
the earth. Great circle charts have the one advantage that a straight line on the
great circle chart is the shortest distance between any two points on that line The
disadvantage is that there is excessive distortion of all areas except those near
the point of tangency of the plane on which the chart is projected. A somewhat
better chart, based on the principle of the great circle chart in that it is a
projection on a plane tangent to the earth at one point, is the stereographic
projection illustrated in Fig. 2. The difference is that the point of projection in the
stereographic projection is at the opposite pole instead of at the center of the
earth. This reduces the distortion and produces an excellent chart.
t may be seen by careful study of Fig. 2, that the Mercator chart, and the
stereographic chart are special cases of the Lambert chart. n the case of the
Mercator chart, the cone of projection of the Lambert chart may be considered as
being extended into a cylinder, and that in the case of the Stereographic chart,
the cone has been flattened until its apex is in the plane of the projection. For
practical navigation, these three projections, the Mercator, Lambert, and
Stereographic are all that are required. t is predicted that we will in the future use
more of Lambert and less of polyconic and gnomonic charts.
%ho Issues Charts
Three departments of the Government issue charts, as follows: The Coast and
Geodetic Survey of the Department of Commerce publishes from its surveys
charts which are suited to the purposes of navigation, commerce, and public
defense. The Hydrographic Office in the Navy Department has charge of the
duplication of charts and plans issued by other nations, and the publication of
charts by the Navy of coasts not under the jurisdiction of the United States; the
Corps of Engineers in the War Department issues charts of the Great Lakes.
Charts Of The "reat La=es
The charts of the Great Lakes and other inland waterways are published by the
War Department Corps of Engineers, with headquarters at United States Lake
Survey Office, Detroit, Michigan. Their charts differ somewhat from the Coast
and Geodetic Survey charts. They show the courses and distances between
various points and harbors on the chart. The buoy system is in general similar to
the coastwise charts, although the symbols used to indicate lights are not
identical. Depths of water are shown on tinted areas up to 30 feet. Depths
greater than this are given in fathoms on untinted areas. Useful information
concerning the heights of water, tabulation of magnetic variation, lists of dry
docks, and other data are printed on them. All lighted aids are emphasized by a
small red circle printed over them which causes them to stand out very clearly on
the chart. On Coast and Geodetic Survey charts, the colored spot is orange.
Four Series Of Charts
There are four series of charts on the Atlantic, Gulf, Pacific, and Philippine sland
Coasts, the first series consisting of sailing charts, which embrace long stretches
of coastsfor instance, from the Bay of Fundy to Cape Hatteras. These are
intended to serve for offshore navigation, or between distant points on the coast,
as for example, Portland, Me., to Norfolk, Va. They are prepared for the use of
the navigator in fixing his position as he approaches the coast from the open
ocean, or when sailing between distant coast ports. They show the offshore
soundings, the principal lights and outer buoys and landmarks visible at a great
distance.
The second series is known as the general charts of the coast. They are on a
scale three times as large as those of the first series, and embrace more limited
areas, such as the Gulf of Maine, etc. They are intended for coastwise navigation
when the vessel's course is mostly within sight of land, and her position can be
fixed by landmarks, lights, buoys, and soundings.
The third series comprises the coast charts, which are constructed on a scale
five times as large as that of the second series. One inch on these charts
represents about one nautical mile, or one and one-seventh statute miles. They
are intended for close coastwise navigation, for entering bays and harbors, and
for navigating the large inland waterways.
The fourth series embraces the harbor charts, which are constructed on large
scales intended to meet the needs of local navigation.
S'e)ial Caution &e?uired On Some Coasts
With respect to a well-surveyed coast, only a fractional part of the soundings
obtained are shown on the chart, a sufficient number being selected to clearly
indicate the contour of the bottom. When the bottom is uneven, the soundings
will be found grouped closely together, and when the slopes are gradual fewer
soundings are given. Each sounding represents an actual measure of depth and
location at the time the survey was made. Shores and shoals where sand and
mud prevail, and especially bar harbors and the entrances of bays and rivers
exposed to strong tidal currents and a heavy sea, are subject to continual change
of a greater or less extent, and important ones may have taken place since the
date of the last survey. n localities which are noted for frequent and radical
changes, such as the entrance to a number of estuaries on the Atlantic, Gulf, and
Pacific coasts, notes are printed on the charts calling attention to the fact.
t should also be remembered that in coral regions and where rocks abound it is
always possible that a survey with lead and line, however detailed, may have
failed to find every small obstruction. For these reasons when navigating such
waters the customary sailing lines and channels should be followed, and those
areas avoided where the irregular and sudden changes in depth indicate
conditions which are associated with pinnacle rocks or coral heads.
Chart &eadings
Chart reading aims to give such explanation concerning the various symbols and
standards as will establish easily remembered relations between these graphic
representations and the physical features which they represent. Briefly stated,
the standards governing charts are the following:
The "shore line" is the boundary between water and land at high water. This
boundary is shown by a continuous line wherever data are sufficient to plot the
same with any degree of accuracy; otherwise a dashed line is used, indicating
"approximate" delineation.
Vertical lettering is used for any feature dry at high water and not affected by the
movement of the waters. (See the designation of Towers and Bell in the
illustration at the right.)
Leaning lettering is used to describe such features as are parts of the
hydrography. (See the manner in which hrd s is used to indicate hard sand in the
same illustration.)
STA(A&( S>*BOLS $S/( O CHA&TS
Very often, on smaller scale charts, a small reef can not be distinguished from a
small islet; the proper name for either might be " Rock." Following the standard of
lettering the feature in doubt is an islet if its name is in vertical letters, but is a
reef if lettered in leaning characters.
ABB&/.IATIOS FO& $S/ %ITH H>(&O"&APHIC S>*BOLS
Abbre!iations &elating To Bottoms
Cl cloy, Co. coral, G. grovel, M. mud, Oz. ooze, f. pebbles, Sstm}, Sh. shells, Sp.
specs, S. stones, brk. broken, col. colcareout, crs. coarse, dec decayed, dk.
drlc,fy. flinty, fne. fine, grd. ground, g)y. griWy, lird. nord, )rg. forge. f. fight rky.
rocky, ror. rotten, sff. soft, sml. small, spk. speckled, s(f. stiff, sir. srreoky, vol.
volcanic, bk. black, br. brown, bu. blue, gn. green, ay. gray, rd. red, wh. while, yl.
yellow, lilt, sticky, Crs. grass
"eneral Abbre!iations
Bn. beacon, Rk. rock, Wk. wreck, N R.S. nAvol radio station, N.R.C naval rAdo
direction Under (radio compass) sjatton, P.D.posihon doubtful, P.Apposition
Approximore, E. D. existence doubtful
Abbre!iations &elating To Lights
F. fixed, Fl. flashing, Occ occulting, Alt. alternating, Gp. group,
R. red, W. while, G. green, B. Uue,SEC.iector, (U) ur>watched,
ev. every, m. mites, min. minules, sec. seconds, vis. visible.
Ok. quick, Qk. interrupted <juick, SL. snorl-long.
OBSC. obscured, AERO, aeronautical ghl
Abbre!iations &elating To Fog Signals
(F.BJ log bell, (F. D) fog diaphone. (f. G) fog gun, (F H fog horn, F.S log siren,
(F.TJ fog rumpef, (F.VVJ fog whistle, S.B submarine fog belL
Abbre!iations &elating To Buo#s
C can, N nun, S spar, H.S. norizonla( slripes, B. fc/ocf, H. red, W.ukile,V.S.
vertical stripes, G green, Y.yellow,Ch. checkered, Rf. reflector
(e'ths
Depths of water are shown very clearly by numbers which indicate the depth in
feet or fathoms as the case may be, below mean low water. t is well to examine
the chart to determine whether the soundings are in feet or fathoms, or even a
combination of the two. Some charts are made with depths under thirty feet given
in feet, while greater depths are given in fathoms. Further, these charts would
have the depths in feet on tinted areas so that they can be quickly distinguished.
Contour lines which run through all depths of the same dimensions are shown on
most charts. A line consisting of a particular characteristic dotted line will run
through all depths and can readily be followed.
(angers And Aids To a!igation
Reefs, ledges, sunken rocks, rocks awash, and foul ground arc marked by
symbols. Discolored water, ripples, current, and weeds are noted by symbol or
lettering.
Aids to navigation are shown by symbols and by abbreviations, or by as much
descriptive text as the scale of the chart may admit.
To render these symbols distinct it is necessary to greatly exaggerate these aids
in size, as compared with the scale of the chart; therefore certain parts of the
symbols have been agreed upon to indicate the exact position of such aids, as
follows:
The center of the base line of any symbol presenting a horizontal line, namely,
mooring buoys, beacons, light vessels.
How Buo#s Are Shown
All buoys, excepting mooring buoys, are shown by compressed diamond-shapes
and a small dot, denoting the anchor ring. This dot indicates the proper position.
To avoid interference with other features upon the chart it is often found
necessary to show the diamond-shape at various bearings to the anchor ring, so
that at times the symbol might be upside down. Since the buoys are also shown
with such superimposed marks, as drums, cones, and balls attention should be
given to the fact that the anchor ring does not touch the diamond shape, while
the distinguishing marks are joined to the top of the buoy-symbol. For example:
Numerous soundings close together might compel the buoy to be shown so that
the top of the symbol bears in the opposite direction from the actual position; the
isolated dot is the "position" part of the symbol, the opposite ring (connected with
the buoy by a staff) is the distinctive mark.
The buoy symbol is shown "open"in outlinefor buoys of any color other than
black; black buoys are shown by "solid" shape. f the buoy system shown upon
the chart consists or the black and one other color only, the explanation under
the title will ascribe such color to the "open" symbol. Thus upon one chart it may
be found to denote "red buoy" while upon another chart it may be stated as
"white" or "green"; the meaning of the "open" symbol varies, the meaning of the
"solid" symbol is always the same"black."
Upon any chart containing buoys of various colors besides black the color will be
found stated by abbreviation or in full alongside each symbol or in the form of a
note on the chart.
The buoy symbol, with anchor dot surrounded by rays, denotes a "lighted" buoy;
surmounted by a crescent (points downward) denotes a "whistling" buoy;
surmounted by a half disk with dot above the same denotes a "bell" buoy.
A line drawn between the upper and lower points of the diamond-shape (longer
axis) denotes "vertical stripes"; a line drawn between the side points (shorter
axis) denotes "horizontal stripes"; both lines drawn denote "checkered" buoy.
Note: The most recent sheets summarizing symbols and abbreviations used on
charts show the compressed diamond shape and dot as a standard buoy symbol,
differentiating several specific types of buoy by lettering or abbreviations
alongside the symbol as follows: bell, BELL; gong, GONG; whistle, WHS; can,
C; nun, N; spherical, SP; spar, S. The newest charts use a heavy black dot for a
light, emphasized by a solid magenta spot of color instead of an open circle.
Caution In $sing Buo#s
While buoys are valuable aids, the mariner should always employ a certain
amount of caution in being guided by them. t is manifestly impossible to rely on
buoys always maintaining their exact position, or, indeed, of finding them at all.
Heavy seas, strong currents, ice, or collisions with passing vessels may drag
them from their positions or cause them to disappear entirely, and they are
especially uncertain in unfrequented waters, or those of nations which do not
keep a good lookout on their aids to navigation. Buoys should therefore be
regarded as warnings and not as infallible navigation marks, especially when in
exposed places; and a ship's position should always, when possible, be checked
by bearings or angles of fixed objects on shore. The lights shown by lighted
buoys can not be implicitly relied upon.
The Com'ass &ose
The top of the chart is generally north. n addition a compass rose is printed in
several places on the chart giving both the true north and the magnetic north with
the variation between them at the time the chart was made. As this is a variable
quantity the annual rate of increase or decrease is noted from which the variation
at any time can be quickly found.
*agneti) .ariation
Upon charts of small scale and greater territory, coast charts, and ocean charts,
"variation lines" are given because the magnetic conditions differ greatly in the
various localities represented upon one chart.
Identifi)ation Of Lights
Before coming within range of a light the navigator should acquaint himself with
its characteristics (see page 87), so that when the light is sighted it will be
recognized. The charts, sailing directions, and light lists give information as to the
color, character, and range of visibility of the various lights. Care should be taken
to note all of these and compare them when the light is seen. f the light is of the
flashing, revolving, or intermittent variety, the duration of its period should be
noted to identify it. f a fixed light, a method that may be employed to make sure
that it is not a vessel's light is to descend several feet immediately after sighting it
and observe if it disappears from view. A navigation light will usually do so while
a vessel's light will not. The reason for this is that navigation lights are, as a rule,
sufficiently powerful to be seen at the farthest point to which the ray can reach
without being interrupted by the earth's curvature; they are therefore seen the
moment the ray reaches the observer's eye on deck, but are cut off if the light is
lowered. A vessel's light, on the other hand, is of limited intensity and does not
carry beyond a point within which it is visible at all heights.
Care must be taken to avoid being deceived on first sighting a light. The glare of
a powerful light is often seen beyond the distance of visibility of its direct rays by
the reflection downward from particles of mist in the air. The same mist may
cause a white light to have a reddish tinge, or it may obscure a light except within
short distances. A fixed light when first picked up may appear flashing, as it is
seen on the crest of a wave and lost in the hollow.
Some lights are made to show different colors in different sectors within their
range. n such lights one color is generally used on bearings whence the
approach is clear and another covers areas where dangers are to be found. By
consulting the chart or books the explanation of the color of the ray in which you
find yourself is found.
Charts For Instru)tion Pur'oses
The U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey has made available for instruction
purposes copies of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Chart
No. 1210-Tr at ten cents a copy. This is a 1/80,000 full size chart, Martha's
Vineyard to Block sland.
Chapter - 0,
The Compass
Trust >our Com'ass
As An introductory remark we should like to advise everyone to *^- believe in his
compass. Many more disasters have occurred on account of one's disbelief in his
compass than to the contrary. t is true that the compass has errors but these
errors are easily determined and after they have been determined make the
compass as accurate as a watch. Therefore, believe what your compass tells you
and it will always guide you to safety provided you are careful not to let any
magnetic substance cause any unknown error.
The *agneti) Poles
When reference is made in this text to a magnetic north pole, it must be
understood that this is not a precise point toward which the compass needle
points exactly. t does point to it, approximately, because the needle tends to
align itself with lines of force surrounding the earth, terminating at the North and
South Magnetic Poles, the locations of which do not coincide with the geographic
(true) poles. Since these lines of force are not straight, the compass may point
slightly east or west of the magnetic north pole at any given point. The magnetic
north pole is located in an area somewhat north of Hudson Bay; the geographic
(true) north pole is at the extremity of the earth's axis of rotation.
%hat The Com'ass Is
The compass is nothing more than a magnet suspended so as to be allowed to
swing freely in a horizontal plane. n theory, an ordinary knitting needle
magnetized by drawing a toy magnet along its length a few times, and
suspended from the center by means of a thread so that it can swing in a
horizontal plane, is as much of a compass as the ones we use on our boats to-
day. f such a needle is magnetized and suspended it will immediately assume a
north and south position.
But the compass, as we know it, consists of a number of magnetized needles
bound together, and suspended or pivoted from beneath. On this bundle of
magnetized needles we have a card mounted to give us a better sense of
direction, and allow us to determine directions other than north and south, which
would be the only two indicated by the magnetized needles if we had no card
mounted thereon.
There has been little or no change in the mariner's compass for centuries. n
theory and construction, it is practically the same as it was more than one
hundred years ago. The only changes which have been made are refinement in
its construction, and the markings on the compass card.
The (r# Com'ass
The older compasses were known as dry compasses; that is, simply magnetic
needles and a card pivoted at the center. Naturally such an arrangement was
very sensitive and responded to the motion of the ship very freely. With the
coming of the steam engine, and later, the internal combustion motor, it was
found that the vibrations set up by the machinery were such as to keep the
compass card in constant motion, which naturally made it unreliable as a
navigating instrument. The development of the liquid compass followed, and this
type overcomes to a large extent the difficulty and trouble experienced with the
dry compass.
The Li?uid Com'ass
The liquid, or wet compass, is practically no different from the dry compass, with
the exception that a liquid generally consisting of a mixture of 55 per cent, water,
and 45 per cent, alcohol is introduced into the bowl of the compass, and then the
latter is sealed up. The liquid not only prevents the compass needle and card
from responding to small vibrations due to power plants and the sea, but also
tends to buoy up or float the needle and card, and thus make it rest more lightly
on its pivot. This allows the card to turn more freely as the ship is turned, or
rather to hold its position more steadily as the ship's bow is turned away from the
compass.
The smaller and less expensive compasses use kerosene as the filling liquid,
and some of the newer makes use oil instead of alcohol and water. On account
of the nature of the various kinds of fluids used, the compass as we know it is
practically non-freezable in ordinary latitudes.

One of the great advances in the construction of modern compasses is the
development of the spherical compass. This has a hemispherical shaped glass
top which magnifies the card. Furthermore, with this type of construction, the
card is much steadier.
The Lubberline
Compasses are fitted with a gimbal ring to keep the bowl and card level under
every circumstance of a ship's motion in a seaway, the ring being connected with
a binnacle or compass box by means of journals or knife edges.
On the inside of every compass bowl is drawn a vertical black line called the
lubberline, and it is imperative that the compass be placed in the binnacle or on
the boat so that a line joining the pivot and the lubberline shall be parallel to the
keel of the boat. Thus, the lubberline always indicates the compass direction on
which the boat is heading.
The Card
While a compass card may be graduated in either points or degrees only, most of
those used today on pleasure craft show both systems. The outer edge of the
card has its circumference divided into 360 degrees, usually with each tenth
degree numbered. This reads from 0 degrees at North clockwise around to 360
(0).
Just inside this there is a concentric circle graduated in 32 major divisions known
as points, each subdivided ordinarily into half-points and quarter-points.
An older type of card had degree markings running from 0 at North and 0 at
South to 90 degrees at East and West.
The card divided into 360 degrees is known as the Navy type, while the one
divided into both degrees and points is used by the Merchant Marine. On the
Navy card, the only points indicated are the four cardinal and four inter-cardinal
points, shown by heavy markers.
Points
Division of the compass card according to points is a most interesting one. While
the use of the card divided into degrees from 0 to 360 is becoming more popular,
many boatmen prefer the point system. t is well to be familiar with both.
As mentioned above, the card is divided into 32 major divisions known as points,
each one of these points having a particular name. The four principal or cardinal
points are known as North, South, East and West.

The inter-cardinal points are the ones midway between the cardinals, and these
are given a name which is a combination of the points which they bisect; that is,
the point midway between North and East is known as Northeast, etc. This gives
us eight divisions.
We now subdivide these eight divisions in half, and once again we give these
eight new points names which are combinations of the two points which they are
midway between. For example, the point midway between North and Northeast is
North Northeast. That point midway between South and Southwest is South
Southwest.
The illustration above shows four types of cards available today. Card A has its
outer edge divided into 360 degrees, quarter-points concentrically arranged on
the inner circle. Card B is Navy style, divided into 360 degrees, clockwise from 0
at North to 360, every 10th degree numbered. Cardinals and intercardinals are
the only point divisions indicated on this type of card. At C, the quarter-points
show at the outer edge while the 360-degree divisions are superimposed upon
the quarter-points. At D, the card is divided into quarter-points only. Many prefer
cards C and D for sailing vessels because of their plainness
To get the additional 16 points it is simply necessary to divide points which we
have already determined in a similar way as before. Here again the new points
will have names corresponding to the points to which they are adjacent. The
word "by" will be used in all of these 16 new points. For instance, the point
between North and North Northeast is known as North by East, because it is
adjacent to North, and in an easterly direction from North. The point between
Southeast and South Southeast is known as Southeast by South, because it is
adjacent to the inter-cardinal point Southeast, and in a southerly direction from it.
3uarter Points
For the purpose of steering more accurate courses than would be possible by
following only 32 points, we must subdivide the points into halves and quarters.
The naming of these quarter points is most interesting, and must be thoroughly
mastered by the motor boatman.
Naturally it will be seen that every quarter point might have two names; that is, it
might refer to the point either to the right or to the left of it. For example, the
quarter point just to the right of North could logically be called North 4. East, or it
might be called North by East North. Either of these designations would
probably convey to the man at the wheel the course which it was desired that he
should follow. However, and perhaps unfortunately, there is a certain method of
calling these quarter points, and again we are confronted with two methods
instead of one.
The older method appears to many to be the most logical one, although both are
correct.
Pages 118 and 119 give a complete comparison of the point and degree
methods of naming compass directions. t is not assumed that this table will be
memorized but its existence should be kept in mind for future reference.
*ounting The Com'ass In The Boat
A compass may be of the most expensive type and, in itself, highly accurate yet
useless in running courses if it is incorrectly installed in the boat. The lubberline,
as has been pointed out, represents the boat's head but only if the compass itself
is so placed with respect to the keel or boat's center line that it too will lie in a line
parallel with the keel.
When possible, it is well to have the compass in the boat's center line, over the
keel. t should be located ahead of the wheel at a height where it will be easy to
read and in such a manner that the helmsman's eye can drop down to it easily
without actually having his attention diverted from the course ahead.
f the center of the compass cannot be placed amidships directly over the fore
and aft keel line, then a line should be struck parallel to the keel line and the
lubberline should lie in this line.
Preferably the wheel and compass, if they must be on one side, should be on the
starboard side, giving a clear view of the danger zone from dead ahead to two
points abaft the starboard beam.
Electrical wires near a compass may affect it. When two wires are contained in a
single cable, the effect of each is neutralized. n the case of single conductor
wires, it is well to twist pairs together for the same reason.
The above illustration is intended to indicate one of the two ways of naming the
quarter points of the compass. The arrows indicate the numerical order of
naming the quarter points, viz.: , and , or , and , depending upon the
direction of the arrow. n this method of naming the quarter points (which is
known as the older method) we work from each cardinal and inter-cardinal point
toward the 22-degree points as indicated by the arrows, thus, N E, N 2 E, N
E, N x E, N x E E, N x E E, N x E E, NNE. Now note how the fractional
points change, thus: NE x N N, NE x N N, NE N N, NE x N, etc.

The illustration on the right indicates the other or newer or Navy method of
designating quarter points. As before the arrows indicate the numerical sequence
of the fractional points thus: N E, N E, N E, N x E, N x E E, N x E E,
N E E, N NE, N NE E, N NE E, N NE E, NE x N. Now a change to
this: NE N, NE N, NE N, NE, NE E, NE E, NE E, NE x E, NE E
E, NE x E E, NE E E, E NE, E NE E, E NE E, E NE E, E x N,
E N, E N, E N.
The table on pages 118 and 119 also shows the two methods.
Chapter - 10
Compass %rrors
Chapter x was devoted to the preliminary study of the compass, the learning of
the various names for the thirty-two points of the compass and the names of all
of the quarter points. We now come to a further consideration of the compass,
and principally to its many errors and the application of variation and deviation as
applying to small boat practice.
As we endeavored to emphasize in the last chapter, there is nothing mysterious
about the compass or any of its actions. Therefore, the motor boatman should
not consider his compass an inconquerable foe, but quite to the contrary, he
should learn to respect and believe in what his compass tells him. More disasters
have occurred due to the fact that the mariner believed that he knew more than
his compass, than from any other cause. t is true that the compass is subject to
certain errors to be explained in this chapter but these errors may be readily
determined and allowed for. Therefore, every motor boatman should study his
compass, learn to believe in it and make use of it on every possible occasion.
4inds Of Courses
The three methods by which bearings or courses may be expressed are:
(a) True, when they refer to the North geographical pole.
(b) Magnetic, when they refer to the North magnetic pole. To change magnetic
courses to true courses, the former must be corrected for variation.
(c) Compass, when they refer to the particular boat's compass on each particular
heading and must be corrected for the deviation on that heading for conversion
to the magnetic course and for both deviation and variation for conversion to true
hearings or true courses.
Variation is the angle between two lines drawn the ship's position. One is a
magnetic meridian through the magnetic north pole MN, the other a Ml through
the geographic (true) north pole. f the north point of the compass cord is drawn
to the west or left of geographic north fas shown), variation is westerly. f it s
drawn to the east or right of geographic north, variation is easterly. When
changing from magnetic to true courses or vice verso allow for variation only.
When changing from true to compass courses, or vice versa, allow for both
variation and deviation passing.

n addition to variation, there may be another error of the compass, caused by
various magnetic substances on the boat itself attracting or repelling certain
points of the compass. This error is known as deviation. When the north pole of
the compass is turned to the left, or to the west from its normal position, as
illustrated above, the deviation is said to be westerly. f the north pole is pulled
toward the east, or to the right, the deviation is said to be easterly. Obviously, the
deviation s different for each-particular boat, and furthermore, is different for
each particular heading of the boat
n the diagram at the right some liberties ore taken, for the sake of simplification,
in illustrating the behavior of the magnetic compass. ts needle tends to align
itself, not with the geographical (true) converging at the north pole, but rather with
the magnetic lines surrounding the north pole in the general area indicated at
MN. These lines of force are neither straight nor constant, varying according to
the locality and the particular year. Aligning itself with magnetic median, the
compass (disregarding deviation) determines magnetic direction, courses,
bearings and headings, as distinguished from the true directions established by
reference to the true geographical meridians. The angular" difference between a
true meridian and a magnetic meridian is the variation at that particular locality.
At A, true north lies on the boat's course, while her compass (disregarding
deviation) points, roughly, to MN. Similarly, at D, C, and D, the compass tends to
align itself with the magnetic meridian of the locality. At A and B, variation is
westerly; at D it is easterly; at points near C it approaches zero. There is a slight
yearly change in variation at ony particular place (as indicated on the chart). This
annual change is small and can be considered nearly constant although it does
vary slightly at times
.ariation
f you were on your boat at the position marked A, and your boat was heading as
indicated by the dotted line, she would be heading true North, but the compass
would be pointing in a decidedly different direction, indicated by the dotted line
from A with a point marked MN. n other words, your boat would be headed true
North, but the magnetic heading would be quite different. This angular difference
between the true North and the magnetic North is known as the variation of the
compass, shown in the figure by the angle between North Pole, A, and MN.
This variation is not constant; it is different with every change in geographical
location. f your position is at B, your boat is still heading true North, and your
compass towards MN. The angle between true North and magnetic North at B is
different and smaller than when at A. n other words, the variation at B is less
than at A. n both cases magnetic North has been to the West, or to the left, of
true North, which makes the variation westerly.
Now consider your position at C. n this case your boat is heading toward true
North, and also toward magnetic North. f the magnetic meridian coincides
exactly with the true direction of geographic north, there is no variation. (The
magnetic meridians are never perfectly straight lines.)
At D we again have a variation, but in this case magnetic North is to the East, or
to the right of, true North, and we have an easterly variation. At E, the boat is
heading toward true North, but going away from magnetic North. n such a case,
while the boat is heading North, the compass is pointing South, and we have 180
degrees variation.
Change In Lo)ation
As has just been mentioned, the variation of the compass is different for every
geographical location. n the vicinity of New York City the variation is about 13
degrees westerly; around Portland, Me., it is about 20 degrees westerly. As we
go West the variation becomes less and less until in the vicinity of Lake Superior
we have zero variation. Farther West than this the variation becomes easterly,
and increases in magnitude.
(etermining .ariation
One may now ask how to determine what this variation is. This is a relatively
simple matter, as on every one of our Go eminent charts this information is given.
The illustration on this page shows what is known as the compass rose on the
chart, several of which are printed on every one. The note in the center of this
rose, "Variation 17 degrees 45 minutes West in 1921," gives the information in
regard to variation at the particular location where this rose is printed. From the
statement directly below, "Annual increase 4 minutes," it will be recognized that
variation is not a constant quantity, but is increasing or diminishing all the time.
To calculate what the variation is in 1922, we simply must add 4 minutes to the
variation as noted.
At the left illustrates a compass rose showing a westerly deviation of about one
and one-half points. By comparing this compass rose with the one shown at right,
ndicating an easterly variation, one will be able to readily distinguish between
the two. To determine the amount and direction of variation it is only necessary to
refer to the compass rose on the various charts. This is invariably given in the
center of every compass rose. t should also be noted that the variation of the
compass varies in the amount for a particular locality from year to year. This
variation in variation is also noted on the compass rose. t will be noticed that the
annual increase is four minutes. Therefore, to determine the amount of variation
for any particular year it is only necessary to do a little calculating
At the right shows the compass rose on the chart showing an easterly variation of
23 degrees, which is equivalent to approximately two points. t will be
remembered that by easterly variation we mean that the magnetic north is to the
right or eastward of the true north. One will notice by observing this compass
rose that the rose consists of an outer and inner circle each of which is divided
into a certain number of divisions. t will also be noted that the divisions do not
correspond. The outer circle indicates true directions and the inner circle
indicates magnetic directions. When determining true courses one will have to
refer to the outer set of divisions yet, while working with magnetic courses or
directions, he must use the directions indicated on the inner circle
On this compass rose there are an inner and an outer set of divisions, the inner
one being in points and quarter points, and the outer in degrees. The two do not
correspondthat is the North magnetic division is not pointing to zero degrees
but to a division on the outer circle which is to the right or to the left of the zero
division depending whether the variation is easterly or westerly. The explanation
of this is that the outer divisions in degrees refer to the true North, and are known
as true courses, while the inner divisions refer to the magnetic North. t is almost
invariably true that when courses are given in degrees they are true courses, and
that when they are given in points they are magnetic courses. The magnetic ones
are far the more simpler for our use, as we need to take no account of variation
whatsoever in dealing with magnetic courses. Variation comes in only when we
refer to true courses.
(e!iation
There is one error entering into our compasses both when we talk about
magnetic, as well as when referring to true courses, and this error is caused by
magnetic substances such as iron and steel on our boats. The error caused by
the effect which this magnetic substance has on our compass, moving the needle
one way or the other, is called deviation. t exists to a greater or less degree on
every vessel. Moreover, deviation on any boat is not constant; that is, it is
different in amount for every different heading of a boat.
(e!iation .aries %ith Heading
The figure, page 127, shows why this difference in the amount of deviation
occurs. Here we have three boats. n the first case, the boat is heading
approximately North. The engine diagram is used to represent the center of
magnetic attraction on the boat. When the boat is heading approximately North,
as shown, the pull of this center of magnetic attraction will be exerted most
strongly on the South point of the compass, and in the direction which is
approximately Southeast.
As the boat swings around to the easterly direction, it is apparent that the
attraction is on altogether different points of the compass. Naturally, this will
cause the compass to have a deviation decidedly different from that of the first
case.
As the boat swings around to a westerly direction, the pull of the magnetic
substance on the boat is again different, and causes an entirely different effect
on the compass. n other words, the deviation is different on every different
heading.
t cannot be assumed that because we have one point westerly deviation when
heading North we will have the same amount when heading East or South.
The (e!iation Card
The illustration shows one form of deviation card which is very convenient. The
inner compass is magnetic, and the outer one represents the compass on your
craft. Put your boat over a number of courses whose magnetic direction can be
determined from the chart, and note the headings as indicated by the compass.
Draw a line in each case on the above card from the point on the inner
(magnetic) compass, representing the chart course, to the outer point which is
indicated by your compass.

At the left is shown a convenient method of determining one's compass deviation
by putting the boat over a number of courses whose directions are known or can
be determined readily from the chart. For example, that piece of water shown is
part of Huntington Bay. An examination of the chart will show a number of fixed
aids to navigation, buoys, headlands, etc. For example, we have bell buoy No.
13-A off Lloyd's Point, a red and black spar off Eaton's Neck, can buoy No. 13 off
Eaton's Point, Eaton's Point Lighthouse, Lloyd's Harbor Lighthouse, a light buoy
off the entrance to Northport Bay, a white cupola at Eaton's Neck shore line, etc.
The magnetic directions between each two of these can be readily determined
from the chart itself. t will be found, for example, that the red and black spar
bears east by north from the bell buoy No. 13-A, therefore, if one's boat is sailed
over this course and the compass indicates any other course than east by north
then one will know that he has a certain amount of deviation to this compass on
this heading. After this has been observed and by reversing the direction of his
boat so that he is running from the red and black spar toward bell buoy No. 13-A,
which is fti a west by south direction he will be able to determine deviation of his
compass on this heading by observing the direction indicated by his compass
and comparing this with the magnetic direction, which is west by south. n the
same way when sailing from bell buoy 1 3-A toward the can buoy No. 13, which
is in a westerly direction, he can determine his deviation on this heading. n a
similar way, following over all possible courses he will be able to get his deviation
on a large number of headings
Going over eight courses and the reverse of them will give you the deviation of
your compass on sixteen different headings. You will then have a deviation card
which will show the compass course which should be steered for any magnetic
course.
/asterl# And %esterl# (e!iation
When the north pole of your compass is swung to the right, or toward the East by
the magnetic substance on the boat, the deviation is said to be easterly. When
the north pole is swung to the left or to the West, we have a westerly deviation.
Deviation refers to the north point of the compass, and to no other pointwhich
fact should be remembered by everyone.
Corre)ting And $n)orre)ting Courses
When changing from magnetic to true, by applying variation; from compass to
magnetic, by applying deviation; or from compass to true by applying variation
and deviation, consider that you are "correcting" courses.
You are "uncorrecting" when changing true to magnetic, magnetic to compass or
true to compass.
A''l#ing (e!iation
The process of applying deviation to determine compass courses is one which
the navigator must do for himself, and make himself a thorough master of. No
course can be set or bearing plotted without the application of this problem, and
a mistake in its solution may produce serious consequences. Rules as to the
application of deviation are of little service. The seaman must practice and work
them out for himself. (See also pages 130 and 131 for recommended rules and
methods.)
Compass courses and magnetic courses should not be confused. The former is
that shown by the compass on your boat, and the magnetic or correct course is
the one shown by the chart. To find a compass course when the deviation of your
compass is westerly, the compass course which you should steer will be to the
right of the magnetic or correct course. n other words, apply a westerly error to
the right to find the compass course which should be steered. When the error of
your compass is easterly, the compass course which should be steered to allow
for this easterly error, is to the left.
To find the magnetic or true course from your compass, just the reverse of the
above must be done; apply an easterly error to the right, and a westerly error to
the left.
The navigator should always regard himself as facing the point under
consideration from a position at the center of the compass when he applies an
error.
To Find Com'ass Course
From the above it will be noted that when the error (variation, deviation, local
attraction, or a combination of these) of your compass is westerly, then the
compass course which you should steer will be to the right of the magnetic
course (course on which it is desired to put the boat, found from the chart or
sailing directions) or in other words apply a westerly error to the right to find the
compass course which should be steered.
When the error of your compass (variation, deviation, local attraction, or a
combination of these) is easterly, then the compass course to be steered by your
compass to allow for this easterly error will be to the left of the correct course
which you wish to follow.
To Find Corre)t Course
The correct course or the direction which you really are going is to the right of the
course shown by your compass, when same has an easterly error, and to the left
of the course shown by your compass when its error is westerly.
When the compass card is arranged from 0 at North, around the card clockwise
through the entire 360 degrees, the case becomes much simpler and is easy to
memorize. n this case, when it is desired to change a true course into a
magnetic course or compass course, or to change a magnetic to a compass
course, the variation or deviation, as the case may be, should be added when
same is westerly and when the error is easterly its amount should be subtracted.
When it is desired to change a compass course into either a magnetic or true
course, add an easterly error and substract a westerly error from the compass
course, or when changing a magnetic course to a true course add an easterly
variation and subtract a westerly deviation from the magnetic course given.
When the compass card is arranged in points instead of in degrees, to get the
magnetic or compass course from the given true course when the variation and
deviation are also given, imagine your own position at the center of the compass
card and apply an easterly error to the left and a westerly error to the right; the
term error meaning the algebraic sum of the amount of deviation and variation, if
the case requires that both be used, or if not, then to the amount of either
variation or deviation which must be taken into consideration.
To find correct course or the direction which the vessel is really heading when
there is a compass error, apply the amount of the error to the right, if the error is
east, and to the left if same is westerly.
/Cam'les
Example 1: Example 2:
True Course: SW Compass Course: SE
Variation: 1 point W Deviation: 2 point E
Find: Magnetic Course Find: Magnetic Course
Answer: SW x W Answer: SE S
Example 3: Example 4:
True Course: SW Compass Course: SE
Variation: 1 point W Deviation: 2 point E
Deviation: 2 point E Variation: 1 point West
Find: Compass Course Find: True Course
Answer: SW 2 W Answer: SE 2 E
Example 5: Example 6:
Magnetic Course: NW Magnetic Course: NE
Deviation: 1 point W Variation: 2. point W
Find: Compass Course Find: True Course
Answer: NW x N Answer: NE 2 N
Correct Easterly Errors Clockwise (CEEC)
f the sailor will simply memorize the expression "Correct Easterly Errors
Clockwise" or its symbol "C E E C", every problem in deviation, variation or both
can be readily solved without the necessity of memorizing further formulae.
The diagram on page 132 indicates the proper solution of all problems involving
true, magnetic or compass courses or any combination of these in the application
of variation or deviation or both.
Simply remember the expression "C E E C," "Correct Easterly Errors Clockwise"
and that when you change any factor of "C E E C" (as for example when you
have a westerly error or when you are "uncorrecting" instead of "correcting"), you
must change two of them but only two of them.
There can be but a total of three correcting problems, namely:
(1) Changing magnetic to true (by applying variation).
(2) Changing compass to magnetic (by applying deviation).
(3) Changing compass to true (by applying variation and deviation).
n all of these three cases (when the error is easterly) apply CEEC (Correct
Easterly Errors Clockwise) or in the case of westerly errors (by changing two and
only two of the factors in CEEC) apply C W E CC (correct westerly errors
counter-clockwise).
The same rule holds equally good in the three un-correcting problems, as is
illustrated in the diagram on page 132.
By changing two of the factors and only two in "CEEC" every problem in variation
and deviation may be solved.
Post such a diagram alongside the compass on your boat.
CO&&/CT /AST/&L> /&&O&S CLOC4%IS/
f the Expression ``CEEC" is Kept in Mind, All Problems of Compass Errors and
Their Application May Be Solved
CORRECTNG (C)
is changing (1) Magnetic to True by applying Variation
or changing (2) Compass to Magnetic by applying Deviation
or changing (3) Compass to True by applying Variation and Deviation
UNCORRECTNG (UC)
is changing (4) True to Magnetic by applying Variation
or changing (5) Magnetic to Compass by applying Deviationor
changing (6) True to Compass by applying Variation and Deviation
WHEN CHANGNG CEEC
for westerly (W) errors, and for uncorrecting (UC):-
Always change two of the factors (arid only two) in the basic CEEC formula. This
will give the following combinations which will solve all problems:-
C Correct C Correct UC Uncorrect UC Uncorrect
E Easterly W Westerly E Easterly W Westerly
E Errors E Errors E Errors E Errors
C Clockwise CC Counter CC Counter C Clockwise
Clockwise Clockwise
Note: Do not try to memorize all of the combinations. Simply remember "CEEC"
and that to obtain all other combinations yo mst al!ays chan"e. t!o of the
factors in CEEC and only t!o.
Chapter - 11
!teering
Propeller Working Ahead (Right Hand Propeller)
The water which is drawn into the propeller from forward of it in a line parallel to
the keel has no appreciable effect upon steering. However, water is thrown out
from the after side of the propeller, more or less radially from the blades. This
rotary current set up strikes against the rudder to a greater or less extent
(depending upon the position of the rudder and amount of rudder given it) and
tends to throw the stern sideways. The upper blades, which are moving from port
to starboard, throw their water against the upper portion of the rudder, and the
lower blades drive their current against the lower starboard side of the rudder. f
the lower part of the rudder is greater in area (relative to the center of motion of
the water thrown radially away from the after side of the propeller) the resultant
effect will be to throw the stern to port. f the upper area is greater, then the stern
will be thrown to starboard. Thus it will be seen that the position and size of the
rudder relative to that of the propeller will have a certain influence upon steering.
Pro'eller %or=ing Astern
Water is drawn in from astern and forced out forward. The water forced out is
thrown against the boat's underbodythat from the upper blades against the
starboard side, and that from the lower against the port side. As the upper blades
are working more effectively in this case, it follows that in backing, a boat's stern
will be thrown to port.
Sidewise For)e Of Pro'ellers
There is a certain sidewise force exerted by a propeller. The upper blades
moving from port to starboard tend to force the stern to port, and the lower
blades working from starboard to port have a tendency to throw the stern to
starboard. As the lower blades are working deeper in the water, their action will
have the greatest effect, with the result that the boat's stern will be thrown to
starboard. n backing, the stern will be thrown to port.
This resultant action of the sidewise force of the propeller is quite pronounced in
motor craft, especially when the upper blades are near the surface. Most motor
boats have a tendency to work off their course to port for this reason. The effect
is greatest when the boat is starting from rest, as then the tendency to "churn"
the water is maximum when the boat's speed is minimum. For this reason it is
essential and desirable to turn to port when starting up if it is desired to change
the boat's course quickly. Many motor boats will not turn to starboard until they
have considerable way on, while they will turn very readily to port.
%a=e Current
The wake current, or that drawn along by the boat, is greatest at the stern of the
boat at or near the surface of the water. t rapidly diminishes below the surface.
The wake current is maximum at maximum speed of the boat, being zero when
the boat is at rest. The influence of wake current, which has the greatest effect
upon the upper blades, is to neutralize the greater sidewise effect of the lower
blades when the boat speed is maximum.
/ffe)t Of The Pro'eller $'on Steering
#. $oat And %ropeller &oin" Ahead
Here the rudder is the controlling factor for reasons explained, although the
average motor boat tends to turn better to port. f the rudder is put hard over
when the boat is going full speed ahead, the first effect will be to throw the whole
boat to the side opposite to which it is desired to go, the stern going off the most
and not returning to the line of the original path of the boat until the bow has
turned several points. The boat turns with increasing rapidity until she reaches a
point from which she turns on a path which is practically a circle. As the boat
swings around this circle, her bow is pointed inward, and her stern outward. The
exact point on her keel which moves around on a true circle depends largely on
the boat's speedthe faster the boat is, the nearer the bow will this point be.
The speed at which a boat is moving at the time her rudder is put over has little
effect upon her turning space, although the time of turning will be less with the
faster boats. f the helm is put over to clear a stationary object, the speed will not
be a factor in determining whether the object will be cleared or hit. However,
speed will be a factor in the force with which the object is hit.
Generally speaking, a boat may be turned through eight points with a fore and aft
"advance" of four boat lengths.
See table which follows for:
'. $oat And %ropeller &oin" Astern
(. $oat &oin" Ahead) %ropeller Astern
*. $oat &oin" Astern) %ropeller Ahead
Table Showing Action of Boat Under Various Conditions
(Right hand propeller, single screw)
1. 2. 3. 4.
Direction of Motion
of Boat Ahead Astern Ahead Astern
Propeller Going Ahead Astern Astern Ahead
Direction Bow or Slightly Stern Bow Stern
Stern Will Swing to Port to Port to Starboard Probably
With Rudder to Port
Amidships
Direction Bow or To Starboard Stern Uncertain () Stern
Strongly
Stern Will Swing Slowly to Port
With Right Rudder to Port*
Direction Bow or To Port Stern Bow Stern May
Swing
Stern Will Swing Strongly to Starboard Slightly to
With Left Rudder to Port Starboard
Note: Boat's bow generally cannot be swung to port when backing.
*As stern speed increases, this may change to slight starboard. This is position to
steer straightest course when backing.
(1) f the boat has begun to swing from a hard right rudder before the propeller is
reversed, she will often continue to swing when the propeller is reversed. f
propeller is reversed before putting rudder hard right, the results may be
uncertain. To be sure of results, to throw the bow to
Port
1. Stop propeller
2. Port rudder
3. Reverse propeller
4. Starboard rudder
Starboard
1. Stop propeller
2. Right rudder
3. Reverse propeller
4. Left rudder
Recapitulation (Single Right Hand Propeller)
From the foregoing it will be seen that it is practically impossible to make a boat's
bow swing to port when backing. Therefore, in maneuvering from a position at
rest it is best to plan to turn to starboard as follows:
1. Right rudder.
2. Go ahead with propeller.
3. Go ahead as far as safe, swinging sharply to starboard, gaining as much
headway as possible.
4. Reverse propeller full speed.
5. mmediately shift rudder hard to left.
6. Back as far as possible at speed.
7. Propeller full speed ahead.
8. Put rudder to right at once.
f it is necessary to turn to port, proceed as follows:
1. Left rudder.
2. Go ahead full speed until boat gathers good speed.
3. Stop propeller and let boat run.
4. Reverse propeller full speed.
5. Starboard rudder immediately.
6. Run astern as far as possible.
7. Go ahead full speed and
8. Put rudder to left immediately.
On boats of light draft, the whole conditions described above may be reversed,
especially when the propeller is poorly or incompletely submerged.
Lea!ing And Pi)=ing $' *oorings
Let us consider now a few of the practical problems you will encounter in
handling your boat around moorings, docks and floats. Practically every situation
is just as simple as it appears when you watch a good seaman handle it, but it
can be made difficult and embarrassing if the few important factors are not taken
into account. Suppose your boat is lying to a mooring and you are ready to get
under way for a cruise. The engine has been warmed up to get the oil circulating
and eliminate danger of stalling after the mooring has been cast off. The dinghy
line has been shortened up to prevent its being drawn down under the stern and
fouled in the propeller. f there is no wind or current, the boat will not pay off
when the mooring line is let go. The buoy is likely to be close under the bow
where you cannot see it from the wheel. f you go ahead there is a strong
probability that the buoy will strike the hull, and the line will foul the propeller.
Consequently it is better to back off until the buoy is in sight, then go ahead,
watching carefully that the swing of the stern in turning doesn't bring it too close
to the mooring. After you are clear of the anchorage and straightened away, the
dinghy can be dropped astern so that it rides comfortably, head high, on the crest
of the second stern wave.
f, in the situation above, there has been a current, the boat would drift naturally
with it away from the mooring and reversing might not be necessary. f the wind
is blowing, the bow may be tacking gently back and forth from side to side as the
wind catches first one side and then the other. n such a case we can let the
mooring line go as the bow reaches the limit of its tack in one direction, the bow
will pay off and it will be easy to get under way without further maneuvering.
Deep draft boats with not too much freeboard forward will not tack back and forth
in this way at anchor or at the mooring as much as a light hull with high freeboard
and no draft forward. Holding the mooring line off to one side of the bow will give
the wind a chance to catch that side and help in paying the bow off in the
direction you want to throw it.
When the cruise is over and we are ready to pick up the mooring, a man is
stationed on the bow with a boat hook ready to catch the eye splice in the end of
the mooring line. This end may be buoyed with a small can or wooden float. The
helmsman's job is to bring the boat's bow up to this buoy and hold it with the
engine if necessary until the man forward has had a chance to get the line and
drop the eye splice over the mooring bitt. Overshooting the buoy, the line will be
dragged back along the side of the hull. Falling short, it will be out of reach of the
boat hook, and you can't expect the man with the hook to drag a heavy boat up
to the mooring by main strength when a kick or two of the propeller would do it in
more seamanlike fashion. So the engine must be used to hold the bow close to
the buoy, though not chafing against it.
Landing At A Float
n coming up to a mooring, you usually have the advantage of being able to
approach from the proper direction with respect to wind and current. With docks
and floats, it is another story as their construction often makes it necessary to
land on a certain side regardless of conditions. f there is no wind or current it is
better, with a right-hand propeller, to approach a landing with port side to the
dock. n this way when the engine is reversed, the propeller wash against the
starboard side of the boat's bottom throws the stern against the dock, instead of
away from it.
Whenever there is a choice, it is also better to land on the leeward side
(protected from the wind) as in this position, the boat will be held clear and
cannot chafe. t may be necessary to work smartly as the wind will blow the boat
off. f two men are available, have one each at bow and stern to handle the lines.
f you have one man, let him handle the bow line and after this is secure pass
him the stern line which has been left coiled ready on the aft deck. With the bow
fast, you will have a measure of control at least over the stern with the engine. f
you must work alone you can run the bow line aft and the stern line forward along
the deck, outside of all stanchions, to a convenient point in the cockpit and carry
them both ashore at once.
Allow For %ind And Current
Where the wind or current acts in a direction parallel to the face of a dock it will
be better to come up against it, on the same principle as outlined in connection
with picking up a mooring. n this way the boat is under better control as the
propeller can be turned over slowly to offset the effect of wind and current. With
the propeller turning you are in a better position to place the boat where you want
it, yet the boat's actual headway is kept down to a minimum.
Sometimes it will be necessary to make your landing downwind, as for example,
when coming into a canal lock or a boat slip. Reduce your headway as much as
possible and be ready to use your reverse in ample time. A powerful reverse may
be necessary to check headway due to the drive of the wind. Be sure to keep the
motor turning fast enough to eliminate any risk of stalling. Here the choice of the
port side is important if you have two canal walls or dock sides to pick from. The
reversing propeller then holds the stern up instead of throwing it away from the
dock. You can then run out a stern line without difficulty. This will hold your boat
in position until you can get the bow line out as well. f you make the mistake of
carrying out the bow line first, the wind is likely to catch the stern and turn the
boat around before you have a chance to make fast.
Another awkward situation presents itself when the wind is blowing strong at right
angles to the face of the dock against which you intend to land. On the windward
side, the wind will blow you against the dock and it is necessary to allow for this
in approaching. f possible, keep the bow up slightly to the wind instead of
running exactly parallel to the dock. Also try to place your boat so that you bring it
up to the right spot while the boat is still several feet off the dock. You can hold
this position with the engine while the wind blows you into your berth. n the
meantime, have your crew ready with plenty of fenders to be placed at strategic
points to
protect the hull. Avoid a berth of this kind if you can, as any sea kicked up by the
wind will pound the boat against the dock and make things generally
uncomfortable. Sometimes, conditions will justify dropping an anchor to
windward, to hold the boat off.
Landing Through The Surf
Of all phases of seamanship, taking a small boat through the surf probably calls
for the greatest skill. There are some types of small boats of such excellent
design that they will live through fairly heavy seas, even when mismanaged to a
certain extentprovided they are in deep water. But when the ground swell rolls
in on a beach or bar, and the natural formation of waves is broken up, curling
breakers are produced that carry power enough to capsize any but the expertly
handled and well designed boat.
The difficulties lie in the steepness of the curling breaker's shoreward side and
the speed at which it is driving on the beach. The boat with buoyancy enough to
live in a surf is so light that it can be picked up by a breaker and carried like a
surfboard at astonishing speed. f caught even slightly off the end-on heading
that allows breakers to pass, she may broach to and capsize despite the best
efforts of her crew. Or she may be carried end-on at increasing speed on the
shoreward side of a roller, stern rising and bow lowering, until the bow is buried
in a trough and the stern is thrown somersault fashion over the bow, pitchpoling.
When approaching a line of breakers along the beach from the seaward side it is
hard to form an accurate idea of just how rough the surf is, the character of the
seas that the boat will be running through, and just where the surf may be a little
less heavy, or offer some kind of opening for the landing. From seaward the surf
will always appear smoother than when viewed from the beach. Therefore a
primary rule to be laid down is that extreme caution must be exercised before
entering the surf.
t is generally possible, however, to wait just outside the breakers for a time,
studying the succession of seas as they roll in. t will be noted that the outer line
of breakers is ordinarily the heaviest so that a boat taken safely through them
usually has a good chance of getting all the way to the beachif handled
properly. Somewhere along the beach, because of the configuration of outer
bars, the trend of the shoreline, or rock formations, there may be one spot where
the surf is a little easier to run.
Chapter - 12
!ma"" Boat Hand"ing
Seamanship is a rather elusive term to define. Webster gets around it by saying
that it means the skill of a seaman, but that doesn't get us any closer to an
understanding of what it's all about. Seamanship as it applies to ships and as it
refers to our small pleasure craft are two distinct subjects. A man proficient in
either one would probably find that he had much to learn if he were suddenly
confronted with the problems of the other. Consequently our discussion here is
narrowed down to that phase of seamanship which deals with the handling of
small motor-driven craft. Windjammers have their own individual problems, too,
and the man who understands the ways of a sailboat is at an advantage when he
takes the wheel of a motor boat. f the motor boatman tries his tactics at the helm
of a sailing craft, disregarding the limitations of deriving his power from the wind
instead of an engine, he soon finds himself in trouble.
Small Boat Seamanshi'
The practice of seamanship, no matter how small the boat, will eventually
develop a certain combination of qualities, required perhaps in no other sport.
When a boat casts off from a dock, she becomes more or less a self-sufficient
unit, dependent solely on her own equipment and the resourcefulness of her
skipper for a safe cruise. She must be well found, with all the necessary gear
required to meet any situation. To provide for all contingencies, the skipper must
exercise considerable foresight, based on good judgment and experience. f
some circumstance arises which could not be anticipated, then he must draw on
his own ingenuity to meet the problem. Not least among the satisfactions of a
boatman is the recollection of some of these so-called emergencies, ably met.
Learn From The Fisherman
Good seamanship demands keen observationa capacity to pick up valuable
information on every hand, bit by bit, at each opportunity. Weather lore, an
understanding of the actions of tides, currents, winds, waves and all the various
changing moods of the sea, come within the scope of his interest. Much can be
learned from the fisherman, who lives close to these natural elements and
depends so much on them for his livelihood that he seems to acquire an
instinctive understanding equal to any occasion. Armed with a reasonable
amount of knowledge on such subjects, the boatman can use these elements to
his advantage instead of blindly working against them.
/!er# Boat Has Indi!idualit#
t should be conceded at the outset that every boat is individual in respect to the
way it handles under various circumstances, and that no two sets of conditions
are ever identical. Consequently no arbitrary rules can be laid down which will be
invariably true in every case. However, we can generalize on certain principles
which will serve as a groundwork on which to build. Practical experience with
your own particular boat can neither be gained from a book nor learned by word
of mouth. You've got to go out and dig it out for yourself. Nevertheless, an
understanding of some of the points considered here should help to make the
acquisition of that practical knowledge somewhat easier.
A)tion Of &udder
Steering is accomplished in most boats by means of a rudder at the stern. The
vertical blade is pivoted to swing either to port or starboard, so that water flowing
past the hull can strike it and force the stern to right or left depending on the
rudder setting. With the rudder dead aft, we proceed in a straight line. With it set
to port, the bow tries to continue in a straight line but the stern is thrown to
starboard so that the bow seems to act as a pivot around which the stern swings.
However, the bow is not standing still but describes an arc of a circle while the
stern traces a larger arc outside of it. Setting the rudder to starboard, the bow
seems to swing to starboard because the stern has been thrown to port.
f there is a difference between the speed of the boat and the water in which it
floats, the rudder will have an effect, whether the hull is driven by its propeller, by
sails, or is coasting along under its own momentum after the clutch is
disengaged. But if it is drifting with the current alone, the rudder is useless. The
strongest steering effect is produced by the thrust of the propeller stream acting
on the rudder blade.
*aneu!ering In Close 3uarters
When the boat is standing still with the rudder hard over and we suddenly apply
plenty of power, a powerful stream from the propeller will kick the stern to
starboard or port before the boat itself has had a chance to gather way. This is a
useful trick to use in maneuvering in close quarters.
Bearing in mind the fact that it is the stern and not the bow that swings in
response to the turning of the steering wheel, it immediately becomes evident
that in close quarters it is often just as important to look astern as ahead. f we
happen to be lying alongside of a dock or float and try to swing directly away by
putting the rudder over as the boat moves ahead, the swinging of the stern may
give the hull a bad jolt.
A)tion Of Pro'eller
Disregarding any influence of wind or current, a motor boat running in smooth
water, if left to her own devices, will maintain a reasonably straight course unless
something in her underwater construction is out of line. There is normally a slight
tendency for the bow to fall off, to port if the propeller is right-handed, to
starboard if left-handed. But this effect is not usually very serious, even though
provision is made in some installations to counteract it by splaying the shaft to
one side of the center line, the motor being offset a few inches while the stern
bearing remains in the center line.
&e!ersing
When reversing, it might be expected that the boat should back in a straight line
if the rudder is held amidships. This is seldom true, in a single-screw boat. When
a right-handed propeller is reversed, the ascending blade throws a stream of
water toward the bow, but not exactly parallel to the keel. Striking the starboard
side of the keel and the boat's bottom at an angle, it pushes the stern to port.
This is not counteracted on the port side because the descending blade throws
the stream down away from the bottom and under the keel. Facing aft, the boat
has a more or less decided tendency to turn to the right in backing, depending on
the propeller and the particular construction of the hull under water. n some
boats, this effect is so radical that the boat will not back to the left (facing aft)
even with the rudder hard over on that side.
SummariFed
Summed up, then, if we are backing with a right-hand wheel, and put the rudder
hard to starboard (facing aft) we make a quick turn in the desired direction
because we are using both rudder and propeller action toward the same end. f
we put the rudder dead aft in line with the keel, we back, not in a straight line, but
to the right because the rudder effect is neutral and the propeller stream controls
the action of the boat's stern. When we put the rudder hard to port, we will
probably turn to port, but not nearly as well as to starboard. Somewhere between
the rudder positions of dead aft and hard port, we can find by experiment a
rudder setting in which rudder action and propeller action offset each other, and
we back in a straight line.
Most boats use a right-hand propeller. Facing the driving side of the blades from
aft looking forward, the top of such a wheel swings clockwise, to the right. When
a left-hand wheel is used, all of the above conditions are reversed.
Che)=ing Headwa#
So much for going ahead and astern. Since we have no brakes on a boat, we
must depend on the reverse gear for stopping. f the boat has headway, going
into reverse will bring it to a stop; stern-way can be checked by throwing the
propeller ahead. n maneuvering, a propeller of generous diameter and area is
advantageous as it gets a grip on a large volume of water. The practice of
jamming the reverse gear suddenly from full ahead to full astern, or vice versa,
without throttling down when passing through neutral, cannot be recommended
as good seamanship, despite the spectacular landings sometimes made in this
manner. This sort of thing is hard on the gear and, with the excessive load, if it
happens to slip when needed most, the boat may carry enough headway to do
considerable damage. The intelligent and seamanlike method of stopping would
be to close the throttle gradually to reduce the boat's headway, slipping into
neutral when the boat has just enough way on to reach the float or mooring, and
then depend on the reverse gear only to check the last of the headway if
necessary, or kick it ahead a little if you fall short. Stalling the engine may be just
as embarrassing afloat as ashore so it is important when the propeller load is
thrown on the engine to see that the motor is turning fast enough to take the
wheel.
Turning In Close 3uarters
Paradoxical as it may sound, some of the best seamanship is often displayed not
at sea but around docks and moorings and in crowded quarters. A good test of a
helmsman's skill is to turn a boat in a narrow canal not much wider than the boat
is long. f faced with such a problem, remember what has been said about
backing to port (or to the right if facing aft). Slowing down on the left hand side of
the canal, swing the rudder to starboard and check the headway by reversing
when necessary. Then back up to port and finally go ahead to starboard. This
way we take advantage of the quick turn to port in backing. The other way might
take ten times as much maneuvering if, in fact, we succeeded in getting around
at all.
n a case of this kind, we would naturally expect to have the rudder to port in
backing to make the turn quicker. But this involves swinging the rudder from
starboard to port and back again every time the direction is changed. n close
quarters, with only a few feet to spare, this might be hard to manage, calling for
much spinning of the helm when the hands are needed for reverse control and
throttle. Since the boat hasn't time enough in backing to start decidedly in one
direction, it is entirely practical to leave the rudder set hard to starboard
throughout the maneuver. Successive powerful kicks ahead will throw the stern
around on the go-ahead and propeller action will prevent the stern from backing
too much off a straight line on the reverse.
Twin S)rews
With a twin-screw boat practically any kind of maneuver can be executed with
much more facility than with only a single engine. n a situation such as the one
just covered, the skipper of a twin-screw boat could throw his port propeller
ahead, and his starboard wheel astern, causing the boat to swing completely
around without making either headway or sternway. To secure the best steering
effect from the propeller streams when maneuvering, the engines ordinarily turn
right and left, the tops of the propellers swinging outward. f a twin-screw boat
suffers damage to her steering gear, she can still be handled with the throttles
well enough to get into port. The steering is done by adjusting the engine speeds
to hold a straight course or make a turn, as desired. For best control, twin
rudders, one astern of each propeller, are better than a single rudder on a twin-
screw boat.
Handling The Boat At (o)=s And *oorings, And In O'en %ater
Some of the problems involved in handling boats around moorings and docks
under various conditions of wind and current have been considered. The difficulty
is that these factors cannot be relied upon to act always in the comparatively
simple ways we have assumed.

Actually the forces of wind and current will usually be combined and may act at
varying angles to each other with relation to the boat's heading. To complicate
the matter further, they act on different boats in different ways, depending on the
relative shapes and areas presented to wind and water fore and aft. Judgment
enters into the picture here along with a skipper's experience with the particular
boat he is handling. Boats with deep draft and low freeboard are less affected by
wind than the high-sided type that sits on the water rather than in it. The
proportions of freeboard to draft on the average cruiser are such that the bow is
usually more affected by wind than the stern.
n any case, whenever the forces of wind and current must be reckoned with, the
basic idea is to take advantage of their effect in retaining control of the boat.
Should the engine accidentally stop for any reason during your maneuvering you
want the boat to drift out where you can come to anchor, and not be blown down
into what may be an uncomfortable berth if there is any sea running.
The forces of wind and current may sometimes be used to advantage in turning a
boat around at a dock. Suppose a case where a boat is lying against a dock with
the stern toward the north and the wind is blowing from that direction. We may
wish to swing her around, with bow to the wind. Casting off the stern line will
permit the stern to swing out and around with the wind and the boat's position will
be reversed, without effort. Current can be used in the same manner. Casting off
the down-stream line of course will have no effect, but letting go the upstream
line will permit the boat to swing on the other. f it is the bow that is being swung,
it will be necessary to protect the transom carefully with fenders.
Turning At (o)= %ith /ngine
When wind or current will not serve, we can turn a boat at a dock by using the
engine. A bow line is made fast to the dock and the stern line cast off. Going
ahead easily, the slack is taken out of the line and the rudder set hard over
toward the dock. Since the stern is free to swing, the kick of the propeller wash
against the rudder throws the stern out into the stream. t may be necessary to
slack off a little on the line as the stern swings since the forward bitt is usually
some distance aft from the stem. This puts the line under considerable strain
when the boat swings. f it is being swung completely around, another line from
the bitt to the dock in bridle fashion will hold the stem against the dock and
prevent its sliding after the stern has swung more than half way around.
Lea!ing A (o)= %ith A Beam %ind
n a situation where the wind is pinning a boat against the windward side of a
dock, or the current is setting it hard against it, with a similar effect, the principle
described above can be used to get clear in a seamanlike way. n fact, one man
can do it single-handed if necessary. With a bowline or eye splice in the bow line,
dropped over a cleat or spile on the dock, the boat's stern can be swung out into
the stream until it comes up into the wind. Now the rudder is set dead astern and
the engine holds the bow up against the dock with the boat in this stern-to-wind
position. The bow line can now be cast off and the boat will readily back out into
the stream to a point where there is room enough to swing around and go ahead.
As a matter of fact in many instances with the bow hard against a dock or pier
but with no lines whatsoever made fast to the dock and with the motor working
ahead the stern will swing around to starboard. When the swing is sufficient in
amount the motor should be reversed for a short time until the boat is sufficiently
clear of the dock. Then by going ahead with the rudder to port the boat will clear.
$se Of Lines
The boat can be warped around the end of a dock without the necessity of
casting off lines, getting under way and maneuvering back into her new berth.
This is done by means of what is called a spring line, which is a line run aft to a
dock from the forward bitt or forward to the dock from an aft bitt. Assuming that
the boat lies port side to the end of a dock and you want to bring her back around
the corner to a berth alongside, bow out, the spring line is run from the after bitt
(port side if there are two) and made fast near the corner of the dock. The bow
line can be slacked away to permit the bow to swing, the rudder is set hard to
port and the engine is reversed. As the boat backs around into her new berth, the
spring line is carried along the dock to make the stern fast while the bow line can
be used to control the bow and is made fast as desired in the new position
alongside.
Small boats are seldom equipped with bitts or cleats amidships which will stand
the strain of warping, but some of the larger craft will have a chock in the rail
amidships through which a spring line could be led. n such cases, when a boat
is being brought up to a dock, this line is carried ashore and made fast before the
bow and stern lines are secured. Then if necessary the boat can be warped in
under power, even against wind or current, by going ahead or astern with the
engine as necessary.
*a=ing Fast
Spring lines are useful not only in warping, but also in securing a boat properly to
a dock when slack must be allowed to take care of the rise and fall of the tide, or
to protect the boat against the surge caused by a sea or the wash of passing
boats. To allow for tide it is obviously poor seamanship merely to carry lines from
bow and stern ashore to positions abreast the bitts. f such lines are made long
enough to prevent the boat from hanging herself at low water, at high water the
slack will permit her to surge back and forth, even to the extent of catching bow
or stern in the dock, if the range of tide is great enough. t helps some if the bow
line is run to the dock some distance ahead and the stern line run well aft,
instead of directly abreast. But it is better to use two spring lines in addition, one
running from the after bitt to the dock abreast the bow, the other crossing the first
from the bow to a point on the dock abreast the stern. With such a rig, a
minimum of slack is required and bow and stern are prevented from swinging too
far in or out. A variation of this practice is to use a single spring line running from
the bow to the dock and then back to the stern, making the line fast ashore at a
point that will make both springs of about equal length.
Hea!ing Line
Frequently it becomes necessary to heave a line some distance, perhaps to get it
ashore or to pass it to another boat which you may be taking in tow. mproperly
handled, the line will merely get itself into a snarl and fall short. A seaman will coil
a line carefully, holding half loosely in his left hand, free to run off, while the other
half is thrown from the right hand in such a way that the end runs on ahead, with
successive loops uncoiling naturally, much as a wire spring would be stretched
out into a straight line. A weight or heavy knot helps to carry the end. f the line
should be too heavy to handle, you can heave a light line first and then bend a
heavier one on at the end. Sailors use a heaving line which has a weight worked
into the end by means of an intricate knot, known as a monkey's fist.
Handling Lines
The subject of ground tackle, proper line equipment, its handling, stowage and
care, all logically a part of seamanship, has been dealt with elsewhere at some
length. There are, however, a few random thoughts in connection with the use of
lines which may be mentioned here. Frequently when lines are wanted aboard a
boat they are needed quickly. Aside from the unsightly appearance fouled lines
present on deck, there is not always time to clear them before use.
Consequently, they should always be kept in neat coils ready to run without
preliminary attention.
Ropes (a term seldom used by seamen) are ordinarily laid up with a right-handed
twist. For this reason, they are consistently coiled down in a clockwise direction,
with the sun, as the colloquial expression runs. Kinks, due to excessive twist in
handling, thus tend to work out instead of becoming worse. Unnecessary knots in
line should be carefully avoided. t may be worth remembering that the average
knot that stresses the fibers with a sharp kink will reduce the strength of a line
about forty percent.
Lines Stowed On (e)=
Lines kept on deck should be so stowed or lashed that they cannot accidentally
be blown or rolled overboard. The inexperienced boatman is often branded by
the loose end of line left carelessly hanging over the side. Sooner or later he is
sure to pay the price for this breach of seamanship by getting the line hopelessly
fouled in the propeller. Eel grass and drift picked up by the propeller can often be
thrown off by reversing, but a line generally succeeds in wrapping itself so
thoroughly around the shaft, hub, and blade that only a sharp knife will clear it.
Loose rope ends and other round objects such as boat hooks that might roll
under foot should never be left where they may be accidentally stepped upon.
Dinghy painters are a common offender in fouling the propeller but the blame
cannot be laid on them. Any kind of maneuvering calls for a shortening of the
painter to a point where it cannot be sucked down into the reversing propeller.
Coiling, Fa=ing And Flemishing
Lines which must be stowed on deck should be coiled down, faked down or
flemished down depending upon the use which will be made of the line the next
time it is needed. (See page 46.)
Chapter - 1#
Boat Hand"ing -nder .ario$s !ea Conditions
%ith the advent of the motor boat as an important acquisition to our national
defense, motor boating can no longer be looked upon merely as an exhilarative
pastime. ts affiliation with military and naval forces guarding our extensive coast
lines has placed motor boating upon a basis where responsibility and serious
work go first, with sport and pleasure as a secondary consideration. This being
the case, it becomes the duty of owners and operators of motor craft enrolled for
defense service to acquire and cultivate not only a thorough understanding of the
handling of the boat and engine, but also a knowledge of various wrinkles which
in time of actual service may prove of value. The following suggestions apply in
particular to a motor unit assigned to scout duty which through unforeseen
exigencies may find itself in strange waters and, therefore, will have to rely upon
the skill and resourcefulness of its commander to carry out his scout work and at
the same time avoid the pitfalls likely to be encountered in navigating unknown
sections of the coast.
Indi)ations Of Shallow %ater
Upon approaching a shoal spot in the water, the attention of an observer will be
attracted either by a rise in the height of the waves, with a tendency to curve over
and break, or by their taking on a troubled, agitated appearance, in marked
contrast to the waves in deeper water. The extent of the irregular water will, in
most cases, clearly define the limits of the shoal, and, when traversing shoal
places, the deepest water will always be found where the waves are of normal
size and most regular appearance. They will be clearly distinguished from either
the lifting kind, which are inclined to topple and break, or the smaller jumbled
type. At times, the water over the shoal will be smooth and the water in the
channels ruffled; this is particularly likely to be the case when the shoal bordering
the channel has a growth of weeds reaching nearly to the surface.
f in strange waters and a line of ripples stretches across the course, the ripples
should be approached with caution. The line may be caused by the changing of
the tide, or it may be a reef or bar fairly close below the surface. These small
ripples are often seen along the edge of shoals when the surrounding water is
smooth, particularly when the outside water is deep; they are caused by the flow
of the tide being shunted off by the shoal. During a strong breeze, when
traversing a shoal having from 3 to 20 feet depth of water over it, the deeper
parts may invariably be distinguished by watching for the heavier, more regular
waves, while the shallow spots of the shoal are indicated by choppy, breaking
waves.
Crossing A Bar
Necessity may at times compel the passage of a boat through a reef or a bar,
over which a strong sea is running. n such cases it is well to run slowly along the
reef at a moderate distance and search carefully for regular waves. f there is an
opening, or channel, through, it will show water distinctly different from that over
the rest. n such deep places, the water will remain without breaking until the sea
has attained such violence that even the deep places have practically become
shoals. The passage through comparatively unknown reefs and bars when heavy
weather prevails should not be attempted except by the most experienced men.
The sea may look smooth and regular at some distance off the bar, but on
approaching, the conditions may be such as to require an intuitive skill at the
helm to get the boat safely through.
%a!e *otion
To run smoothly, a wave requires a depth of water as great as is the distance
from its own trough to trough. f that distance is 15 feet, the wave requires 15 feet
of water to roll in or it will begin to rise in height and form a crest, this being the
result of the friction of the wave motion on the bottom. t is the wave motion that
travels, not the water, as can be readily seen by dropping a colored liquid of any
kind into the seathe color will remain stationary, or nearly so, while the motion
of the wave will continue to advance.
When running along a beach at night, the beach being free from rocks, the line of
safety can be felt by the lifting of the boat; if too close in, a sharp lift will be felt
when a sea passes underthe motion being distinctly different from that felt
when the boat was in deep waterand is a sure indication that the boat is within
the line where the wave begins to top the breaker. n a heavy onshore wind, the
best traveling will be found a mile or more offshore. The reason is that heavy
seas on striking a beach or a reef give a strong recoil that causes a series of
opposing waves which, meeting those coming in, produce rough, irregular water.
Occasionally there will be seen a solitary lift or leap of the water where there are
no other evidences of disturbances; this is generally caused by a small mound or
boulder arising at that spot from the bottom.
Tide &i's
Tiderips are the result of strong currents. With no visible signs of disturbance and
the sea smooth all about them waves of this character will rear and tumble. They
are clearly distinct from anything about them, and do not take one unawares.
Almost invariably they have white foaming crests and roar in an unmistakable
manner. Even in a white-cap breeze, they are clearly whiter than anything about
them, and are so definitely marked that one can sail down their edges and
admire the wildness of the scene. The wave motion in them is short and steep.
When wind increases their turbulence, none but the staunchest of boats and best
of helmsmen should attempt to enter the turmoil. When compelled to encounter
them in bad weather the boat should be kept to the edges where the water is
always deep. f in the rip and it is running strong (which is generally the case
during four hours out of the six), the boat should be kept head-to; she will lift and
pound badly, and perhaps get strained, but that is better than the risk of rolling
over. At the slack of the tide the rips do not exist.
Head Sea
During a hard blow, the sea will be found to present waves that are regular in
general, but interspersed with seas that are too sharp for comfort for a boat of
light construction. f going to windward, many of these seas will compel one to
head into them; then will come a lift and, if the boat has not a sharp V-section
forward, a smashing fall down the back of the wave. These falls pound the
bottom of a boat so severely that it is not good practice to permit many of them.
They are avoided by turning the boat a trifle off the wave, though if the swell is
steep enough to throw the boat there is no help but to take it head on. Should
swinging her off, to give more bearing surface, take the boat too much off the
course, the remedy is to take the seas on one bow for a stated time and then on
the other for the same interval, the result being an equalization of the course.
Following Sea
n running with a following sea the helmsman meets his hardest task. When a
sea passes under the boat, lifting the bow, the next wave comes under the stern
and begins to lift, and when the stern has been raised to a greater height than
the bow, the latter starts to rootwhich means that the boat is "down by the
head," and does not respond to the rudder. This is the anxious moment for the
helmsman, as he waits for the feeling coming with a submerged rudder that
indicates the direction in which the bow is going to turn. So long as the rudder is
out of water it should be kept steady by the wheel, and the instant the feeling
comes that it is submerged the helm should be turned, gently at first, then with all
the strength necessary to counteract the sheer; then the wheel should be allowed
to turn back freely as the boat balances on the forward drive on the face of the
wave.
During the maneuvering the bow of the boat may root until two or three feet of it
is buried in the sea ahead. t will not do to let this take place, for, as explained
previously, the water is not moving, and the boat is plowing into it, and while
doing so the stern may be lifted so high that she is deprived of her bearing, and
will either dive or roll over. This is what occurs with boats trying to enter a surf or,
when the weather is heavy from the seawards, to gain access to a harbor having
a bar before the entrance. The remedy is the same in either case, and is the one
commonly employed by life savers in making a landing; that is to tow a drag or
sea anchor. f without one, any bulky article attached to a stout line may be
dropped over the stern and towed. The resistance offered will help materially in
checking the tendency to root.
With some boats and in some seas it will be found that the bow is rooting and the
stern being boarded by the following waves. This is a bad case. All the movable
weight (passengers, for instance) must then be placed amidships to lighten the
ends and the bow swung a very little from a fore-and-aft bearing on the seas. f
the boat is of the open-cockpit type, canvas should be fastened over the after
end of the cockpit. This is a case in which oil might help some: the boat is run
slowly and the oil put out from any part of the boat that will cause the slick to be
spread by the time it reaches the stern. The burying of the bow and stern of a
boat with fine sharp ends is of little consequence, as the lack of bearing surface
in such a boat makes this a condition to be expected, but the sea has not hold
enough on either end to do harm, and the end will rise as quickly as the wave
passes by.
Beam Sea
n a beam sea, conditions are such as to require the utmost attention on the part
of the helmsman. The boat is traveling in the trough and if an oncoming sea is a
bad one, one must decide instantly whether to run or head into it. The present
position of the boat generally governs the maneuver. f the boat has just
recovered from a lurch and the bow is too far to windward to give her time to run
off, she must of necessity be thrown head in. f she is too far off the wind to give
her time to be swung up she must be sent to leeward. Most of the time the shape
of the seas is such that the boat can be held to the course; this gives the
helmsman the choice of the maneuver.
Lee Shore
When running along a lee shore for any considerable distance the scend of the
sea will steadily set the boat toward the beach. There is seldom a sea so heavy
that there are no smooth, well-rounded waves mingled with the rough ones, and
in every smooth the boat should be sent on the course as far as she will go. Turn
her to windward in the rough seas, and in some of the smooth ones if necessary,
but in no case let her fall to leeward.
During a blow a boat should pass to the lee side of islands and shoals where it is
possible to do so; no shoal is so deep that it has no influence in smoothing the
sea. A shoal near the surface will stop the waves altogether and leave only the
wind for the boat to contend with.
Fog
t caught in a fog without a compass or with the compass out of order, the best
way in which to prevent a boat from losing her direction is to take guidance from
the run of the waves. Thus, if the waves were coming toward the starboard bow
when the fog set in, they should be kept coming from the same quarter.
By trailing a line over the stern one may keep running straight ahead, and not in
a circle as is often done. The longer the line the better, as with one of good
length, any swerving from a straight course will show at once. Verification of the
steering in a fog or rain may be gained by watching the slant of rain drops or
drizzle.
&efle)tions Of &o)= And Sand
A majority of the rocks and shoals within range of the cruising motor boat are
usually unmarked by buoys of any kind, but most of such obstructions betray
their presence by reflecting their colors to the surface of the waters immediately
surrounding them. The shade, or density, of the color will vary with the different
phases of the day, from clear distinctiveness to an indefinable something, yet to
the practised eye the hues may be distinguished and used with advantage. t well
repays the operator of a motor boat to cultivate the faculty of observing the
different shades of the water, as it gives a confidence in running that adds to the
comfort and interest, and in combination with a judicious use of the lead line,
enables him to pick his way with a degree of certainty into harbors and inlets that
are new to him. This applies more particularly to fairly clear waters and not such
as are found in or close to the harbors of large cities. A mud bottom is not as
good as a sand or rock bottom, but even over mud there will be different shades
of color in the shallows and the channels.
When running in open waters, a faint line may appear at some distance ahead
and commence to loom. On a near approach the entrance to a small harbor or
inlet may be looked for, though the coast at first appears to be one unbroken line.
As the boat draws nearer dark spots of brown may be seen at some places,
while at others grayish or white shadows prevail; the former indicate deep and
the latter shallow water. When approaching to four or five hundred feet, close
observation will possibly show water of a decided greenish tint and water having
a certain placid or slick whitish appearance. The latter color should be avoided
and the deeper green followed, and then with a good lookout in the bow it will be
perfectly safe to proceed slowly into the place as far as it is desired. The higher
up the lookout is placed, the better he will see the bottom and select the route to
be taken.
The entrance to an all-sand harbor over a bar may be made by observing the
difference in color when arriving at the 18-foot depth, for the break is clearly
visible. When passing into the 12-foot depth, it will be well to slow down to half
speed. Here the darker green veins of water should be chosen.
Chapter - 1'
eamanship !ints
/very boat, obviously, has its limitations and ordinary judgment dictates that the
one designed for lake and river use should not be expected to be suitable in all
weather offshore. t is a fact that just what a boat will do is governed to a great
extent by the skill of the man at the helm. Thus a good seaman will bring a poor
craft through a blow that a novice might not be able to weather with a larger or
better vessel.
Rough weather is purely a relative term and what seems a terrible storm to the
fair-weather man may be nothing more than a good breeze to the man who has
known the sea in all its tantrums. When the going begins to get heavy, various
types of boats will behave differently depending on their size and design, the way
they are trimmed or loaded, and the nature of the sea. Large shallow bodies of
water, such as Lake Erie, kick up an uncomfortable sea in a hard blow, because
the depth is not great enough to permit the waves to assume their natural form.
The result is a short steep wind sea with breaking crests. Miles off shore in the
open ocean with the same amount of wind, there might be a moderate sea
running but the greater depth permits the waves to assume a smoother form,
without broken crests.
Head Seas
Little difficulty will be experienced by the average well-designed cruiser when
running with the seas head on. Some spray may be thrown or, if the sections are
full forward, there may be a tendency to pound somewhat with the impact of the
bow against the seas. However, she is likely to handle well enough while the
seas are met head on or nearly so. f the seas are steep-sided and the speed too
great, it will be necessary to slow down. This will give the bow a chance to rise in
meeting each sea instead of being driven deep into it. n the worst seas, it may
help to run slightly off the course, taking the seas a few points off the bow. This
will give the boat an easier motion. The more headway is reduced in meeting
heavy seas the less will be the strain on the hull.
In The Trough
f the course to be made good is such that it will force the boat to run in the
trough of a heavy sea with wind abeam and the seas striking the hull broadside
on, it may be well to resort to what might be called a series of tacks, except that
the wind is brought first broad on the bow, then broad on the quarter. This results
in a zig-zag course that makes good the desired objective, while the boat is in the
trough only for brief intervals while turning. With the wind broad on the bow, the
behavior should be satisfactory; on the quarter, the motion will be less
comfortable but at least it will be better than running in the trough.
&unning Before A Sea
Running dead before a sea is well enough if the stern can be kept up to the
waves without being thrown around off the course. This is known as yawing. But
when the sea gets too heavy, the boat tends to rush down a slope from crest to
trough and, stern high, the propeller comes out of water and races while the
rudder, also partly out, loses its grip on the water and the sea takes charge of the
stern. At this stage she may yaw so badly as to broach to, that is to say, be
thrown broadside into the trough. This must be avoided at all costs. Checking the
headway to let the seas pass usually has the desired effect. While seldom
necessary it is often recommended that towing a long heavy line astern will also
help to check the boat's speed and keep her running straight. Obviously the line
must be carefully handled and not allowed to foul the propeller. Cutting down the
engine speed will reduce the strain imposed on the motor by alternate laboring
with stern deep down before an overtaking sea and racing as the head goes
down and the propeller comes out at the crest. The ordinary swell off shore is
seldom troublesome on this point of running but the steep wind sea of the lakes
and shallow bays makes steering difficult and reduced speed imperative.
Excessive speed down a steep slope may cause a boat to pitchpole, that is, drive
her head under in the trough, tripping the bow, while the succeeding crest
catches the stern and throws her end over end. When the going is bad enough to
allow risk of this, it helps to keep the stern down and the head light and buoyant,
by shifting weight if necessary.
"round Swell At Inlets
When the offshore swells run into the shallower water along the beach, they build
up a steeper ground swell because of the resistance created by the bottom.
Natural inlets on sandy beaches, unprotected by breakwaters, usually build up a
bar across the mouth. When the ground swell reaches the bar, its form changes
rapidly and a short steep-sided wave is produced which may break where the
water is shallowest. This fact should be taken into consideration when
approaching from offshore. A few miles off, the sea may be relatively smooth
while the inlet from seaward may not look as bad as it actually is. The breakers
may extend clear across the mouth, even in a buoyed channel. The shoals shift
so fast with the moving sand that it is not always feasible to keep the buoys in the
best water. Local boatmen often leave the buoyed channel and are guided by the
appearance of the sea, picking the best depth by the smoothest surface and the
absence of breakers. A stranger is handicapped in such a situation because he
may not have knowledge of uncharted obstructions and so does not care to risk
leaving the buoyed channel. n a case of this kind he should have a local pilot if
possible. Otherwise it will sometimes pay well to anchor off, if necessary, an hour
or two and follow a local boat in.
Stud# The A)tion Of The %a!es
f it becomes necessary to pick a way through without local help, there are
several suggestions which may help to make things more comfortable. Don't run
directly in but wait outside the bar until you have a chance to watch the action of
the waves as they pile up at the most critical spot in the channel, which will be
the shallowest. Usually they will come along in groups of three, sometimes more,
but always three at least. The last sea will be bigger than the rest and by careful
observation it can be picked out of the successive groups. When you are ready
to enter, stand off until a big one has broken or spent its force on the bar and
then run through behind it. Ebb tide seems to build up a worse sea on the bars
than the flood, probably due to the rush of water out against and under the
incoming ground swell. f the sea looks too bad on the ebb, it may be better to
keep off a few hours until the flood has had a chance to make.
Ho!e To
When conditions get so bad offshore that the boat cannot make headway and
begins to take too much punishment, the usual sailboat practice is to heave to,
that is, to carry just enough canvas, principally aft, to keep the vessel's head to
the sea a few points off where she can ride comfortably without making progress
ahead. Ships some-times are hove to by allowing them to drift in any position
relative to the sea they will naturally assume. Neither of these practices is
feasible with a motor boat as her comparatively high bow and lack of canvas
permits her to fall off broadside to the sea, in the trough, and she is not big
enough to be left to her own devices as the liner might be. On the other hand
motor boats are seldom caught out where they must weather prolonged blows.
For short periods, where the fuel supply permits, the average motor boat will be
most comfortable when the propeller is allowed to turn over slowly, giving
steerage way enough to keep her head to the seas or a few points off, depending
on the period of the waves and the motion of the boat.
The Sea An)hor
n extreme cases, a sea anchor is occasionally used. This consists of a canvas
cone-shaped bag having an iron hoop to keep it open at the mouth. To this hoop
a heavy line is attached which is paid out from the bow and made fast to the
forward bitt. A trip line is attached to a ring at the end of the cone. This is used to
spill the bag and make it easier to haul the anchor back aboard. n use, the
theory of the anchor is not to go to the bottom and hold, but merely to present a
drag or resistance which will keep the boat's head up within a few points of the
wind as she drifts off to leeward. Such anchors are sometimes equipped with an
oil can which permits oil to ooze out slowly and form a slick on the surface, thus
preventing the seas from breaking. n the absence of a regular sea anchor, any
form of drag rigged from spars, planks and canvas or other material at hand that
will float just below the surface and effectively keep the boat from lying in the
trough, would be worth trying. The oil might be distributed from a bag punctured
with a few holes and stuffed with oakum or waste saturated with oil. f it could be
launched successfully and swamped, with a stout line securely attached, a
dinghy could be tried in lieu of the sea anchor, but such procedure is easier to
talk about than to accomplish, when conditions are bad enough to justify the
attempt.
The (ingh# Astern
n rough water a dinghy becomes somewhat of a nuisance. n moderate weather
it will prove tractable enough if properly designed. And if the boat is large enough
to secure the tender properly aboard, there will be no difficulty in bad weather.
But when it becomes necessary to tow it in a heavy following sea, it alternately
lags astern on the back of a wave and then surges ahead on the forward side of
another in an attempt to run the towing boat down. A long strong line is
necessary and another line towed from the ring in the dinghy's transom will form
a drag and prevent it from yawing so badly.
"i!ing A Tow
One of the cardinal principles of seamanship requires that you be ready on any
and all occasions to render assistance to other craft in need of aid. This may
necessitate your taking another boat in tow. A long strong line will be needed,
especially in rough water. When conditions will permit towing a small boat close
up, it will be noticed that the length of line has considerable effect on the amount
of resistance offered by the tow. f the stern of the tow is deep in the trough of a
stern wave, she will tow much harder than if she is hauled in a few feet to get her
up on the crest. When riding on the forward slope of one of the waves, a small
boat may tow so easily at times as to take most of the strain off the tow line, but
in this position she will yaw at the slightest provocation. When a boat has two
bitts aft instead of a single one amidships, a bridle is often rigged to tow from
both, instead of throwing the whole load on one side. A heavy tow with the line
made fast to a bitt aft will handicap a towing boat in maneuvering as her stern is
prevented from swinging freely. f it is possible to make the line fast further
forward, maneuvering will be much easier.
Helmsmanshi'
One of the attributes of a good seaman is the ability to steer well another of
those faculties that is developed not by study, but by practice. Not all of the
principles laid down for the proper steering of a ship will apply to small pleasure
boats. Nevertheless if one is posted on the fundamentals applicable to large
vessels, the chances are he'll do a better job at the wheel of small craft. And, by
the same token, the experience pleasure boatmen have acquired in handling
small boats is today serving them well aboard cutters, patrol craft and other good
sized vessels.
Chapter - 1(
!ai"ing-/n Theory
Sails have been used for thousands of years to drive boats through the water
even on the simplest rafts and dugout canoes of primitive tribes. The earliest
forms were square-rigged types in which the sail set thwartships across the mast.
However, like the small boy's raft with a blanket sail, they had one serious
limitation; they could sail only before the wind. To go to windward they were
forced to drift with a favorable currentor row. The art of using the wind's own
power to propel a vessel against that wind had not as yet been discovered.
Centuries rolled by before a sailing rig was invented which enabled a boat to
make any progress at all against the wind. The Arabs contributed an important
development to the science of sailing when they worked out the lateen rig, a
triangular sail supported by a yard at the head but no boom at the foot. The sail
could be set in a fore-and-aft direction. Resembling the sails used on canoes
today, these lateen sails were undoubtedly the fore-runner of our modern fore-
and-aft rigs.
For years square sails drove our windjammers, like the famous clipper ships of
the mid-nineteenth century. Under clouds of canvas spread from lofty spars
stayed by a maze of rigging, they made phenomenal passages in the China tea
trade. Displaced by steam, the big clippers have disappeared and with them the
square rig, except in a few isolated cases. When the fore-and-aft sail came into
vogue, the gaff rig was most popular, the principal sails being spread from a gaff
at the head of a quadrilateral sail and a boom at the foot, the luff (forward edge of
the sail) being secured to the mast. The after edge, the leech, is not attached to a
spar.
While the gaff rig was at the peak of its popularity, the principles underlying the
theory of sailing were not too well understood. But when the airplane made its
appearance, necessitating intensive studies of the action of wind on wing
surfaces, the analogy between wing and sail was recognizedthe sail being a
wing set vertically on the hull to drive the boat by giving a "lift" ahead instead of a
lift upward as in the plane. Sailmakers then strove to shape their sails into a
section resembling a bird's wing.
Air'lane Theories Ha!e /ffe)t
No longer did sailmakers think in terms of pressure applied to the after side of the
sail as the major factor in producing the drive needed to propel a hull. t became
apparent that reduction of pressure along the luff on the forward side of the sail
was the big factor. As soon as that principle was generally understood, gaffs and
long booms on racing sailboats began to disappear, giving way to the tall
'"Marconi" mast and triangular jib-headed sail. Proportion of luff to foot was
radically changed so that now the luff may be roughly 22 times the length of the
foot in a well cut sail.
The first thing to realize in studying the principle by which a sail is made to drive
a boat is that the wind blowing on a sailboat has several different effects. First, it
will heel her over as the wind hits the sails. Then it tends to blow her sidewise off
her course. The sidewise slipping is called leeway. The wind also acts to drive
the boat forward on her course. And finally there is a pivoting action as a result of
which the bow may tend to come up into the wind or to fall off before it.
The architect studies all these tendencies and so designs his craft as to minimize
the features which do not contribute to propulsion of the hull and to develop and
utilize the factors which do tend to drive the boat along the desired course.
Now this first factor, heeling, while it does not help in driving the hull forward,
does have a considerable effect upon the way the boat handles in winds of
varying velocity. Realizing that the hull must of necessity heel to some extent, the
architect designs the underwater lines so as to offer a minimum of resistance to
passage through the water along the course at a certain angle of heel.
Just as an overpowered motor boat creates a lot of disturbance and uses up
power in wave-making when driven too hard, so a sailboat pressed down under
canvas beyond her normal sailing lines makes a lot of fuss without getting a
proportionate increase in speed. The mere fact that her lee rail is under doesn't
necessarily mean that she is travelling at top speed.
Stabilit# Is Im'ortant
Furthermore this heeling is something that must be kept under control. Stability is
needed to prevent the boat from capsizing under heavy wind pressures. To
picture an extreme, a light unballasted narrow hull, sitting on top of the water, is
easily knocked down. Witness the canoe under sail. Stability can be obtained in a
light hull of little draft by increasing the beam. Our broad-beamed catboats are a
good example. But once a broad, shallow draft hull has been pushed down
beyond a certain safe angle, she too must capsize, like toy sailboats made of a
flat board and sail.
On the other hand stability can also be obtained in a relatively narrow deep hull.
This is accomplished by keeping weight low down in the hull, lowering the center
of gravity. f the boat has no outside ballast she will carry ballast deep down
inside the hull. f she has a deep keel, she will carry a casting of iron or lead
bolted to the lower extremity of the keel, sometimes in the form of a bulb. Such a
boat, hit by a puff of wind, heels over, easily at first. But the further she heels, the
greater the tendency that weight on the bottom of the keel is exerting to right her.
Knocked down on her beam ends, she will right herself when pressure on the
sails is eased.
Landsmen often marvel when they see a yacht sailing "on her ear," masts
inclined at a 45-degree angle and water boiling on deck around the rail. They feel
an extra puff must certainly send her under. However, if she is properly designed,
there are powerful forces acting to right her all the timethe further she heels,
the stronger they become.
Now the second effect of the wind on the hull is to drive it off sidewise, to
leeward. Here's something that must be definitely counteracted; otherwise our
sailboat will take on the characteristics of a raft driven before the wind. Our
shallow draft hull, like a rowboat, presents no vertical surface in the plane of the
keel to resist being driven off by lateral pressure. So we fit a pivoted centerboard
(see Figure 2) which can be lowered from its trunk when we go to windward.
Centerboards And (agger Boards
Other expedients are the dagger board (Figure 3), which does not pivot but is
raised or lowered vertically, and leeboards carried at each side of sailing canoes
and many Dutch sailing craft. n each case we are presenting a vertical surface
to the water in a fore-and-aft direction. This moves easily through the water in a
direct line but resists any tendency to be driven sidewise due to water pressure
on the leeward side of the board.
A deep-keeled vessel has this same expanse of surface below the water against
which the water can act to minimize leeway. At the same time, to improve her
sailing qualities, the surface which the hull above water presents to the wind is
kept at a minimum. The sides of the hull above water are relatively low,
compared to the deep draft. Technically, a boat with "low sides" is said to have
little freeboard.
The third factor we are dealing with is that tendency of the wind which drives the
hull forward. To guarantee that a maximum of propelling effect will be gained
from every square foot of sail, underwater lines of the hull are made as clean as
possible, of a shape that will allow it to slip through the water with a minimum of
resistance, wave-making and eddy-making. Lines that taper off aft to a point
conform to one of the principles of streamlining, allowing the displaced water to
close in smoothly about the stern without suction, drag or needless fuss.
The fourth factor, the pivoting action of the hull, we shall shelve for the time being
until we understand just how the wind pressure acts to drive the boat ahead.
Referring to Figure 1, consider a sailboat on a northerly heading with the wind
coming generally from the northwest as shown, sail trimmed in as close as
possible. She is "close-hauled" and on the port tack (wind coming over the port
side).
A "ood Sail (raws The Boat Forward
Study of the effect of wind pressure on a properly designed wing surface has
shown that there is an area of negative pressure on the convex side. So it is with
a sail. n Figure 1, this acts to draw or pull the sail in the direction indicated by the
arrow CW through the wind actually comes from the direction W. Now if we show
this force graphically, allowing CW' to represent the force and direction of the
wind, it can be shown according to physical laws that CW' can be resolved into
two forces. The parallelogram FCLW' (dotted lines) shows how this is done. FC
then represents the relative strength and direction of the forward component
propelling the boat on her course, LC the strength and direction of the lateral
component tending to drive her to leeward.

The question that the sailboat skipper must decide for himself is just how close to
the wind he should sail to gain the most ground to windward. f he "pinches" her,
(sails too close to the wind) he will find FC proportionately reduced as the sail
loses its pulling power. f he eases the sheets and takes a course further away
from the wind, (doesn't "point" so high) the sail draws better and FC is increased,
although he has a longer course to sail to reach his objective to windward.
Fig. 1. With no sail set, boat tends to drift off to leeward toward X. With sail set,
close-hauled, wind from direction W strikes sail and acts on it much the same as
lift is given to an airplane wing, so that wind force is exerted in direction CW' This
is resolved into component forcesFC, the forward component which drives the
boat ahead; and LC, the lateral component which drives her sidewise off her
course
Ta)=ing
The relative ability of sailboat racing skippers to judge from experience just how
close to the wind they dare sail will often be the critical consideration on which
will hang the outcome of their race.
While a sailboat cannot sail directly into the "eye of the wind" as a motor boat
can, she is able to get to an objective dead to windward by "tacking." See Figure
4. She wants to sail from A to Z but the highest she can point toward the wind
puts her on a course AB. So she sails the course AB (starboard tack), goes
about on the port tack from B to C and repeats this, sailing the course ABCDE,
etc., represented by the solid line, but making good on the average the course
AZ dead to windward (dotted line). At CD she is on the starboard tack again as
shown, close-hauled; at DE close-hauled on the port tack, etc.

f the course is not dead to windward, the length of the various "legs" or "boards"
will not be the same as shown in Figure 4. For example every starboard tack may
be a long board, every port tack a short board, or vice versa, depending upon the
relative direction of the course to be made good and the direction of the wind.
Fig. 4. How a sailboat goes to windward by tacking
Now we can return to the fourth factor involved in the theory of sailingthe
tendency of the wind to pivot the boat if the sails are not properly trimmed, if the
hull is out of trim, or if the balance of sails has not been properly matched to the
underwater design of the hull.
Fig. 5. Relationship of wind force which acts on sails to drive the boat to
underwater part of hull which resists sidewise motion. Wind acts on mainsail as if
its total effect were centered at A, on jib at B. With both sails set, combined effect
is centered at CE (center of effort). Water presses from opposite side on under-
body of the hull to resist sidewise motion (leeway). Center of this pressure is at
CLP (center of lateral plane). Note CE and CLP are not quite in vertical line.
Distance CE is located ahead of CLP is called lead
Referring to Figure 5, we have a Marconi knockabout showing the sail plan
consisting of jib and mainsail and the underwater shape in profile. Now if we
draw lines from the tack of a sail to the mid-point of the leech (disregarding
curvature or "roach"); from the head to the mid-point along the foot; and from the
clew to the mid-point of the luff, the lines intersect at a point. At this point all the
force of the wind may be said to act. t is called the center of effort, and is located
at A for the mainsail, B for the jib and at CE for the combined sail area of jib and
mainsail together.
While it is not as easy to locate as the center of effort, a center can also be
determined for the underwater portion of the hull (disregarding the rudder)
against which the pressure of water may be said to act in resisting leeway. n
Figure 5 this is at CLP (center of lateral plane, sometimes called center of lateral
resistance). f you were to anchor the boat sketched in Figure 5 in a tideway,
broadside to the current, you would find that the anchor line would have to be
made fast at a point just a little abaft the after port hole in order to hold the keel at
right angles to the current and the anchor line. This is a rough and ready way to
determine the CLP.
Fig. 6. What happens when sails are not properly balanced. Wind is acting in
direction of arrow at center of effort (CE). n sketch A, center of lateral plane
(CLP) is too far aft. Therefore boat pivots, her bow falling off away from the wind.
At B, CLP is too far forward. Again, boat pivots, this time bringing bow up into
wind. To offset tendency sketched at A, rudder would have to be set to port (lee
helm). At B, rudder would have to be set to starboard (weather helm)
f the boat were not heeled, it is evident that CE should be in the same vertical
plane as CLP if we wish to prevent any pivoting action. f we anchor in the
tideway as before, with the anchor line in the plane of CLP, but move CE toward
the bow, the bow would swing one way when wind pressure was exerted on the
sails. f we moved it toward the stern, the bow would swing the other way.
A better example is shown in Figure 6. Here the boat is sailing, with wind abeam.
At A, the wind is acting on the boat at CE. f CLP is too far aft, the boat's bow
falls off to leeward. To correct that the tiller would be pushed down, setting the
rudder to port, and the boat would then be said to carry a lee helm.
At B, Figure 6, you have the opposite condition. Here CLP is too far forward, and
the forces combine to turn the bow into the wind. Weather helm (tiller toward the
wind, rudder to starboard, in this case) would be necessary to hold her on a
straight course. Bear in mind that these examples are highly exaggerated to
illustrate the principles clearly.
Form Of $nderbod# Changes %ith Heel
Under sail, the boat actually heels and does not stand vertically in the water as in
our hypothetical illustration above. As she heels, the shape of the surfaces of the
underbody exposed to the water changes and a wave is piled up under the lee
bow, tending to push the bow to windward. As she heels, the CLP moves
forward. Furthermore CE moves forward also when sheets are eased off instead
of standing squarely amidships as in the profile drawing showing the sail plan.
However, CE doesn't move ahead as far as CLP.
To take these factors into consideration the designer locates his CE ahead of
CLP a short distance, varying with the characteristics of the boatwhether she
be shallow or deep drafted, etc. This distance between centers is called the lead
and may vary anywhere from about 2^ per cent of the waterline length in shallow
draft centerboard boats up to roughly 8 per cent in deep draft boats with a long
fore-and-aft underwater surface.
Another factor has a tendency to drive the bow into the wind as the boat heels.
With a tall rig, and the boat heeled far over, that part of the wind force which is
driving the boat ahead is exerted not in a plane vertically through the centerline
of the boat, but far outboard over the water, on the leeward side of the boat. The
hull resists being driven through the water, while the wind pressure acts almost
as though you were to grasp the mast and push it ahead while holding the hull
back. This is just another one of those points that the designer must consider,
drawing on a good deal of experience in his calculations, if the boat is to perform
well on all points of sailing at different heeling angles and in winds of different
velocity.
Now with all of the above interacting factors to consider, it is easy to understand
why a boat must be properly balanced as to her rig and hull design if she is to
sail well. f her sails are too far forward, or her keel or centerboard too far aft, the
bow will fall off from the wind and the boat carries a lee helm. The helmsman
must keep his tiller to leeward (rudder to windward) all the time to keep her on
her course.
On the other hand if the sails are too far aft, or the keel or centerboard too far
forward, the reverse is true. Then she carries a weather helm and tends always
to throw her bow up into the wind.
%eather Helm
A little weather helm is a good thing in a sailboat. f the tiller is let go, she will
then swing into the wind and lose her headway. Or if a puff of wind hits her when
the boat has so little way on that the rudder has practically no effect in steering,
she will luff into the wind, automatically easing the pressure on her sails.
The complete theory behind the design of a sailboat and the principles that
govern her action on different points of sailing are not easy to follow through
scientifically, much less to describe in non-technical terms. But a little attention to
the fundamentals discussed above may help the novice to understand how a
sailboat, properly designed and handled, is able to turn the wind's force to her
own advantage.
Chapter - 1)
Boat Hand"ing /n 0og
"eneral &emar=s About Sound
Sound is very erratic over the water, and depending upon sound alone has cost
many a life at sea and many a vessel. Often there are belts and areas over which
sound does not seem to carry and other phenomena also occur which change
the direction that sound travels.
Mariners are cautioned that, while every endeavor will be made to start fog
signals as soon as possible after signs of fog have been observed, they should
not, when approaching the land in a fog, rely implicitly upon these fog signals, but
should always use the lead, which in most cases will give sufficient warning. A
fog often creeps imperceptibly toward the land and a vessel may have been in it
some time before it is observed at a lighthouse. As sound is conveyed irregularly
through the atmosphere, mariners are strongly cautioned that they must not
place dependence on judging their distance from a fog signal by the power of the
sound. Under certain conditions of the atmosphere the sound may be lost a short
distance from the station, as there may be silent areas or zones, or the sound
may carry much farther in one direction than in another, and these conditions
may vary in the same locality within short intervals of time. Mariners must never
assume that the fog signal is not in operation because they do not hear it, even
when in close proximity. The above applies particularly to fog signals sounded in
air, as steam or air whistles, sirens, horns, ordinary bells. Attention should be
given to observing a fog signal in positions where the noises of the ship are least
likely to interfere with the hearing, as experience shows that though such a signal
may not be heard from the deck or bridge when the engines are running it may
be heard when the ship is stopped or from a quiet position; it may sometimes be
heard from aloft, though not on deck.
S'eed Of .essel In Fog
One of the principal rules of navigation in a fog is to use the greatest caution at
all times, keeping the speed of the boat moderate, and having a careful regard to
existing circumstances and conditions. When a fog signal of an approaching
vessel is heard it is the duty of every captain to keep his vessel under absolute
control, stopping if necessary until the danger of collision is over.
%hen Fog Signals Are To Be Sounded
The rules prescribed for use in fog are also to be followed both day and night in
mist, falling snow or heavy rain storms.
%hat To Sound Fog Signal On
vessels falling in the class of motor vessels when under way should sound the
fog signal on the whistle or siren, and sailing vessels and vessels towed should
use the fog horn.
A prolonged fog blast means one of from four to six seconds duration.
*otor .essel $nderwa#
The inland rules provide that a motor vessel shall sound, when underway, one
prolonged blast, at intervals of not more than one minute.
Fog Signal For Sailing .essel
A sailing vessel in the starboard tack sounds one blast of the fog horn every
minute and when on the port tack two blasts of the fog horn in succession every
minute, and when the wind is abaft the beam, three blasts in succession.
.essel At An)hor
Any vessel at anchor must ring the fog bell rapidly for a period of five seconds
every minute.
.essel Being Towed
Any vessel which is towing, being towed, engaged in work on a cable, or by
accident or for any other reason can not get out of the way of an approaching
vessel, gives a prolonged blast followed by two short blasts, at intervals not
exceeding one minute.
Fishing .essels
Fishing vessels, as drifters, trawlers, dredgers, and line fishing craft, if over 20
tons gross, must, when engaged in fishing, give aprolonged blast on the whistle
or foghorn, according to whether they are driven by steam or sail, the blast to be
immediately followed by ringing the bell.
.essel Aground
Any vessel which has the misfortune to run aground, or, in the case of a fishing
vessel, gets her gear fast to a rock or other obstruction, shall be considered at
anchor, and make the signal necessary for such case.
.essel %ithout %a# On
A vessel underway, but with no way on, sounds two prolonged blasts in rapid
succession every two minutes, according to the international rules. The inland
rules make no special provision for a boat underway, but with no way on and the
regular fog signal for a boat with way on is generally used in this case.
Fog Signals At Light Houses
The characteristics of the fog signals sounded by the various lighthouses, light
ships, etc., are fully described in the Light List published by the U. S. Coast
Guard.
Radiobeacons broadcast simple dot and dash combinations by means of
transmitter emitting modulated continuous waves.
Diaphones produce sound by means of a slotted reciprocating piston actuated by
compressed air. Blasts may consist of two tones of different pitch in which case
the first part of the blast is high and the last of a low pitch. These alternate pitch
signals are called "two-tone."
Diaphragm horns produce sound by means of a disc diaphragm vibrated by
compressed air, steam, or electricity. Duplex or triplex horn units of differing pitch
produce a chime signal.
Reed horns produce sound by means of a steel reed vibrated by compressed air.
Sirens produce sound by means of either a disc or a cup-shaped rotor actuated
by compressed air, steam, or electricity.
Whistles produce sound by compressed air or steam emitted through a
circumferential slot into a cylindrical bell chamber.
Bells are sounded by means of a hammer actuated by hand, by a descending
weight, compressed gas, or electricity.
Chapter - 1*
1i"oting /nstr$ments
LIST OF A.I"ATI" IST&$*/TS FO& S*ALL BOATS
Compass
Celluloid Course Protractor Dividers (bronze)
Pelorus or Bearing Finder Patent Log and Log Line
Lead and Lead Line
Good Timepiece
Deviation Card
Log Book
ALSO LAT/ST /(ITIO OF TH/ FOLLO%I"
Charts
Coast Pilot
Lake Survey Bulletin
Tide Table
Light List
The Lead And Lead Line
Of the instruments necessary for successful piloting, a motor boatman should be
familiar with a few of the most common ones. Of these the lead line is probably
the most useful. As is well known, the lead line is a device for determining the
depth of water, and consists essentially of a suitably marked line having a piece
of lead of a certain definite shape, somewhat similar to a window weight. For use
on motor boats leads of various weights are used, ranging from five to fourteen
pounds. A lead line of twenty-five fathoms is sufficient for all ordinary purposes.
The deep sea lead weighs from 30 to 100 pounds, and a line of 100 fathoms or
upwards is employed.
*ar=ing The Lead Line
Lines are generally marked as follows:
2 fathoms from the lead, with 2 strips of leather.
3 fathoms from the lead, with 3 strips of leather.
5 fathoms from the lead, with a white rag.
7 fathoms from the lead, with a red rag.
10 fathoms from the lead, with leather having a hole in it.
13 fathoms from the lead, same as at 3 fathoms.
15 fathoms from the lead, same as at 5 fathoms.
17 fathoms from the lead, same as at 7 fathoms.
20 fathoms from the lead, with 2 knots.
25 fathoms from the lead, with 1 knot.
30 fathoms from the lead, with 3 knots.
35 fathoms from the lead, with 1 knot.
40 fathoms from the lead, with 4 knots.
And So On.
Fathoms which correspond with the depths marked are called "marks." The
intermediate fathoms are called "deeps." The only fractions of a fathom used are
the half and quarter. The length of lead lines should be checked up frequently
while wet. The bottom of the lead is hollowed out, and the hole is filled with tallow
or a like substance by means of which a sample of the bottom is brought up. The
process of filling the lead with tallow is called "arming the lead."
The Patent Log
The log is a device for determining the distance which a boat has run through the
water. There are three principal kinds of logs known as the patent log, chip log,
and the ground log. Of these three, the patent log is the only one used to any
extent today.
The patent log consists of a registering device, tow line, and a rotator. The
registering device is generally made fast to some permanent position near the
stern of the boat, and the length of tow line used must be sufficient to extend
beyond the effect of the boat's wake. The rotator is attached to the outer end of
the log line, and is a small spindle with a number of wings or blades extending
radially in such a manner as to form a spiral, and when drawn through the water
in the direction of its axis rotates about that axis after the manner of a screw
propeller. The registering device is so calibrated that instead of registering the
number of total turns of the rotator and log line, it will register in nautical miles.
*odern Logs
New types of logs and speedometers may be purchased today which are usually
actuated by water pressure on a fitting installed on the bottom of the boat. t is a
great convenience in piloting to have such an instrument permanently installed
so that speed or mileage can be read directly from a calibrated arc on or near the
engine instrument panel.
The Chronometer
The chronometer, the timepiece used on ships, differs from the clock or other
timekeeping instruments in that it is constructed to perform its work with greater
precision. Correct time, or regularity of a timepiece on shipboard is absolutely
essential.
The Course Protra)tor
The course protractor has generally superseded the ancient parallel rulers for the
purpose of transferring the direction of the line drawn on the chart to the
compass rose on the chart, in order to determine its direction. n using the course
protractor, its center should be placed on the chart exactly over the boat's
position. The arm of the protractor is then swung around to the nearest compass
rose on the chart, making the hair line down the center of the arm pass directly
over the center of the compass rose.
Holding the protractor arm firmly in this position, the compass part of the
protractor is then swung around until the hair line cuts the same compass point
or degree on the protractor compass as it cuts upon the compass rose. The
compass and the rose are now parallel, or, in other words, they have the same
variations. Holding the protractor compass firmly against the chart, the protractor
arm is moved until its center line cuts the point on the chart where it is desired to
lay a course. The compass course either in points or degrees can then be read
off directly.
Should the boat's compass have any deviation, the course can be easily
corrected to take account of this error by simply turning the protractor compass
around, while holding the arm against the chart clockwise if the error is
easterly, and counter-clockwise if the error is westerly.
The Pelorus Or Bearing Finder
n order to take observations and bearings of distant objects with any degree of
accuracy, it will be necessary to have some form of bearing finder or pelorus.
The pelorus as it is manufactured and sold today by the dealers in nautical
instruments is so very expensive that for the little use which the motor boatman
has for such an instrument it would hardly pay him to go to the expense of
purchasing one. However, with a little care, a home-made bearing finder may be
constructed which under ordinary conditions will be found to give fairly accurate
results.
"o!ernment Publi)ations
Sailing Directions and U. S. Coast Pilots. These publications contain the same
type of information, but the former, published by the Hydrographic office, deals
with foreign waters and coasts, while the latter, published by the Coast and
Geodetic Survey, covers the United States and its possessions. n these
publications are descriptions of coast lines and harbors, etc.
Light Lists. These are published by the Hydrographic Office in six volumes,
covering foreign countries, and by the U. S. Coast Guard in six volumes for the
United States, and its possessions, except for the Philippine slands.
Tide tables. These are now issued in four volumes, as follows: Europe and West
Coast of Africa (including Mediterranean Sea) ; East Coast, North and South
America (including Greenland; West Coast, North and South America (including
Hawaiian slands) ; Central and Western Pacific Ocean and ndian Ocean.
Together they contain daily predictions for 185 reference ports and differences
and constants for about 5,000 stations.
Current Tables. These tables are issued in two volumes by the Coast and
Geodetic Survey, Department of Commerce, entitled Current Tables, Atlantic
Coast, North America and Current Tables, Pacific Coast, North America and
Philippine slands. They include the predicted times of slack water and the times
and strength of current for each day in the year at a number of reference ports,
and current differences and constants for numerous other places, as well as
other useful current information.
Pilot Charts. Pilot charts prepared by the Hydrographic Office, U. S. Navy
Department, are an extremely useful source of information to the navigator on
hydrography, navigation, and meteorology.
Notice to Mariners. The Hydrographic Office issues weekly Notices to Mariners
containing corrections to publications and charts. They are prepared jointly by the
U. S. Coast Guard and the Hydro-graphic Office.
H. O. 205 and H. O. 206, Radio Aids to Navigation. This publication of two
volumes contains a list of radio stations throughout the world, detailed and
general information concerning such services and international and various
national regulations on the subject.
Chapter - 1+
imple "iloting
Piloting is the science of navigation by physical landmarksin other words, of
making use of recognizable features of the earth's surface and aids to navigation
to identify position at any instant.
With clear weather and the coast in sight and identified from a chart, the following
methods, given in order of frequency of use, will suffice to fix a vessel's position
accurately.
I- Cross Bearings of Two or *ore ObAe)ts II- Bearing and (istan)e of One
ObAe)t
a. By bearing and known distance from the object.
b. By two bearings and known distance run between.
c. By bearing and "circle of visibility."
III- B# SeCtant Angles Between Three Identified ObAe)ts I.- B# Charted
&anges
V. By Danger Angles and Danger Bearings n thick weather and when no
identifiable objects are in sight, the methods of ascertaining position near land
are:
A- B# &adio Com'ass Bearings
1. Observed from ship on radio beacons.
2. Observed at stations ashore and communicated to the ship.
B- B# Sound Signals
1. Through the air by timing echoes, or sound signals.
2. Through the water by timing sound signals.
C- B# S#n)hronous Sound and &adio Bea)on Signals (- B# Lines of
Soundings
E. By Dead Reckoning, discussed later in this chapter. Actually, under the
conditions discussed above, dead reckoning assumes its most important place.
n order to know the approximate position during fog or other low visibility
conditions, the DR record must be kept in good weather, no matter how useless
it might seem to be at the time, in order to know the correct DR position when
bad weather sets in.
La#ing A Course
After one has become familiar with the different instruments used for piloting,
including the dividers, parallel rulers, and course protractors, and if possible the
chip log, patent log and the lead, he should provide himself with the best chart of
the locality to be traversed, together with the sailing directions and descriptions of
the aids to navigation, all of which have been brought up to date as explained,
will be to lay his course. This is done by marking one point upon the chart at the
boat's position, and another point for which it is desired to steer. A line is then
drawn connecting the two points, which will indicate the course to be steered by
the boat. The motor boatman should examine carefully along this line on the
chart to be sure that it clears all dangers.
After having laid one's course and determined its magnetic (or true) direction by
using the course protractor (see Chapter XV) and then properly applying the
deviation of the compass for the particular course to be steered (See Chapter X),
the pilot must make frequent checks to determine whether his ship is actually
following the course which he believes she is. Winds and currents, compass
errors not known or properly applied, poor steering and for many other reasons,
the ship may be off her course. Therefore, it is most essential that as many
checks on one's position should be taken as possible. Generally speaking, it is
better to lay a number of shorter courses which will make it possible to make use
of buoys and other fixed aids to navigation at frequent intervals than to lay a long
course where frequent "fixes" are not possible. n this way, a frequent check can
be kept on one's position and the proper steps taken to correct any errors.
The more common methods of locating one's position or determining a "fix," as it
is called, are listed below:
Cross Bearings Of Two Or *ore ObAe)ts
When two or more sharply defined objects can be located on a chart, bearings of
these objects can be taken by the pelorus, and these bearings plotted on the
chart will give a fix. f three or more objects can be sighted at once, the center of
the triangle or "cocked hat" where the various lines of bearing intersect is the
most likely position of the ship.
Bearing And (istan)e Of One ObAe)t
f there is only one object available, a single bearing merely gives a line along
which the ship must be; but if the distance to the object at the same time can be
ascertained by rangefinder or sextant the exact position can be found.
Two Bearings And A &un Between
A more common use of bearings of a single object is to observe one bearing, run
a known distance on a straight course, and again observe the bearing. The two
bearings are then plotted on the chart, and this point on the second bearing line
is found where the distance to the first bearing line, measured parallel to the
course, is equal to the distance run. This point is the fix at the time of the second
bearing. For simplicity, the method of "doubling the angle on the bow" is most
frequently used. f the second bearing is twice the relative angle from the bow
that the first bearing was, then the distance from the object at the time of the
second bearing is equal to the run between bearings. The familiar "bow and
beam" case, when the first bearing is taken broad on the bow (45) and the
second when abeam (90), gives the distance the object is passed abeam, which
is equal to the distance run between the two bearings. Another modification
consists of making the first bearing 262 on the bow and the second at 45 on
the bow, when the object will be passed abeam a distance equal to the run
between the two bearings. The same combination, only measuring from the stern
around to the beam, after passing an object abeam will give the same data as to
distance from the object.
Fig- 2- Cir)le Of .isibilit#
At night a rough approximation of position may be made by noting the bearing
when a light first comes into view over the horizon.
Fig- 5 SeCtant Angles Between Three 4nown ObAe)ts
This gives the most accurate method of securing a fix within visual distance of
the coast. For best conditions, neither angle should be less than 30 nor more
than 150. "Revolvers," which will not give a definite fix, occur when the sum of
the two observed angles plus the angle formed by lines from the central object to
the other two equals 180, in which case there is a whole circle of possible fixes.
To avoid such cases, the central object should, if practicable, be nearer the ship
than either of the two objects.
Charted &anges
Much used or narrow channels may be marked by "ranges" which guide ships in
safe water along the channel. Often, owing to wind or current, the vessel is
unable to steer the true course which the range line indicates and is forced to
"crab" off the true course in order that her track will follow along the range line;
but, regardless of what course she steers, as long as the ranges remain closed
(in line) she will be in the safe channel.
Fig. 7
(anger Angle And (anger Bearing
As long as the angle subtended by the distant object at the ship is kept less than
the angle subtended at the hidden danger (see Fig. 7), the ship must be farther
away than the danger and hence pass clear.
Danger bearings are still valuable when for any reason it is impossible to get a
sure fix. Fig. 8 is an example of such use of bearings.
Piloting In Thi)= %eather Or Out Of Sight Of Land
n fog, mist, rain, or falling snow, most lighthouses or lightships and many buoys
sound at regular intervals easily identified sound signals, such as air or steam
whistles, diaphones, bells, explosive reports, or the latest development, highly
magnified, electrically reproduced audible signals. These various signals give
only general warning of the nearness or proximity to danger and also
approximate bearings, but neither bearing by ear nor distance by intensity or
clarity of signal can be depended upon, as fog often causes acoustics to play
strange tricks.
Fig. 8
Sound Signals Under Water. Many lightships and some buoys send out
underwater sound signals which may usually be heard to greater distances and
more dependably than air-carried signals. At best, they are merely warning
signals, supplementing the navigator's estimate of his position but not absolutely
confirming it.
Soundings. As a necessary proof of the reliability of other aids to navigation
when they are available, the cautious navigator, when on soundings in a fog or
reduced visibility and at all times when necessary, should always take steps to
ascertain to the best of his ability the depth of water and character of the bottom
beneath his vessel.
Ph#si)al Aids To Piloting
Lighthouses. All civilized countries provide lighthouses or lightships at intervals
along their coasts to warn ships of the coasts and outlying rocks or shoals. The
"Light Lists" as published by the United States Coast Guard and the U. S.
Hydrographic Office give the characteristics of all lighthouses and lightships of
this and foreign countries.
Buoys. Floating but anchored navigational aids except lightships are known as
buoys. (See Chapter V.)
Tides and Tidal Currents. The word tide in its strict sense refers only to the
change of elevation of the water; tidal currents refer to the horizontal flow of the
water.
Tide. The tide rises until it reaches a maximum height called "high water" or "high
tide" and then falls to a minimum level called "low water" or "low tide"; that period
at high or low water marking the transition between the tides, during which no
vertical change can be detected, is called "stand."
Tidal Currents. Tidal currents which flow in a direction, generally speaking, from
the sea toward land are called "flood tides" and those moving in the opposite
direction are called "ebb tides"; the intermediate period between flood and ebb
and between ebb and flood, during which there is no horizontal motion, is known
as "slack water."
Set and Drift. Set and drift are terms used to describe the direction (set) and
velocity (drift) of any current, tidal or otherwise.
Range. The range of the tide is the difference in height between low water and
high water.
(ead &e)=oning
The method of Navigation by Dead Reckoning in the broad sense is the method
of determining a position by keeping a careful account or reckoning of the course
and distance made good from a previous known position called the point of
departure, making due allowance for current when known.
The course made good varies from the compass course of ship's heading by:
1. Compass error.
2. Poor steering.
3. nfluence of wind.
4. nfluence of current.
The distance made good differs from the product of the speed times the interval
of time, according to:
1. Wind.
2. Current.
3. Bottom fouling.
4. naccuracies of various speed indicators.
Regardless of the recognized defects of any method of dead reckoning, it is an
invaluable aid to the mariner and is used whether or not other methods are in
process. t enables the navigator to obtain the following necessary data:
1. The ship's approximate position at any desired time.
2. The approximate latitude and longitude at the time of any celestial observation,
which is a great convenience in working lines of position.
3. The set and drift of the current between any two successive fixes (i.e., the
discrepancy between the D.R. position and the second fix).
4. During days when celestial or terrestrial observations cannot be takenthat is,
in foggy or cloudy weather with visibility poor or nildead reckoning affords the
only handy method of determining positions, and as such conditions may
continue for several days at a time, this is a most indispensable method. Note,
however, that the increasing use of radio bearings, due to the vastly greater
distances over which they are available at present, is supplementing D.R. and
soundings as the navigator's last resort. (See Chapter XX.)
Dead Reckoning artistry consists in taking advantage of all the aids to navigation
that are available and in calculating the effect that the various factors listed
above have on the actual track of a ship.
Chapter - 1,
ignaling
.arious forms of signal codes have been used by manners for many years, but
these have not always been international in scope. The need for such a universal
system by which ships of all nations could communicate with each other without
misunderstanding was brought into sharp focus during the World War of 1914-
1918. At that time the nternational Code of Signals proved inadequate.
Revisions were therefore made and a new code drafted, which has now been in
general use the world over for a number of years.
n the field of pleasure boating, flags of the nternational Code are most
commonly seen as a decoration for yachts when they dress ship at regattas, on
holidays, and so onmuch less frequently in the use for which they were
basically intended, that of conveying messages from one ship to another. Yet if
boatmen were more generally aware of how valuable the ability to signal to other
craft might be at times, it is likely that they would regard a knowledge of the
fundamentals, at least, an indispensable part of their education in seamanship.
How important a more general knowledge of correct signaling technique among
vessels of all kinds really is, is evidenced by the fact that ships of the Navy and
Merchant Marine regularly communicate at sea with the express idea of gaining
familiarity in the use of the code. Much could be accomplished if yachtsmen as a
group would also seize every opportunity to familiarize themselves with its
correct use.
As a matter of fact, the former Bureau of Marine nspection and Navigation once
reported that, due to cooperation of the Navy, the Maritime Commission, and the
Coast Guard with the Bureau, there has been a definite improvement in signaling
efficiency on the part of Merchant Marine personnel. For a time the Bureau in its
monthly bulletin carried a list of the contacts made between merchant ships and
vessels of the Navy and Coast Guard, but within a year they reached such
volume that it was no longer practicable to publish it.
For a full, complete explanation of the fundamentals to be outlined in this
chapter, yachtsmen are referred to H. O. No. 87, a publication of the
Hydrographic Office of the Navy Departmententitled nternational Code of
Signals (Volume , Visual and Sound). t may be obtained from the Hydrographic
Office at Washington, D. C, or any of its agencies in principal cities. A separate
volume deals with radio communication. A copy of H. O. No. 87 and a good set
of signal flags should be part of the equipment, not only of every seagoing yacht,
but all pleasure boats from fair sized cruisers up. On yachts of the Coast Guard
Auxiliary they would be particularly desirable.
*ethods Of Flag Signaling
There are four common methods of communicating by means of visual signals.
These include: (1) flag signaling, with the use of nternational flags and pennants;
(2) flashing light signals; (3) sound signals and (4) the use of semaphore signals.
For the second and third methods, the nternational Morse Code is used.
Flags of the nternational Code include 26 letter flags, 10 pennants for numerals,
3 substitute or repeater flags, and a code or answering pennant.
n the second and third methods, using flashing light or sound signals,
combinations of dots and dashes constituting the nternational Morse Code
express the various letters, numerals and signals. n determining the duration of
dot and dash signals, the dot is taken as a unit, a dash equals three units, and
the time between any two elements of a symbol is equal to one unit. Between
two complete signals, the interval is three units; between two words or groups,
five units. This spacing of the letters, words, etc., is an important element of
successful signaling.
Flashing light signals are commonly made by exposing and obscuring a light.
Sound signals can be made on a siren, whistle, fog horn or any other sound
apparatus. Eight words per minute is taken as standard for flashing light signals.
Semaphore signals are made by a signalman holding a pair of hand flags in
various positions to designate letters of the alphabet, etc. This is not to be
confused with the wig-wag system of flag signaling. As in flashing light signaling,
standard practice requires signaling by semaphore at the rate of eight words per
minute.
f every message transmitted by means of visual signals had to be spelled out
letter for letter, it is apparent that the procedure would become tedious; wasting
much time and effort. For this reason, by the use of the code given in H. O. No.
87, words, phrases and even sentences are reduced to a few simple letters.
Obviously then one of the first essentials in gaining proficiency in signaling is to
be thoroughly conversant with the code book. With such knowledge one will
naturally frame his messages so as to utilize phrasing for which code letters have
been provided.
n the exchange of messages it is always assumed that the communication is
between the masters of the two vessels, unless expressly stated to the contrary.
Signal letters assigned to ships consist of four letters, of which the first letter or
two indicate nationality. These agree with their radio call signs. The same
principle applies to aircraft except that the signal letters and radio call signs
consist of a five-letter group. t should be noted that these letters are used in two
ways. Where a ship, aircraft or signal station is spoken to or is called, the signal
letters precede the communication or signal. But when a signalman wants to
speak of a ship, that is to say, indicate or refer to a certain ship in his message,
he uses her signal letters at the end of his signal.
S'elling Out %ords
Not all messages are sent in code; they may be expressed in plain language,
spelling out words in full. When ships are referred to in a coded message, their
signal letters are used, but when the message is in plain language, then the
ship's name is spelled out.
Sometimes, in plain language messages, numbers are written out in full as words
in order to eliminate any possibility of errorfor example, "one two three" in
place of "123." Another safeguard against error, in plain language messages, is
to repeat the number, indicating the fact by the word "repetition" directly
preceding such repetitionfor example, "one two three repetition one two three."
The manner of signaling numbers varies with the method used. n flag signaling,
numeral pennants are provided, the shape of which distinguishes the numbers
from the letters. n Morse signaling (flashing light or sound), numerals are
provided for with distinctive signals, though they may be spelled out. n
semaphore, numbers are spelled out. f a decimal point occurs between
numerals in a flag signal, the answering pennant is inserted to express it. n
Morse, the decimal point sign is the same as a period (. . . ). n
semaphore it would be spelled out "decimal."
n some cases numbers must be added to a code group to complete its
signification. Except when signaling time, bearings or positions, the numbers in
such cases are sent as a separate group.
Time On Shi'board
n navigation, time is expressed in terms of hours up to 24, rather than 12 for
A.M. and 12 more for P.M. n signaling the same principle applies, so that any
time can be expressed in four figures. For example, 2:10 A.M. becomes 0210;
3:12 P.M. would be 1512. n signaling a coded message, the letter T would be
joined with these four numerals to form a single group and indicate that the
numerals express timefor example, T0210 or T1512. The T always precedes
the numerals. n plain language messages (as differentiated from code) the
context makes it clear when the message relates to time.
Sometimes the time is signaled from one vessel to another as a check on the
chronometer time, in which case the exact instant becomes very important. This
is handled by having the time relate to the instant when the signal is hauled down
and, if this is done smartly, the time can be checked to a split second. f the
message happened to be in Morse, the exact instant would be indicated by
sending a long (5-second) dash after the time signal, the end of it synchronized
with the exact time which the four-numeral signal expresses.
Courses and bearings are signaled by three figures, interpreted as true, unless
expressly designated as magnetic. For example, a course of 45 degrees true
would be simply 045; if it is to express a magnetic course of 45 degrees, then the
signal would be 045 magnetic. When a course is signaled in code, a suitable
code group to express the desired idea would be followed by the three numerals.
n the case of a bearing, the letter X is joined to the numerals to form a single
group, the X preceding the numerals. X045 would therefore signify "bearing 45
(true)."
nasmuch as wind and current are often referred to in terms of points of the
compass, three-letter code groups have been provided for each of the 32 points.
The more or less long-winded Southwest By South is thus cut down, in code, to
NTT; Northwest By West to JUV.
To Signal Position
To signal a position by giving the latitude and longitude, each would be
expressed as a group of four figures, the first group indicating the latitude, the
second the longitude. n each case the first two figures indicate degrees; the last
two, minutes. When making a signal, each of the two groups of figures would be
joined and preceded by the letter P. P4027, P7400 would thus indicate a position
in latitude 40 degrees 27 minutes, longitude 74 degrees 00 minutes.
Commonly, it is unnecessary to indicate whether the latitude is north or south
and the longitude east or west, since in most cases both are obvious. f required
to avoid confusion or misunderstanding, then the N or S can be added directly
after the latitude numerals and the E or W directly after the longitude figures. This
is often desirable in cases where the position is in a latitude close to the equator
or the longitude close to 0 or 180 degrees.
When the longitude runs into three figures, it is usually expedient to drop the first
figure since a ship invariably knows her position to the nearest hundred degrees.
By doing this, any longitude can be expressed by a four-figure group, though five
may be used if necessary to prevent misunderstanding.
Another method of expressing position is by bearing and distance from a given
point. n signaling a position by this method, a certain sequence must be
observed as follows: first, the bearing from; second, the distance from; third, the
point. Thus X02115Point Blank would be interpreted as a position 15 miles
21 degrees true from Point Blank. The letter X and three figures will be recalled
as expressing the bearing; the 15 group is taken to mean miles unless otherwise
stated. The geographical position of the point might be given as a four-letter
group from the code book. f, instead of a geographical point, the point of
reference happened to be a ship, its position being known, the final group would
be the signal letters of the ship referred to.
The time of origin of a message is considered to be the time at which a message
is ordered to be made. When it is necessary to insert this time in a signaled
message, it is put at the conclusion. The time is expressed in four figures, to the
nearest minute. Certain local codes are in use which do not conform to the
nternational Code. Misunderstanding might arise if such local codes were used
without explanation. Consequently provision is made for such signals by
displaying first the nternational NMM. This will make it clear that the signals
following are not to be interpreted from the nternational Code book.
Code Flags
When signaling by means of the flags and pennants of the nternational Code, it
is advisable to show only a single hoist at a time. A hoist means one or more
groups displayed from a single halyard. The signal is read from top to bottom.
(However, in certain organizations, where secrecy is desired, the signal is read
from the bottom up. This may explain some strange signal not found in the code
book, if read top to bottom.) Each group of letters and/or numerals constitute a
separate signal and when several groups are used on one hoist, they naturally
must be separated to convey the right meaning. A tackline, consisting of a piece
of halyard about 6 feet long, is used to separate such groups.
Signals should be kept flying until answered. There are occasions when more
than one hoist may be displayed simultaneously and then an order of sequence
must be followed in order to interpret the message correctly. n such cases the
hoists are read in the following order: (1) masthead, (2) triatic stay, (3) starboard
yardarm and (4) port yardarm. (The triatic stay runs from the main to the
foremast head.)
n cases where more hoists than one are flown from a yardarm, the outboard
hoist is read first; where more than one are displayed at the triatic stay, the one
furthest forward is read first.
The terms superior and inferior are often used in relation to signals. A signal is
superior to another if hoisted before the latter, either in point of time or hoist. f
hoisted after, it is inferior.

Obviously a visual signal is going to fail of its purpose if it is not clearly visible.
For that reason signals should always be flown where they can best be seen by
the receiving vessel. This means that each flag must stand out clearly, not
enveloped in smoke or fouled by sails, rigging, etc.
How To Call
When calling a particular vessel, her signal letters are hoisted superior to the
message which is to follow; otherwise, in the absence of such signal letters, the
message would be understood to be addressed to all vessels in sight of the
signal. f the other vessel's signal letters are not known, she can be directed or
requested to hoist them by displaying the code letter group VH and hoisting the
transmitting ship's own signal letters at the same time. As a final alternative,
display of the code group NMJ would convey the message: " wish to signal to
the vessel(s) on bearing indicated from me" and, of course, the bearing would be
given to distinguish between several vessels which might be within signaling
distance.
n order to understand the procedure followed in answering a signal there are
several terms which should be defined. A signal is at the dip when hoisted only
about half the extent of the halyard; it is said to be close up when hoisted to the
full extent of the halyard.
n answering a signal then every vessel addressed should hoist the answering
pennant at the dip as each hoist is seen, closing up to indicate that the signal is
understood. Then when the transmitting ship hauls her hoist down, the answering
pennant on the receiving ship is immediately lowered to the dip again so as to be
ready to acknowledge the next hoist, in similar manner, when understood. This
continues until the message is completed. (t is suggested that the triatic stay
should not be used for the answering pennant because of the difficulty in
distinguishing whether it is at the dip or close up.) When the transmitting ship has
lowered the last hoist, she indicates that the message is complete by hoisting the
answering pennant alone, which the receiving ship answers just the same as all
previous hoists.
When a signal cannot be clearly distinguished, the receiving ship keeps the
answering pennant at the dip and hoists a signal which will convey the reason for
the difficulty. f, on the other hand, she can distinguish the signal but does not
understand its meaning, she flies the code signal VB indicating: "Signal is not
understood though flags are distinguished."
&e'eaters Or Substitutes
With every set of code flags are included three pennant-shaped repeaters or
substitutes. These permit the signalman to repeat the same signal flag in a group
without carrying extra sets of flags. These substitutes repeat the same class of
flag that precedes them; that is, following alphabetical flags they repeat them
but if used with numeral pennants they repeat such pennants.
Considering then only the class of flags directly preceding the substitute, the first
substitute repeats the top flag; the second substitute, the second flag from the
top; and the third substitute the third flag from the top. An answering pennant
used as a decimal point is disregarded and a substitute is never used more than
once in the same group. f, for example, the signal to be made is ABBA, the hoist
reading from top to bottom would be: A, B, second substitute, first substitute. f
the signal were 5222, the hoist would be 5, 2, second substitute, third substitute.
Note that the second substitute has been used in place of the third numerical and
cannot be used again. However, it represents the 2 of the third numeral,
therefore the third substitute is used to repeat 2 in the last numeral. T1550 would
be signaled T, 1, 5, second substitute, 0, since the substitute in this mixed group
of a letter and numerals follows a numeral and therefore repeats the second
numeral, which is 5.
When names occur in the text of a message they are spelled out, and
alphabetical signals are provided having certain significations. The answering
pennant over E (alphabetical signal number 1) indicates that until alphabetical
signal number 3 is made, the letters which follow do not represent code signals
but alphabetical letters spelling a word. Answering pennant over F (alphabetical
signal number 2) signifies the end of a word being spelled or a dot between
initials. Answering pennant over G (alphabetical signal number 3) means that the
spelling is complete and the signals which follow should be interpreted from the
code book.
When naval vessels communicate with merchant ships, they hoist the code
pennant and keep it flying while the signal is made. When signal exercises are
engaged in between such vessels, or between mer-chantment, the code group
NM is used to express: " wish to exercise signals with you." NML indicates that
the "signal exercise is finished."
*orse Code
At this point it would be well to refer to the illustration of the Morse symbols used
for both visual and sound signaling. ncluded in this illustration are some of the
more important procedure signals.
These procedure signals and signs are in the nature of abbreviated messages,
that is, they enable ships to exchange short, concise messages used frequently
in connection with signaling.
Learning The Code
t is important that the Morse Code be learned by every sailor so that messages
by blinker-light (and sound) may be sent and received.
The Coast Guard and the Merchant Marine teach the alphabet by letter from A to
Z. t has been found that many learn faster by having the alphabet divided into
groups of similar combinations as suggested below:
E (ECHO). A (ALFA) .
(NDA) . . U (UNFORM) ..
S (SERRA) ... V (VCTOR) . . .
H (HOTEL) ....
T (TANGO) N (NOVEMBER) .
M (MKE) D (DELTA) . .
O (OSCAR) B (BRAVO) ...
A (ALFA) . N (NOVEMBER) .
W (WHSKEY). G (GOLF) .
J (JULETT) . Z (ZULU) ..
The balance of the alphabet is:
C (CHARLE). . Q (QUEBEC) .
F (FOXTROT).. . R (ROMEO). .
K (KLO) . X (X RAY) . .
L (LMA) . . . Y (YANKEE) .
P (PAPA) . .
Of these R, L and P might be grouped; K, C and Y; leaving only F, Q and X not
well related.
Pro)edure Signals
Some of the important procedure signals are as follows:
The letter C (. .) means "You are correct."
De (.. .) in the identity means "From ." For example, De GXDE means "From
ship whose signal letters are GXDE."
G (.) means "Repeat back." This may be used as a separate signal at the
beginning of a plain language message and then signifies that everything which
follows should be repeated back, word by word, as received.
R (. .) means "Message received."
T () signifies the receipt of each word in the text of a plain language message.
W (.) means " am unable to read your message owing to light not being
properly trained or light burning badly." The receiving ship may make this W
signal at any time, in which case the transmitting ship should show a steady light
until the receiving ship indicates that she is satisfied with the light by stopping the
W signal.
AA AA, etc. (. . . . etc.) is the call for an unknown ship and general
call, used to attract attention before signaling a ship the name of which is
unknown. t is discontinued when the ship called answers.
TTTTT, etc. ( etc.) is the signal used to answer the above call,
discontinued when the transmitting ship stops calling.
Note: A bar over letters composing a sign means the letters are to be made as
one symbol.
UD (.. ..) is the repeat sign, used to request repetition of all or part of a
message. When it is made singly it means "Repeat the last message." n sound
signaling the repeat sign made singly means " missed the last word (or group);
please go back a few words (or groups) and continue the message."
$sing The &e'eat Sign
The repeat sign UD may be used in conjunction with the signs AA, AB, WA, or
WB and an identifying word or group, the last two separated by the space sign.
The space sign is (....) and is used not only in conjunction with the repeat sign
but also to separate whole numbers from fractions.
The letters AA, AB, WA, and WB have the following significance: AA (. .) all
after.
AB (....) all before.
WA (..) word or group after.
WB (....) word or group before.
Thus,
UD (alone) means "Repeat the last message."
UD AA VESSEL means "Repeat all after the word VESSEL."
UD AB JEM means "Repeat all before the group JEM."
UD WA KC means "Repeat the group after KC."
UD WB FLAGS means "Repeat the word before FLAGS."

Repeat signs are not to be used when a message is not understood or when a
message as decoded is unintelligible. n such cases, suitable signals taken from
the code should be made.
Other Signs
The break sign BT ( ... ) is used to precede text. t is repeated back but its
repetition by the receiving ship is not acknowledged with C by the transmitting
ship. (This is amplified under Flashing Light Signaling.)
EEEEE, etc. ( etc.) is the erase sign, signifying that the last word or group was
signaled incorrectly. t is answered with the erase sign. When answered, the
transmitting ship repeats the last word or group correctly signaled and then goes
ahead with the rest of the message. n the event that the error is not discovered
till the message is complete, then the entire message must be signaled over
again correctly.
AR (. . .) is the ending sign used to end all messages. f a whole message is
to be cancelled while it is in process of transmission, the correct procedure is to
make the erase sign and follow it with the ending sign, thus: EEEEE AR.
PRB is the international code group indicator, used in messages transmitted by
Morse code as the first group of coded text and signifies that the message which
follows consists of code groups, not plain language.
Flashing Light
When signaling by flashing light, messages are divided into five component
parts: (1) call (2) identity (3) break sign (4) text, and (5) ending. However, it does
not follow that all these components will be found in every message,
The call, which begins a message, consists either of the general call (AA AA etc.)
or the signal letters of the ship being called. When the receiving ship is ready to
take the message, she answers by making the answering sign.
When it is necessary for the two ships to establish their identity, it is done as
follows: After the call is answered the transmitting ship makes "de (from)"
followed by her signal letters. This is repeated back. Then the receiving ship
makes her own signal letters and the transmitting ship repeats back. n the event
that either does not repeat back, or does so incorrectly, tl en the other makes her
signal letters again until they are correctly repeated back.

The break sign, as previously indicated, is BT and is signaled next, preceding the
text which follows. t is repeated back, but the transmitting ship does not
acknowledge its repetition by the receiving ship by making the C signal (You are
correct) because this is not part of the text of the message. Should the receiving
ship fail to repeat back the BT (break) signal, the transmitting ship must make it
again, until properly acknowledged. When the message requests a repetition, the
break sign is not used before the text.
The fourth component is the text. This may be in plain language words or in
groups of code, each word or group being signaled separately. As each plain
language word is received, the receiving ship acknowledges it by making T. n
the case of code groups, numbers (in figures, not spelled out), procedure signals,
and signs (except C and punctuation signs) she repeats back as each is made
and if such repetition is correct, the transmitting ship makes C. f the repetition is
incorrect, then the transmitting ship must make the group again. Similarly, if the
receiving ship does not acknowledge receipt of the signal or repeat back, then
the transmitting ship must make the last word or group again.
As mentioned in the summary of procedure signals and signs, the ending sign is
AR. This is the fifth and last component of the message, made at the end of the
text and answered by the receiving ship by R (Message received).
Naturally when ships are exchanging a series of messages, there would be
nothing gained by including the call and identity (the first two components) each
time. Consequently they would be used at the beginning of the first message but
omitted from subsequent messages.
The nternational Code Book gives many examples of how various types of
messages would be exchanged by flashing light, for example: plain language, a
coded message, a message with identity omitted, a message with both call and
identity omitted, a repetition of a whole message, repetition of "all after" a certain
group, repetition of "all before" a certain word, repetition of the "group after" a
certain group, and repetition of the "word before" a certain group. The signals
made by both transmitting and receiving ships are given, in the proper sequence.
The following are given as examples of (1) a simple plain language message and
(2) a coded message:
(1) The master of S.S. Malolo (signal letters WMCE) wishes to transmit the
message "What weather have you had ?" to the master of a passing ship, which
is S.S. Accra (signal letters GMON). The signaling is conducted as follows:

Component S.S. Malolo S.S. Accra References
Makes Makes And Remarks
(2) The talian warship Solferino (signal letters ASJ) wishes to transmit the
message "Have you sighted S.S. Fausto?" to the American merchant vessel
Michigan (signal letters KFLN). The message is coded and the signaling is
conducted as follows:
Note: The references in the last column of these tabulations relate to article
numbers in H. O. No. 87.
Sound Signaling
Sound signaling should be used only with the greatest of caution, due to the
confusion it might create with passing or fog signals. A good rule for yachtsmen
would be to become thoroughly familiar with its principles and procedure but
never to use it except in emergencies or in cases where there is certainty that no
misunderstandings could possibly arise as a result of its use.
A sound signal should be as brief as possible and, except in emergency,
communications should be limited to the single-letter signals. n fog or in inland
waters where traffic is heavy, sound signals must be kept to an absolute
minimum.
When necessary to signal by soundon whistle, siren, fog horn, or other
appliancethe call is made the same as by flashing light (AA AA A, etc.).
However, no call or answer is used with single-letter signals.
The receiving ship answers a call with the answering sign TTTTT, etc., after
which the transmitting ship signals her complete message, with no
acknowledgement, repetition or interruption from the receiving ship unless the
latter happens to miss a word or group. n that case the receiving ship may break
in immediately with the repeat sign (UD), whereupon the transmitting ship would
make the last few words or groups over again and continue. When the
transmitting ship has completed the message she makes the ending sign (AR),
acknowledged by the receiving ship with the final R (Message received).
The code book gives the following example of a communication carried out in
Morse signaling by sound. Although the general call is used, the ships do not
exchange identities.
S. S. Beechwood, hearing the sound of another steamer's siren, wishes to
transmit the message: "Have just passed floating mines." The other ship is S. S.
Sirius.
Component S.S. Beechwood S.S. Sirius Makes
Makes
Call AA AA AA, etc. TTTTTTT, etc.
Break Sign BT
Have 1 No answer unless a word
just is missed, in which case
Text passed
floating makes repeat sign UD.
mines See article 121.
Ending AR R
Sema'hore
When a ship wishes to communicate by semaphore (hand flags) she hoists the
nternational Code flag J, a single-letter signal, which means: " am going to send
a message by semaphore." This may be hoisted singly or inferior to a group of
signal letters. When the ship addressed sees this, she first hoists the answering
pennant at the dip, then close up when ready to take the message.
To designate which one of several vessels is to answer the signal, the
semaphore flag is hoisted with a tackline inferior to the signal letters of that ship.
A naval vessel wishing to signal by semaphore to a merchantman would hoist the
code pennant where it could best be seen, and the merchant ship's signal letters
with a tackline superior to the semaphore (J) flag. The semaphore flag flies until
the message is completed.
To signal by semaphore, a signalman takes two square hand flags and, using the
semaphore alphabet, spells out a plain language message, numbers as well as
words being spelled out in full.
First the sender makes the attention sign (waving both flags at arm's length),
whereupon the receiving ship should hoist the answering pennant close up. f
necessary, the sender then makes the name of the receiving ship, followed by
"de (from)" and the name of the transmitting ship. Frequently vessels
communicating by semaphore are relatively close to each other. Then, instead of
hoisting the semaphore (J) flag and answering pennant, the attention sign and
the answering sign (C) may be used.
n signaling, the signalman faces the ship addressed and as each word is
completed drops his arms to the position designated for the break sign. The
break sign is also used in spelling double letters; the first letter is made, arms
dropped to the break position, and then immediately moved to the second letter.
Each word is acknowledged aboard the receiving ship by making C (the
answering sign), and if not so acknowledged the word is repeated. When an error
is made, the sender makes a succession of E's (EEEEEEE, etc.) then signals the
last word that was made correctly and continues his message. The message is
completed with the ending sign AR.
The code book gives the following example of a message sent by semaphore:
The master of S. S. Lurline (signal letters KEK) wishes to transmit by semaphore
the message: "Can you loan me a kedge anchor?" to the master of S. S. Stora
(signal letters GDVR).
aming The Flags
To avoid any possibility of error when calling off flags or pennants, the Navy has
a system of naming each flag. Thus one could not mistake a B for a V or an M for
an N, etc. Their names are:
AAlfa HHotel OOscar VVictor
BBravo ndia PPapa WWhiskey
CCharlie JJuliett QQuebec XX Ray
DDelta KKilo RRomeo YYankee
EEcho LLima SSierra ZZulu
FFoxtrot MMike TTango
GGolf NNovember UUniform
Signal Code
Much of Volume H. O. No. 87 is necessarily devoted to a listing of the various
code letters and groups, with their significance. All signals consist of single, two,
three or four letters. Single-letter signals are urgent messages or those in
common use. Two-letter signals are next in importance, including distress and
maneuvering signals and some general signals in common use. Three-letter
signals are used for other words, phrases and sentences. Four-letter signals
beginning with the letter A relate to geographical positions. Other four-letter
signals are the signal letters of ships, signal stations, etc.
Call letters of ships may be identified from three publications: Signal Letters of
the U. S. Merchant Marine, the Berne List, and Lloyd's Register of Shipping. The
first of these is available from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.
C. (15c). The Berne List is primarily for radio and Lloyd's Register is a large
volume generally found in shipping offices but not on shipboard.

The problem of compiling a code from which expressions in any one of seven
foreign languages might be taken was a difficult one and certain principles must
be followed in its use. These are outlined in the instructions which accompany
the code and should be carefully read before attempting to use the code itself.
Otherwise, because of the form used, erroneous interpretations might be placed
on a message sent in code. Numerous examples help to make the practice of
coding clear.
The following brief list of some of the one- and two-letter signals, taken at
random from the complete code as given in H. O. No. 87 will serve to indicate
how easily a yachtsman with only an elementary knowledge of signaling
procedure could transmit important messages to other craft cruising in his
company or to passing vessels.
T#'i)al Code Signals
C Yes (Affirmative).
D Keep clear of me am maneuvering with difficulty.
F am disabled. Communicate with me.
G require a pilot.
N No (Negative).
O Man overboard.
P n Harbor (Blue Peter)All persons are to repair on
board as the vessel is about to proceed to sea. (Note:
To be hoisted at the foremast head.)
At SeaYour lights are out, or burning badly.
Q My vessel is healthy and request free pratique.
U You are standing into danger.
V require assistance.
W require medical assistance.
AM Accident has occurred. require a doctor.
AP am aground.
CU Anchorage is dangerous.
DO am drifting and require assistance.
DQ am on fire and require immediate assistance.
DV have sprung a leak and require immediate assistance.
DZ require immediate assistance.
EU Bar is dangerous.
FV t is impossible to land.
JT You should follow me, or vessel indicated.
JZ have damaged my rudder. can not steer.
LJ am disabled. Will you tow me in or into place indicated ?
LO My engines are disabled.
LP My steering gear is disabled.
LT am dragging. Can veer no more cable and have no more
anchors to let go.
LV am in distress for want of fuel.
NC am in distress and require immediate assistance.
PT require a pilot.
QW have on board mail for you, or vessel indicated.
RG have telegram (s) for you.
RH Message has been received.
RJ Have you any message for me?
RS s all well with you?
RV Where are you bound?
RW Where are you from?
SD am short of lubricating oil. Can you supply?
SE am short of petrol. Can you supply?
TH have lost my propeller.
TK require provisions urgently.
UW can not distinguish your flags.
VB Signal is not understood though flags are distinguished.
WU What course should steer to make nearest land?
XY Can you take me in tow?
YJ require water immediately.
>a)ht Club Signal Codes
Yacht clubs have adopted signal codes of their own, which are not in conformity
with signals prescribed by the nternational Code Book. Furthermore, since the
practice among the clubs may vary to a certain extent, the interpretation of such
club signals depends largely on a knowledge of the local code as prescribed in
the club's year book.
The purpose of the signals prescribed in club codes is principally to provide a
means of communication between vessels of the squadron. While the codes do
vary, there is a tendency toward standardization of both the meanings of the
signals and also the signaling procedure.
n general, signals in the club code will consist of: Special, racing and emergency
signals (one or two flags, from A to Z, and A to AZ) ; general signals (two flags,
BA to GZ); designation (two flags, HA to HZ); days of the week (two flags, Q to
Z) ; hours of the day (two flags, JA to KY); names of places (two flags, NA to
WZ); and compass signals (three flags, AQD to AST).
Most clubs provide that yachts using their own club code should hoist the club
burgee over the club code flags; otherwise, absence of the burgee would indicate
that the nternational Code is used.
Signaling a!al And Coast "uard .essels
There may be occasions, particularly in time of war, when it is necessary for a
pleasure craft to approach a Naval or Coast Guard vessel for the purpose of
transmitting vital information. Obviously, no vessel of these services should be
bothered with messages unless they are of consequencedealing, for example,
with national defense, or the safety of persons, property, or vessels.
When such a vessel is under way, she should be approached with signal flags
flyingthe nternational Code answering pennant at one yardarm, and the three-
letter group JG (urgent message) at the other. By the display of the nternational
Code answering pennant, the naval vessel will understand that the signal is
nternational Code, not Navy Code.
When the naval vessel is ready to receive the message it will hoist the
(nternational Code) answering pennant, after which the message should be
completed promptly with nternational Code Flag hoists.
%hen Signaling /?ui'ment Is ot A!ailable
On craft where signaling equipment is not available, attention may be attracted
by waving a flag or any form of pantomime that will convey the idea of a desire to
communicate a message. However, if warned by the naval vessel to stand off,
the approaching craft should obey instructions regardless of the nature of the
message, as naval craft are on serious business, and they may have their own
reasons why no craft are to come near.
At night, all lights should be lit, the ensign displayed with flashlight or searchlight
played upon it to make it conspicuous and easily identified, and approach should
be slow and deliberate, always mindful of the possibility of being warned to stand
off. Approach at all times should be toward the starboard side, about where the
gangway is located.
f allowed to come alongside, the person in command of the small craft should
establish his identity at once, state his business briefly (communicating only to
proper officials), follow any instructions exactly, and depart only after permission
is secured. Messages should be given only to the Commanding Officer or, in the
case of large vessels, the Officer of the Deck.
Chapter - 20
!peia" !igna"s
International Life Sa!ing Signals
(1) Replies from shore station to distress signals made by a ship: (a) Signal: By
day: white smoke signal. By night: white star rocket, (b) Signification: You are
seen. Assistance will be given as soon as possible.
(2) Landing signals for the guidance of small boats bringing away the crew of a
wrecked ship: (a) Signal: By day: vertical motion of a white flag or the arms. By
night: vertical motion of a white light or flare. A range (indication of direction) may
be given by placing a steady white light or flare lower and in line with the
observer, (b) Signification: This is the best place to land, (c) Signal: By day:
horizontal motion of a white flag or arms extended horizontally. By night:
horizontal motion of a white light or flare, (d) Signification: Landing here highly
dangerous, (e) Signal: By day: horizontal motion of a white flag, followed by the
placing of the white flag in the ground and carrying of another white flag in the
direction to be indicated. By night: horizontal motion of a white light or flare,
followed by the placing of the white light or flare on the ground and the carrying
of another white light or flare in the direction to be indicated, (f) Signification:
Landing here highly dangerous. A more favorable location to land is in the
direction indicated.
Submarine (istress Signals
At the time of the Squalus disaster, smoke bombs were observed by fishermen
operating in the vicinity. t appears that these fishermen thought nothing of these
displays, supposing that they were some form of drill and made no report of
them.
A submarine of the United States Navy which may be in need of assistance
releases a red smoke bomb.
A submarine which may be compelled to surface in the vicinity of surface craft
releases a yellow smoke bomb. Surface vessels should keep clear of the yellow
smoke bombs.
Any person sighting a red smoke bomb rising from the surface of the water
should report the time and location immediately to the nearest Naval authority or
Coast Guard unit.
(istress Signals International &ules
(1) A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about a minute (2) a
continuous sounding with any fog signal apparatus (3) rockets or shells, throwing
red stars, fired one at a time at short intervals (4) the nternational Code Signal of
distress indicated by NC (5) a square flag, having above or below it a ball or
anything resembling a ball (6) flames on the vessel, as from a burning tar barrel,
oil barrel, etc. (7) a signal made by radiotelegraphy or by any other signalling
method consisting of the group ...... in the Morse Code (8) a signal sent by
radiotelephony consisting of the spoken word "Mayday" and (9) a rocket
parachute flare showing a red light. A radio signal has been provided for use by
vessels in distress for the purpose of actuating the auto-alarms of other vessels
and thus securing attention to distress calls or messages. The signal consists of
a series of 12 dashes, sent in 1 minute, the duration of each dash being 4
seconds, and the duration of the interval between 2 consecutive dashes 1
second.
Inland &ules
By day:1. A continuous sounding with any fog signal apparatus, or firing a gun.
By night:1. Flames on the vessel, as from a burning tar or oil barrel, etc.
2. Continuous sounding with any fog signal apparatus, or firing a gun.
$- S- Storm Signals
After much preparatory work and consultation with marine groups, yacht clubs,
shipping agencies and other coastal interests, a simplified system of Coastal
Warning Displays was put into effect January 1, 1958, by the Weather Bureau,
Department of Commerce.
Under the new method, only four separate signals are used during the day,
instead of the seven separate flag signals formerly employed in the Weather
Bureau's Storm Warning Display System. During the night, only four comparable
lantern signals are used for Small Craft, Gale, Whole Gale, and Hurricane
warnings.
The Weather Bureau emphasizes that these visual storm warnings displayed
along the coast are supplementary toand not a replacement forthe written
advisories and warnings given prompt and wide distribution by press, radio and
television. n most cases, important details of the forecasts and warnings in
regard to the time, intensity, duration, and direction of storms, cannot be given
satisfactorily through visual signals alone.
%hat The Signals *ean
Following is a detailed explanation of the new signals:
Small Craft Warning: One red pennant displayed by day and a red light above a
white light at night to indicate winds up to 38 mph (33 knots) and/or sea
conditions dangerous to small craft operations are forecast for the area.
Gale Warning: Two red pennants displayed by day and a white light above a red
light at night to indicate winds ranging from 39 to 54 mph (34 to 48 knots) are
forecast for the area.
Whole Gale Warnings: A single square red flag with a black center displayed
during daytime and two red lights at night to indicate winds ranging from 55 to 73
mph (48 to 63 knots) are forecast for the area.

Hurricane Warning: Two square red flags with black centers displayed by day
and a white light between two red lights at night to indicate that winds 74 mph (64
knots) and above are forecast for the area.
Storm %arnings B# &adio
Storm warnings and storm advisories issued by the United States Weather
Bureau are broadcast, after clearance through military authorities, by designated
United States Naval and Coast Guard radio stations. A large number of
commercial radio stations also broadcast storm warnings under the same
clearance requirements although at somewhat irregular intervals.
Radio schedules of storm warnings and weather information broad-Cast from
United States and foreign stations are contained in Hydro-graphic Office
Publication 206 entitled, "Radio Weather Aids to Navigation."
Signals From Coast "uard .essels And Lightshi's
Coast Guard vessels now display storm warning signals. Headquarters of the
Coast Guard are supplied with weather information by the Weather Bureau and
Coast Guard vessels receive instructions to fly the proper signals when storms
are approaching. The shore stations where storm warning signals are displayed
are listed in the various Coast Pilots. The Pilots also contain general information
as to the prevailing weather in those areas covered by each book.
n 1945, display of storm warning signals from lightships was authorized. These
signals consist of the standard Weather Bureau flag hoists, displayed by day. No
night signals are displayed. The storm warning signals are flown only while the
lightships are on station, not while proceeding to and from station.
Yachtsmen will find much interesting weather information on the various pilot
charts of the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans issued by the Hydrographic
Office of the Navy Department. These amount practically to monthly weather
maps of the oceans and in addition give a vast amount of valuable data on
subjects closely allied to weather and weather forecasting.
Storm Warning Facilities Charts, prepared by the Weather Bureau, are available
from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C, at 5 cents each.
Eleven charts cover the coastal waters of the United States and the Great Lakes.
n addition to locating points where storm warning signals are displayed, the
charts list commercial broadcasting stations, Telephone Company and Coast
Guard stations which broadcast weather reports, and times of broadcasts.
Canadian Storm %arning Signals
Canadian storm warning signals are made by means of a cone and cylinder used
in the following ways:
1. A cone, apex down, indicates the probability of a moderate gale; at first, from
an easterly direction.
2. A cone, apex up, probability of a gale; at first, from a westerly direction.
3. A cylinder over a cone, apex down, probability of a heavy gale; at first, from an
easterly direction.
4. A cone, apex up, over a cylinder, probability of a heavy gale; at first from a
westerly direction.
The night signal corresponding to numbers 1 and 3 is a red light; that
corresponding to numbers 2 and 4 is a red light over a white light.
Signals For A Pilot
A pilot may be obtained by displaying any of the following signals: By day1.
The nternational Code pilot signal indicated by PT.
2. The nternational Code flag G.
3. The distance signal consisting of a cone, point upward having above it two
spheres or shapes resembling spheres.
4. The Jack, hoisted at the fore. At night1. A blue pyrotechnic light burned
every fifteen minutes.
2. A bright white light flashed at frequent intervals just a little above the deck.
To signal for a towboat set the ensign in the main rigging above the bulwarks for
about a minute at a time.
(a# *ar= For .essel At An)hor
During the daytime, no signal is required to denote that a vessel under 65 feet is
at anchor. f over 65 feet they show, forward, a black ball or shape.
.essel ot $nder Control
A vessel not under control, on the high seas, shows two black balls or shapes in
a vertical line.
(a# *ar=s For .arious T#'es Of .essels
(Left)-A vessel not under Control on the high seas shows a day mark consisting
of two black balls vertically arranged placed in Q position where they can best be
seen. On other waters, the same day signal is displayed by self propelled suction
dredges underway with their suctions on bottom.
(Left)_A cable vessel in the day time shows a day mark consisting of three
shapes, the upper and lower of which are red balls and the center shape is in the
form of a diamond, painted bright white. This signal is also used on the high seas
by vessels working on navigational aids, surveying or underwater operations.
(Left) On waters other than the high seas, vessels which are moored or anchored
and engaged in laying pipe or operating on submarine construction display in the
day time two balls in a vertical line, the upper ball being painted with alternate
black and white vertical Stripes and the lower ball bright red.
(Left) Vessels over 65 feet (on inland waters) anchored in a channel display one
black ball. On the high seas. t is used by anchored vessels regard- less of
length.
(Right)Steamers, lighters and other vessels made fast alongside a wreck or
moored over a wreck, display two double frustums of a cone base to base, both
of which are painted bright red.
(Left Dredges held in a stationary position show two red balls in the day time,
vertically arranged and placed in a position where they can best be seen.
A fishing vessel in the day time may display a basket in the rigging.
Cable .essel
A cable vessel shows three shapes, the highest and lowest being globular in
shape and red in color, and the middle being diamond in shape and white.
.essel In (istress
A vessel in distress and in the need of assistance signifies same by placing the
national ensign upside down.
Power+(ri!en .essel $nder Sail
On the high seas, a vessel under soil, when also propelled by machinery carries
forward a black conical shape, point upward.
Fishing .essel
A fishing vessel with nets, lines or trawls out indicates same by showing a
basket, showing same on the side which approaching vessels may pass.
(redges
On all waters except the high seas dredges held stationary by moorings or spuds
display two red balls in vertical line 3 to 6 feet apart, 15 feet above the
deckhouse.
On all waters except the high seas two black balls (at least 2 feet in diameter and
15 feet above the deckhouse) are the day mark of a self-propelling suction
dredge under way with suction on the bottom. Under nternational Rules no
special day mark is specified though she could properly show the same two black
balls signifying, on the high seas, a vessel not under command.
(a# *ar=s For %re)=s
Steamers, derrick boats, lighters and other vessels fast to a wreck, alongside or
moored over it, display two red shapes in vertical line, except when more than
one vessel is at work, when the shapes are displayed from one vessel on each
side of the wreck. These shapes are double frustums of a cone, base to base.
The rules are uniform except on the high seas where such a craft, not being
specially provided for, would have to use two black balls (not under command).
Bell Time
The twenty-four hours are divided on board ship into seven parts, and the crew is
divided into two parts or watches, designated Port and Starboard Watches. Each
watch are on duty four hours, except from 4 to 8 P. M., which time is divided into
two watches of two hours each, called Dog Watches, by means of which the
watches are changed every day, and each watch gets a turn of eight hours' rest
at night. First Watch, 8 P. M. to midnight; Middle Watch, midnight to 4 A. M. ;
Morning Watch, 4 to 8 A. M. ; Forenoon Watch, 8 A. M. to noon; Afternoon
Watch, noon to 4 p. M.; First Dog Watch, 4 to 6 P.M.; Second Dog Watch, 6 to 8
P. M. n the French service there are no Dog Watches, but there are two watches
of 6 hours each.
The Bell s Struck Every Half Hour to ndicate the Time

1 Bell, 12.30 A.M.
2 Bells, 1.00 "
3 " 1.30 "
4 " 2.00 "
5 " 2.30 "
6 " 3.00
7 " 3.30
8 " 4.00
1 Bell, 4.30
2 Bells, 5.00
3 " 5.30
4 " 6.00
5 " 6.30
6 " 7.00
7 " 7.30
8 " 8.00

1 Bell, 8.30 A.M.
2 Bells, 9.00 "
3 " 9.30 "
4 " 10.00 "
5 " 10.30 "
6 " 11.00 "
7 " 11.30 "
8 " 12.00 noon.
1 Bell, 12.30 p. M.
2 Bells, 1.00 "
3 " 1.30 "
4 " 2.00 "
5 " 2.30 "
6 " 3.00 "
7 " 3.30 "
8 " 4.00 "

1 Bell, 4.30 P.M.
2 Bells, 5.00
3 " 5.30
4 " 6.00
5 " 6.30
6 " 7.00
7 " 7.30
8 " 8.00
1 Bell, 8.30
2 Bells, 9.00
3 " 9.30
4 " 10.00
5 " 10.30
6 " 11.00
7 " 11.30
8 " 12.00 night.
(istress Signals B# Air)raft
The attention of all navigators of surface vessels is called to the procedure which
will be followed by the planes of a Naval squadron when a plane is forced down
at sea, in order that assistance may be rendered as quickly as possible.
A plane will fly several times across the bow of the nearest surface vessel,
opening and closing the throttle, and then will fly in the direction of the plane in
distress. The signal will then be repeated until the ship has acknowledged by
following the plane. f possible, the plane will remain in sight of the surface vessel
until the latter sights the plane in distress. All planes will resort to the use of
available pyrotechnics as necessary to attract the attention of surface vessels.
Chapter - 21
Radio
%hile radio is definitely a part of the science of navigation, it has assumed such
an important role that it is somewhat a case of "the tail wagging the dog." t is not
feasible here, nor in navigation texts, to include more than a general outline of
the subject. With these facts in mind, we shall state the principles on which radio
is based, and give hints which will serve as a guide for beginners in the yachting
field.
Fundamental Principles. The basic principle of radio, as applied to navigation, is
that Hertzian waves, sent from a transmitting station, may be detected at a
distant receiving station.
A second principle is that the direction from which radio waves are received may
be determined to within 1 to 3 degrees by means of the directional characteristics
of the loop aerial. This same directional characteristic of a loop is also applicable,
to a limited extent, to transmission as well as to reception, thus making it possible
to direct the radio waves in a path that diverges only about 10 miles at a distance
of 100 miles.
Using the first principle, we have radio communication by Morse code, and the
increasingly important radio phone.
The &adio Com'ass
A radio compass, or direction finder, which gives the direction from which
received signals arrive, is merely a useful application of the well-known
directional characteristics of a loop antenna, as described in the second principle
above. When the edge of the loop is pointed toward the transmitting station, the
reception is of maximum strength; and when the direction of the incoming waves
is perpendicular to the plane of the loop, little or no signal will be heard.
Therefore, if a dial is mounted on the loop, the direction from which the incoming
signal is received may be determined by swinging the loop around, back and
forth, until the point of minimum reception strength is found. The point of
minimum strength is used because that point is much sharper and easier to
detect than the point of maximum receptive strength.
The increasing number, effective range, and accuracy of marine radio aids
makes radio navigation an important supplement to the older methods of piloting,
dead reckoning and celestial navigation. Radio is used as follows:
1.Radio-compass stationsgiving the position (or a line of position) of a ship
equipped with sending apparatus, from a shore station or group of shore stations.
These stations are diminishing in number.
2. Radio-beaconsgiving lines of position to a ship equipped with direction
finding apparatus. The number of these stations is increaseing rapidly.
3. Radio-beacon distance finding stationswhere a single station by radio and
sound signals propagated simultaneously will give both distance and bearing to a
receiving ship.
4. Broadcasts of meteorological information and Notices to Mariners.
5. Revolving radio beamdirectional radio sending apparatus which sends a
sharply directive signal by which a vessel with only a receiving set may
determine direction from the station. There are only a few stations of this type in
operation.
6. Radio time signals.
&adio+Com'ass Stations
Radio-Compass Stations. Radio-compass stations, or as they are now termed,
Radio Direction Finder Stations, are stations equipped with special apparatus for
determining the direction of ships or other stations by their transmitted radio
signals. All that is necessary is for a ship to request a position by radio on the
proper frequency or wave length and to transmit clearly, distinctly, and with a
sharply tuned transmitter on that frequency during the period of taking the
bearings. The procedure for U. S. stations (operated by the U. S. Navy) is as
follows:
1. Ship desiring bearings calls station from which bearings are desired, on wave
length guarded by that station, usually 800m or 375 kc. f more than one station
is to be asked to furnish simultaneous bearings, unless the stations are
connected by land-wire as a group, each station must be called individually.
2. Shore station (or stations) answers.
3. Ship sends "QTE" (meaning " wish to know my radio direction finding bearing
with respect to the station (stations) called").
4. When ready to take bearing, shore station (stations, if not grouped) sends call
letter followed by the letter "K" to the ship.
5. Ship sends its own call letter and other signals during a period long enough for
all stations to fix bearing accurately.
6. Shore station (stations) send "QTE" preceded by the time of observation and
followed by a group of three figures (000 to 359) showing in degrees the true
bearing of the ship with respect to the shore station.
7. The ship repeats the bearing to the shore station, which reports if the bearing
was correctly transmitted both ways, or if not, corrects it by repeating the original
message. When the shore station is satisfied that the ship has received the
bearing correctly, it transmits "End of work," which is repeated by ship before
signing off.
The Hydrographic Office publishes two books called "Radio Navigational Aids"
(HO2O5) and "Radio Weather Aids to Navigation" (HO2O6) which have in detail
all procedure for U. S. Direction Finder Stations and the pertinent data on each
station, such as sectors of calibration, latitude and longitude of transmitter and
receiver, normal wave length and frequency, hours available, and whether or not
the station is one of a land-wire (radio) connected group. They also cover foreign
stations working under the General Radio Regulations of the nternational
Telecommmunication Convention of Madrid, 1932. All necessary data are given
in these two books, which sell for 90 cents each. These official books contain so
much useful information that every ship equipped with a radio should have a
copy of each.
&adio Bea)ons
Radio Beacons. Radio beacons are stations established at lighthouses,
lightships, or important points on the coast for the purpose of sending out radio
signals in all directions which vessels equipped with direction finders (radio
compasses) can use to establish the direction of the radio beam from them. The
bearings found in this manner are, as in the case of bearings from shore radio
direction finding stations, great circle bearings.
Radio beacons in the U. S. are operated mostly by the Lighthouse Service of the
U. S. Coast Guard. They are of three classes: C, B, and A. Ranges are 5-15
miles, 50-150 miles, and 150-250 miles respectively. They cover the coast line
much more thoroughly than lighthouses and sound signals, the high-powered
beacons being used to guard main approaches to the coast from deep water, the
medium-powered being used tor coastwise traffic, and the low-powered for inland
waterways and local harbor entrances.
n the U. S., radio beacons operate for one minute out of every three during
certain established periods in fair weather, usually two periods of ten minutes
each hour. They operate continuously during fog or thick weather, on the basis of
one minute on, two minutes off. Certain exceptions to this schedule are covered
in the Radio Beacon Charts and Light Lists published by the United States Coast
Guard or in H.O. 205, "Radio Navigational Aids." The frequency band used is
universally set at 285-315 kc. Sending intervals of United States radio beacons
are spaced by what is called "time-synchronization," so that there is no
interference between stations in a group of three operating on the same
frequency as, by automatic clock control, the signals of adjacent stations do not
overlap more than one or two seconds out of a minute.
(istan)e Finding Stations
Distance Finding Stations. By accurate synchronization a long beat of the fog
signal is sent out at definite intervals in exact conjunction with a special long
dash by radio from the station. A vessel, knowing the beacon to be equipped for
distance determination, starts a stop watch at the end of the dash and measures
the seconds until the end of the air sound signal is heard. Sound travels
approximately 1 nautical mile in 5.5 seconds, whereas the velocity of radio may
be taken as instantaneous.
The Revolving Radio Beam. A new method of obtaining direction by radio is
being tried out at a few stations in England at present, in which no radio compass
or direction finder is needed on either ship or shore station.
Every time the revolving beam passes true north, a distinctive all-around signal is
emitted which all vessels within hearing can pick up. A vessel listening in notes
the time at the "north" signal and then marks the time until the very sharp
minimum occurs, when the signals fade out temporarily. The time interval
between the all-around north signal and the sharp minimum gives the bearing of
the vessel from the station.
Sour)es Of /rror
Sources of Error in Radio Direction Finding. The various sources of error in radio
direction finding are:
1. Radio bearings are great circle bearings and cannot be accurately plotted as
Mercator or plane bearings.
2. Night effect.
3. Land effect.
4. Danger from reciprocal bearings.
5. Errors from local effects, and imperfect calibration.
6. Errors due to atmospheric and other radio interference.
Radio Bearings as Great Circle Bearings. nasmuch as radio waves travel over
the shortest distance from one point on the earth's surface to another, they follow
great circles. f a WSN (or Lambert) plotting chart is at hand, the bearing may be
plotted as a straight line from the point of reception by the determination of the
bearings, as straight lines on these charts are to all intents and purposes great
circles.
f, however, a Mercator chart is to be used, the bearing as received must be
corrected.
Night Effect. Bearings taken at night, dusk, or dawn are likely to be seriously in
error. The reason for this is that part of the signals arrive by reflection from the
Heaviside layer. This effect is variable and cannot be predicted. Night effect
applies to the radio compass, the radio direction finder and the radio beacon
alike, errors from this cause rising as high as 20 degrees or more.
Coastal Refraction or Land Effect. n the case of bearings crossing an intervening
coast line or high land between the sending and receiving station, errors as high
as 15 degrees may be found. However, under ordinary conditions, no high land
will intervene between a vessel and the station it is working with, hence these
errors may be dismissed as negligible unless the shore station reports the
bearing as dubious.
Reciprocal Bearing Dangers. With merely simple loop reception, it is impossible
to tell from the signal itself whether the true bearing or the reciprocal is being
received. However, vessels should almost always be able to judge from their
dead reckoning positions whether they have received a bearing in the correct
quadrant or not, and if not, they should never take the reciprocal of the bearing
as their true bearing. Rather they should find the other minimum if operating their
own direction finder, or if obtaining bearings from shore, should ask for the other
minimum, as, due to differences in calibration curves, the opposite bearing may
be as much as 20 degrees away from the absolute reciprocal of the first bearing
given.
Errors from Local Effects. No radio direction finding set is entirely free from local
influences. These may be in the form of power lines, or "loops" composed of
water mains, iron or steel structures, antennas, or powerful sending sets. Aboard
ship it is almost impossible to locate a direction finder where it will not be subject
to most of the above influences to a considerable extent. However, careful
calibration will furnish a dependable error on each heading, and by silencing all
other sets while a bearing is being taken, opening the circuits of all antennas and
carefully applying the error found from the calibration curves, accurate bearings
may be taken.
Shore stations are always calibrated over definite sectors which are given in H.O.
205, and bearings which fall outside them are sent out marked "uncertain." All
other bearings sent out by shore stations are corrected bearings and may be
depended upon normally within about 2 degrees.
nterstation nterference. (Radio Compass.) t may be found sometimes that
stations cannot be sufficiently separated by the radio compass on account of lack
of receiver selectivity. This may not be obvious to the user, as the interference
may not be audible. Sometimes this effect may be detected by wandering of the
bearing.
General Failures. (Radio Compass and sometimes Direction Finder.) These may
arise from a failure of part of the antenna system, or because the receiver has
been maladjusted or improperly aligned.
Heavy Static. (Radio Compass.) A radio compass will deflect in ordinary heavy
static and the static course laid out will be towards the center of the electrical
disturbance.
Miscellaneous Errors. (Radio Compass.) Errors such as those due to heavy rain
static, where the compass ceases to indicate, are obvious, since a change in
heading produces no visual change in indication. Shielded loops minimize rain
static.
Summar#
Radio bearings have now reached the stage where the up-to-date navigator will
use them without hesitation to supplement his dead reckoning and celestial
navigation, and in time of fog or thick weather will depend upon them almost
exclusively, although the cautious Captain will still insist on checking radio
positions by soundings. With the combination of the two methods, there is no
longer need for anchoring or standing off and on until a fog liftsa port may be
made quite as accurately and safely as far as navigational hazards are
concerned as in the best visibility. Ships are the only drawback remainingand
there is now no excuse for two ships in radio communication ever colliding if one
of them has a radio direction finder.
The Sperry Automatic Direction Finder is one of a type of direction finder which
has been developed specifically for aircraft use, where rapidity in taking bearings
is vital. This type of direction finder in which bearings are made available
continuously and automatically throughout 360 degrees, has not yet, as far as is
known, been applied to marine navigation. However, with this type of direction
finder rapidly coming into general use for aircraft navigation, it is quite likely that it
may soon receive attention for marine navigation.
Once determined, radio bearings are handled exactly as any other position lines.
Remember that radio bearings may be converted to Mercator bearings
graphically as described in the earlier lesson on charts. Finally, anyone planning
to use radio as an aid to navigation should without fail study H.O. 205 (338 pp.),
and H.O. 206 (274 pp.), since there are a great many essential details in these
Government publications which obviously cannot be included here.
Observations for distance off are not restricted to vessels with direction finders,
but may be made by any vessel having a radio receiver capable of receiving in
the band 285 to 315 kilocycles within which radiobeacons are operated. A loud
speaker is desirable although not necessary.
%arning Of Fog
Hearing the groups of short (1-sec.) and long (5-sec.) dashes of the radiobeacon,
at stations where the radiobeacon and sound signals are synchronized for
distance finding, is an indication that there is fog in the vicinity of the station and
that the sound signal is operating.
&adiotele'hones
The radiotelephone is unquestionably one of the most important pieces of safety
equipment a boat can carry. t makes possible a means of communication with
telephone facilities ashore, the Coast Guard, and other boats similarly equipped.
With it you can call for help, and any boat equipped with a radio direction finder
can easily locate you. Furthermore, it enables the yachtsman to keep in touch
with sources of weather information, marine information broadcasts dealing with
changes in aids to navigation, reports of obstructions to navigation, and advisory
storm warnings.
"et >our Li)enses
For the ship stationas soon as you have your set, apply to the Federal
Communications Commission, Washington 25, D. C, for a license. Use Form
501 A. Operate your set only when you have a valid station license. Keep your
license posted on your boat.
For the operatorapply to the local office of the Federal Communications
Commission for a Restricted Radiotelephone Operator
Permit. Use Form 753. Operate your set only when you have a valid permit with
you, or someone else aboard has one.
Ste's To Follow In *a=ing A Call
ntershi calls.Listen to make sure 2182 kc is not busy. f it is free, put your
transmitter on the air and say
"(Station called) This is (call sign and name of your vessel) (Station called) This
is (call sign and name of your vessel) (Station called) This is (call sign and name
of your vessel)
Over."
Listen for a reply. f no contact is made, repeat after a short interval. After
establishing contact, switch to the agreed upon inter-ship channel. After
conversation is completed say
"This is (call sign and name of your vessel) signing off."
Ship to shore calls.Listen to make sure the working channel you wish to use is
not busy. f it is free put your transmitter on the air and say
"This is (call sign and name of your vessel) calling the (coast station desired)
Marine Operator."
Listen for a reply. f no contact is made, repeat after a short interval.
When the Marine Operator answers say
"This is (call sign and name of your vessel) calling (telephone number desired)."
After conversation is completed say
"This is (call sign and name of your vessel) signing off."
Steps to Follow in Receiving a Call
ntershi calls.When you hear the name of your vessel called on 2182 kc put
your transmitter on the air and say
"This is (call sign and name of your vessel)."
Switch to the agreed upon intership channel. After conversation is completed say

"This is (call sign and name of your vessel) signing off."

Shore to ship calls.When you hear the name of your vessel called, or if the bell
associated with your selective signaling device rings, put your transmitter on the
air and say
"This is (call sign and name of your vessel)."
After conversation is completed say
"This is (call sign and name of your vessel) signing off." The Distress Call and
Message
n making a distress call be sure to state your boat's name, where you are, what
is wrong and what help you need.
Example of distress message:

"MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY this is WZ-6789 the yacht Blue Duck
MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY this is WZ-6789 the yacht Blue Duck
MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY this is WZ-6789 the yacht Blue Duck
133 degrees true 12 miles off Montauk Point struck submerged object taking
water fast engine disabled estimate cannot stay afloat more than one hour."
n acknowledging a distress call be sure to state your boat's name, where you
are and estimated time of arrival together with your course and speed to the
scene.
&ules To &emember
Your radio can mean your safe arrival; use it with respect. Here are ten important
points of proper usage recommended by the Radio Technical Commission for
Marine Services, Washington, D. C.
On priority calls be sure to give name and position of your vessel. Code words in
emergency situations are as follows:
DSTRESSMayday, Mayday, Mayday.
URGENT MESSAGE CONCERNNG SAFETY OF VESSEL OR CREWPan,
Pan, Pan.
SAFETY OR WEATHER NFORMATONSecurity, Security, Security.
1.MANTAN YOUR WATCHListen to 2182 kc when not in communication with
another station. (Rule 8.223)
2.LSTEN BEFORE YOU TALKAvoid interference with calls in progress. (Rule
8.181)
3. DENTFY YOUR VESSELGive your call sign and vessel's name at
beginning and end of each communication. (Rule 8.364)
4. MAKE CALLS CORRECTLYCall other vessels on 2182 kc then switch to
ntership channel. (Rule 8.366)Call Commercial Shore stations on an
appropriate working channel. (Rule 8.366)
5. USE CHANNELS PROPERLY2 182 kc for emergencies and brief calls and
replies. (Rule 8.353)ntership for safety, navigation or operational and business
needs of vessels. (Rule 8.358)
6. WATCH YOUR LANGUAGEUse of profane or obscene language is a
criminal offense.
7. BE BREF ALL THE TMELimit calls to 30 seconds; conversations to 5
minutes. (Rule 8.366)
8. KEEP AN ACCURATE LOGEnter all transmissions made and distress calls
heard. (Rule 8.368)
9. HAVE DOCUMENTS HANDYShip Station license; Operator license or
permit; Part 8 of the FCC Rules; Log Book. (Rule 8.367)
10. HAVE EQUPMENT CHECKEDPeriodic checks insure safety and good
operation.
Chapter - 22
2eather
S)ientifi) Fore)asting
*any factors enter into the problem of making successful weather forecasts from
the examination of weather maps. The experienced forecaster, for example, has
due regard for the area under consideration, the topography of the land, and the
distribution and effect of land and water areas.
Professional forecasters, from long experience, have found however that certain
general conclusions may be drawn which are of help in analyzing probable
changes in the weather map. Some of the more important ones are summarized
in the Weather Bureau's publication, Weather Forecasting, as follows:
1. When there is an area of high pressure over the southeast and a cold wave in
the northwest threatens, there will be storm development in the southwest and
precipitation will be general.
2. f a storm forms in the southwest and is forced to the left of a normal track,
another storm will immediately begin to develop in the southwest and it becomes
a sure rain producer. Storms that develop in the southwest and move normally
are quickly followed by clearing weather.
3. Troughs of low pressure moving from the west are of two types the narrow
and the wide. The former moves eastward slowly and storm centers develop in
the extreme northern and the extreme southern ends. When the trough is wide
the development of an extensive storm area is not uncommon, especially if the
wide intervening area between the Highs shows relatively high temperatures.
4. When the northern end of a trough moves eastward faster than the southern
end the weather conditions in the south and southwest remain unsettled and the
chances are that a storm will form southwest of the High that follows. When the
southern end moves fasterthan the northern end settled weather follows.
5. Storms that start in the northwest and move southeastward do not gather great
intensity until they begin to recurve to the northward. At the time of recurving they
move slowly, as a rule, and care must be exercised in predicting clearing
weather.
6. Marked changes in temperature in the southeast and northwest quadrants
imply an increase in the storm's intensity. Small temperature changes do not
indicate a further development of the storm.
7. Abnormally high temperatures northwest of a storm indicate that it will either
retrograde or remain stationary.
8. East of the Rocky Mountains a storm which moves to the left of its normal
track increases in intensity.
9. Storms with isobars closely crowded on the west and north west generally
move slowly and to the east or southeast, and the precipitation and high winds
are maintained unusually long in the northern and western quadrants.
10. Storms with the isobars closely crowded in the south and southeast
quadrants move rapidly northeastward, and the weather quickly clears after the
passage of the storm center.
Systems of communication throughout the country are today so highly developed
that, through the medium of newspapers, the telegraph, telephone, radio and
even the radiotelephone, yachtsmen are generally able to avail themselves of the
scientific weather information and forecasts issued by the United States Weather
Bureau, rather than being forced to rely on their own doubtful capacity to predict
by means of local observations. (Of course, during a war such systems of
weather communications are suspended.)
Lo)al Obser!ations
The local indications which might afford a clue to weather changes rarely give
more than twelve hours' warning. n many cases the storm which is strictly local
may not give more than even an hour's notice. Coupled with this is the fact that
local indications vary greatly all over the country. The yachtsman who aspires to
any considerable skill as a weather forecaster might well make a detailed study
of the latest findings in the science of meteorology and then supplement this with
careful, scientific and systematic analysis of his own observations as they relate
to his own particular locality.
The actions of birds and animals, changes in vegetation, planetary movements
and similar bases for prognostication have all been largely discredited, and have
little foundation in fact. The signs that are worth testing for one's own locality
include those which furnish some clue to the state of the atmospherefor
example, the appearance of the sky, the nature and movement of clouds,
direction and velocity of the wind, the trend of barometric pressure, etc. Many
fine, inexpensive instruments are available today, suitable not only for installation
aboard boats, but also excellent for use ashore, which record with great accuracy
the basic factors which give the necessary information for a study of weather
forecasting.
While the expert meteorologist is steadily increasing the range of his forecast,
being able today to make a general forecast for a week in advance, with
reasonable accuracy in detailed forecasts up to about 36 or 48 hours, the
amateur prediction based on observations of local conditions can hardly be
expected to be reliable for more than a few hours in advance.
A fundamental point to remember is the fact that weather changes can always be
traced to physical conditions resulting from unequal heating of the earth's
atmosphere in various localities. Coupled with this is the fact that such conditions
are modified by the nature of the surrounding country. Generally speaking, a
continuation of existing weather conditions may be expected unless there is
some definite indication of a coming change.
The Barometer
The barometer gives the key to the one most important factor in weather
changesthe trend of atmospheric pressure. Taken together with the direction of
the wind and its shifts a reasonably accurate forecast can generally be made. On
every weather map the following information is given under the heading, Wind-
Barometer ndications: When the wind sets in from points between south and
southeast and the barometer falls steadily a storm is approaching from the west
or northwest, and its center will pass near or north of the observer within 12 to 24
hours with the wind shifting to northwest by way of southwest and west. When
the wind sets in from points between east and northeast and the barometer falls
steadily, a storm is approaching from the south or southwest, and its center will
pass near or to the south or east of the observer within 12 to 24 hours with wind
shifting to northwest by way of north. The rapidity of the storm's approach and its
intensity will be indicated by the rate and the amount of the fall in the barometer.
This general rule can be regarded as applicable in all parts of the country. The
following table, from the Weather Bureau's pamphlet, Weather Forecasting, is
also generally applicable throughout the United States, and shows how
barometer fluctuations are to be interpreted, depending on the rapidity of the
change, whether it is rising or falling, the height at which the mercury stands at
the time of observation and the wind direction.
t will be noted that the readings in the table are "reduced to sea level" and of
course practically all observations made by yachtsmen will be at sea level. The
reason for the necessity of such corrections is the fact that atmospheric pressure
is reduced with increases in altitude. Standard works on the care and use of the
barometer give tables showing the pressure, in inches, corresponding to changes
of 100 feet in elevation. Such a table will show, for example, altitudes from 0 to
7000 feet with pressure changes at intervals of 500 feet for temperatures from 20
degrees below zero to 90 above.
Wind Character of weather
direction Barometer reduced indicated
to sea level
SW. to NW. 30.10 to 30.20 and steady Fair, with slight temperature
changes, for 1 to 2 days.
SW. to NW. 30.10 to 30.20 and rising Fair, followed within 2
Rapidly days by rain.
SW. to NW. 30.20 and above & stationary Continued fair, with no
decided temperature change.
SW. to NW. 30.20 and above and falling.. Slowly rising temperature
Slowly and fair for 2 days.
S. to SE 30.10 to 30.20 and falling Rain within 24 hours.
slowly
S. to SE 30.10 to 30.20 and falling Wind increasing in force,
rapidly.... with rain within 12 to 24
hours.
SE, to NE. 30.10 to 30.20 and falling Rain in 12 to 18 hours.
slowly...
SE. to NE., 30.10 to 30.20 and falling ncreasing wind, and rain
rapidly within 12 hours.
E. to NE 30.10 and above and falling n summer, with light
slowly.. winds, rain may not fall for
several days. n winter, rain
within 24 hours.
E. to NE 30.10 and above and falling n summer, rain probable
rapidly.. within 12 to 24 hours. n
winter, rain or snow, with
increasing winds, will often
set in when the barometer
begins to fall and the wind
sets in from the NE.
SE. to NE 30.00 or below and falling Rain will continue 1 to 2
slowly.... days.
SE. to NE 30.00 or below and falling Rain, with high wind,
rapidly.... followed, within 36 hours, by
clearing, and in winter by
colder.
S. to SW 30.00 or below and rising Clearing within a few
slowly hours, and fair for several
days.
S. to E 29.80 or below and falling Severe storm imminent,
rapidly.... followed, within 24 hours, by
clearing, and in winter by
colder.
E. to N 29.80 or below and falling Severe northeast gale and
rapidly... heavy precipitation; in
winter, heavy snow, followed
by a cold wave.
Going to W 29.80 or below and rising, Clearing and colder.
rapidly...

The broad rule covering general conditions is stated as follows: Winds from
easterly quadrants with falling barometer indicate foul weather to come. Winds
shifting to westerly quadrants promise clearing and fair weather. A single
observation, that is, one reading of the barometer or one glance at the existing
position of a High or a Low on the weather map is never sufficient knowledge on
which to base a prediction. While it is generally true that a high or rising
barometer commonly forecasts fine weather, and a low or falling barometer is the
customary forerunner of storm, there are many occasions when the High is
attended by wind and rain, the Low by clear skies.
Storm And %eather Signals
Storm signals are displayed by the Weather Bureau at many stations along the
Coast and Great Lakes. (See Chapter XX.)
Coast Guard vessels now display storm warning signals. Headquarters of the
Coast Guard are supplied with weather information by the Weather Bureau and
Coast Guard vessels receive instructions to fly the proper signals when storms
are approaching. The shore stations where storm warning signals are displayed
are listed in the various Coast Pilots. The Pilots also contain general information
as to the prevailing weather in areas covered by each book.
For)e Of %ind
When it is necessary to refer to the force of wind, this is commonly done in terms
of numbers from 0 to 12, using the Beaufort Scale. Zero is a Calm (0-1 statute
m.p.h.); 1 is Light Air (1-3 m.p.h.) ; 2 is Light Breeze (4-7 m.p.h.); 3 Gentle
Breeze (8-12 m.p.h.) ; 4 Moderate Breeze (13-18 m.p.h.); 5 Fresh Breeze (19-24
m.p.h.); 6 Strong Breeze (25-31 m.p.h.); 7 Moderate Gale (32-38 m.p.h.) ; 8
Fresh Gale (39-46 m.p.h.); 9 Strong Gale (47-54 m.p.h.) ; 10 Whole Gale (55-63
m.p.h.); 11 Storm (64-75 m.p.h.); and 12 Hurricane (above 75 m.p.h.). Forces 0,
1 and 2 are referred to by the term Light in Weather Bureau forecasts; 3 Gentle;
4 Moderate; 5 Fresh; 6 and 7 Strong; 8 and 9 Gale; 10 and 11 Whole Gale; and
12 Hurricane.
Yachtsmen will find much interesting information on the various pilot charts of the
North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans issued by the Hydrographic Office of the
Navy Department. These amount practically to monthly weather maps of the
oceans and in addition give a vast amount of valuable data on subjects closely
allied to weather and weather forecasting.
NOTEThe new modified Beaufort wind scale distinguishes between hurricanes
of varying intensity, from force 12 (64-71 knots) up to 17 (110-118 knots).
%eather Gingles The Barometer
"When the glass falls low, prepare for a blow;
When it rises high, let all your kites fly."
"When the wind backs and the weather glass falls
Be on your guard against gales and squalls."
Cirrus Clouds
"Mackerel scales and mares' tails Make
tall ships carry short sails."
and
"Trace in the sky the painter's brush, The
winds around you soon will rush."
"Whene'er the clouds a cloth shall weave,
Look for storms before they leave."
Cumulus Clouds
"Morning towers bring evening showers."
Cumulonimbus Clouds
"When the clouds appear like rocks and towers, The
earth's refreshed by frequent showers."
The Sun
"Above the rest, the Sun who never lies Foretells the
change of weather in the skies."
Virgil.
"The sun sets weeping in the lowly west, Witnessing
storms to come, woe and unrest."
Color of the S=#
"A red morn that ever yet betokened
Wreck to the seaman, tempest to the field,
Sorrow to shepherds, woe unto the birds,
Gusts and foul faws to herdsmen and to herds."
"Red in the morning, sailors take warning,
But red at night is the sailor's delight."
%ind
"When the wind is in the north
Sailors seldom venture forth;
When the wind is in the east
Sailors venture forth the least.
When the wind is in the west
Then the weather's at its best;
But when the wind is from the south
t blows the rain from the storm king's mouth."
"A veering wind means weather fair
A backing wind, foul weather's near."
Fog
"An early morning fog generally indicates a clear day."
"Mists dispersing on the plain
Scatter away the clouds and rain;
But when they rise to the mountain tops
They'll soon return in copious drops."
&ain
'Long threaten, long last;
Short notice, soon past."
"Rain before seven, clear before eleven."
The &ainbow
"Rainbow to windward, foul fall the day;
Rainbow to leeward, damp runs away."
(ew
"When the dew is on the grass,
Rain will never come to pass."
"When the grass is wet at night,
Look for rain before the light.
When the grass is dry at morning light
Look for rain before the night."
Halos
"A ring around the moon means a storm."
"The larger the ring, the nearer the rain."
The *oon
"The moon and the weather may change together,
But a change of the moon doesn't change the weather.
f we'd no moon at all (and this surely seems strange),
We still should have weather that's subject to change."
Stars
"When the stars begin to huddles,
The earth will soon become a puddle."
Tides
"Storms burst as the tides turn"
and
"Showers are most frequent at the turn of the tide."
Sight and Sound
"The farther the sight, the nearer the rain."
St- /lmo<s Fire
"Last night saw Saint Elmo's stars
With their fiery lanterns all at play,
On the tops of the masts and the tips of the spars,
And knew we should have foul weather today."
Human &ea)tions
"Old sinners have all the points
O' the compass in their bones and joints."
"A coming storm your shooting corns presage,
And aches will throb, your rheumatiz will rage.
"Grumphie smells the weather,
An' Grumphie sees the wun',
He kens when clouds will gather,
And smoor the blinkin' sun."
Chapter - 2#
afety At ea
It may be said with little fear of successful contradiction that the motor boat has
become the safest modern form of travel. The hazard which attaches to the use
of a well-found boat, properly handled by an intelligent, careful person, is
negligible. Analysis shows that most accidents are avoidable. Experience has
proved that even minor misfortunes rarely visit the boatman who knows that his
boat is sound, equipped according to the dictates of law and experience, and is
handled with reasonable judgment and prudence. Examining this a little further, it
is evident that safety at sea is conditioned, not upon the caprice of chance or the
elements, but upon the boat and the man who is responsible for her.
Safeguarding Against Fire
Specifically, then, what can we do about it? Safety afloat begins ashore.
Probably the first thought that comes to mind is that of safeguarding against fire.
Fire is usually traceable to the galley or engine room, where faulty installation,
improper equipment or carelessness in operation are the direct cause. All of
these things are under our control. Gasoline fumes, mixed with air, form an
explosive mixture. These fumes, being heavier than air, find their way to the
bottom of the bilge. The obvious answer is preventionmake it impossible for
gasoline, in either liquid or gaseous form, to get into the bilge in the first place.
Then keep the bilge clean and ventilate the engine compartment thoroughly and
there will be nothing that can be ignited. Leakage of liquid gasoline into the bilge
can be prevented by proper installation, using strongly built gasoline tanks,
copper tubing for fuel lines, leakproof connections, tight fittings and lengths of
flexible metallic fuel hose to take care of vibration. Gasoline vapors created when
the tanks are filled must be prevented from finding their way down through open
hatches and companionways. Finally, avoidable sparks and flames should not be
permitted in the engine room.
The Fuel S#stem
One of the most essential requirements in proper installation of the fuel system is
that there be a tight connection between the gasoline tanks and the filling plates
on deck. f the filler is located outside of the coaming, spillage will go overboard
while the pipe from deck plate to tank will prevent leakage or spillage below deck.
The filler pipe should run to the bottom of the tank and suitable vent pipes for the
tanks should lead outside the hull. A fuel indicator if used should be of the most
approved type. f the fuel supply of auxiliary lighting plants and generating sets is
not drawn from the main tank, the separate tanks should be installed with fillers
and vents similar to those of the main tank.
There are several precautions that may be taken in the engine room. Carburetors
should be equipped with flame arresters for protection against backfire, and pans
covered with fine mesh brass screen should be attached under the carburetor to
collect drip. Leakage will be sucked back into the engine if a copper tube is run
from the bottom of the pan to the intake manifold. When possible, switches and
fuses should be installed outside the engine compartment. f this is not feasible
they should be enclosed and placed as high above the floor as convenient,
preferably not less than four feet. Shut-off valves should be placed close to each
tank and also at the carburetor, and no petcock or other provision for drawing
gas in the engine room should be allowed. A type of diaphragm packless valve
for fuel, gas and oil lines is now available which is pressure-tight in any position.
Tested by Underwriters Laboratories under high pressure in open, half open, and
closed positions, it safeguards against leakage at the valves.
.entilate The /ngine Com'artment
To ventilate the engine compartment, large pipes should be run down into the
bilge at each corner of the engine room. t is better to leave these entirely open,
with no provision for closing them, than to run the risk of having them accidently
closed. The amount of water they will ship in a seaway is of no great
consequence. Two of the ducts should be equipped with electric blowers. f the
suction type of fan is used to draw the air out, their motors must be explosion-
proof, shielded against sparking. Otherwise they must be located outside of the
exhaust duct. Running the fans for ten minutes before and after starting the
engine will clear the bilge of fumes and vapors. This provides a positive system
that can be relied upon. A common tendency is to depend on the opening of
hatches and ports to air out an engine compartment before starting but the fact
remains that the heavy fumes, if present, are down low in the bilge and the only
sure way to get them out is to drive them out with blowers. n cases where a boat
is so small as to make the installation of blowers impractical, at least the pipes, of
generous size, can be installed with ventilating scoops facing forward on two inlet
pipes and two more reversed, facing aft, to draw the fumes out the outlet
passages. n cases where the ventilating ducts cannot be laid out to advantage,
openings can be cut in the fore and aft bulkheads of the engine compartment, as
low as possible. Leaving ventilators open fore and aft in a boat, the draft
produced will tend to carry out the fumes, instead of keeping them confined at
the most vulnerable spot.
"asoline Pre)autions
With an installation that provides the safety features outlined above, an important
first step has been taken. Further precautions should be observed every time
gasoline is taken aboard. Before the tank fillers are opened or hoses or cans
brought aboard, the engine and any other motors or fans that could possibly
produce a spark should be stopped. Fires in the galley or any other open flame
aboard should be extinguished. Smoking at the time should be rigidly prohibited.
A precaution that is frequently neglected is to close all doors, hatches, ports and
windows. The obvious purpose of this is to prevent fumes from traveling down
through such openings into the cabin, engine room or bilge. After these points
have been checked, exercise care in the handling of the fuel so that all of it goes
into the tank and not one drop below decks. While fueling have the metallic end
of the filling hose in contact with the metal pipe leading to the tank. After the
fueling, any spillage on deck should be wiped up. Then before any motors are
started or flames of any kind lighted, throw all ports and other windows wide
open and wait at least five minutes for all compartments to air out.
%at)h >our Fire /Ctinguishers
Extinguishers should be examined at least once a year, certainly before the boat
goes into commission. The foam type should be discharged, cleaned, and
recharged. f it is of the tetrachloride type, some of the liquid should be
discharged, throwing the stream both up and down to make certain that piston
and valves are working properly. Then it should be refilled and it is recommended
that it be swung by the handle seven or eight times before being replaced in its
bracket. n the carbon dioxide type it is necessary to weigh the cylinder
containing the gas to see that it is exactly the same as
the full weight stamped on the valve, cylinder, or tag as the case may be. This
will reveal whether or not it is fully charged. f not, it should be recharged. While
the cylinder is disconnected, the pull cord of the control can be tested by
removing the cover of the handle box. The cord should work easily. When the
cylinder is replaced, it must stand with valve and lever in the same relative
position, with no slack in the cord.
Water is of no use in extinguishing a gasoline fire. The burning gasoline floats on
the surface and the use of water serves only to spread it. However, there are
occasions when it might be used. t will extinguish a blaze made by burning
alcohol and is also all right in other places where gasoline is not present.
Consequently a bucket is a desirable thing to add to your equipment, along with
an axe. Larger craft should be supplied with a fire pump and hose.
*an O!erboard
The best seaman is the one who is prepared for any contingency, before the
need arises to meet it. At the call of "man overboard," seconds count and a well
planned line of action will enable you to act quickly and effectively without
confusion. The ring buoy should be heaved immediately, even if the person is a
skillful swimmer. The engine should be thrown into neutral for an instant till it is
seen that the person is clear of the propeller, and then re-engaged while the
rudder is put hard over and the engine opened up for a quick turn, going ahead.
Whether or not you turn to port or starboard had best be decided by experiment
in advance. Ordinarily a boat with a right-handed propeller should turn quickest to
port but practical experience shows that some boats behave otherwise. By this
maneuver you should be able to get back to the buoy, with boat under perfect
control, in less than a minute. You might find that reversing and backing will be
more effective for your boat, but the odds are against it. At any rate make a few
tests. Throw a paper or cardboard box overboard and experiment in recovering it
until you know precisely what to do if the need should ever arise.
Ha!e a "ood Pum' Aboard
A well-built boat won't leakmuch. But you ought to be prepared to handle a
leak if it should develop, suddenly, for any cause. That doesn't mean the
installation of a toy pump that will squirt a few gallons a minute, but a good sized
one that will throw fifteen or twenty gallons every sixty seconds without too much
effort on the part of the pumper. An additional engine-driven or separate electric
pump is even better.

Every boat should be equipped with the means to rectify minor engine ailments,
at least. This means a good kit of tools, and spare engine parts such as spark
plugs, coil, condenser, distributor points, gaskets, etc. Eventually you will
accumulate a considerable store of reserve supplies. You may have a few
carpenter's tools, extra lines of all sizes, marlin, an assortment of nails, screws,
washers, and bolts, wire, tape, caulking cotton, paint, etc. f you have sails you
will carry a repair kit, containing twine, wax, needles, palm, fid, and similar
articles. All of this extra gear should be kept stowed away in shipshape manner
where it can be found when wanted, and not thrown loosely into lockers all over
the boat.
First Aid
A medicine cabinet or first-aid kit should be aboard. Another thought would be to
provide some sort of emergency rations to be kept aboard at all times, such as
canned foods, hard tack or pilot biscuits, and plenty of fresh water. Then if you
ever find it necessary to spend a day or two away from any source of supplies it
need not be a hardship. This of course will be in addition to any regular food
supplies put aboard for a cruise and should never be drawn upon except in such
an emergency.
If >ou &e?uire Assistan)e
Remember that the principal function of the Coast Guard is to render assistance
to mariners. They stand ready at all times, and their aid is just as available to the
owner of a yacht as it is to the master of an ocean liner. Try to equip your boat
and handle it in such a manner that you will not require outside assistance but if
you should, don't hesitate to call them. You can signal for aid by hoisting the
ensign upside-down; firing a gun or any other explosive signal at intervals of
about a minute; by continuously sounding a fog horn, whistle or bell; displaying
the international code signal NC; or a distance signal consisting of a square flag
with a ball, or something resembling a ball, above or below it. For night use a
water-tight outfit containing flares or rockets should be aboard. One type of
signaling equipment provides a pistol and cartridges which throw a brilliant flare
several hundred feet in the air where it is suspended for more than half a minute,
burning with an intense light visible about twenty-five miles. These are also
useful in floodlighting a considerable area at night when entering a strange
harbor or inlet, locating a buoy, launching a dinghy, or recovering one that has
come adrift, or locating something that has gone overboard at night.
Chapter - 2'
Code For Flying Flags And Colors
>achting Etiquette and customs are very exacting in regard to the proper flying of
flags and colors. A yacht is known by the colors she flies. f these are incorrectly
flown, then the yacht and her owner create a poor impression in yachting circles.
t is, therefore, of foremost importance that the correct procedure be followed at
all times.
The yacht ensign, by usage and custom, may be considered our national flag for
yachts.1 The USPS ensign is flown by special authority and custom by members
in good standing in this organization, in accordance with their rules.
When a yacht is in commission and manned, the following routine and etiquette
shall be observed.
Colors shall be made at 0800 and sunset.
Time shall be taken from the senior officer present.
,- /nsign
The United States yacht ensign may be displayed between morning and evening
colors:
(a) When at anchor,2 at the stern staff.
(b) When under way, in inland waters and when meeting or passing other
vessels on the high seas, weather and rig permitting, by motor yachts at the
stern; by motor yachts with gaff at the gaff; by gaff-rigged sailing yachts at the
after peak; by marconi-rigged sailing yachts at the leach of the aftermost sail,
approximately two-thirds the length of the leach above the clew; by sailing yachts
under power alone, at the stern staff.
1- $SPS /nsign
The ensign of the United States Power Squadrons may be displayed* between
morning and evening colors:
(a) n place of the U. S. yacht ensign as provided in Sec. 1, or
(b) n addition to the U. S. yacht ensign,4 at anchor or underway,from the
starboard main spreader or yard-arm.
3. Burgee
The yacht club burgee may be displayed whenever6 the ensign is hoisted,
between morning and evening colors, at anchor or under way, by
(a) Mastless yachts or single-masted yachts with bow staff, at the bow staff,
(b) Single-masted yachts without bow staff, at the truck,
(c) Yachts with two or more masts at the foremost truck.

5- S?uadron (istinguishing Signals
A local Squadron's distinguishing signal, which has been approved by the District
and authorized by the USPS Governing Board, may be flown between morning
and evening colors, in the place and instead of the club burgee.
6- Pri!ate Signal
The private signal may be displayed, between morning and evening colors, by
(a) Mastless yachts when under way, at the bow staff, in place of the burgee,
(b) Single-masted yachts with bow staff, at anchor, or under way, at the truck,
(c) Single-masted yachts, without bow staff, when under way, at the truck in
place of the burgee,
(d) Yachts with two masts, at the aftermost truck.
(e) Yachts with more than two masts, at the main truck.
7- Flag Offi)er<s Flag
A flag officer6 shall display his flag day and night, in place of and instead of his
private signal, or in the case of a single masted yacht instead of the burgee,
except when racing or displaying the burgee of another club or the race
committee flag.
8- Fleet Ca'tain<s Flag
The fleet captain displays his flag7 between morning and evening colors only at
the bow staff in small boats while performing the duties of his office.
9- &a)e CommitteeHs Flag
On a yacht acting as committee boat, the race committee's flag shall be
displayed at the main truck in place of the flag otherwise there displayed, at all
times while acting as such.
:- $nion Ga)=
The union jack may be displayed between morning and evening colors on motor
yachts with two or more masts only, and on sailing yachts at anchor, on Sundays
or holidays or when dressing ship, at the jackstaff (not bow staff).
,;- Absent Flag
The absent flag, a rectangular blue flag, may be displayed at the starboard main
spreader or yard-arm * at anchor, or under way, between sunrise and sunset,
when the owner is not on board.
,,- "uest Flag
A rectangular blue flag with a white diagonal stripe, from top of hoist to bottom of
fly, may be displayed at anchor or under way, between sunrise and sunset, at the
starboard main spreader or yard-arm,8 when guests are aboard during the
absence of the owner.

,1- Owner<s *eal &ag
A rectangular white flag may be displayed when at anchor, from sunrise to
sunset, during the owner's meal hours, at the starboard main spreader or yard-
arm.8
,2- Crew<s *eal Pennant
A red pennant may be displayed when at anchor, between sunrise and sunset,
during the crew's meal hours, at the foremost port spreader or yardarm.
,5- ight Pennant
A blue pennant may be displayed at the main truck from evening to morning
colors and at all times when no other flags are flown.
,6- Other Flags
Flags authorized by naval, military or recognized yachting organizations may be
displayed at option, provided the procedure for flying such flags as specified by
those organizations is followed. No other flag shall be displayed, except when
making signals with the international code or dressing ship.*
,7- &a)ing
While racing, yachts shall comply with pertinent sections of the Racing Rules and
any specific instructions of race committees where these conflict with any
provisions of Yacht Routine.
,8- SiFe Of Flags
The burgee, private signal and flag officer's flag shall be approximately a
minimum of one-half of one inch on the fly for each foot of the highest truck
above the water on sailing yachts and Y% of one inch for each foot of overall
length on motor yachts. The hoist shall be two-thirds the fly. The ensign when
flown at the stern shall be approximately a minimum of one inch on the fly per
foot of overall length. The hoist shall be two-thirds the fly. When the USPS
ensign is flown from the starboard yard arm, on motor boats, the length of the fly
shall be approximately s of one inch per foot of over all length of the boat.
The night pennant should approximate three-fourths of an inch on the fly for each
foot of height of truck above the water, with a hoist of one-tenth of the fly.
,9- Order Of Colors
When making colors short-handed, the ensign shall be hoisted first, followed as
rapidly as possible by the USPS ensign, the club burgee and the private signal.
Flags are lowered in inverse order. Colors are hoisted smartly but lowered
ceremoniously. Flag officer's flags though displayed day and night may be
lowered and hoisted at colors.
,:- /ntering Port Before Or After Colors
On entering or leaving a port before or after the time for making colors, a yacht
shall display her flags provided there is sufficient light for them to be recognized.
Colors shall be lowered promptly after anchoring or after leaving port.
*(Signals should be flown from a conspicuous hoist. Probably such signals as the
cocktail flag, etc., should be so flown.)
(ressing Shi'
On national holidays, at regattas and on other special occasions, yachts often
dress ship with signal flags of the nternational Code. Flag officers' flags and club
burgees are not used. The ship is dressed at 8 :OO A.M. and remains so
dressed from morning to evening colors. n dressing ship, the yacht ensign is
hoisted at the peak or staff aft, and the jack at the jackstaff. Then a rainbow of
flags of the nternational Code is arranged, reaching from the waterline forward to
the waterline aft, by way of the jib-boom end to the foretop masthead, then
across to the main topmast, and down to the main boom end, allowing several
flags to touch the water line from both the jib-boom end and the main boom end.
A Few (on<ts
Don't fly two flag-officers' flags at the same time.
Don't fly two flags from the same hoist, except flags of the nternational Code,
when dressing ship or signalling.
Don't fly a yacht club officers' flag of a yacht club of which you are a member but
not a flag officer.
Don't fly a yacht club officers' flag while flying a USPS officers' flag. (Note: t is
permissible to fly a USPS officers' flag and a yacht club burgee when the USPS
ensign is flown.)
Don't fly a yacht club officers' flag while flying a yacht club burgee of a yacht club
of which you are not an officer.
Don't fly your flags (other than your flag-officer's flag) before 0800 or after
sundown except for the purpose of identification while entering or leaving a
harbor or anchorage other than your own. Haul them down immediately
thereafter.
Don't fly your USPS ensign unless the vessel is actually in command of a USPS
member in good standing.
Don't fly your guest, absent or meal flag while your USPS ensign is displayed at
the starboard main spreader or yard-armkeep them in the flag locker.
General Note:Mastless motor yachts may display, on a staff erected on the
superstructure, the flag designated by this code to be flown from the truck of
single-masted yachts.
Note *:The constitution or by-laws or printed regulations of some clubs provide
a code for flying flags and colors. n such a case a member of that club when
flying the burgee of that club should follow the code of his club.
Note 1:While the best practice calls for the flying of the yacht ensign yet the US
ensign may be substituted therefore except on documented yachts.
Note 2:Yachts moored or made fast to the shore, wharves, etc. and when
aground should fly the flags specified by this code to be flown at anchor.
Note 3:The ensign of the United States Power Squadrons may be displayed
only while the yacht is in command of a member in good standing of the United
States Power Squadrons.
Note 4:Correctly displayed.
Note 5:Except as otherwise herein provided.
Note 6:Other officers of yachting organizations (except the Fleet Captain)
rating a rectangular flag shall fly it as herein specified for a Flag Officer's flag.
Swallow tail officers' flags should be flown only from 8 A.M. to sundown.
Note 7:The constitution or by-laws of some clubs provide that the fleet captain
shall be a flag officer. n such a case the fleet captain shall display his flag as a
flag officer.
Note 8:Provided the USPS ensign is not being flown at this hoist.
Chapter - 2(
Fundamental ailing "ractice
There are two safet# 're)autions to ta=e immediatel# when hit b# a strong
'uff of wind-
1Luff up
2Let go the sheets thus allowing the sails to spill the wind.
n very strong winds small boats should remain at their moorings. But there are
times when a sudden and unusually strong wind or squall comes up and you are
caught out on the water. How you handle yourself and the boat are of utmost
importance to avoid accident to sail, rigging and possibly to yourself.
At times like these you must be constantly alert to wind and wave and the relative
actions of the boat. An eye should be kept on the boats to windward, for they get
the wind first. How these boats handle themselves will be a clue as to what to
expect and what you will have to do when the wind strikes.
The first precaution to take in any sudden strong wind is to luff up. Steer your
boat into the eye of the wind. Ease all sheets. f the boat is of centerbord type,
lower the board all the way.
f strong winds increase in velocity, drop the sails (mainsail first). f a real black
squall appears, drop the sails immediately and run before it under bare poles if
the squall brings violent winds. f your boat is moving too rapidly, slow its
progress by trailing the anchor warp, or a bucket over the stern.
f ever in doubt as to the force of wind or whether to carry sail or not, drop the
sails for safety; the mainsail first as this has the greater sail area. As the sails
come down gather them in, lean on them and hold them down until they are tied
up securely. f you let them lie loose the wind will get into them, raise them and
slam the boat over.
f close to a lee shore, or a hazard of a kind that could damage the boat, or (the
exact reverse) the storm is pushing you out to sea, anchor. Let out as much
anchor line as possible so the boat rides easily and does not drag.
f the wind continues in force but it is safe to carry some sail there are a number
of ways of sailing safely which are described on the following pages.
B&OA( &/ACHI"
f you have to sail in strong winds broad reaching is about the safest point of
sailing.
Constant play of the sails against the strength of wind will keep the boat in as
upright a position as is possible. Let out sheet and luff up in the puffs, bear off
and haul in sheet when the wind softens or lets up. Always try to keep movement
on the boat for that increases stability and maneuverability. Hold just enough sail
to die wind for driving power. Both main and jib will be partly luffing; only the after
end of both sails will catch the wind and furnish drive to the boat.
SAILI" %ITH A TI"HT GIB A( A L$FFI" *AISAIL
This method is very effective in carrying the boat through the puffs while carrying
alt sail and still keeping good movement on the boat. t relieves some of the wind
pressure on the main, thereby keeping the boat more upright. Let the jib
backwind the main. f the jib is allowed to flap furiously it will tear. The main luffs
but still has drive in the after end of the sail. Hold the sheets in hands or under a
cleat to eliminate the strain on arms.
Be ready to release both jib and main sheets quickly should wind force get too
great. Sit up on high side and help balance boat by leaning to windward.
The illustration at the left shows a group of nternational One Designs racing in a
rough sea. The arries point to the luffing mainsails and light jibs, one method of
sailing through sudden, strong, puffs of wind as explained in, the paragraph left
above.
SAILI" %ITH GIB ALO/
There are several ways of sailing in winds not having the force or strength to
order you to drop the sails but still with strength enough to create concern for the
safety of boat and crew.
The easiest and safest is probably dropping the mainsail, lying it up and sailing
with jib alone. You are then .sailing under as short canvas as possible, that is,
provided you do not have a storm jib.
t is surprising how well you can reach and often how high you can point with the
jib alone. To a degree you have control of the course to sail, though your leeway
will he greater than usual. Running before the wind or reaching is much steadier
and easier than trying to beat.
Sit on the high side or in the bottom of the cockpit to help keep the boat upright.
Do no fasten the jib sheet but hold it in hands, relieving any strain by holding die
sheet under a cleat.

CO*I" ABO$T TO CHA"/ CO$&S/ IA.OI(I" A GIB/J, %H/
&$I" I ST&O" %I(S A( &O$"H S/AS
The action of the sea and the height of the waves play an important part in this
maneuver. Generally there are three or four steep, high waves, then a series of
short rollers, then three or four more steep ones, and so on. The trick is to luff
and come about when the seas run low. Good helmsmanship, good judgment
and good timing also play their parts.

Do not come around fast for there is constant handling of straining sheets. Make
a big wide loop broad reaching, then swing to a close reach. Time yourself so
that when the seas run low, heat and quickly luff to come about. When the sails
are on the. opposite side let the sheets out (see that they don't snarl) to the point
of reaching. Then let out more sheet so as to again run before the wind.
An Atlantic Class sloop sailing through a squall with the mainsail alone. The crew
is all on the windward side helping to counteract the extra force in the wind in
order to keep the craft as upright as possible. Keeping movement on the boat
makes for better stability.
SAILI" %ITH *AISAIL ALO/
You have better control of the boat when sailing with the main alone on a reach
than when sailing with jib alone, but more sail area is exposed to the wind. The
boat will have greater heel, is apt to roll more with the varying force of wind but
will have greater speed through the water.
You can luff more easily should strong wind puffs come along. You luff quicker
too, for the wind force is on the main alone which in turn has a great tendency to
make the bow swing into-the wind. This also creates a weather helm, so much so
that the boat will automatically come up into the wind should you let go of the
tiller.

Keep the crew up on the windward side and lean outward during the puffs to help
keep the boat as upright as possible.

&//FI" TH/ S*ALL SAILBOAT
There are small boat skippers who prefer to reef when the winds remain
consistently strong. They find the boat easier to handle with the shortened
canvas.
Not all small sailboats have reef points in their sails. Many boats are constantly
being used for racing, their skippers believing that reef points offer wind
resistance and interfere with the smooth flow of air along the sail. They,
therefore, order sails without reef points.
Many small boat racing skippers believe that reefing, as a rule, is not necessary,
particularly if the boat can be handled by any of the previously described
methods.
However, larger sailboats, whether used for racing or cruising, do have reef
points. t is common practice with large-boat skippers to reef when necessary.
Reefing must be done right or the sail will tear and/or pull out of shape.
Here is a good method of doing it. Steer the boat into the eye of the wind, drop
the jib and tie or stop it. Put the boom crotch in place and drop the boom into it as
the mainsail is lowered. Lower the mainsail all the way, gathering it in as it
comes down so that it doesn't fly into the water. Haul the main sheet in tight and
make it fast; this keeps the boom from jumping out of the boom crotch. Never
leave the mainsail partly hoisted for it will pull and flap in the strong wind, greatly
hindering the operation; besides, the strong wind may fill the sail and cap-sire
your boat.
Have two short pieces of 7/16" line handy, each about five or six feet in length.
Take one of the pieces and lash the tack reef cringle to the boom. Now take the
leech reef cringle, pull straight along the boom and away from the mast. Keep the
canvas straight and even with the reef bands in a line. With the other piece of line
lash this leech cringle down around the boom, then aft to the outhaul or end of
the boom and fasten securely.
No. 2, lash the tack reef cringle to boom. No. 3, holding the leech reef cringle,
pull the sail out along the boom. When the sail is stretched taut lash the reef
cringle around the boom. Continue pulling aft, then lash end of line around
outhaul and boom. No. 4, keep reef bands in a line.
Here is shown the difference in sail area from before reefing, dotted line No. 5, to
the sail after reefing, solid line; a noticeable reduction in area.
Unfasten the mainsheet, raise the mainsail and stow boom crotch; raise jib and
then bear off and you are underway. Keep sheets unsnarled.
The above Week Ender class cruising auxiliary sloop shows* a very neat and
evenly tied reef. The boom appears to be quite high from the cabin top but the
craft is riding beautifully. Should the wind blow stronger the skipper would find it
to his advantage to tower the boom as close to the cabin top as is feasible to
help prevent excessive keeling.
Now take that part of the sail between the reef bands and the foot rope and pull
through to the side opposite to that on which most of the sail hangs. Pull [his out
as evenly as possible and roll up. Form into a nice, neat roll, then tuck between
the reef bands and the foot rope, leaving the reef points free. Tie this roll together
with the reef points, using a square or reef knot, but be sure to bring the reef
points under the foot rope (not the boom). Check all of the knots to see that they
are tight and in an even line. Now you are ready to raise sail. Unfasten the main
sheet; haul on the main halyard and as soon as the boom clears the crotch stow
it so that it will not foul the main sheet when the sail fills. Check ail the lashings
and knots for uneven strain and be sure that all are securely tied. Then take the
stops off the jib, hoist and get underway.
f there are more than two in the crew the jib is often left up, the mainsail alone
being dropped while the craft is luffing. When the reef is being tied in, the craft is
again put on course with the jib full and drawing. Keeping momentum on the craft
increases stability and steadies it in a rough and rolling sea.
There is a disadvantage in keeping the jib up with only two in a crew, however,
for one has to steer and control the boat. The other has to do all of the reefing
and moving about, often having to work with only one hand, as the other is
needed to hold on.
Cross section of boom and sail showing how sail is rolled and tied. n No. 1, the
sail, between the foot rope and reef band, is pulled through to the side opposite
to that on which the sail hangs. in No. 2, the sail is Tolled up neatly. n No. 3, it is
tucked between the reef bands and foot rope, then tied with a reef knot. No. 4
shows the rolled or reefed sail after it has been hoisted.
The sloop at left does not have a reef tied in her mainsail. nstead of reefing, a
short sail that corresponds in area to a regular reefed sail is Set. This sail is
almost always made of very heavy fabric to withstand the strong winds.
Right, number 1 shows boom setting in boom notch. Numbers 2 and 3 show
where the sail is tied to the boom. N 4 shows how the reef points are passed
under the foot rope (between the foot rope and sail track) and then tied in an
even, straight line.
HO% TO TI/ TH/ SLIPP/&> &//F 4OT
As shown at the left (number 1) take the black strand, pass over the white strand,
then under and again aver the white strand.
Number 2, take end A of the white strand and pass this end under the black
strand.
Number 3, form a tight loop with the black strand at point marked B. Pass loop
under, them aver the white strand and pull through to hold it in place.
Number 4, hold both ends of the white strand together in one hand, and the black
strand loop with the the hand. Pull very tight but be sure the end does not pull alt
the way through and out.
The slippery reef knot, when tied properly, has an advantage over the regular
reef knot in that it cm be quickly untied by simply pulling the loose end. n
making, it must be pulled very tight or it will loosen and then pen. Should the
knot open, unequal and extra strain on the other knots generally results in a torn
sail.
HO% TO TI/ TH/ &//F O& S3$A&/ 4OT
The reef knot is started in exactly the same way as the slippery reef knot, by
taking the black strand, passing it over the white strand and then under *nd again
over the white strand, as at rightc, number .
Number 2, take the end A of the white strand, turn it and pass it under the black
strand.
Number 3, take the end of the black strand B, pass it under and then over the
white strand, as in this illustration.
Number 4, now hold both ends of the black strand in one hand, and both ends of
the white strand in the other hand, pull tight. When tied properly this knot will not
open and may even be difficult to untie when wet. t is designed to hold and hold
well.
Sha=ing Out The &eef
Suppose the wind has let up or you're back at your mooring and want to undo the
reef. A reef should never be left in any longer than necessary for it can distort the
shape of the sail.
Undoing or taking out a reef is called "shaking out." To shake out a reef go about
t in exact reverse order in which the reef was originally tied.

Lower the mainsail, drop the boom in the boom crotch while so doing. Haul in
tight on the main sheet and fasten. Untie the reef points first, double checking to
see that they are all untied. Then untie the outhaul fastening, leech, cringle
fastening, followed by the tack cringle fastening. Now raise the mainsail so the
wrinkles formed in the sail by the reef come out.
Gibing
To jibe is to bring the boat around to the other tack "stern** into the wind.
Above are four sequence drawings illustrating the jibe. n No. 1, above, the boom
and mainsail are far out to starboard. The boat is running before the wind,
centerboard is down.
n step No. 2, \he boom has been hauled in to a tight close reach position. The
wind is aft, still holding the mainsail on the starboard side.
n step No. 3, the jib sheet U released, then the course is changed. As the stern
swings, the wind gets back of the sail end it snaps over to the opposite or port
side as in this instance. Sheets are never fastened but held by hand. The crew
must be ready to shift positions, dodge boom as it swings over and work the
sheets.
Generally you use the jibe when sailing Wore the wind and (1) when you want to
change your course without coming about, (2) when the wind has shifted and you
want to avoid sailing by the lee, or (3) when you have to round a buoy or
breakwater -where there is limited sea room.
There is still another situation that is used in windward-leeward racing called the
racing jibe. Here, when on a beat, you have to swing to a run (with the boom on
the opposite side) when rounding a buoy, in order to save time and hold position.
A jibe should not be attempted in very strong winds. When the going gets really
rough, experienced skippers avoid it.
However, in light and ordinary winds a jibe is a common and ordinary maneuver
easily performed but it should be done right and must be controlled at all times.
Here is how it is done.
You are sailing before the wind with the boom out as far as it will go. f the boat is
of the centerboard type drop the board for additional stability. Haul in on the
mainsheet, maintaining course while so doing.

Keep hauling on the mainsheet until it is almost as tight as when you are beating.
Release the jib sheet so that the jib swings freely. Keep the mainsheet (the part
you are hauling in) clear so that it can run out freely and quickly without snarling
That means let the coils of the sheet drop loosely one over the other. Don't
allow them to be kicked around.
Steer carefully and slowly to the side the boom is1 on. The wind will get in back
of the mainsail arid swing the boom over. The boom will snap over fast. Keep
your head low, shift weight to opposite side, and don't get tangled in the
mainsheet. To ease the jolt let the mainsheet run out but control its run out so
that the boom will not bang the shrouds. Push the tiller to center, adjust the jib
sheet so the jib again draws and you are on course again.
Some skippers, when jibing in very light air, haul in the mainsheet 'hand over
band.' That is, instead of hauling the sheet through the blocks they gather or pull
in the sheet as if they were hauling and gathering n a line. After the boom has
passed over they also let out the sheet now on the opposite side 'hand over
hand.'
n step No. 4, as the boom comes over, the mainsheet is slowly released until the
sail is at its correct angle to the wind. Then the jib sheet is attended to for proper
setting of jib.
At right is a photograph of a Resolute sloop in the middle of a jibe, in a position
between steps 2 and 3, as illustrated at the left. The boom is almost at center
and swinging to the port side. The jib is just beginning to catch the change of
wind as it has been blanketed by the mainsail. Notice the crewman keeping his
head low to avoid being clobbered by boom while handling sheets.
When the wind shifts or swings from one quarter to the other and a prescribed a
jibe is in order. This avoids the hazardous and worrisome sailing "by the lee."
REMEMBER ALWAYS SHORTEN SHEET ON A JBE. Always control its
operation. Do not let the boom swing wildly from one side to the other. Except in
the very, very lightest airs this should always be followed.
n the lightest of variable and shifting airs, where there is no strain on the mast or
rigging, the boom is often pushed by hand from one side to the other. You will
often see this done in races where the skippers are anxious to pick up the
slightest of breezes to gain a few yards in distance.
t has been said that there are only two kinds of jibes, the controlled one and the
accidental one. The controlled jibe you have just read about.
The accidental jibe can te dangerous and destructive. t can happen with a
sudden shift of wind or by a careless helmsman not watching the wind and not
sailing the proper course. magine the boom and sail swinging over rapidly
without control. Your head may be in the way and you may get knocked
overboard. The sheets may also foul the tiller or snarl into a knot,! leaving you
without control of your craft.
Above, stern views of the comparative angles of heel in the racing jibe, as
depicted in the diagram below. t readily illustrates the critical point of this jibe, #2
and #3, where extreme caution and quick action are necessary.
TH/ &ACI" GIB/
n both diagrams the numerals show comparative positions of the boat during the
racing jibe. Numerals 1 show the normal close-hauled position and angle of heel
of the craft approaching the buoy.
At numbers 2, the boom is hauled in as tight as it will come. From the diagrams it
can be seen that the dangerous part of the jibe is when the sail is flat to the full
force of the wind. n a strong wind a knockdown can occur here.
At numbers 3, the tiller is snapped over fast. As the wind forces the sail over, the
crew must be ready and extremely nimble to shift weight from one high side to
the other, as the boat makes an extremely sharp turn.
At numbers 4, the sheets are let out and at numbers 5, the sheets and sails are
set for the run back.
n light winds this maneuver is accomplished in a normal and easy way.
Sometimes whole fleets of sailboats are seen going around a buoy in this
manner. t is when the wind is strong that care must be exercised.

Relative positions of sails in rounding a buoy. "f" with arrow indicates wind
direction.
Hel'ful Hint

A cockpit cover is essential for keeping rain and weather out of the boat when it
lies unattended at anchor. t helps keep the inside of the boat dry. Water or
dampness in the bilge soaks into the wood, making the boat heavy. A heavy boat
sails more slowly and is not as lively a sailing craft as it should be.
Here is an ideal type of cockpit cover for the small sailboat. t is closed in front
and open at the after end to allow for ventilation, it hangs over the boom and is
fastened in front by a collar around the mast. Lines hold the lower forward ends
to the shrouds, the after end is held by a line tied to the boom. Snaps just under
the rail hold the sides in place and prevent them from blowing out.
L/A.I" TH/ *OO&I"
Unless there is an adverse stronger tide to contend with the boat will always be
facing into the wind when at its mooring. On arriving at the boat, first remove the
cockpit cover and lower the centerboard, which was raised just before leaving the
last time.
Lift the floorboards to see if any water has seeped into the bilge. f there is,
sponge or pump it out. Always try to keep the bilge dry.
After the rudder and tiller have been attached, unbag then bend on the mainsail.
Raise it. Adjust the outhaul and downhaul. Keep the boom in the boom crotch,
Unbag the jib and fasten it to the forestay. Attach the jib halyard and the jib
sheets. Raise the jib, let it fly. Remove the boom crotch and let the mainsheet
run. Decide which tack you are going to lake, and then cast off the mooring. Let
the boat drift backward a bit so as to be free of the mooring, Hold jib aback.
When bow has turned, haul in on main and jib sheets so that the sails fill with
wind. You are under way.
From left to right are a set of six sequence sketches showing steps taken when
leaving a mooring. n No. 1, left,, the cockpit cover is removed and the
centerboard lowered all the way. Lowering the centerboard gives stability to the
craft, preventing it from tipping too far to one side or the other as you move
about.
No. 2, right, sponge or pump out the bilge to remove any rainwater or seepage
that has accumulated. Attach the rudder and tiller. Mop the deck if necessary.
The mooring splashes into the water after having been released by the crewman
forward. Although the main is just beginning to fill and draw, the flapping jib will
e put aback to help turn the boat's bow. As the boat falls off, the sheets will be
hauled in or let out depending upon the sail trim de sired for the course to be
sailed. The other crew members are busy coiling lines and stowing gear.
The mainsail of this Resolute class sailboat is being raised. Here the lug rope of
the mainsail is being guided through a slot in the mast. Track and slides are not
used. The fellow sitting aft is not idle. He is hauling on the main halyard raising
the sail. The halyards on these craft come down through a hollow in the mast and
are hauled from below decks. This keeps the halyards, when coiled, away from
other lines.
No. 3, left, bend on the mainsail, insert the battens tieing them in carefully, then
raise the sail to its proper height. Adjust out haul.
No. 4, right, fasten the jib to the jib stay, attack jib sheets and run them aft on
their respective sides, but do not cleat them for the jib must fly freely after it is
raised.
No. 5, left, remove the boom crotch, slack the mainsheet, then cast of the
mooring. Be sure to keep alt the lines clear of one another so that they don't
snarl.
No. 6, right, hold the jib aback (see illustrations on following page) then when the
bow has turned, haul in on main and jib sheets. To get good movement on the
boat sail away on a reach.
GIB ABAC4
A JB can be put aback to assure that the bow of the boat will turn in a desired
direction. This is often necessary when leaving the mooring in a crowded
anchorage because of the proximity of other boats, a dock, a shoal or an
obstruction restricting free sailing.
To put a jib aback, take hold of the clew, first making sure that the jib sheets are
loose and not cleated. Hold it out opposite to the side the bow is to swing or
opposite to the direction the boat is to sail. The wind will catch the jib and turn the
bow. When the bow has turned to a point that the sails can fill and a course can
be sailed, let go the clew so that the jib can swing freely. Now when the sheets
are hauled the boat will be on its desired course. Read chapter ninen rons.
"W" with arrow, indicate* direction of wind.
Three sequence drawings illustrating putting the jib abacka simple easy
maneuver that takes only seconds to do. t assures the bow's turning off in the
desired direction. Above left shows the craft, all sail hoisted, after it hat dropped
its mooring. The sails are fluttering in the wind.
The center illustration shows how the jib is held out (put aback) until the bow has
turned.
The illustration below shows the boat, all sails trimmed, sailing off on a clear
course.
Lighting craft number 6612 evidentally was sailing too high to clear the buoy just
ahead of it. n the very evident light air, a crewman is reaching forward and
putting the jib aback so that the bow will fall off and the sails again fill with wind.
L/A.I" TH/ *OO&I"E%I( A( TI(/ F&O* (IFF/&/T
(I&/CTIOS A( TI(/ ST&O"/& THA %I(
n A situation of this kind first bend on the jib, then bend the mainsail to the
boom, but do not raise it. t is very difficult to raise and control the mainsail when
at the mooring without its swinging the boat around in wild gyrations. Continue to
hold the boom in the boom crotch. Raise the jib, make fast the jib halyard.
A good skipper and crew checking as they leave the mooring. How are the sails
setting? Are the halyards too slack or too tight? Are the sheets set right for the
wind and course sailed? s the wind pennant swinging properly? s the boat
responding to movements of the tiller? Anything ahead of us? These and many
more questions.
This diagram illustrates the normal maneuver in getting underway from a
mooring. First, drifting to clear the mooring, then putting the jib aback to turn the
bow in the direction to be sailed. Second, hauling on the sheets to adjust sails for
a reach. The boat thereby gathers good momentum. Third, again adjusting, sails
for the course.
Uncleat and drop the mooring, haul on jib sheet so that the sail fills. Sail down-
wind under jib alone. When you have enough way on the boat and are also clear
of other boats and obstructions, swing around into the wind. Quickly raise the
mainsail. Remember the boat will drift some, and the tide may turn you, so allow
enough sea room. Put the jib aback so the bow falls off. Now, with all the sail up,
sail on a reach to again pick up momentum.
APP&OACHI" A( PIC4I" $P TH/ *OO&I"
1 On approaching a mooring, if yours is a cen- erboard boat, drop the
centerboard all the way. This gives the boat more stability, aids in steering and
gives a steadier forward deck on which the crew can work when mooring.
Drop the jib, unsnap it from jib halyard, bag if, make jib halyard fast, then coil jib
sheets.
4 Pick up mooring, cleat and make fast the mooring line, making sure the line
passes through the chocks. Slip the boom into boom crotch. Haul the mainsheet
in tight. Lower the mainsail carefully so that the sail does not go overboard and
get vet. Release and unfasten the outhaul, unsnap the main halyard. Remove
battens, then the mainsail from mast and boom tracks. Bag the sail. Check
halyards after fastening to be sure that you allowed some slack for wet-weather
tightening.
Unship rudder and tiller (if the boat is of the type that has a removable rudder).
Fasten these down inside cockpit so that they can't slide around. Make fast all.
loose gear. Coil all tines neatly and evenly.
n All approaches to picking up a mooring, the idea is to bring die boat to leeward
of the mooring float, then to shoot up into the wind to a dead stop alongside of jt.
Now, merely lean over, pick it up and make it fast to the mooring cleat without
undue strain.
n ordinary sailing breezes most skippers learn to do this in an easy and quick
manner without, fuss or mishap.
The trick is to learn when to start to shoot up into the wind and how far away the
boat should be from the mooring float when the luff is started.
The number of boat lengths needed to reach the mooring buoy depends on the
strength of wind. Since most small centerboard boats do not have too much
forward movement when coming up into the wind, a distance of only one or two
boat lengths n light airs, or three in heavy winds, should be allowed (depending
on the type of boat).
3 Judge the distance to the mooring, shoot up into the wind, main. sail flapping,
with just enough may on the boat so that it comes to a dead halt at the mooring.
Keel boats have more forward movement (way) on them when coming into the
wind; therefore more distance to the buoy from the luffing point must be allowed.
This distance is generally about half again as much as allowed for a centerboard
boat.
Whenever possible, at some distance from the mooring, drop the jib, unsnap it
from the forestay, and stow in its proper bag.
With the flapping jib out of the way, picking up and dealing the mooring is made
much simpler and easier. The jib also stays clean for it is away from the staining
drips of the wet mooring and its sometimes muddy pennant. Then too, the
helmsman need not be too concerned about which side of the mooring he brings
the bow of the boat as the flapping jib will not interfere with the crew member's
picking up the mooring float.
Without the jib, the boat does not point as high or go as fast as when it is up.
Speed in itself is not important, however, the rate of approach is as allowances
must be made for this when steering and shooting to the buoy.
However, in very light airs the jib is often left up, drawing whatever wind it can.
Only after the mooring has been cleated is the jib lowered. Then it is carefully
gathered in without touching the deck.
n strong winds and tides picking up the mooring is not so easy. The judging of
distance and speed is more acute. The maneuvering must be more thoroughly
planned if one is to pick up the mooring in a seamanlike manner. t is not
uncommon to see skippers miss several times before grabbing and folding onto
the mooring.
Sponge out the bilge, clean topsides and deck. f any fresh water remains in the
vacuum bottle or ice water in the Scotch cooler, use it to wipe the varnish work.
This takes off the salt water residue and helps keep the woodwork bright. Raise
the centerboard all the way up. (On some small round-bottomed boats the
centerboard is put part way down. This counters excess swinging and rolling in
high winds that may cause them to capsize at the mooring.) Unroll cockpit cover
and fasten in place.
Diagrammed on the following pages are the methods to approach a mooring float
when running, reaching or beating and also a number of special situations that
call for extra good planning.
When a condition exists where both the wind and a strong tide come from the
same direction, the boat must be steered almost to the mooring be/ore shooting
into the wind (above). The jib should be left up as all drive possible is needed to
offset the retarding current. Only one length or less for a centerboard boat to one
or one-and-a-half lengths for a keel boat should be allowed to shoot for the
mooring. The wind and strong current quickly stop the forward motion of the boat.
The mooring float must be speedily grabbed and made fast. This is not too easy
a maneuver to perform as it calls for good timing, judging of distance, speed, and
force of wind and current as the latter two affect the boat.
n a situation like the above, where wind and strong tide are opposing each other
and the tide has the greater effect on the boat, the basic and safe way to
approach the mooring is to drift down on it. Luff at a point 4 or 5 to 6 or 1 boat
lengths away (depending on type of boat) when shooting for the mooring float.
Ordinarily these distances are too great to bring the craft to the float, but the
current in this case wilt carry it onward after drive from the sails is lost. The
skipper has his hands full. He must steer right for the float, be ready to let go the
main halyard and gather in the sail the moment the crew has successfully
grabbed the mooring. As the mooring is made fast the boat will swing and turn
with the current, bringing the stern to the wind. Should the mainsail be left up, the
wind will fill the sail and swing it out making it difficult to lower. The craft may also
start sailing on the mooring causing it to jibe. The diagram shows the courses
sailed and the courses steered, which are of necessity different because of the
effect of the strong current on the sailboat.
A well executed shoot for the mooring. The mainsheet is loose, the mainsail
fluttering in the wind. The skipper is waiting for word from the crewman forward
that the mooring pennant is fastened before he begins to lower the mainsail.
Regardless of the direction from which you approach a mooring, the approach is
always made from the leeward of the mooring float. When running as
diagrammed here, you must swing to a reach and then a beat before shooting for
the mooring, though some skippers, who know the turning circle of their craft,
round up to the mooring.
Diagrammed on this page are methods for approaching and picking up a mooring
float, when beating, running or reaching under ordinary and usual sailing
conditions.
To pick up a mooring when beating (above left), the craft should first be steered
to a point several boat lengths to leeward of the mooring. Then the boat is luffed
and steered directly for it (called shooting for the mooring). For a centerboard
boat this point is one or two boat lengths away. n all approaches more distance
for shooting into the wind must be allowed by a keel boat for it has greater
momentum, or carry, through the water. Under all ordinary or usual conditions it
w better to have the centerboard dropped and the jib lowered and stowed before
the mooring is picked up. The crew then has a steadier forward deck to work on;
besides, he does not have the fib flapping in his face interfering with the
fastening of the mooring pennant.
Picking up the float, when reaching, is here diagrammed. Notice that the final
shoot for the float is the same in all diagrams on this page. t is the most
important part of the well-executed maneuver.
CO*I" ABO$T
Comin" abot is the manever of chan"in" from one tac+ to the other) the bo!
s!in"in" thro"h the eye of the !ind.

He maneuver of coming about is easy to execute. Merely steer the boat towards
the eye of the wind and continue around until the sails fill on the other side,
executing a 90 turn. The forward momentum carries the boat around to its new
course.
To illustrate, suppose you are sailing close-hauled. The helmsman gives the
command, "Ready about." This warns the crew that the boat will come about and
alerts them to be ready to handle sheets and move to the opposite side of the
craft.
The command of execution is "hard a lee." The helmsman moves the tiller over
to leeward (away from the wind). The bow swings into the wind and as the jib
starts to flutter, the sheet is let go. The sails luff, then swing to the other side of
the boat. The mainsail again fills with wind as does the jib, but the jib sheet,
being loose, is hauled in to trim the sail. The crew moves inboard and continues
moving across the boat as the boat turns and the sails' fill with wind on the other
tack. The tiller is put amidships (on center) and the boat steered to its course.
The boat has been put about and is now sailing on the other tack.
Letting the jib sheet loose takes the pressure of wind from the bow, allowing the
boat to swing more easily. The jib sheet should be loosened only after the jib
starts to flutter, which is but a moment or two after the tiller is moved. Useful
drive in the sail is thus maintained until no longer needed.
The mainsail is held fast in position, not touched or adjusted.
On many racing boats only one command is given when coming about. The
skipper after giving the command "Ready about" waits a few seconds, then
pushes the tiller over. The pause between the command and pushing the tiller
over gives the crew the few moments needed to prepare the lines for the quick
maneuver. This can be done because the crew is constantly on the alert. n
ordinary day sailing the skipper waits until all in the boat are ready before giving
the second part of the two-part command.
How a boat is trimmed may affect its turning movement. f there is too much
weight forward the bow may bury itself excessively in the sea and hinder the
coming about procedure. f there's too much weight in the stern, causing the bow
to lift from the water, the wind may keep
f the craft fails to make the turn to come about and refuses to answer the helm to
head one way or the other the craft is said to be "in irons."
To get out of "irons" hold the tiller in a .position opposite to the direction you want
to steer and also put the jib aback to turn the bow toward the direction you want
to steer (see illustration on a following page). Only when fully about (not halfway
or three-quarters way, for :the craft may swing back) should the tiller be set for
the new course or the sheets trimmed and set.
To avoid getting into "irons keep good momentum on the boat as it comes
around. Sometimes the tiller has to be snapped over and other times brought
around easy with a long shoot into the wind. The latter in good sailing breezes,
the former in light airs.
f the wind is so light that the craft cannot come around on its own momentum it
may need some coaxing. The sheets should be slackened and a bit of sculling
resorted to (though not when racing). Sculling is moving the tiller back and forth.
t gives some slight forward movement to the boat.
n ordinary sailing breezes no trouble should be encountered.
When coming about in strong wind and big seas a boat quickly loses way. ts
turning movement is stopped somewhat by the force of the waves. Keep good
way on the craft and wait for the smoother, smaller rollers to come along.
n squally weather it is best not to come about in the strong puffs of wind as the
sails shake excessively, and forward movement may be stopped. Wait until the
puff has passed.
Generally a boat should come about easily with good momentum so that it can
shoot up into the wind a bit before turning.
The tiller should never be slammed over to an extreme turning angle as the
rudder may then act as a brake and stop the boat's forward movement.
"LUFFNG"7*Ae term luffing is taken from that part of the sail that first starts to
shiver and shake when steering the boat too close to the wind.
When heading directly into the wind and the sails shake or flutter you are
"luffing."
f the boat is being steered too close to the direction of wind and the luff of the
sails start to shiver you are "starting to tuff."
You are said to "luff up" when you deliberately steer the boat toward the eye of
the wind.
The diagram at the left illistrates the turning movement of a craft when coming
about.
The photograph at the right shows a Lightning class sailboat swinging from one
tack to the other. fs right in the middle of its luff. The crew is busy, heads low,
adjusting the jib sheets and shifting positions. The skipper has the tiller hard over
for a quick maneuver.
HO% TH/ GIB/ (IFF/&S F&O* CO*I" ABO$T
The Gibe
n The jibe the wind is from aft The stem of the boat and the leach of the sail
pass through the eye of the wind in going from one tack to the other. The
difference in the courses of the tacks may vary from zero degree to 180 degrees
depending on the course to be sailed.
Coming About
n Coming about, the wind is from ahead. The bow and the luff of the sails pass
through the eye of the wind as the boat goes from one tack to the other.
Generally, the tacks are no closer than 90 from each other or 45 from the
direction of the wind.

A boat turns on its CENTER OF ROTATON

A boat turns on its center of rotation. t does not turn like an automobile where
the rear wheels almost follow in line with the front wheels when turning.
A boat's bow turns in the direction you want it to go but the stem swings the other
way. There is a sliding or skidding effect. The boat slips sidewise.
This action is of concern when you are (1) sailing very close to another boat, {2)
rounding a buoy, and (3) turning into a marina.
n close quarters the skipper must watch the stern as it swings as well as the
bow. Enough room" should always be allowed for the stern to swing without its
hitting another boat, a buoy or a stake.
On a small centerboard boat the **center of rotation" is about where the
centerboard is, so the how and stern will swing almost equally. On a large boat,
where much of the deep keel is aft, the "center of rotation" will be further aft. This
means that the bow will swing more than the stern when the boat is turning.
The illustration at the left is comparable to a set of Sequence photos. All three
Atlantic class boats are in different phases of rounding a marker, the flag of
which shows.
The boat at the left has come .about and is sailing off on the port tack. The
center boat is turning to come about and is in the middle of its luff. The boat at
the right is on the starboard tack just before the turn to come about.
HHO OVER HAH~A term used when hauling in on the main sheet and all
parts of the sheets are handed at one time, one hand after and over the other.
This is often practiced when the wind is light or when jibing and there is
practically no strain on the sheets. t is an easy, quick way to haul. t saves
excess pulling, particularly when the boom is far out, as when running.
Ta'ing Turnbu)=us
Taping turnbuckles prevents the sails from catching on. Cotter pins and tearing,
and reduces chafing of sails and sheets.
S*ALL BOAT *AISAILS
No Single item contributes as roach to the speed and movement of a boat as do
the sails. Therefore, knowledge of their parts, how and what they are made of
and their use, is of basic importance.
The object of this chapter is to acquaint you with these factors.
A sail is composed of many widths of material neatly sewn together to a
prescribed size and shape. This shape is reinforced at the edges by an extra thin
strip of material called a tabling, and at the corners by pieces called reinforcing
patches,. Roping on one, two, or three edges, depending on the type of sail, is
then sewn to the edge of the sail. This sewing of the rope to the sail is of most
importance for it controls to quite a degree the set of the sail. The sailmaker,
according to his own formula, takes a set number of stitches per foot of canvas to
bind the canvas to the rope and while so doing takes in extra material. This is
necessary to counteract the excessive stretch of rope as compared to canvas, it
also serves to create the curve or shape the sail will take when hoisted. The
relationships between stitches of canvas to foot of rope are sailmakers' secrets.
Countless experiments and experiences, over many, many years, in cutting and
breaking in canvas (cotton) sails when new have brought them to a wonderful
degree of efficiency. Canvas sails are slowly, gently, carefully broken in so that
they will be wrinkle-free, enabling the wind to flow without interruption over their
surfaces.
Until a few short years ago most sails were made from special grades of finely
woven Egyptian cotton. Now a new synthetic material, Dacron, has come to the
fore and has proved most effective. (Nylon and Orion have also been tried.)
Sailors worry some about this new material because it often is full of wrinkles and
looks badly when comparer! with a fine-fitting canvas suit of sails. They have
been trained to believe that for maximum drive and efficiency a sail should be
smooth and wrinkle-free, but the wrinkles on Dacron don't seem to hurt.
The principal sails on a small single-masted boat are the mainsail, the jib and the
spinnaker.
*ainsails
There are three types of mainsails: the jib-headed (also called the Marconi and
Bermudian), the gaff-headed; and the loose-footed. The jib-headed mainsail is by
far the most commonly used in the U. S. A. t is shaped like a long right angle
triangle.
CO*PA&ISO OF CA.AS A( (AC&O SAILS
CANVAS
must be carefully and slowly broken in (not pulled out of shape) so that their
contours will be free from wrinkles
shrink in wet or damp weather
are cut smaller when first made, to allow for stretch and breaking in to required
dimension
manila rope is used to reinforce the luff and foot of the sail except for head-
sails (on big boats) where wire is used
proved through many, many years of use
can be used immediately, no breaking in period is required
DACRON
practically unaffected by dampness
often are full of wrinkles yet these wrinkles do not seem to impair the
sails' effectiveness,
light and very strong
cloth, rope and stitching thread are all made from one material (Dacron)
thereby eliminating any difference in stretch or shrinkage
has a hard, shiny finish
is slightly more expensive than canvas
As readily seen in this drawing, the jib headed mainsail is long, narrow and
triangular in shape. ts popularity is due to the ease of handling (only one halyard
needed to raise it) and its wonderful "on the wind" ability. The majority of small
boats use this type of sail for their main driving sail. Another characteristic is that
the trailing edge (called the leech)t is the only side of the sail that does not have
a reinforcing rope sewn to it. The leech is also cut in a long curve, from head to
clew, that allows for the dotted straight line and the leech itself, gives extra drive
to the sail when reaching or running, it is called the roach. Because the roach is
apt to sag or flap in the wind it is held straight and stiff by thin, narrow, smoothly
finished slats made from flexible hard wood, or plastic, called battens. Battens
are tied tight in the batten pockets otherwise they would fly out and away when
pressure of the wind is exerted
All relative parts of all sails are similarly named, whether the sail is a mainsail, a
jib or a spinnaker (with slight exceptions on the gaff mainsail and the spinnaker).
The leading edge is the luff.
The. trailing edge is the leech.
The lower edge is the foot.
The top corner is the head.
The lower leading corner is the tack.
The trailing after corner is the clew.
The gaff-head mainsail is a four-sided (quadrilateral-shaped) sail whose upper
edge is fastened to a spar called a gaff, hence its name.
The third type of mainsail is called loose-footed. ts general shape is similar to
the other mains, but its foot or lower edge s not fastened; it hangs loose. t is
controlled by a single-line fastened to the clew and pulled out by a line attached
to the end of boom, or by an outhaul.
Photograph at right of a Thistle` Class sloop shows the wrinkles in both mainsail
and jib that often appear in sails made of the new synthetic material Dacron.
Experienced sailors, knowing the effectiveness of smooth canvas sails, worry
about these comparative irregularities but the wrinkles do not seem to affect the
driving qualities of the sails.

On waters (and locations) where prevailing winds favor reaching and running,
gaff-headed Craft are most effective because of the extra drive stemming from
the disposition of canvas in sails of this type. n the photograph above, the Fish
Class sloops are shown moving fast on a broad reach, making good use of their
well-setting sails. These craft are popular on the Gulf Coast.
The gaff-headed mainsail differs from the jib-headed mainsail in that the sail is
quadrilateral. t also is longer on the foot and much shorter along the luff, and its
sail area generally is much greater. The fourth or high side of this sail is called
the head and it is fastened by lashings to a spar called a gaff, from which the sail
gets its name. The highest outside corner of the sale is called the peak and the
top corner of the luff close to the mast is called the throat. The sail is raised by
two halyards. One is called a throat halyard (it raises the throat) and the other is
called the peak halyard because it controls the Set of the peak when the gaff is
raised. The parts of this sail are named in the accompanying drawing. The other
parts, except for the distinguishing characteristics, mentioned above, are named
exactly as on the jib-headed mainsail shown on the previous page.
n this country the <gaff-headed mainsail, or variation thereof, came first. t was
used on both pleasure craft and the then much more numerous sailing work
boats. The gaff-headed main was used until the taller jib-headed mainsail proved
itself more efficient and easier to handle. When proper staying was designed for
the tall masts necessary for this type of sail, the gaff-headed mainsail rapidly lost
favor. However, there are still some small one-design classes and cruising
yachts that use this sail.
Typical loose-footed, miter-cut mainsails are shown in the above photograph.
The boats ore Class X sailing dinghies. These dinghies can be readily
transported to any desired location with a minimum of trouble. They are easily
rigged and unrigged, and provide good sport in both summer and winter. Notice
the batten pocket in the foot of the sail on the dinghy at the left and on the one at
the right. t keeps this lower edge straight to allow for a more even flow of wind
over the sail.
The loose footed mainsail is so named because the foot or lower edge of the sail
hangs free and is not fastened by lacings or slides to a boom. This lower edge
does not have a foot rope and is finished in a manner similar to a leech. The set
or curvature of the sail, whether full or flat, is controlled by a line that is tied to the
clew and runs to an outhaul on the boom. Besides the regular batten pockets in
the leech, there often is a batten pocket sewn in the foot to keep this lower edge
from curling up. This sail is currently used by many of the small dinghies classes.
The reaching jib is a huge triangular shaped sail that overlaps the mast.
The storm jib is a small sail in comparison to others, made of very heavy material
to withstand storm winds.
The old-fashioned jib topsail was a smaller sail than the standard working jib and
was made from lighter material. t was hoisted as an additional sail in light
weather, and set above the working jib.
Gibs
Originally, the sail that we call a jib was named a staysail. Old-timers who still call
it by that name are technically correct. Jibs were set from the bowsprit of the old-
time sailing vessel. The staysail was inboard and nearest the mast. Today,
practically everyone calls the single sail forward of the mast of a small sloop, a
jib.
There are several different types of jib, the working jib, the reaching jib, the storm
jib, and the jib topsail. The first two named are of prime importance because they
are in constant everyday use. i
The S'inna=er
The spinnaker is comparatively the latest and newest development in sails. t
replaces the jib when broad reaching or sailing before the wind. t is huge and
bulbous-shaped, and made from the lightest of materials so that it can puff or
billow out in the lightest of winds. t flies out and up, outside of the headstay. An
additional pole is carried (called a spinnaker boom) to hold a lower corner out to
catch the wind. The other corner's movements are controlled by a sheet.
The working jib, triangular in shape, is the ordinary average-sized sail that fits in
the triangle formed by the mast, the foredeck and the jibstay.
llustrated here is a quick and easy method of fastening a line to an anchor. This
can be used with any type of anchor. Follow the illustrations at the left. No. 1
shows the anchor and a line that has a loop spliced in the end of it. n No. 2 the
loop end has been passed through the ring, then pulled through far enough so
that the loop can be passed around a fluke, as in No. 3. The loop is then drawn
over the other fluke, and the line pulled upward as in No. 4 and No. 5. The last
illustration N. 6, shows the line pulled tight around the ring.
FAST/I" SH//TS %H/ SAILI"
Do not tie or knot sheets and halyards to dents when sailing. When rope gets
wet, as it often-does, it shrinks in length and swells in diameter. This means that
knots get so tight and stiff they cannot be untied quickly or easily. n an
emergency, lines may have to be cut. Lines will hold when properly wrapped
around a cleat and can be unwrapped at any time, whether wet or dry, without
trouble.
The cleat should be fastened to the deck at a slight angle to the line of pull. This
prevents jamming of sheets and allows for easier, faster handling.
Chapter - 2)
Out Board eamanship
>ou could say that buying an outboard boat and motor is something like getting
married. You have to be certain the two will get along together. The purchaser of
an inboard is not forced to think through this problem. The match has already
been made by the builder who has installed the engine in the boat. But the
purchaser of an outboard has to do his own pairing. The boat and motor come
separate. ndeed, he can purchase the boat from one dealer and the motor from
another.
For the new boatman especially, it is a deranging problem to sift through the torn
bag of bright colored, bold-worded, attention-grabbing brochures, leaflets, throw-
aways picked off the booths at some boat showto disengage himself from the
pouring of claims, counterclaims, contradictions, streaming from typewriters and
drawing boards in public relations and advertising officesto stand above the
flooding verbiage of "bigger and better," "mostest," and "the fastest"to decide
what he wants a boat for, and on the basis of competent advice what he wants in
a boat.
The value of an outboard as a status symbol has no relation to its value on the
water. So use some of that old-fashioned American sense of practicality. Answer
these questions. s it sound? Solid? Will it do the job?
Now, if it is speed you desireand certainly the sensation of a planing hull
streaking over the water is one of the pleasures accruing from outboardsbe
sure to acquire the boat and motor and combination thereof that will give you
maximum, safe performance. However, do not be like the fellow who hurries to a
dealer in the fall to trade in for the latest highest horsepowered motor. Put that on
the transom of the eager beaver's current boat, and it is likely to squat at the
berth, bow pointed strangely into the air as though poised for celestial flight to
Mars, while the stern is being urged toward that well-known locker of Davy
Jones. To put this another way: because a boat goes 15 mph with a 72 hp motor,
does not mean it will go 30 mph with a 15 hp motor. ndeed, this practice can be
dangerous, since the big motor tends to pull the stern downward. Of course, the
reverse is true. You can attach too small a motor. An underpowered boat will
perform sluggishly.
Save yourself from having to learn this from hard experience. Consult competent
dealers and others who are experienced. n many instances, you can obtain
reliable advice from the OBC capacity recommendation plate on a boat. The
letters OBC signify the Outboard Boating Club of America with headquarters at
307 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago 1, llinois. The OBC represents the
outboard boatman. t promotes the development of marinas and service facilities
for outboards, provides outboard cruising information, encourages the
organization of local outboard clubs, and even issues insurance policies for
outboards. One of its activities is the products standards program.
The recommendation capacity plate comes under the latter program. The plate is
attached to the hull and tells the maximum horsepower and load in pounds
(including passengers) the boat is designed to carry. f the boat lacks a plate, ask
the dealer for recommendations, or request them direct from the manufacturer.
Following these recommendations will help you avoid two common causes of
accidents : overpowering and overloading.
T#'es Of Boats
Matching the boat and motor is one thing. Getting the combination that will
correspond to your boating needs and desires is another. There is a Christmas
tree array of boats to choose from: everything from little boats that can be
transported on tops of cars and which can take up to 4 hp motors to speedy craft
that can be equipped with the highest horsepower motors available. There are
prams, dinghies, skiffs, canoes, runabouts, and utilities. There are special
outboards like Sea Sleds and houseboats. The 1950's saw the popularization of
the outboard cruiser.
Your first question. What are you going to use your outboard boat for? Fishing?
Family cruising? Skiing? Beach picnics? Skin-diving? Camping? Photography
afloat? Or just plain thrill rides? The fisherman does not want to try trolling with a
hydroplane designed to zoom at 50 mph.
Your second question. n what kind of water are you going to use the boat? Salt
water or fresh? Large open bays and lakes, or shallow and more sheltered rivers
and lakes ? The shallow-draft and fast boat you drive on more placid, enclosed
bodies of water may not stand you in good stead on open rough waters.

Here is a brief rundown on the types of outboards available. There are two basic
types of hulls: displacement and planing. Displacement boats plow through the
water; planing hulls lift and skim over the surface.
Flat bottom (displacement type). Usually rowboats or skiffs 14' to 18' used for
fishing or utility purposes on shallow streams and small, protected lakes. Design
characterized by straight lines and boxy construction. They are not fast. They are
generally heavy and roomy. (Some light flat bottom boats plane and are fast.)
Round-bottom (displacement) hulls. Dinghies, tenders, car-top boats,
occasionally runabouts 12' to 18'. These hulls are often more easily driven and
maneuvered than the flat-bottom craft. (Many fast light round bottom boats will
also plane.)
Hydroplane or planing hulls. Generally used for competitive racing boats. The
bottom, which is flat, is usually "stepped" (or divided into two levels) about
amidships. The resultant notch reduces the wetted surface and increases speed.
Vee-bottom hulls. These are commonly used, especially for runabouts, utilities,
and cruisers. The forward undersection of a Vee-bottom boat is usually a deep
"V" in shape. This flattens towards amidships, until at the stern the bottom of the
boat is usually broad and flat.
n effect, a utility and a runabout are practically interchangeable. They function
about the same, are about the same size, use about the same horsepower, etc.
However, the runabout is generally considered to be a bit faster and more
luxuriously equipped than the utility of comparable size.
Here are a couple of helpful tips in buying a boat. Take the boat and motor for a
trial run to see how they operate in combination. And never buy a boat,
especially a used boat, when it is in the water. Have it taken out so it can be
checked to see that frames, planking and fastenings are in good condition. f you
are inexperienced, have a competent person ride with you and inspect the boat
and motor.
$nder The Law
Make sure you have complied with Federal, state and local laws. You will have to
check laws of your community yourself. The OBC has a round-up of state laws.
Federal laws are obtainable from a Coast Guard office.
Check to see if your boat should be numbered under the Federal Boating Act of
1958. All boats, regardless of length, that carry a 10 hp or larger motor must be
numbered and in some states a number will be required even if the motor is less
than 10 hp. n some cases the states have assumed the numbering functions. n
others they are still in the hands of the Federal authorities.
&e?uired /?ui'ment
Make sure your boat carries all the equipment required by law. These
requirements have been drafted to insure the safety of you, your passengers and
the people in other boats around. t is imperative that you heed the law.
Do you realize that if everyone in a boat actually wore a life-saving device, that
the death rate from boating accidents conceivably could be reduced 97 per cent?
That is a startling figure. But statistics have shown that 97 per cent of the deaths
resulting from boating accidents have been due to drowning.
You never can take safety for granted when in a boatno matter how calm the
water and still the day. The slightest accident could result in tragedy. Remember,
what might be a dented fender in an automobile mishap, could be a person
overboard in a boating mishap.
The skipper can use some discretion as to the type of life-saving equipment
provided it meets legal requirements. t can consist of Coast Guard approved life
jackets, buoyant cushions, or ring buoys. The OBC recommends life jackets for
children and non-swimmers. These persons at least, along with babies, should
wear life preservers at all times when aboard.
The skipper should make sure his passengers know how to use these devices. f
they do not know, the skipper should give instruction. For instance, OBC
recommends that if a person falls overboard and is thrown a buoyant cushion, he
should slip his left arm through one of the loops. Then he puts his right leg
through the other. (This process is reversed in the case of a left-handed person.)
He holds the cushion against his chest with the left (or right, if that is the case)
arm. Thus, the other arm and both legs are left free for swimming. However, if
the water is rough, it may be easier to slip the arms through the straps as one
dons a vest.
f your outboard has any kind of closed space (even though the hull be of
generally open construction) you must carry a fire extinguisher. Do not be like the
fellow who stows it carefully, then cannot find it when needed. Put it where you
can grab it quickly. Amidships is a good place to keep the extinguisher.
There has been some confusion regarding the Coast Guard's new policy
regarding fire extinguishers of the vaporizing liquid type, particularly carbon
tetrachloride. This type extinguisher can no longer be installed on boats.
However, those manufactured before December, 1958 and already installed and
serviceable, can be used until January, 1962.
EQUPMENT CHECK LST FOR SKPPER, CREW AND BOAT
%o!er:
Two 4O-hp Evinrude Lark Us, one with generator
Set of Simplex engine controls
Evinrude cruiser-fuel system
Two Columbian Bronze JM aluminum propellers, four bladed
Seatronics tachometer with throw-switch for both motors
CurtissWright Star*Port steerer
Two 12-volt batteries
Two Burroughs battery boxes
Navi"ation:
Coast & Geodetic Survey charts
Pair of "12 lucite parallel rules
Pair of dividers
Pair of 7 x 50 binoculars
Lead line
United States Coast Pilot 3
Piloting, Seamanship and Small
Boat Handling nland Waterway Guide, Northern
Edition
Petroleum company cruising charts
Wilfrid O. White's Corsair compass Light List
MoToR BOATNG'S log book Plenty of paper, pens and pencils Watch with
second hand
&,onp tac+le:
8-pound standard Danforth anchor 12-pound Hi-Tensile Danforth anchor
Two 100-foot lengths of a" nylon Two 5-foot lengths of " galvanized chain `
Four " galvanized shackles
Four a" galvanized thimbles .

-e.ired:
Falcon freon-type air horn with refill Kidde 2-pound dry chemical fire
extinguisher Two Coast Guard-approved life jackets Two Coast Guard-approved
buoyant cushions Properly functioning running lights with spare bulbs, fuses
State registration certificate State numbers properly mounted
Safety E.ipment:
Sentinel first aid kit Flares, day and night Longport electric bilge pump 12-foot oar
Portable radio Manual bilge pump
Boat hook
Two spare propellers
Several spare cotter pins for propeller hubs
Hand flashlight
Hand lantern
Two extra spark plugs
/oorin":
Four 25-foot lengths of a" nylon Three plastic-foam fenders
Six Wilcox-Crittenden fender locks
Clothin":
Two pair of Hodgman Rubber Co. foul-weather suits
Two pair of Sperry Topsider's canvas oxfords
Two ski parkas
Sun glasses
Towels
Warm socks
Chinos
Bathing suits
Underwear
Sweaters
Caps
Shirts, warm and summery
Set of thermal underwear
Gloves
Sleepin":
Sheets Pillows
Warm blankets Alarm clock
0ools:
Fiberglass tool-tackle box Several sharp pen knives Set of regular screwdrivers
Set of Phillips screwdrivers
Dumas' interchangeable-headed hammer
Regular pliers
Long-nosed pliers
Boat tape
Spark plug remover and gauge
Sandpaper and emery cloth
Various types of oil and graphite
Assortment of screws and bolts with nuts and washers
Set of socket wrenches, ratchet type
Plastic wood
Waterproof sealer
Extra fuses
Extra "keys" for water and fuel tanks
&alley:
Commodore's stainless steel ice pick
Can of alcohol
Cigarettes
Matches
Lighter fluid
Copper wool
Soap
Soap dish
Assorted pots and pans
Spice containers
Plastic plates and cups
Stainless-steel eating utensils
Aluminum foil
Can and bottle opener
Stainless steel cleaner
1ead:
Toilet paper
Comb Hair tonic
Sun tan lotion
Tooth brush
Tooth paste
nsect repellent
*is)ellaneousK
Swab
Bucket
Sponges
Camera
Fibs
Plastic wrap for camera
Bilge cleaner
Ash trays

All the equipment listed above is carried aboard one particular boat, a 22-foot
express cruiser powered by two outboard motors. Because the boat is
representative of a great many craft in use today, the list serves as an excellent
reference for those seeking an equipment guide. Brand names listed here, of
course, are not the only makes that will do the jobs called forbut each name
given can safely be said to be among the best.

Even if you do not plan to use your outboard at night, sometime you may have no
choice. So your boat should carry the lights prescribed by law. Two lights are
required for outboards up to 26': a combination red and green light in the bow
and a white stern light that is visible all around the horizon (360 degrees) for at
least two miles. f you have a cruiser, you can mount the stern light on the after
end of the cabin top.
Outboards between 16 and 26 feet must carry a horn, or a hand, mouth or power
whistle that can set vibration going in the ear of someone a half mile away. This
is used both for passing whistle signals and fog signals.
&e)ommended /?ui'ment
The equipment required by law does not cover all that is required by boating's
exigencies. The law says nothing about carrying an extra propeller. But if your
boat should slam into debris, disabling the propeller, the situation would demand
another propeller. You should carry an extra approved tank full of gas in case
your boat has to go farther than you had planned. The boat should carry an
anchor with at least 100 feet of a" nylon line or 2" manila. Maybe you can see
straight, but only the compass can insure your boat staying on course if you are
cruising in thick weather. You should have at least three fenders to protect rail
and topsides when alongside a float, pier or another boat. A tool kit should
contain pliers, screwdriver, patented wrench, shear pins, cotter pins, extra spark
plugs. Carry a first aid kit, flashlight and, if far from shore, distress flares or
smoke signals.
Although it might sound backwardcarry a pair of oars (or, better, one long one).
What man has put togetherin the way of pistons, pins, shafts, rods, etc.can
go asunder as anyone can testify who has been caught miles from port with only
his hands for motive power. Anyway, an oar is generally handy. You can use it to
work the bow around if you get aground, for maneuvering in crowded mooring
areas, and for pulling to safety a person who has fallen overboard.
On The &oad
Since the trailer has become such an integral part of the outboard boating picture
and of the highway, alsothis section will discuss "roadmanship." t was not
so long ago that the word "trailer" evoked the image of a contraption, usually
homemade, being pulled on a couple of wheels. t was not until 1939 that the first
professionally designed, mass-produced small boat trailers were wheeled out of
the factory. Today, like so many other things, they are "scientifically" produced.
Constantly, they are appearing with innovations, improvements and, of course,
gimmicks. They come variously equipped with electric winches, vertically
adjustable keel rollers, and "finger tip" controls for loading and launching. About
all the hard-working skipper has to do is to lie on the bank and let his two-year-
old son do all the work with his own two little fingers.
*at)h Trailer To The Boat
But the essential problem remainsto match your boat and motor to the proper
trailer.
You have got to have a trailer that will carry the weightnot only of the boat, but
also of the gear you may stow in the boat when transporting it, and the motor or
motors you probably will carry on the transom (which can usually be done in
trailering). So a rule of thumb is this. When considering a trailer, check the
manufacturer's recommended load capacity. This should be listed on a plate
fixed to the trailer. f the actual weight of the boat (some manufacturers
underestimate the weights of their models, so check carefully) is within 100
pounds of the trailer's recommended weight capacity, buy the next largest trailer
model. But do not mislead yourself and get a huge trailer to carry a modest-size
boat. For the trailer must fit the hull.
Remember that a trailer is actually an unnatural place for a boat. So you have to
"baby" it all you can. Make the trailer bed as comfortable as possible. See that it
fits the contours of the hull. Plenty of padding and bracing is needed. Treat the
boat right on the trailer and it will reciprocate in the water. There will not be a
"sag" in the hull or a "hook" (in the stern from too short a trailer) to slow the boat.
One type of trailer rests the boat on a boom or a series of adjustable rollers. This
trailer is often referred to as the full-keel support type. Another kind supports the
boat by means of cradles, there often being one cradle at the front and one at the
rear. However, a boat kept too long on such a cradleor kept over the winter on
ittends to "sag."
f you carry the motor, or motors, on the transom, you need adequate support for
this. The rear member of the trailer should be located directly below. t should
have a wide supporting area, so the weight will not be concentrated on a narrow
member. n some instances it may be necessary to relocate the trailer wheels
closer to the rear. This would provide more direct support and at the same time
keep the load weight heavierby some 50 to 60 poundsat the front of the
trailer.
With the center of gravity located somewhat forward, towing will be smoother.
Also, when you disconnect the trailer you will be able to walk away with iteven
when loaded. So, when loading gear aboard, distribute it so that this balance will
not be disturbed.
Clamp the motor tight to the boat. To prevent the motor from tilting forward
because of sudden stops, secure its lower unit to the stern of the boat or to the
trailer frame. Cover the motor to stern bracket to keep out dust. Remove cover at
journey's end so condensation inside does not hurt motor.
A bumper hitch will be alright if you pull a light rig. But for the heavier job, use a
hitch that fits directly to the frame of the cara frame hitch. Although the law
may not require it, use safety hitch chains anyway. They are excellent
precautions.
Trailer Laws .ar#
Remember, the laws covering trailers vary among the states. For instance, your
trailer may lack directional signals (although it is good to have them). This might
not evoke even so much as a narrow stare from an officer in one state, but cross
a border and your ears might be permanently impaired by a wailing siren. The
OBC has a listing of the states' trailer laws.
Are your tires inflated to the level the manufacturer recommends? Are your trailer
lights and reflectors working properly? Does your insurance cover your boat and
motor while being trailered?
On the road drive slower than normal. Do not learn the hard way that it takes
longer to stop the car. This is because of the extra momentum unleashed by the
loaded trailer.
Swing wide when passing other vehicles and making turns. When passing make
sure the road ahead is clear of oncoming vehicles. Guard against pedestrians
inadvertently walking into the side of the trailer. Give hand signals to warn other
drivers. Use the outside rear view mirror. View from the inside mirror might be
blocked by the boat behind.
Check the hitch and tie-downs each time you stop for gas. f you plan to park car
and rig for a considerable length of time, loosen tie-downs to reduce strain.
For launching, you probably will use one of the many hard-topped ramps that are
being built by communities, outboard boating clubs, marinas, yacht clubs, etc.
Occasionally, you may launch from a natural site. n this case, choose an area
with a sloping shore, but hard enough to give your tires ample traction.
Sometimes you can gain better traction by deflating the tires slightly. But
remember this when you start homeward. Stop at the first service station for air.
Perhaps you have experienced the prospect of a day's relaxation afloat
vaporizing in those final few yards to the water, when car and trailer have been
neatly maneuvered into a "V" shape. And it is no "V for victory." The only way to
overcome this is by previous practice. Also have someone behind call
instructions so you can back the trailer onto the launching ramp at a 90-degree
angle to the water.
Remember that in backing, if you want the trailer to go to the right, turn the
steering wheel to the left. f you want the trailer to go to the left, turn the steering
wheel to the right.
Do not back the trailer into the water immediately. When in position on the
launching ramp (or beach, if that is the case) stop the trailer a few feet from the
water's edge. Release any tie-downs. But make sure the motor is tiltedyou do
not want it ramming into any obstacles. Then back the trailer, making sure the
water does not reach the hubcaps.
Unlock the bow winch and secure a line to the bow. Push the boat down the
trailer into the water, always holding the bow line so the boat does not float away.
Unlock the trailer winch cable and with the bow line ease the boat into position
for boarding.
"etting Aboard And Loading
f you are boarding from the beach, climb in over the bow. When boarding from a
float or low pier, step aboard as nearly amidships (center of the boat) as
possible. Bend so your weight is kept low. Grasp the gunwales (the boat's side
rails) for balance. However, never step onto a gunwale unless you want to do
something akin to a trapeze act. Even when lowering yourself from a high pier,
try to step aboard amidships. However, if the boat has a forward deck, you first
cara step aboard that.
Do not carry supplies at the same time you are boarding. You need all your
equilibrium for the latter operation. f alone, place the supplies near enough so
you can take hold of them from aboard the boat. Otherwise, have someone hand
them to you.
A half pint of gasoline has the destructive power of five sticks of dynamite. n
dealing with the boat's fuel, you are dealing with several gallons of gasoline. You
can realize what could happen if this exploded. So take every precautionleave
nothing for granted.
t is wise, for instance, to remove the fuel tanks from the boat and take them
ashore to fill. Extinguish all flamesincluding your cigarette's slow burn. Make
sure the nozzle of the gas pump hose is in contact with the rim of the tank
opening to prevent a spark of static electricity. Pour in a little gasoline. Add the
required amount of fuel oil. Complete filling the tank with gasoline. Afterwards,
make sure the lid of the tank is on tight to prevent leakage.
Aboard the boat check the fuel line for leakage. Correct the causes of leakage. f
there has been leakage, or if you spill gasoline, carefully wipe the area with a
rag. And thoroughly ventilate the boat before starting the motor.
t is essentialespecially aboard a boat in which any areas are enclosedthat
you be alert for gasoline vapors. These vapors are heavier than air. They crawl
into the lower portions of the boat and wait, undetectable and menacing. So
before starting the motoror even lighting a matchbe sure there are no
gasoline fumes present.
Set the motor squarely on the center of the transom. Tighten the clamp screws
as hard as you can. Check them periodically. They can work loose. With a screw
loose, the motor can jump off the transom in rough water. Take precautions in
case such a mishap occurs, unless you are a strong-armed and strong-willed
skin-diver. Pass a line or a chain through a hole in the stern bracket. Make the
line fast around something aboard the boatpreferably the transom knee or
other brace-like structure reenforcing the transom.
*otor Angle, Trim And /ffi)ien)#
For best motor performance, the drive of the propeller should be in a line parallel
to the keel of the boat and parallel to the flat surface of the water. This means
you will set your motor at a 90-degree angle (or very close to it) to the water. n
other words it will be straight up and down. f the propeller is tilted away from the
stern, the bow of the boat tends to come up like the nose of a submarine while
the stern squats. f the propeller is tilted towards the stern, the bow acts like that
same submarine, plowing into the water as though starting to submerge.
The number of seats in a boat is not an indication of the number of persons the
boat can carry safely. The extra seating is for the convenience of the
passengers. But do not try to fill the houseor boat. You do not have to use
each seator on the lake somewhere the boat is liable to fill with water. As has
been said before, overloading is a frequent cause of boating accidents. Perhaps
the best way to avoid overloading is by planning ahead of time how many people
you can take and inviting just those. This saves you from the embarrassment of
telling someone he cannot go. Which you probably would not do anyway, thus
endangering the safety of all your passengersand yourself.
Have the supplies and passengers evenly distributed (passengers seated toward
the center-line of the boat and not hanging over the gunwales) so the boat will
have proper trim and will perform as it was designed to do. f the load is
concentrated forward or aft, the boat will function like a one-track seesaw.
Someone may have to move forward or aft to redress the trim. But have this
done before getting underway. t is dangerous to change places or move around
in a boat (except for something bigger like an outboard cruiserand then within
reason) when it is out on the water. However, if for some reason this is absolutely
essential, stop or slow the boat. (n rough weather, maintain some momentum so
you can keep the boat under control and headed into the waves and wind.) Have
the person bend low. He should grasp the gunwale with both hands. But he
should also keep his center of gravity near the center-line.
>ou<re OffL
f you have been in the army you probably have heard those endearing words
from the drill sergeant, "Your other left, stupid!" But aboard your boat (not that
you would have invited this worthy gentleman) he would have discovered that
"other left"that is if he tried turning the outboard motor like an automobile. (Do
not confuse manual control with remote control. n the former you steer the motor
by means of its handle. n the latter, you use a steering wheel, in most cases
operating it like that in a car.)
A car follows its front wheels in turning. The boat gets its "orders" from the stern
from the "back-seat driver" so to speak. The motor not only provides the drive
or power, but it also acts as the rudder for turning the boat. f you want your car
to go to the left, you turn the steering wheel to the left. f you want your boat to go
to the left (port) turn the steering wheel to the left. This moves the motor to the
right, the propeller to the left. f you want your boat to go to the right (starboard)
turn the steering wheel to the right. n reversing the opposite of these rules holds
true.
Make a quick final check before getting underway. Do you have enough gas? Are
your passengers seated properly? s the way ahead (or astern, if reversing) clear
of swimmers and obstacles?
Getting underway with a gear shift motor that has an electric starter is almost as
easy as pressing a buttonwhich is what you do to start it. Be sure the gear shift
is in neutral. You do not have to cast off the lines until the motor is running
smoothly. Then ease the shift forward or reverse and proceed slowly.

Do not stand during any of these operationsno matter how tempted when
starting a motor without a gear shift. Here, you could easily use another set of
hands. Because the motor starts on the run, you have to cast off first. But do not
do so until just ready to pull the starter cord. When getting started and underway,
sit facing in the direction your boat is going so you can see what is ahead.
Now a word of caution. f possible, shove the boat as far away from the pier as
possible. And be sure the motor is not turned. Otherwise, when the motor starts
the stern might swing into the pier. Unlike the automobile, the boat first responds
to the steering response at the sternnot at the bow.
Now another word of advice. f possible, have the boat bow pointed at an oblique
angle away from the pier. This will allow you to go ahead away from the pier
before having to make a turning operation. Because the stern makes a wider arc
than the bow in turning, the stern could whip into the pier at the same time that
the bow is turning away from it. You have to watch this also when proceeding
through congested areas, that in turning the stern does not swing into another
boat, obstruction or swimmer.
*ooring And (o)=ing
For purposes of the text, let us remain within the area of the pier. Let us assume
that you have gone for a short practice run in the boat and now wish to return.
When making a landing, proceed slowly. You want the boat to make the
approach slow enough so you can shift gearsprovided your motor is of the
gear shift type.
When landing on shore, watch for rocks, roots, obstacles. Avoid shallow water as
much as possible. Usually, you can still operate the boat in shallow waters by
taking hold of the motor at the rear, tilting it forward, and holding it in that position
with one hand. The propeller will then be almost out of the water, still providing
some momentum and at the same time being fairly safe from hitting underwater
objects.
n landing at natural areas, try to select a sandy beach. Bring the boat in at a
right angle to the site. Pull the boat up as far as possible so it will not be battered
by waves.
But do not bring the boat into a pier or mooring at a right angle. The contact
should be made at an angle almost parallel to the pier. Do not land on the
weather side of the pier unless necessary. n this circumstance, you have less
control over the boat because of the wind or current driving it toward the pier.
However, you can check some of this momentum by putting the motor into
reverse. f your motor does not have a gear shift, turn the motor around so that it
is facing aft. This will check your headway.
APP&OACHI" A( L/A.I" A FLOAT %ITH A O$TBOA&(
The outboard boat has true "power steering" in that the direction of thrust of the
motor, and not a rudder, guides that boat. As a result, outboard craft are
exceptionally maneuver-able. They handle easily in reverse as the boat follows
the motor, easing the process of approaching or leaving a float. With twin
engines one can be driven ahead and the other astern to provide a very efficient
means of turning in restricted waters. Technique of handling a single-screw
outboard when approaching and leaving float is illustrated on this and the
following two pages. (ApproachingFigures 1 to 4. LeavingFigures 5 to 8.)
1. The float should be approached at an angle, with a crew member ready to get
a bow line ashore. Fenders should be out.
2. When the crewman takes his line ashore, he makes it fast to a cleat on the
float.
3. The pilot slips motor into reverse, turning his wheel to bring the stern toward
the float.
4. The forward line will hold the boat fast as the motor brings it dockside. A stern
line is then made fast to another cleat.

5. n leaving a float, when it is impossible to steer dead ahead, the stern line is
taken in while the bow line is still fast to the float. The motor is reversed and
turned away from the float.

6. A crewman releases the bow line and steps aboard taking in the line at the
same time.

7. As the bow line is cast off, the pilot brings his wheel about to straighten his
boat, continuing in reverse until well clear.
8. With both lines in, the pilot switches to forward and pulls ahead making certain
his stern is safe in case he swings to port.

But try landing on the lee side of the pier. From this side you can head the boat
into any wind or current. Thus, you will retain control of the boat. But from
whichever side, just before the boat reaches the pier, turn the craft so that it
comes alongside almost parallel. f you have a gear shift motor, use the reverse
to stop the forward motion of the boat. Then shift back to neutral and make the
landing with the motor still running. f your motor does not have a gearshift,
throttle down to low speed, check headway by pivoting the motor 180 (which
gives you reversing power), and get a bow line to the pier. Using the bow line as
a spring to the pier, the stern can be brought in, if necessary, by going ahead
slowly with the motor while the propeller is turned away from the pier. After the
boat has come alongside, a stern line can be secured to the pier. (t is also wise
to have fenders over the side of the boat to protect it from rubbing against the
pier.)
T#ing $'
You should have spliced an eye into one end of each dock line. Then they
already have loops at the ends, making them easy to quickly throw over a
bollard. Otherwise a couple of fast and handy knots are the clove hitch and
bowline. You can learn about these and other knots in Chapter on Knots,
Bends, Hitches, Splices, in the first portion of this book. Further discussion on
making fast is found beginning on page 146.
You should use at least a stern line and a bow line in making fast. For a short
while, just a bow line will suffice for a small boat if it is docked on the lee side of
the pier.
n tidal waters, be sure to allow for the rise and fall. Otherwise you are apt to
return only to find your boat swamped or dangling unceremoniously out of the
waterprovided the cleats have not been torn from the deck.
Some sort of pulley arrangement will allow the lines and thus the boat to ride the
tide. Barring that, you can run the bow and stern lines several bollards away from
the boatso that the lines are at angles of approximately 45 degrees to the
center line of the boat. Done correctly, this arrangement will allow considerable
flexibility.
An)horing
Carry an anchor aboard even if you do not plan to use it. n boating you have to
be prepared to do things for which you have not planned. n rough waters,
anchoring will generally swing your bow into the wind or waves. You can also use
the anchor to help get your boat free should it run aground. Carry the anchor 10
to 15 feet (or throw it if you have to) ahead or astern of the boat. Then pull on the
line. When first let go, the anchor can also be used to check water depth.
The type of anchor you carry depends on the size of the boat, type of bottom you
anchor in, etc. (More information on this can be obtained from Chapter V,
Anchors and Anchoring). Have the anchor line neatly coiled for running. Do not
stand on it when lowering the anchor. Make sure the line is secured to the
anchor. Aside from any hitch used when cleating the line on deck, the bitter
(extreme) end should be made fast as well.
Do not attempt new records for throwing the "shot put." You do not throw the
anchor overboard. You lower it over the side. But do not lower it while the boat is
making headway. Wait until the bow is positioned over the spot where the anchor
will lie. Then, just before the boat begins to gain sternway (drift backwards) lower
the anchor easily until the crown hits bottom.
With the anchor on the bottom and the boat reversing slowly let out the line. As a
general rule pay out a scope of approximately six or seven times the depth of
water. This gives better holding power than a short scope of two or three times
the depth. With too short a scope, the anchor may break out and let the boat go
adrift.
An /C)e'tion To The &ules
The Rules of the Road under which you will be operating are thoroughly
discussed in Chapter V. But one exception must be stressed as it regards the
small outboard boat. Even if your little craft has the right of way over some larger
freighter or the likeit is the valor of discretion and of safety to turn aside for the
big fellow. The outboard is likely to encounter such ships on some of the many
rivers.
n fact, little boats should stay as far as possible away from the large commercial
craftparticularly their wash. The propellers of large ships create a tremendous
wake that could swamp your boat.
Remember, too, that large ships and towboats have certain "blind spots"areas
from which vision of the water is obscured or blocked entirely. Never assume the
pilot of such a vessel can see your boat. And it takes several hundred yards to a
couple of miles to halt such a vessel.
When meeting a tow in the bend of the river, or when a tow is maneuvering near
shore, carefully note whether the tow is swinging to port or starboard. And stay
clear.
You should not land or launch your boat near a moored barge. But if it is
necessary, be cautious. Towboat operators say that strong river currents moving
under the bow or stern of a moored barge can tend to pull a pleasure boat under.
Never tie up alongside a moored towboat or in a lock without the pilot's
permission. He may not know your boat is alongside. Should he start the
towboat, it could be disastrous for your boat.
Causes Of A))idents
OBC studies show the following to be the major causes of boating accidents:
1.Overloading and overpowering.
2.High speed turns. They may appear to be fun. But this kind of "horse play" can
be dangerous.
3.Failure to keep a sharp lookout for other boats, rocks, reefs, snags and
underwater obstructions.
4.Going out in bad weather. Those small craft warning flags are not hoisted for a
parade. Find out if they are flying.
Check the latest weather forecastseven when there is not a cloud in the sky
to see if a storm is on the way.
5.Standing up aboard a boat. f you have a properly matched, well-equipped
outboard boat and you operate it in accordance with the rules of the road,
together with common sense and courtesy for other boatmen, you will have gone
a long way toward eliminating the possibility for accidents. But some possibility
always remains. You should be prepared"trained" is a better wordto act in an
emergency.
Remember, the leading cause of deaths in boating accidents is drowning. Many
of these fatalities result from people falling overboard. As the operator of your
boat, you have a responsibility to know how to rescue someone. You should
practice the maneuvers for accomplishing this. A ring buoy can be used to
represent the victim. Many outboard boating clubs conduct "man overboard
contests" to encourage the practice and mastery of this rescue operation. You
should be practiced enough so you will be able to act practically from habit if the
need arises. The minutes thus saved can be a life saved.
The OBC suggests a procedure somewhat as follows:
mmediately throw the stern away from the person overboard. (Remember the
previous discussion in this text about turning the boat and motor and the wide arc
the stern makes.) Having gotten the stern away from the person, shift into neutral
if you have a gearshift. Otherwise you may have to cut the motor in the event you
do not locate the person immediately. Throw a ring buoy or cushion alongside
the person. (Let us hope you have made sure before embarking that each
passenger knows how to use the lifesaving devices you carry.) See that you are
clear before engaging the propeller.
Circle around quickly. Then approach the person, heading the boat into the wind
or waves. You can also proceed into the wind or waves beyond the person, then
drift back to him. But make sure you do not drift into him, and be sure the motor
is stopped before making any attempt to take him aboard.
When alongside, extend a paddle or toss him a length of line. Lead him around to
the stern only if there is sufficient space at the transom on one side of the motor
to avoid any possibility of injury from the motor.
On many outboards the stern is so cluttered with the motor, gear and controls,
that it would be necessary to help him aboard over the side, as far aft as
possible, where stability is best. Other passengers should try to help trim the boat
by shifting their weight to the opposite side to avoid capsize.
On very small boats without remote controls, it may be possible to remove the
motor and take your man-overboard in over the transom. When helping a person
aboard, you can grab him under the armpits and lift.
f the person has sunk from sight, probe gently under the surface with a paddle.
Dive for him only if you are an experienced swimmer and then only as a last
resort.
%hat To (o In /mergen)ies
Stay with the boat if it capsizes. Do not try to swim for shore. t is farther than it
appears. Most outboard boats have been made to float, even if filled with water.
Fiberglass and aluminum boats usually have built-in flotation tanks. Some have
been fitted with material such as Styrofoam to give buoyancy. Of course, your life
preserver will give you that much added safety.
f your boat gets caught in a squall or in heavy seas, slow down immediately.
Have all passengers put on life preservers. (Be sure to put yours on.) Generally
keep the boat moving slowly, the bow headed at a slight angle into the wind and
waves. Trying to smash through the waves at high speed could invite disaster. t
is better to take the waves over the bow. The hull may pound, and the waves
may throw up a lot of spray but you have better control over the boat.

f the boat gets caught broadside in a trough, you run the risk of a capsize.
f you find it difficult to keep the boat headed into the wavesor if the motor
refuses to run, some kind of drag, like a heavy anchor, from the bow may help to
keep the boat from falling into the trough. Very few boats carry sea anchors and
opinions as to their effectiveness vary but as a rule one would expect to use such
a rig only in a storm at sea under conditions where there was plenty of sea room
not the conditions an outboard is likely to encounter. f the motor is running and
is of the gear shift type so the motor can be idled, it is best to keep the motor
going so it can be utilized as quickly as possible to keep the boat under control.
Of course, you want to get to a protected anchorage if possible. Be careful of the
course you take. Try to avoid taking large waves on the stern. They could swamp
the craft. There's risk, too, with a heavy following sea, of being driven too fast
before it. f you must turn in a heavy sea, watch for a lull so as not to be caught
broadside in a trough by an approaching wave.
f your boat should exhaust its fuel supply, or if you need some other assistance,
wave a white flag (white shirt or towel will do). Sound repeated blasts on the horn
or whistle. Or fly the ensign upside down. At night, in addition to sounding the
horn or whistle, use a red flare. Red flares, packaged especially for small boats,
are now available in waterproof bags.
%here To Learn *ore
This text gives you some of the important points to remember in outboard
seamanship. n addition, you may want to check manuals concerning the motor
so you will know more about how it works, what you can do and not do in
repairing it. But as for the seamanship you can never learn enough. There are
opportunities to learn more.
The United States Power Squadrons offer free courses in elementary piloting,
seamanship, navigation, sailing, motor mechanics, weather, etc. For information
on Squadrons in your area write the U. S. Power Squadrons national
headquarters at P. O. Box 510, Englewood, New Jersey.
The U. S. Coast Guard Auxiliary also offers courses on piloting and small boat
handling. For information on Auxiliary courses in your area, write to the Coast
Guard Headquarters nearest you : New York, N. Y.; Boston, Mass.; Norfolk, Va.;
Miami, Fla.; Cleveland, Ohio; St. Louis, Mo.; New Orleans, La.; Long Beach,
Calif.; San Francisco, Calif.; Seattle, Wash.; Honolulu, T.H.
Outboard boating clubs and other local groups also offer courses.

How *u)h Power@
Safety depends in part on not overpowering your outboard boat. Here's a simple
way to determine safe maximum horsepower.
The phenomenal expansion of the outboard industry within the short span of
post-war years has brought into sharp focus two critical issuesthe need for a
broader safety consciousness among manufacturers and boat owners alike, and
the desirability of some kind of code for the guidance of manufacturers.
Cognizant of the responsibility of manufacturers to unite and formulate a code
tending toward maximum safety, the Outboard Boating Club of America has put
years of study into the basic problems. As far back as 1948, they adopted a
Maximum Boat Horsepower Formula designed to prevent the overpowering of
outboard hulls. This was followed a year later with a Maximum Weight Capacity
Formula to prevent overloading of the boat. With intelligent handling, power
restricted within conservative limits, and a reliable guide in the hands of boatmen
as to maximum loads their boats safely can carry, the groundwork has been laid
for new standards of safety afloat.
n the early days of outboarding when low-powered motors were used to drive
rowboats and small utility craft at moderate speeds, there was little need for
standards to determine the amount of power that could reasonably be hung on
the transom. Nowadays big cruiser hulls call for comparatively heavy, high-
powered motors and, because of hull size, can carry them. But, in the scramble
for speed, it is not at all uncommon now to find a big 70 hp motor or perhaps a
pair of 50's on the transom of some small hull never designed to take them.
Picture, if you will, two or three persons perched atop the transom of a small hull
and you get a rough idea of what kind of load it is being expected to carry. This
loading, of course, is also independent of any considerations of torque and
vibration, which the bigger hulls are built to absorb.
High, then, on the list of recommended standards drafted by OBC is the one that
enables the manufacturer (or the boatman himself) to calculate maximum safe
horsepower for any given hull on the basis of a formula, with reference to one
simple chart.
The Maximum Boat Horsepower Formula was originally adopted by the Outboard
Boat Manufacturers Association (an affiliate of OBC) in 1948. To put it to
practical test, OBC's Boat Capacity Committee ran a series of tests on hulls of
various shapes and sizes in 1957 at Warsaw, ndiana. The outcome was a
modification of the original horsepower curve, with reductions in the maximum
horsepower ratings allowed small rowboats and larger outboards. The modified
curve, which can be used to find the top allowable power for either one or two
motors on a hull, is shown below.
Members of the OB MA use official OBC Capacity Plates on hulls of their
manufacture to rate both horsepower and weight capacity. Though use of such
plates is restricted to OBMA members, all boat-builders, regardless of affiliation
with the association, are encouraged to use the formula to determine
recommended maximum horsepower for their hulls. t will also serve as a
valuable guide to owners of boats for which no rating was ever established.
How To $se The Horse'ower Cur!e
Referring to the graph below, the first step is to multiply the overall length of hull
by the maximum width at the stern. (Length in this case is to be measured from
the face of the stem to the outer face of the transom at its highest point on a
straight line parallel to the keel, excluding any extensions such as outboard
brackets, fins, or similar accessories.)
OBC BOAT HO&S/PO%/& C$&./
Using the product of length-times-width (to the nearest whole number), find this
figure along the bottom horizontal edge of the graph. Entering here, follow up to
where your vertical line intersects the curve. Now follow horizontally to the left to
find the maximum boat horsepower indicated along the left edge. f the
intersection falls between figures, the figure directly above the point of
intersection can be taken as the maximum horsepower for this particular hull.
To take an example, let's say we have a 15-foot hull (measured as specified) with
a maximum width at the transom of 5 feet. The length-times-width-of-stern
formula gives us a product of 75. Entering the graph at 75 on the horizontal axis
(along the bottom) we follow the vertical line to its intersection with the curve and
then follow horizontally to the left to the point of intersection with the vertical axis
(at the left edge). Here we read the horsepower figure (interpolating between 55
and 60) as 57.5. Rounding it out to the figure immediately above the point of
intersection, we get 60, which is the maximum power we can safely use on our
particular 15-footer. We might elect to use a single motor of 60 hp, or perhaps
two developing 25 or 30 hp each. n either case, we could select a motor (or
motors) with confidence, on the assurance that not only theoretical calculations,
but practical tests on typical hulls, show the power plant to be well within the
limits of safety.
Stern+%idth Signifi)an)e
To emphasize the significance of the stern-width factor, let's say we have an
older type of hull, also 15 feet in length, with a maximum transom width of only 4
feet (a hull, as the builder knows, designed for relatively less power and lower
speed). To neglect the width factor and assume that this 15-footer could carry the
same 60 horse, would be folly. n the first place, the large motor would be a
waste of money to purchase. Also, it would cost more to operate. The power
would probably be wasted because the hull might be badly out of trim with the
excessive weight aft, and might not in fact be able to make any better speed than
it would with half the power. But, most significant of all, the installation would be
essentially unsafe, which outweighs in importance all other factors combined.
What power, then, to use ? Let's go back to the graph. Product of length-times-
stern-widthnow 60. Maximum power30. End resulta more economical
motor, to buy and to runof lighter weight, thus easier to handleof adequate
power to drive the boat, probably, at maximum hull speed . . . and, above all,
SAFE.

%hat<s A Safe Load@
Never overload your boat. With formulas prepared by the Outboard Boating Club
of America you can determine safe limits.
n Terms of safety in the operation of outboard boats, no factor rates higher than
that of loadingthe amount of weight a given hull is expected to carry, and the
related matter of where that load is carried. Has any boatman spent many days
afloat without seeing at least one instance of a whole family packed into a small
outboardseveral adults, children, even babies, the family dog, and a cargo of
gear for the day's outingoccupants balanced precariously on gunwales half in,
half out of the boat, others with feet trailing overside loaded on the forward deck,
hull trimmed by the head till the bow eye is submerged?
The water's smooth, the sky cloudless, and our "yachtsmen" are having a
hilarious time, cutting across the wakes and courses of every passing craft.
Hasn't the owner bought a "seaworthy" boat? What does it matter how deep
she's loaded, or how she trims? Unfortunately, the first time it comes on to blow a
little, or a faster boat leaves him wallowing in a wash, he learns . . . the hard way.
Loss of the charter fisherman Pelican some years ago off Montauk Point threw
sudden emphasis on a fact that all naval architects and sensible boatmen know
almost instinctivelythat every boat has a safe load limit, especially in heavy
weather. The question is, in a practical way, how to determine it.
For outboarders, the Outboard Boating Club of America has provided an answer.
n preceding pages, we have discussed OBC's standards manual for
boatbuilders and manufacturers of outboard motors, trailers and equipment, with
particular reference to their Maximum Boat Horsepower Formula. This provides
the first sound basis on which to match power to hull, to avoid overpowering.
Following this up, OBC puts into the builder's hands another tool to promote
safetya formula permitting him to calculate the Maximum Weight Capacity of
any outboard boat. Developed in 1949 for the Outboard Boat Manufacturers
Association, whose members attach horsepower and weight capacity plates to
the hulls they build, the formula was put to test in 1954 on Lake Winnebago
(Oshkosh, Wis.) in a group of boats ranging from 12 to 16 feet in length.
What the formula provides is a figure for the total maximum weight of
passengers, motor and miscellaneous equipment which any given hull can carry
with safety. t is predicated on the theory that the load should never exceed 12.5
pounds per cubit foot of internal volume, with 12 cubic feet allowed per
passenger of 150 pounds average weight. OBC encourages universal use of the
formula among outboard boatbuilders, whether affiliated with OBMA or not; and
every owner of an unrated boat would be well advised to calculate the weight
capacity of his own hull. Here's how it works.
The diagram on page 297, reproduced from the OBC manual, shows a
hypothetical hull in profile, plan and section at four transverse stations: A,
length forward; B, amidships; C, Y\ length aft; and D, at the transom. Sections A,
B and C divide the length (L) into four equal parts. Horizontal breadths (a, b, c, d,
and e) are measured at top and bottom of height (H) and three intermediate
points which divide height (H) into four equal parts. Measurements, taken inside
the planking or plating, are expressed in feet, with inches and eighths converted
to decimals of a foot carried out to three places. (See Table A.)
TABL/ A
Conversion of nches to Decimals in Feet
nches Decimals nches Decimals
(or fractions) in Feet (or fractions) in Feet
1/8" .010' 3" .250"
" .021' 4" .333'
3/8" .031' 511 .417'
'/2" .042' 6" .500'
5/8" .052' 7" .583'
3/4 .062' 8" .667'
7/8 .0 73 9" .750'
1" .083' 10" .833'
2" .167" 11" .9171
Measurements made on the hull in accordance with the diagram provide the data
needed to work out the Weight Capacity Formula. There are three steps: (1)
compute areas of sections, (2) compute cubic capacity, (3) compute maximum
weight capacity.
Ste' ,EAreas Of Se)tions
Areas of sections A (1/4 length forward), B (amidships), and C (1/4 length aft) are
each computed separately according to the formula
On the theory that excessive freeboard in proportion to beam does not
necessarily contribute to a hull's safety, certain maximum values (Table B) have
been established for height (H).
Ste' 1ECubi) Ca'a)it#
The formula to compute the cubic capacity of the hull is based on the areas
(determined in Step 1) for Section A, Section B and Section C. Substitute these
for quantities A, B and C in the formula
Cubic Capacity of Hull = L/12 (4A + 2B + 4C)
Length (L) is taken from your measurements according to the diagram of Boat
nterior Dimensions. Areas A, B and C are in square feet; the cubic capacity in
cubic feet, to three places.
TABL/ B
Maximum Allowable Height for a Transverse Section
Beam of Section Max. Height Beam of Section Max.
Height
Up to 4.042' 1.583' 5.710' to 6.042' 2.083'
4.043' to 4.375' 1.667' 6.043' to 6.375' 2.167'
4.376' to 4.709' 1.750' 6.376' to 6.709' 2.250'
4.710' to 5.042' l.8331 6.710' to 7.042' 2.333'
5.043' to 5.375' 1.917' 7.043' to 7.3751 2.417
5.376' to 5.709' 2.000' 7.376' to 7.709" 2.500'
NOTE:The maximum allowable height (H) is based on width (a) for that section
on the nterior Dimensions. f the actual height of the section is less than the
maximum allowable height, use the actual height. f the actual height of the
section is more than the maximum allowable height, use the maximum allowable
height.
Ste' 2E*aCimum %eight Ca'a)it#
Calculation of the maximum weight capacity requires the multiplication of the
cubic capacity (found in the previous step) by the factor 12.5 according to the
formula
Maximum Weight Capacity =
Cubic Capacity X 12.5 lbs. per cu. ft.
The result is an overall total in pounds, expressing (to the nearest integer) the
safe Maximum Weight Capacity of passengers, motor(s) and miscellaneous gear
and equipment.
What we finally come up with, then, is a safe total load capacity safe, provided
the owner will use just an ordinary measure of horse sense. No law nor set of
published standards will ever prevent him from going off shore with seas
breaking on the inlet bar . . . nor from concentrating all his "safe" load forward
under a spray hood on the run home before a following sea so his passengers
can have shelter from a bit of spray.
Every boat, safely powered and safely loaded, has its limitsand that's where
seamanship and competent boat handling enter into the picture.
The Flotation Formula
Assume, now, that the builder has taken pains to calculate the safe maximum
limits of power and weight-carrying capacity for his hull, and has attached a plate
specifying what these limits are. The buyer, then, abides by these restrictions
but, in utter disregard of all precepts of sensible seamanship, he decides that
"anything the commercial fisherman can do in his 30-foot inboard sea skiff, can
do better . ... in my 15-foot outboard!"
s there nothing further the builder can do to protect the few that fall in this
category from such folly, short of sending a Coast Guard picket boat to shepherd
each one every time he leaves the anchorage? As a matter of fact, there is.
f a hull is expected to do the impossible, is driven beyond its limit and capsized,
it may or may not sink, depending principally on the materials used in its
construction, and the weight of attached motor and other gear. But regardless of
what these weights are, flotation can be built into a hull by providing air chambers
or enough buoyant material to support the weight, even when the hull is entirely
submerged.
OBC's Boat Flotation Formula provides the means of calculating how much
flotation material is needed for any hull, provided the total weight is kept within
the maximum weight capacity determined by the OBC Maximum Weight
Capacity Formula, discussed above.
The basic formula for flotation is F = W/B in which F = required amount of
flotation material (expressed in cu. ft.)
W = pounds of flotation required
B = buoyancy of flotation material used (expressed in lbs. per cu. ft.)
Pounds Of Flotation Required (W)
W, the pounds of flotation required, is found from the formula
W = Ws + G + .10C in which Ws = weight of boat (submerged)
G = weight of motor, equipment and other gear (submerged) .OC = weight of live
load (submerged)
To find *WS {weight of boat submerged) use the formula:
Ws = WhKx + WdK2 + .69We in which Wh = dry weight of hull
Wd = dry weight of deck and superstructure
(f Wh and Wd are of the same material, they need not be measured separately.)
We = dry weight of factory-installed equipment, hardware and accessories
Ki = conversion factor for hull material (Table C)
K2 = conversion factor for deck and superstructure material (Table C)
(Note: Kx and K2 may be negative quantities when the material floats, resulting
in minus quantities for Ws or its components.)

TABL/ C Fa)tors For Con!erting
Materials from Dry to Submerged Weight
Steel .88 Walnut .54
Aluminum .63 Douglas fr plywood .54
Fiberglass .33 Oak .33
Molded plywood .49 Mahogany .11
Cedar strip .72 Plylap .67
Redwood .82 Lapstrake (plywood strakes) .43
NOTE:To calculate conversion factors for other materials, divide specific
gravity of the material into that specific gravity minus one (). For materials that
float, \\\e specific gravity is less than one (), the conversion factor will be a minus
quantity, and the submerged weight of parts made of such materials will also be
a minus quantity.
*The formula for Ws may be amplified for greater accuracy by a boatbuilder using
several different materials in the construction of a boat. Parts made of each
material are weighed and the weight multiplied by the conversion factor for the
material used. The formula will yield an approximate weight, accurate enough in
nearly all cases for use in determining the pounds of notation needed.

To find G (submerged weight of motor, equipment and other gear) refer to Table
D.
TABL/ (
Submerged %eight Of *otor, /?ui'ment And Other "ear For Outboard
Boats Of .arious *aCimum Horse'ower &atings
Boat HP Dry Wt. Dry Wt. Dry Wt. Total Submerged
Rating Motor Battery Misc. ear Dry Wt. Weight (G)
0-10 75 50 125 86
11-20 95 40 50 185 127
21-40 (1) 145 40 100 285 196
21-40 (2) 190 40 100 330 227
41-60 (1) 250 40 100 390 269
41-60 (2) 270 40 100 410 282
61-80 (1) 250 40 125 415 286
61-80 (2) 290 40 125 455 313
81-100 (1) 350 40 150 540 372
81-100 (2) 500 80 150 730 503
101-150 (1) 400 40 200 640 441
101-150 (2) 500 80 200 780 538
Note:() One Motor. (2) Two motors.
The largest element in this is the weight of motor (or "motors" in a twin-screw
installation). The boat horsepower rating used in Table D is the maximum safe
horsepower as calculated in the OBC Maximum Boat Horsepower Formula
explained in the previous article. With each horsepower rating, there is listed the
dry weight of such a motor (or the total weight of two smaller motors of
approximately equal total horsepower) ; the dry weight of one or two batteries;
and the dry weight of miscellaneous gear as might be carried by a typical boat in
each of the horsepower categories. Finally, the total dry weight is translated into
a figure for total submerged weight, and substituted for "G" in finding the pounds
of flotation required.
To find .OC (submerged weight of live load), first find the maximum weight
capacity of the boat, as determined in Step 3 of the weight capacity calculations.
From this subtract the total dry weight figure for motor, battery and miscellaneous
gear listed in Table D alongside the appropriate boat horsepower rating. The
difference in weights is the figure to be substituted for "C" in the formula for
determining pounds of flotation required. Ten percent (10%) of "C" (dry weight of
the live load) is the .OC representing the submerged weight of the live load.
From the foregoing calculations we have found Ws (submerged weight of boat),
G (submerged weight of motor, equipment and gear), and .OC (submerged
weight of live load). The sum of these combine in the formula
W = Ws + G + .10C which gives the "W" (pounds of flotation required) for the
formula
F=W/B
Buoyancy Of Flotation Material Used (B)
The next step is the determination of "B," the buoyancy of the flotation material
used. f air chambers are to be built in, "B" will be 62.4 (the weight of one cubic
foot of fresh water). f some other type of flotation material is to be used
(Styrofoam, for example), "B" will equal 62.4 minus the weight of one cubic foot
of the particular flotation material used, less appropriate allowances for its water
absorption and adsorption characteristics. "B" is expressed in pounds per cubic
foot.
Cubic Feet Of Flotation Material Required (F)
Back now to the original formula F = W/B we have seen how to determine the
values for "W" and "B," so the final step is to solve for "F." This is done by
dividing the pounds of flotation required (W) by the buoyancy of the flotation
material used (B). The quotient is the amount of flotation material required (F), in
terms of cubic feet.
Where To Buy Charts And Other "u#lications
Charts Of .arious %aterwa#s
Charts, U. S. Coastal WatersCharts of coastal waters such as the Atlantic,
Pacific and Gulf Coasts, the Hudson River as far north as Troy, and the Atlantic
and Gulf ntracoastal Waterways, are published by the United States Coast &'
Geodetic Survey, Washington 25, D. C, and are availabe from them or any of
their sales agents, listed in their catalog, and quarterly in the Hydrographic Office
Notice to Mariners.
Chart*. Great LakesCharts of the Great Lakes and connecting rivers, Lake
Champlain, New York State Canals, Lake of the Woods, and Rainy Lake are
available from the U. S. Lake Survey, 630 Federal Bldg., Detroit 26, Michigan.
They also publish a catalog of charts issued by that office.
Charts, New York State CanalsA bound booklet of charts of the New York
State canals (Coamuiain, Erie, Oswego, and Cayuga and Seneca), east of
Lyons, is available from the U. S. Lake Survey, 630 Federal Building, Detroit,
Mich.
Charts, Mississippi River and Tributaries(Middle & Upper Mississippi River;
Cairo, . to Minneapolis, Minn.)
(Middle Mississippi River; Cairo, . to Graiton, .)
(Mississippi River from Cairo, . to Gulf of Mexico)
(llinois Waterway; from Graiton, . to Lake Michigan at Chicago and Calumet
Harbors)
(Small Boat Navigation Chart; Alton, . to Clarksville on the Mississippi River
and Grafton, ., to LaGrange, . on the llinois River)
U. S. Army Engineer District, 420 Locust Street, St. Louis 2, Missouri.
(Ohio River; Pittsburgh, Pa., to the Mississippi River) Ohio River Division,
Corps of Engineers, P. O. Box 1159, Cincinnati 1, Ohio.
(Tennessee River)Tennessee Valley Authority, Maps and Engineering Records
Section, 102A Union Bldg., Knoxville, Tenn.
(Missouri River) U. S. Engineer Office, Omaha, Neb.
(Big Sunflower, St. Francis, White, Atchaialaya and other Mississippi River
tributaries)Mississippi River Commission, Corps of Engineers, P. O. Box 80,
Vicksburg, Miss.
[Charts of the Mississippi and tributaries and Gulf ntracoastal Waterway are
published in the form of bound booklets. Details may be obtained from the
Mississippi River Commission at the address given above.]
Charts, Canadian WatersMost of the charts covering Canadian waterways are
available from the Chart Distribution Office, Canadian Hydrographic Service,
Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, Bolo Drome Bldg., 249 Queen St.,
Ottawa, Canada. These include charts of Canadian coastal waters; Canadian
sections of the Great Lakes including Georgian Bay ; The St. Lawrence River;
Richelieu River; Ottawa River; The Rideau Waterway ; and other Canadian
lakes, etc. . (Trent Waterway) Charts of the Trent-Severn Waterway are also
obtainable from the Superintending Engineer, Trent Banal Office, Department of
Transport, Peterborough, Ontario,
(Rideau Waterway) Charts of the Rideau Waterway are also obtainable from
the Canal Services, Department of Transport, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
A chart catalog is available from the Canadian Hydrographi at the address given
above.
Charts, Foreign WatersThese are published by the Hy-drographic Office of the
U. S. Navy, Washington 25, D. C, and are available through any of the sales
agents listed in the quarterly. Notice to Mariners, published by the Hydrographic
Office
Tide And Current Tables
Tide Tables, Current Tables and Tidal Current Charts These are also
publications of the U. S. Coast & Geodetic Survey, Washington 25, D. C, and
may be obtained from them or from any of the sales agents listed quarterly in
Notice to Mariners.
Tides and Currents in Long sland and Block sland SoundsSpecial publication
No. 174. (1932). Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,
Washington 25, D. C.
Light Lists
Light ListsThese are published by the U. S. Coast Guard and are for sale by
the Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C, or any of the Coast
Guard sales agents listed quarterly in the Hydrographic Office Notice to Mariners.
They describe lighted aids, radio beacons, fog signals, unlighted buoys, and
daymarks. Separate volumes are available to cover Coast Guard Districts;
complete lists of the Atlantic Coast; the Pacific Coast; the Great Lakes; and the
Mississippi River. Details given in the quarterly Notices to Mariners.
Coast Pilots
Coast PilotsFor coastal waters, and the Atlantic and Gulf ntracoastal
Waterways, these are published by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey,
Washington 25, D. C, and are available from them or any of their sales agents in
principal ports, as listed quarterly in Notice to Mariners. These volumes
supplement the information given on charts, with detailed descriptions of routes,
courses, distances, depths, harbors, sources of supplies, tides, currents,
weather, list of yacht clubs, facilities for repairs, etc.
For the Great Lakes and other wafers covered by U. S. Lake Survey charts, the
publication corresponding to the Coast Pilot is called the Great Lakes Pilot. This
is an annual publication, kept up to date during the navigation season by seven
monthly supplements issued from May to ' November. t is obtained from the U.
S. Lake Survey, 630 Federal Bldg., Detroit 26, Michigan.
The Canadian government publishes Pilots and Sailing Directions for all
Canadian waters. Their Great Lakes Pilot is divided into three volumes. The St.
Lawrence River is also Covered in three volumes. Other volumes cover coastal
waters, etc. They are obtained from the Chart Distribution Office, Canadian
Hydrographic Service, Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, Bolo Drome
Bldg., 249 Queen St., Ottawa, Canada.
oti)e To *ariners
Notice to MarinersThis is a weekly pamphlet published by the U. S.
Hydrographic Office, Navy Department, Washington, D. C. Jt is issued so
mariners may keep nautical charts and Coast Pilots up to date. Four times a
year, the Notices contain lists o Branch Hydrographic offices: U. S. Coast Guard
District offices; U. S. Coast & Geodetic Survey District offices; U. S. Engineer
offices; agents for the sale of Hydrographic Office charts and publications ; data
on all publications of the Hydro-graphic Office; data on the various Coast Pilots,
Tide Tables, Current Tables and Tidal Current Charts sold by the U. S. Coast &
Geodetic Survey ; data on U. S. Coast Guard Light Lists; and a list of agents for
the sale of Coast and Geodetic Survey and Coast Guard publications.
Local Notices, of interest primarily within the limits of each of the Coast Guard
Districts, are issued by Commanders of the respective districts, and are available
from their district offices.
&ules Of The &oad
Rules of the RoadRules of the Road are published for three areas, namely :
C.G. No. 169Certain inland waters of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and of the
coast of the Gulf of Mexico; C.G. No. 172The Great Lakes and their connecting
and tributary waters and the St. Mary's River; and C.G. No. 184The Western
Rivers and the Red River of the North. They are published by the U. S. Coast
Guard and copies may be obtained from Coast Guard Marine nspection Offices
in principal ports, or the Commandant (CHS), U. S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.
C.
ew >or= State Canals
Rules and Regulations Covering Navigation and Use of the New York State
Canal SystemA booklet by this title is published by and is available from New
York State Dept. of Public Works, Division of Operation and Maintenance, Albany
1, N. Y. t contains a description of the New York Canal System, and regulations
pertaining to use of the and. Applications for free season permits to use the
canals should be made to the same office. (nformation on the book of charts of
the New York State Canal System, published by the U. S. Lake Survey, is given
above.)
Canal Guide Book for the New York State Barge Canal System and Connecting
Navigable WaterwaysA booklet of great value in cruising the Hudson River,
Lake Champlain, New York State canals, and connecting Canadian waterways,
including the St. Lawrence River and parts of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. Lists
sources of supplies, such as fuel, oil, engine repairs, fresh water, provisions,
anchorage and dockage. Available from Tri-City Yacht Club, 146 Sheridan
Avenue, Albany 10, N. Y.
Intra)oastal %aterwa#s
nland Waterway GuideA publication detailing for the yachtsman a vast amount
of information concerning the inland waterways. The Northern Edition covers the
coast from Maine to the Chesapeake; the Southern Edition from the Chesapeake
to Florida; *he Great Lakes Edition from New York to the Great Lakes with
connecting Canadian canals and rivers. Available from nland Waterway Guide,
nc., 25 West Broward Boulevard, Fort Lauderdale, Florida.
ntracoastal Waterway Booklet(Part TwoGulf Section) Available from the
Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25,
D. C. Describes the waterway from Florida to the Rio Grande.
ntracoastal Waterway, Gulf Section, New Orleans, La., to Port Arthur, Texas
Mississippi River Commission, Corps of Engineers, P. O. Box 80, Vickshiir,
Miss.
ntracoastal Waterway Bulletinsfrequent bulletins giving latest information on
the condition of the ntracoastal Waterway are published by the Corps of
Engineers. These are available from the following District Offices of the Army
Engineers: NorfolkFt. of Front St.; Wilmington, N. C308 Custom House;
Charleston, S. C33 Custom House; Savannah, Ga. 200 East St. Julian St.;
Jacksonville, Fla.575 Riverside Ave.
Small Boat Harbors and Facilities in FloridaPamphlet containing a compilation
of data on harbors and service facilities available to the boatman in the State of
Florida. May be obtained from State Board of Conservation, Division of Water
Survey and Research, Tallahassee, Florida.
Yachting Facilities in FloridaDirectory-type pamphlet giving descriptions of
communities in the state of Florida on each. Communities are listed
alphabetically. Available from Florida State Advertising Commission,
Tallahassee, Fla.
Other Cruising Publi)ations
Yachtsman's Guide to the BahamasA complete guide book for a cruise to the
Bahamas. The data it contains is much , like the information found in Coast
Pilots. The Customs and mmigration information will be found especially
valuable to those who have never cruised to foreign waters. Available from
Yachtsman's Guide to the Bahamas, P. O. Box 613, Coral Gables 34, Florida.
Cruising Charts, Guides and BookletsSome of the large . oil companies
provide free cruising services for yachtsmen. One needs only to mention the
waterways he plans to traverse, and these companies will go to considerable
length to provide such items as cruising charts from which the itinerary can be
planned, harbor booklets showing the facilities available in all the principal ports,
mimeographed outlines of various cruises containing a digest of up-to-date
information on the waterways involved, etc. Sources for this kind of material
include: Texaco Waterways Service, 135 E. 42nd St., New York 17, N. Y.; Gulf
Cruisegide Bureau, 17 Battery P., New York, N. Y.; Socony Mobil Oil Co., nc.,
Small Craft Division, 150 E. 42nd St., New York,-N. Y.; and Esso Cruising
Service, 15 W. 51st St., New York 19, N. Y.
Boating; GuidesCruising information for Canadian waters. Four editions:(1)
Lake Ontario; (2) Montreal-Lake Champlain; (3) Seaway, St. Lawrence, Rideau,
Ottawa River; (4) Trent Waterway. Dale Outdoor Publications Ltd., P. O. Box 90,
Ste. Anne de Belleyue, Quebec.
Trent Severn WaterwayCruising guide. British Book Service (Canada) Ltd.,
Kingswood House, 1068 Broadview Ave., Toronto 6, Can.
"asoline TaC &efunds
Gasoline Tax RefundsSome states allow a refund, in whole or in part, of the
State gasoline tax when the fuel is used for boat purposes. However, the
regulations differ greatly and it would be well for the yachtsman to become
familiar with these regulations in advance. The Texaco Waterways Service, 135
E. 42nd Street, New York, N. Y., and Socony Mobil Oil Co., nc., Small Craft
Division, 150 E. 42nd St., New York issue Bulletins describing these regulations.
$- S- Coast "uard Publi)ations
Aids to Marine Navigation of the United StatesU. S.
Coast Guard publication CG-193. llustratea. i pages. Treasury Department, U.
S. Coast Guard, Washington 25, D. C. Basic principles underlying the marking of
coasts and waterways with lighthouses, lightsnips, fog signals, rauu..ieadons,
loran, and buoys. Treats primarily of the manner in which the physical
characteristics of various aids to navigation serve the mariner.
Marine Radiobeacons.U. S. Coast Guard. 16 pp. Obtainable from U. S. Coast
Guard, Washington, D. C. nstructional 'pamphlet for the beginner studying
navigation.
Ocean Electronic Navigational AidsU. S. Coast Guard pamphlet CG 157-1. 73
pp. Loran, radiobeacon and radar-beacon systems; and Loran, radio direction
finder and radar ship equipment. United States Coast Guard, Washington 25, D.
C. Available from Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C.
Rules And Regulations For Uninspected VesselsU. S.
Coast Guard. 16 pages. Copies may be obtained from District Coast Guard
Offices. Requirements for all vessels not subject to inspection, including those
subject to the Motorboat Act of April 25, 1940. Every motorboat owner should
obtain a copy. Refer to CG-258.
&ules And &egulations For umbering $ndo)umented
VesselsU. S. Coast Guard publication CG-267. Available from District Coast
Guard Offices or the Commandant (CHS), U. S. Coast Guard, Washington, D. C.
&ules And &egulations For Small Passenger .essels
U. S. Coast Guard publication CG-323. Requirements for vessels carrying more
than six passengers. Available from District Coast Guard offices, or the
Commandant, U. S. Coast Guard, Washington 25, D. C.
Pleasure CraftU. S. Coast Guard pamphlet CG-290, cover-ing minimum legal
requirements and suggestions for safety and pleasure aboard motorboats of
each class, including outboards. Available from U. S. Coast Guard, Washington
25, D. C.
Manual for Lifeboatmen and Able Seamenllustrated. 63 pages. Obtainable
from the U. S. Coast Guard, Washington, D. C. Lifeboats, life rafts, life floats,
buoyant apparatus, davits, and releasing gear are described. Refer to CG. 175.
*is)ellaneous Publi)ations
Rules of the Nautical Road.U. S. Naval nstitute, Annapolis, Md. Revised
edition by Lt. Alfred Prunski, U.S.C.G., of the textbook by Captain Raymond F
Farwell, U.S.N.R., designed to show new changes in nternational Rules which
took effect January 1, 1954. Gives comparison with up-to-date nland Rules and
Pilot Rules. ncludes interpretations of rules by courts.
The American Nautical AlmanacUnited States Naval Observatory. Copies
purchased from the Superintendent of Documents. A compact publication
containing all the ephemeris material essential to the solution of problems of
national position. Contains a Star Chart which shows the position of the stars
used in navigation. nstructions for its use are included. The star chart may be
purchased separately. (Star chart in larger form may be purchased from Hydro-
graphic Office, Navy Supply Depot, Scotia, N. Y.)
Tide and Current nvestigations of the Coast and Geodetic SurveyU. S.
Department of Commerce, Coast and Geodetic Survey. llustrated. 50 pages.
Types and forms of tides, earthquake waves, tidal currents, and wind currents.
First AidSupt. of Documents, Washington, D. C. llustrated. 160 pages. This is
one of the best first aid manuals obtainable. Only first aid instruction is given.
Miscellaneous Publication No. 9. The Ship'* Medicine Chest and First Aid at Sea
United States Public Health Service. llustrated. 498 pages. Prepared
especially for seafaring people. An excellent treatise. Sections- included give
special instructions for emergency treatment, and First Aid by Radio.
(Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C.)

Notice to Mariner! containing corrections to nautical charts and publications are
issued weekly by the Hydrographic Office, Branch Hydrographic Offices, and
United States Consulates.
Daily Memorandum carries a synopsis of the latest information relating to
dangers and aids to navigation, including reports of drifting buoys, wreckage, and
other hazards together with advance items that will appear in the Notice to
Mariners The Daily Memorandum is issued locally by the Branch Hydro-graphic
Offices and the most urgent of the reports are also broadcast by radio under the
title. Government Hydro All Ships and Stations, and rebroadcast locally.
Pilot Charts of the North Atlantic Ocean, North Pacific Ocean are issued monthly.
These present information on average winds and currents, percentages of gales
and calms, and other hydrographic data of a varied nature.
H-O- Pilot Charts
#576 Atlas of Pilot ChartsAtlantic Ocean (ncludes the Pilot Charts of the North
Atlantic and South Atlantic Oceans and Central American Waters)
#577 Atlas of Pilot ChartsPacific and ndian Ocean (ncludes the Pilot Charts of
the North Pacific Ocean, the South Pacific and the ndian Ocean)
#1400 Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean (Monthly)
#1401 Pilot Chart of the North Pacific Ocean (Monthly)
NOTE:Monthly Pilot Charts of Central American waters and the ndian Ocean,
and quarterly Pilot Charts of the South Atlantic and South Pacific have been
discontinued.
H-O- Lilts Of LightM And Fog Signals
Light List* published by the Hydrographic Office give de tailed descriptions of
navigational lights and fog signals, am mention signals of various kinds operated
at lighthouses.
Vol. covers the Coast of North and South America (only the seacoast lights of
the United States), the West ndies, and the Hawaiian slands.
Vol. covers islands of the Pacific and ndian Oceans, Australia, Asia, and the
East Coast of Africa.
Vol. ll covers the West Coasts of Europe and Africa, the Mediterranean Sea,
Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov.
Vol. V covers British slands, English Channel, and North Sea.
Vol. V covers Norway, celand, and Arctic Ocean.
Vol. V covers the Baltic Sea with Kattegat, Belts and Sound, and Gulf of Bothnia.
Volumes , , , are revised and reissued annually and Volumes V, V, V at less
frequent intervals. Volumes V, V, V are corrected by annual supplements
containing changes that have taken place during the year or years since the
books were published. These supplements are mailed free of charge to
purchasers of the books. Weekly corrections to the Light Lists are published in
the section, Corrections to H.O. Light Lists, at the end of the Notice to Mariners.
This section includes minor corrections not appearing in the main body of the
Notice.
Other H- O- Publi)ationL
#9 American Practical Navigator. Originally by Nathaniel Bowditch, LL.D., etc.
Revised (ncluding the Useful Tables.)
#234 Breakers and Surf; Principles in Forecasting.
#601 Wind, Sea, and Swell: Theory of Relations in Fore casting. ``

#602 Wind, Waves at Sea, Breakers and Surf.
#11, 275 Wind, Waves, and Swell; Principles in Forecasting.
#87 nternational Code of Signals, Vol. , Visual Signals.
#88 nternational Code of Signals, Vol. , Radio Signals.
#117 Tables of Distances Between Ports.
#205 Radio Navigational Aids. Marine Direction-Finding Stations, Radiobeacons,
Time Signals, Navigational Warnings, Distress Signal Stations, Medical Advice
and Quarantine Stations, and Regulations Governing the Use of Radio in
Territorial Waters.
#206 Radio Weather Aids. General weather information, broadcast schedules,
international index numbers with locations of stations, key groups, and call signs.
#2O2C Star Finder and dentifier (AN Type)
%eather
Weather ForecastingU. S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau.
llustrated 40 pages. Generally accepted facts and theories of meteorology and
some of the principles of weather forecasting, in popular style. Atmospheric
Pressure, Circulation of the Atmosphere, Weather Forecasting, and An
Atmospheric Survey, concerning the gathering of information by the Weather
Bureau stations for weather maps.
Special Text No. 1-230 TMWeather Manual for Pilots. A more comprehensive
publication than Weather Forecasting. nformation on fogs and visibility, which,
although written for " the aviator, can be utilized by the boat navigator A number
of weather proverbs are included. Excellent pictures of cloud formations
The HurricaneUnited States Department of Commerce Weather Bureau.
llustrated. 14 pages. An interesting paper dealing solely with the hurricane. The
general information contained in this publication should be known by all who go
to sea.
Circular R. W. B. 1151 Preparation and Ue of Weather Maps at SeaU. S.
Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau. llustrated. 100 pages The Ship's
weather observation. Radio weather message and its uses. Radio weather
bulletins. Preparation of weather maps. Weather types. Tropical storms. Drawing
inferences from weather map
No. 956 Cloud FormsU S Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau.
llustrated. 22 pages. This interesting bulletin discusses the classification of cloud
forms, their occurrence and height. 32 photographs of cloud forms.
Florida HurricanesUnited States Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau.
llustrated. 3 pages. Discusses frequency, time, and initial starting point of Florida
hurricanes. The eight great hurricanes that reached the Florida coast in the last
fifty years are described. Wind velocities, damage by hurricanes to buildings, and
other property are additional items of interest
Circular F. Barometers and the Measurement of Atmospheric PressureU S.
Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau. llustrated. 3 pages A treatise on
different kinds of barometers.
The Daily Weather Mapwith ExplanationUnited States Department of
Commerce. Weather Bureau. llustrated. 8 pages. Four weather maps of the
United States are included. Symbols and map reading are discussed. The
meanings of highs and lows, and how a storm approaches a given point with
respect to barometer readings and wind directions are a part of this publication.

Ocean Electronic Navigational AidsU S. Coast Guard pamphlet CG 157-1. 73
pp. Loran, radiobeacon and radar-beacon systems; and Loran, radio direction
finder and radar ship equipment. United States Coast Guard, Washington 25, D
C
"ro#lems
On the following pages a compilation of problems based on the text of each
chapter is given.
Cha'ter IEames And Terms; T#'es And &igs Of Boats
1. Define the following terms (or draw a sketch placing each in its proper
location).
a. Bow.
b. Stern.
c. Port.
d. Starboard.
e. Dead Ahead.
f. Astern.
g. Broad on the starboard bow.
h. On the starboard beam.
i. Two points abaft starboard beam.
j. Broad on starboard quarter.
k. One point on starboard quarter.
2. Sketch a sloop rig, name the sails and identify the following parts of the
sails.
a. Head.
b. Luff.
c. Tack.
d. Clew.
e. Leach.
f. Foot.
3. Sketch the following types of sailing craft.
a. Cat boat.
b. Yawl.
c. Ketch.
d. Cutter.
e. Knockabout.
f. Staysail schooner.
g. Bald-headed schooner.
4. ndicate on a sketch of the cross section of a motorboat the following:
a. Deck.
b. Sheer strake.
c. Planking.
d. Frame.
e. Ceiling.
f. Garboard strake.
g. Seam .
h. Keel.
i. Floor timber.
j. Draft.
k. Freeboard.
5. Change the following sentences to correct nautical terminology:
1. My boat has a speed of 10 knots per hour.
2. The distance between the 2 buoys is 12 knots.
3. He went down stairs into the kitchen.
4. tied up my boat to the dock.
5. threw the front rope ashore.
6. He came on my boat from the dinghy.
7. Pack your clothes in the closet.
8. Tie that line to the cleat!
9. Let out the dinghy painter!
10. The mooring line is tangled, please untangle it.
11. Look at the map and tell me how deep is the water.
12. The anchor line has broken.
13. The chart has fallen into the water.
14. He hit the dock and broke a hole in the side of the boat.
15. Wash down the decks!
16. Stop to see if the vessel requires assistance.
17. The wind backed from East to South through Southeast.
18. The boat's forecastle is near the stern.
19. The garboard strake is farthest from the keel.
20. The boat's quarter is near the bow.
21. On the ways the boat is propped up with two by fours.
22. tied the mainsheet to the cleat.
23. A sudden gust upset my boat.
24. My boat lists by the bow.
25. Hitting the rock caused my boat to have water come into her.
26. The main halyards broke so tied the two ends together.
27. tightened up on the stay which leads from the mast to the stern.
28. My boat had such a weather helm that she came into the wind with
difficulty.
29. With so little sail on her my boat labored.
30. The pulley in the block jammed.
31. A safe place to anchor is off a lee shore.
32. The water became shoal and we hit the bottom.
33. The vessel returning from a long cruise is probably well found.
34. When the wind backs from south toward west it is often a bad sign.
35. The bowsprit on the cutter broke and went into the water.
36. The weather side is the low side when sailing close hauled.
37. When a ship fills with water it is time to abandon her.
38. Davits are used to hoist and lower the sails.
39. A bald-headed schooner has topmasts.
40. When one sails downwind and he wishes to get the sail on the other side
of the boat, he generally comes about.
41. Ropes are in universal use aboard boats.
42. A monkey fist makes lines hard to cast.
43. Lines frayed at the ends should be knotted.
44. The anchor line went overboard because its inner end was not tied.
45. The best bower is used most frequently for anchoring.
46. For a permanent mooring at a club anchorage you should use a grapnel.
47. Spring tides are those that take place in the Spring.
48. Right rudder and starboard helm have the same meaning.
49. A degree of longitude near New York has a length of about one statute
mile.
50. Dead Reckoning means counting the dead after a battle.
51. The voyage from New York to England was uneventful.
52. The variation of the compass is generally its principal error.
53. Arming the lead means preparing for battle.
54. A fix refers to repairing the engine.
55. He layed his course on a map of Long sland Sound.
56. The direction of the lighthouse is east.
57. He took his departure from his friends on the dock who came to see him
off.
58. Hard a lee is the command to heave the anchor.
59. When sailing close-hauled and the boom is on the starboard side, the boat
is on the starboard tack.
60. Point her up, is the command when it is desired to change one's course
from close-hauled to a reach.
Cha'ter IIE4nots, Bends, Hit)hes, S'li)es
1. Name four of the most useful knots.
2. What knot or bend is used for bending lines together for towing purposes?
3. What knot forms a loop that will not slip?
4. What knot is used to bend together lines of the same diameter?
5. How is a line made fast to a bitt?
6. Should the anchor rode be shortened by making fast over an old set of
a. turns ?
7. Should more than one line be made fast to a bitt at one time?
8. Should half hitches be used after making fast to a cleat?
9. How should a new line be uncoiled?
10. What is a good method of taking the kinks out of a new line?
11. What precautions should be taken with a wet line before stowing?
12. What is the purpose of whipping?
13. Describe the proper method of making fast to a cleat.
14. Describe coiling down.
15. Describe faking down.
16. Describe flemishing down.
17. Define worming.
18. Describe parceling.
19. Describe serving.
Cha'ter IIIE"o!ernment &egulations And Boat /?ui'ment
1. Are motor yachts required to carry any licensed officers?
2. Are sailing yachts without motors required to carry any specified
equipment?
3. Are sailing yachts with motors required to carry any specified equipment?
4. Are motor boats required to carry any specified equipment?
5. What motor boats fall in Class A?
6. What motor boats fall in Class 1?
7. What motor boats fall in Class 2?
8. What motor boats fall in Class 3?
9. What Government equipment is to be carried on Class A?
10. Does Class 1 equipment differ from Class A?
11. What equipment is required by law for Classes 2 and 3?
12. Will an ordinary mouth whistle pass Government inspection as the whistle
required on a motor boat?
13. Will the various forms of electric horns pass Government requirements for
the whistle specified for motor boats?
14. Will a buoyant cushion pass as a life preserver on motor boats not
carrying passengers for hire?
15. Does a dinghy pass as life-saving equipment?
16. Will foghorns pass Government requirements for the whistle specified for
motor boats?
17. Motor boats of what size (not carrying passengers for hire) may be
documented?
18. Must the boat's name and hailing port be painted or otherwise attached to
a documented boat?
19. s a motor boat at anchor required to have Government equipment on
board?
20. Does the Government require any of the following equipment to be carried
on board; an anchor, a compass, an anchor line, a pump, a dinghy,
provisions, etc.?
21. What motor boats are required to be numbered?
22. What undocumented vessels are not required to be numbered?
23. What equipment in addition to that required by law do you think is
essential to be carried aboard the average motor boat?
24. Are motor or sailing vessels of 16 tons or more required to be documented
?
25. What special war time regulations are in effect governing the use of motor
and sail craft?
Cha'ter I.E&ules Of The &oad, &ights Of %a#
1. What are the objects of the rules of the road?
2. When do the rules of the road apply?
3. When is a boat under way?
4. To what type of boats or vessels do the rules apply?
5. f there is doubt as to whether the rules apply in any particular case,
should you consider that they do?
6. What is the boat called which has the right of way?
7. What is the boat called which does not have the right of way?
8. What is the duty of the right-of-way boat?
9. What is the duty of the burdened vessel?
10. s a departure from the rules ever allowed?
11. What is your idea about the proper speed of motor boats?
12. When should whistle signals be given?
13. When should whistle signals not be given?
14. What should passing signals be given on?
15. When is a signal of one blast given?
16. When is a signal of two blasts given?
17. When is a signal of three blasts given?
18. When is a signal of four blasts given?
19. What do you do if you do not understand a whistle signal?
20. What is a cross signal?
21. What do you do if a cross signal is given?
22. Are a vessel's rights altered by whistle signals?
23. What whistle signals and action are proper for boats:
a. Meeting head-on?
b. Meeting obliquely?
c. Courses in opposite direction but parallel.
d. Courses in same direction but parallel.
e. Overtaking?
f. Both crossing and overtaking?
g. Boat backing?
h. Boat coming out of slip?
24. What is one's duty in case of collision?
25. What is the danger zonewhere is itwhat should a boat do that 19 in
your danger zone?
26. Explain the rights of way of sailing craft.
Cha'ter .ELights For .essels
1. How would a 25 foot auxiliary, under sail alone, be lighted?
2. How would a 25 foot sail boat (no engine) under sail be lighted?
3. How would a 25 foot motor boat be lighted?
4. How would a 16 foot sail boat on Long sland Sound be lighted?
5. f you see the red side light in your danger zone, what do you know and
what action do you take?
6. f you see the green side light (but not the red) of an approaching motor
vessel, what do you know and what do you do?
7. Through or around how many points may the following lights on vessels
show? (a) White light, (b) Red light, (c) Green light.
8. Should the red and green sidelights be visible across the bow? Are they?
9. f at sea you saw one white light (and no other light), what might it be?
10. f you should see two red lights vertically arranged (and no other lights),
what might it be?
11. f you saw two white lights horizontally arranged (and no other lights),
what might it be?
12. f at sea you saw two lights (vertical, horizontal or otherwise) and one red
and one green light, what might it be?
13. f at sea you saw one red and one green light (without white lights), what
might it be?
14. f you should see a red over a white light, but no red and green sidelights,
what might it be?
15. What lights are carried by motor vessels?
16. What does the law say about the visibility of lights?
17. What precautions must a vessel take which is not required to show a light
visible from astern?
18. How do the lights on ocean and inland steamers differ?
19. How should the aft range light (32 point) on a motor boat always be placed
relative to the bow light?
20. When a red side light on a vessel is visible showing toward your red light,
what do you know about the other boat's course and what action do you
take?
21. When the red side light of a vessel underway is visible showing toward
your green light, what do you know about the other boat's course and what
action do you take?
22. When both red and green sidelights are visible, what is your action?
23. When a side light is visible on your starboard bow and the upper (range)
white light is to the right of the lower white light, what does it indicate to
you and what is your action?
24. When a sidelight is visible on your port side and the upper white (range)
light is to the right of the lower white light, what does it indicate and what is
your action?
25. When both green and red lights are visible ahead and the two white lights
are separating more and more from the vertical, what does it signify and
what is your action?
26. Between what hours are lights carried?
Cha'ter .IEBuo#s And Lighthouses
1. Should it be taken for granted that buoys are always where they should
be, or where the chart shows they are located?
2. How may spar buoys be colored?
3. How may can buoys be colored ?
4. How may nun buoys be colored?
5. How are red buoys numbered?
6. How are black buoys numbered?
7. Are buoys painted red and black numbered?
8. Are buoys painted black and white numbered?
9. What colors are used on an obstruction buoy?
10. What colors are used on a mid-channel buoy?
11. On which side are red buoys left when entering a port or harbor?
12. On which side are red buoys left on leaving a port or harbor?
13. On which side are black buoys left when entering a port or harbor?
14. Do you pass close to or far away from a buoy colored with black and white
vertical stripes?
15. Do you pass close to or far away from a buoy colored with red and black
horizontal stripes?
16. When off shore, going from Maine toward Florida on which side do you
pass red buoys?
17. f on the chart you saw a buoy marked S4, what kind and color of a buoy
would you look for and on which side would you pass it when entering a
harbor?
18. f on the chart you saw a buoy marked N6, what kind and color of a buoy
would you look for and on which side would you pass it when leaving a
harbor?
19. f on the chart you saw a buoy marked C5, what kind and color of a buoy
would you look for and on which side would you pass it when at sea,
running from Cape Hatteras to Cape Charles?
20. Describe the light characteristics of an occulting light buoy?
21. Describe the light characteristics of a flashing light buoy.
22. A buoy on the Hudson River is marked FL. G. ev. 3 sec. Describe this
light.
23. f you are in doubt on which side a buoy should be passed, how do you
determine it?
24. What Government publication gives you complete information about all
buoys?
25. Describe a fixed light.
26. Describe a flashing light.
27. Describe fixed and flashing light.
28. What is an alternating light?
29. The Light List describes New London Ledge light as follows: Gp. Fl. W.
Alt. R; Fl. 30 sec; 3 W, 1R, flashes. Tell briefly in your own language how
this light would appear to you.
30. f a fixed white light suddenly became visible ahead of you, how would you
determine whether it was a vessel's light or a government light house ?
Cha'ter .IIEAn)hors And An)horing
1. How many anchors should a 45-foot motorboat carry?
2. What weights of anchors should a 45-foot motorboat carry?
3. s chain preferable to line on a 45 footer?
4. How is an anchor rode bent to the anchor?
5. What are the rules about scope?
6. Name the parts of an ordinary ketch anchor.
7. What is the use of a trip line?
8. What should be done with the bitter end of the anchor rode?
9. What is a sea-anchor?
10. Assuming you desire to pick up a mooring on the Hudson River with the
tide flowing ebb and your boat coming down the river, describe how you
would do it.
11. f you should desire to come to anchor in a southerly wind, which way
should your boat be heading before throwing over your anchor
(assumeing no current) ?
12. f your anchor became fast in rocks or other obstruction on the bottom so
that you could not readily haul it on board, what action would you take?
Cha'ter .IIIECharts
1. Name the principal projections used in making charts.
2. Name the four series of charts.
3. What special caution should be observed when using charts?
4. What is the purpose of the compass rose printed on charts?
5. What characteristics of the bottom are shown on charts?
6. What characteristics of the land are shown on charts?
7. Name the three methods of showing depths of water on a chart.
8. How would one know whether the figures on charts indicating depths
mean fathoms, feet and fathoms or feet?
9. What is a ten fathom curve?
10. Do the figures shown on charts indicate depths at high or low water?
11. s the water ever shallower than indicated on the chart?
12. How does one determine for any particular time and place whether the
water is likely to be shallower than indicated on the chart?
13. Can a general coastwise chart be safely used for inshore navigation?
14. How does one know there is published a chart of any particular locality?
15. How does one know the number of the chart of a particular locality?
16. What branch of our Government publishes the charts of coastwise
waters ?
17. What branch of our Government publishes the charts of the Great
a. Lakes and St. Lawrence River?
18. f the principal characteristics of a light are not given on a chart, how does
one determine same?
19. How should one determine the day appearance of a lighthouse shown on
the chart?
20. What does the direction of an arrow shown on the chart indicate?
21. What does an arrow with tail feathers indicate?
22. How does one tell whether certain figures printed on the chart indicate
depth of water or the number of a buoy?
23. Give the meaning of the following marks shown on a chart:
a. Rky.
b. Hrd.
c. Bu M, brk, Sh.
d. Stk.
e. Sft.
2. What is the method of indicating on the chart the following qualitiei of the
bottom:
a. Mud
b. Shells
c. Gravel
d. Specks
e. Pebbles
f. Sand
3. Which chart shows the direction of prevailing winds between New York
and Bermuda?
Cha'ter INEThe Com'ass
1. How should a compass be placed on a boat in reference to the keel line?
2. Does the North Pole of the compass point towards magnetic north or
geographic north?
3. What liquid is used in the compass?
4. What is the object of the liquid used in the compass?
5. nto how many points is the compass card divided?
6. nto how many degrees is the compass card divided?
7. How many degrees in one point?
8. Name the cardinal points.
9. Name the intercardinal points.
10. Name the points which may be designated according to old and new
methods.
11. Give the two methods of naming by degrees the following points: NE
12. SE
13. SW
14. W
15. NW
16. Name all the four point courses.
17. Name the reverse course of SW x W 4 W.
18. Name the reverse course of 315.
Cha'ter NECom'ass /rrors
1. What is variation?
2. What is deviation?
3. How do you determine the amount of variation for a particular locality?
4. Describe briefly one method of determining the deviation of a compass.
5. What is a true course?
6. What is a magnetic course?
7. What is a compass course?
8. What is meant by easterly variation?
9. What is meant by easterly deviation?
10. f the variation at Portland, Me., is 15 westerly, is it necessarily the same
at New York City?
11. f the deviation on a particular boat is one point westerly when sailing NE,
will it likely be the same when heading SE?
12. Explain the formula or rule "C E E C"
13. Express the formula CEEC:
a. To find a true course from a magnetic with westerly variation.
b. To find a magnetic course from a compass course with westerly
deviation.
c. To find a magnetic course from a true course with easterly
variation.
d. To find a compass course from a magnetic course with easterly
deviation.
e. To find a magnetic course from a true course with westerly
variation.
14. f you have a westerly deviation, do you steer to the right or left of the
magnetic course by your compass?
15. When sailing n localities where the variation is westerly with zero
deviation, do you steer to the right or left of the true course?
16. What is the net error which must be accounted for to convert a true course
to a compass course with two points westerly variation and one point
easterly deviation?
17. What is the net error which must be accounted for to convert a true course
to a compass course with two points westerly variation and point
westerly deviation?
Cha'ter NIESteering
1. s the rudder as effective when the boat is going astern as it is when going
ahead?
2. With rudder hard right, right hand screw, when starting to back, will the
boat generally back to starboard or port?
3. n maneuvering a twin screw boat, how is the rudder used?
4. n turning, does the bow or stern swing the greater amount?
5. Does speed effect the diameter of a turning circle of a single screw
cruiser?
6. f a boat is drifting with no wind or current, will the rudder have any effect
on the boat's course?
7. What is the effect on a boat's speed by putting the rudder hard over?
8. Under ordinary conditions with no wind or current, is it preferable to land
with the boat's port or starboard side to the float?
9. n turning around in a narrow canal where it is not possible to make a
complete turn in one swing, is it better to turn to port or starboard ?
10. Describe the principal operations when leaving one's mooring.
11. Describe the principal operations when picking up one's mooring.
12. What is the important thing to remember about the dinghy painter when
leaving or picking up a mooring or landing at a float?
13. How should the wind and current be taken advantage of when landing or
leaving a float?
Cha'ter NIIESmall Boat Handling
1. As a general rule, which way does the bow tend to swing due to the action
of the propeller?
2. When it is necessary to back in restricted quarters, is it better to plan to
back so that the bow will swing to port or to starboard?
*n questions Nos. 3-10, it is assumed that the offshore side of a boat bears
north-south and is the easterly side of the float. The inshore or westerly side is
inaccessible.
The two ends, bearing east-west are accessible.
3. A raised deck cruiser is made fast to a float and is heading due north, the
wind is blowing from the north, turning quarters are limited, but the course
which the boat is to take is due south. Describe the best method to get
away from the float and get on one's course.
4. A raised deck cruiser is made fast to a float and is heading due north, the
wind is blowing from the northeast, turning quarters are limited but the
course which the boat is to take is due south. Describe the best method to
get away from the float and get on one's course.
5. A raised deck cruiser is made fast to a float and is heading due north, the
wind is blowing from the east, turning quarters are limited but the course
which the boat is to take is due south. Describe the best method to get
away from the float and get on one's course.
6. A raised deck cruiser is made fast to a float and is heading due north, the
wind is blowing from the southeast, turning quarters are limited but the
course which the boat is to take is due south. Describe the best method to
get away from the float and get on one's course.
7. A raised deck cruiser is made fast to a float and is heading due north, the
wind is blowing from the south, turning quarters are limited but the course
which the boat is to take is due south. Describe the best method to get
away from the float and get on one's course.
8. A raised deck cruiser is made fast to a float and is heading due north, the
wind is blowing from the southwest, turning quarters are limited but the
course which the boat is to take is due south. Describe the best method to
get away from the float and get on one's course.
9. A raised deck cruiser is made fast to a float and is heading due north, the
wind is blowing from the west, turning quarters are limited but the course
which the boat is to take is due south. Describe the best method to get
away from the float and get on one's course.
10. A raised deck cruiser is made fast to a float and is heading due north, the
wind is blowing from the northwest, turning quarters are limited but the
course which the boat is to take is due south. Describe the best method to
get away from the float and get on one's course.
Cha'ter NIIIEBoat Handling $nder .arious Sea Conditions
1. What are some of the indications that a boat is getting into shallow water?
2. What caution should be observed when crossing a reef or bar?
3. When approaching too close to a beach, what are some of the water
indications?
4. What are ride rips?
5. Describe how it is best to handle one's boat
a. Against a head sea
b. n a beam sea
c. n a following sea
6. How may the presence of rocks and sand be determined?
7. n running along a lee shore what caution should be observed and what
action taken?
Cha'ter NI.ESeamanshi' Hints
1. What is important concerning speed in a seaway?
2. f you are at sea in heavy weather and wish to relieve the strain on your
boat, indicate in order of their importance (to relieve strain) the following
maneuvers:
a. Head directly in head sea at slow speed.
b. Taking the sea on bow at slow speed.
c. Taking the sea on the quarter at slow speed.
d. Taking the sea on the beam.
e. Stopping the engine.
f. Running before the sea at high speed.
g. Running before the sea at slow speed.
3. State precautions which should be taken with heavy weather coming on.
4. Describe the sea anchor and how it is used.
5. How should a dinghy be towed.
6. How should another boat which is in need of a tow be approached in order
to pass a tow line.
7. Discuss the maneuverability of towing another boat.
8. What is a safe rule to follow as to where to make a tow line fast to a boat
when attempting to make a strong pull on a tow line.
9. What precautions should be taken when swimming from a boat?
10. Describe Hove-to.
11. n entering an inlet from the open sea what caution should be observed
and what action should be taken?
Cha'ter N.ESailingEIn Theor#
1. Briefly describe the following rigs:
a. Lateen
b. Square
c. Gaff
d. Jib-headed
2. s heel an advantage or disadvantage?
3. How is stability obtained?
4. What is leeway?
5. Name the two principal methods of construction to overcome leeway.
6. How can a sailing craft reach an objective dead to windward?
7. What is:
a. Center of effort.
b. Center of lateral plane.
c. Lead.
8. How does the skipper overcome the condition:
a. When CLP is too far aft.
b. When CLP is too far forward.
9. As a boat heels how does the CLP move:
10. As a boat heels how does the CE move?
11. Should the CE be located forward or aft of the CLP?
12. Why is it generally a good thing for a boat to have a little weather helm?
Cha'ter N.IEBoat Handling In Fog
1. What are the basic things to remember about fog and fog signals?
2. f you were heading into the wind and should hear 2 blasts on the fog horn
ahead of you, what type of boat would you know was crossing your bow
and from what direction?
3. n the fog if you heard the rapid ringing of a bell, what would it indicate to
you?
4. On the coastwise waters in the fog if you heard 1 blast of a whistle, what
would it indicate to you and what would be your action?
5. On the Great Lakes in a fog if you heard a siren, what would it indicate to
you and what would be your action?
6. n a fog if you heard 1 long blast followed by 2 short blasts on a whistle,
what would it indicate to you and what would be your action?
7. n a fog, on coastal waters, if you heard 1 long blast followed by 2 short
blasts on a fog horn, what would it indicate to you and what would be your
action?
8. May a motor boat use a fog horn?
9. What caution ought always to be remembered about fog signals in
reference to the carrying power and direction of sound in a fog?
10. Should you assume that a fog signal is not being sounded or that you are
not near a danger if you do not hear the fog signal?
Cha'ter N.IIEPiloting Instruments
1. What navigating instruments should be carried aboard a small cruiser?
2. How is the depth corresponding to two fathoms marked on the lead line?
3. How is the depth corresponding to three fathoms marked on the lead line?
4. How is the depth corresponding to five fathoms marked on the lead line?
5. How is the depth corresponding to seven fathoms marked on the lead
line?
6. How is the depth corresponding to ten fathoms marked on the lead line?
7. What depths are indicated by three strips of leather?
8. What depth is indicated by two knots?
9. What depths are indicated by one knot?
10. What is meant by "marks"?
11. What is meant by "deeps"?
12. What is meant by "arming the lead"?
13. Does the patent log indicate distances in Statute or Nautical miles?
14. A patent log shows the following readings: 10 A.M. 2.75, 10.30 A.M. 5.25.
What is the speed of the boat?
15. What conditions are likely to cause patent logs to give inaccurate
readings?
16. What is a chronometer?
17. Explain how to use an ordinary course protractor.
18. From what publication, do you find the time of high water at Sandy Hook?
19. From what publication would you find the characteristics of Execution
Light?
20. The fog signal characteristics.
21. f you wanted to find out whether supplies could be had at Port
Washington, where would you find it?
Cha'ter N.IIIESim'le Piloting
1. Define piloting.
2. Define laying a course.
3. Name 3 methods of getting a fix.
4. Describe getting a fix by cross bearings.
5. A light bears 4 points off bow at 10 A.M. and is abeam at 10.45 A.M.
Speed of boat 12 miles an hour. How far off is light at 10.45 A.M.?
6. Course SE, bearing of light at 8 P.M. East, at 9 P.M. North East, speed of
boat 10 miles an hour. How far off is the light at 9 P.M.?
7. Course E bearing of light ENE at 8 P.M., North East at 8.30 P. M. Speed
of boat 10 miles an hour. What is distance from light at 8.30 P.M.?
8. n question No. 3 how far off is light when abeam?
9. n question No. 3 what time will light be abeam?
10. An object 2 points off bow at noon and abeam at 1.30 P.M. Speed of
boat 8 knots. How far off is object when abeam?
11. Object is 6 points off bow at noon, log reads 10.5, is abeam at 12.30 P.M.
with log reading of 15.5. How far off is object at 12.30?
12. n question No. 7 what is the speed of the boat?
Cha'ter NINESignaling
1. nternational Code Flags
2. What does a set of signal flags consist of?
3. nto what letter groups are the code flags arranged?
4. How are positions in Latitude and Longitude signaled by flags?
5. How is position to be signaled when a Latitude is close to the Equator or
Longitude close to the Meridian?
6. How would you signal a Longitude group more than 99 degrees?
7. How are bearings to be signaled?
8. Are bearings to be signaled as True or Magnetic?
9. How would you signal Time?
10. How would you signal the exact time for comparison of chronometers,
clocks, watches, etc.?
11. How would you signal numbers by pennants?
12. How would you indicate a decimal point between numeral pennants?
13. As a rule how many hoists should be shown at a time?
14. When several hoists are displayed simultaneously, in what order are they
to be read?
15. What flag means "yes" in the nternational code?
16. What flag means "no"?
17. What is the nternational Flag Signal of distress?
18. What is meant by a "tackline"?
19. What are the repeaters used for?
20. Which flag in the hoist does the first repeater repeat?
21. How are proper names sent by flag hoist?
22. What would Code over "E" mean?
23. What would Code flag over "G" mean ?
24. Explain the use of the model verb.
25. To transmit the words "We will not be able" what would you look up first?
26. What do the words "Encode" and Decode" mean?
27. How can you tell whether a four flag hoist is a geographical name of a
place or a ship's call?
28. What flags do U. S. ship's call begin with?
29. What is the difference as to whether a ship's signal letters precede or
follow signals?
30. What signal flag is used to call shore stations?
31. How are positions sent by flags?
32. How do you call a ship if it is the only one in sight?
33. How would you signal to one vessel of a group?
34. How do you answer signals?
35. What if you do not understand the signal?
36. How do you end a message?
37. What does a warship do, when she wishes to communicate with a
merchant vessel?
38. How are commands or orders made plain?
39. How do you tell whether a word is to be regarded as singular or plural?
b. Practice SentencesSemaphore and Blinker Light
a. The lazy horse gave a quick jerk which broke an axle and hurled
the farmer on his head.
b. He was puzzled to know how to coax the brave juggler to some
quiet spot away from the platform.
c. One of the boys quickly threw the large javelin beyond the
maximum distance and won the prize.
d. The zealous student became quite exhausted and dizzy before the
journey was half over.
e. The jury quickly agreed upon a verdict and all expect the musical
zealot will be given a heavy fine.
f. n consequence of his love of luxury the wealthy jeweler did not join
in the craze to climb the high mountain peaks.
g. Four jovial sailors went to the quizzical captain on the deck and
asked him to give them leave of absence for sixty days.
h. Few men could be more jolly than our new acquaintance until he
saw his clerk puzzling over the columns of the stock exchange.
i. All the expense of publishing the jokes in the columns of the daily
press were borne by the queer old man whose zeal has never
flagged.
j. Many unjust laws allow bold knaves to exist in high places and
acquire great influence with which they dazzle the eyes of the
people.
k. The poor cabman many times expressed his thanks to the judge for
his kindness and said he would return with the zebra as soon as his
quest was over.
l. He was at the zenith of his power when the officials began making
an inquiry in regard to his prejudice against the single tax
movement.
m. Next day they were all equally amazed to see the grizzled veteran
enter the ranks and march from the barracks to join in the parade.
n. Several of the boys had torn their jackets before they realized the
wisdom of taking an axe to chop away the branches at the quarry.
o. Though still dizzy the injured chauffeur who wore a quaint crimson
cloak gave an exact description of the vanishing automobile.
Cha'ter NNES'e)ial Signals
1. How does the Coast Guard indicate to you that "This is the best place to
land"?
2. How does the Coast Guard indicate to you "Do not attempt to land"?
3. What does the American ensign when set Union down indicate?
4. One black ball shown from a steamer indicates what?
5. How does a motorboat indicate that she is in distress at night?
6. f you noticed a vessel flying the code flag "G" with a code pennant over it,
what would you know this vessel desired?
7. What is the signal for a submarine in distress?
8. What is the signal for a submarine surfacing?
9. What is the significance of two red pennants hoisted one above the other?
10. What is the small craft warning?
11. What may be expected when two square red flags with black square
centers are seen?
12. What is the storm signal for a whole gale?
13. What storm signal is used by night as a hurricane warning?
14. What is the day mark for a vessel of over 300 tons at anchor?
15. What is the day mark for a fishing vessel?
16. Give bell time for the following:
a. 12.30 o'clock
b. 3.00 o'clock
c. 4.00 o'clock
d. 6.00 o'clock
e. 7.30 o'clock
f. 8.00 o'cloc
Cha'ter NNIE&adio
1. What is the radio compass?
2. Name 5 uses of radio as applied to piloting or navigation.
3. What is a radio direction finder station?
4. List the steps in the procedure for making use of a radio direction finder
station.
5. What is a radio beacon?
6. When do radio beacon stations operate (in normal times)?
7. What is a distance finding station?
8. Name the 6 sources of error in radio direction finding.
Cha'ter NNIIE%eather
1. When there is an area of high pressure over the SE and a cold wave in
the NW threatens, what kind of weather may be expected?
2. What is generally true of storms, which develop in the SW?
3. f there are marked changes in temperature in the SE and NW during the
progress of storms what is likely to result?
4. f a storm east of the Rocky Mountains moves to the left of its normal track
what is likely to follow?
5. When the wind sets in from points between S and SE and the barometer
falls steadily what does it indicate?
6. With winds to NE, barometer 30.1 and above and falling slowly, what are
the indications?
7. With the wind S to E, barometer 29.8 or below and falling rapidly, i
clearing or stormy weather to be expected?
8. What would be the barometer reading and direction of wind to expect fair
weather for the next 1 or 2 days?
9. What should the barometer reading and wind direction be to expect
warmer weather?
10. To expect clearing weather should the wind "veer" or "back"?
11. To expect foul weather should the wind "veer" or "back"?
12. When the force of the wind is referred to, how is it done?
13. What would a wind of Force 4 be?
14. What kind of weather is generally indicated by the following signs:
a. Cirrus clouds
b. Cumulus clouds
c. Red at sunrise
d. Red at sundown
e. Early morning fog
f. Rainbow
g. Heavy dew
h. Ring around the moon
Cha'ter NNIIIESafet# At Sea
1. What are the requirements as to speed in fog?
2. On hearing "Man overboard," what is the first thing to do?
3. What is the fastest way of getting to a person who has fallen overboard?
4. Where should gasoline filler pipes be located?
5. What ventilation should be provided for engine rooms?
6. What precautions should be taken when filling gas tanks?
7. Where will dangerous concentrations of fumes lie, if present?
8. What fire fighting equipment might be useful, other than extinguishers?
9. What caution should be used in extinguishing fires with carbon
tetrachloride?