The Art of Loving is a 1956 book by psychologist and social philosopher Erich Fromm,[1] which was published as part

of the !orld "erspecti#es $eries [%] edited by &uth 'anda (nshen) *n this work, Fromm recapitulated and complemented the theoretical principles of human nature found in Fromm+s Escape from Freedom and Man for Himself , principles which were re#isited in many of his other ma-or works) Fromm presents lo#e as a skill that can be taught and de#eloped) .e re-ects the idea of lo#ing as something magical and mysterious that cannot be analy/ed and e0plained, and is therefore skeptical about popular ideas such as falling in lo#e or being helpless in the face of lo#e) 1ecause modern humans are alienated from each other and from nature, we seek refuge from our aloneness in romantic lo#e and marriage 2pp) 39,415) .owe#er, Fromm obser#es that real lo#e is not a sentiment which can be easily indulged in by anyone) *t is only through de#eloping one+s total personality to the capacity of lo#ing one+s neighbor with true humility, courage, faith and discipline that one attains the capacity to e0perience real lo#e) 6his should be considered a rare achie#ement 2p) #ii5) Fromm defended these opinions also in inter#iew with 7ike !allace when he states8 lo#e today is a relati#ely rare phenomenon, that we ha#e a great deal of sentimentality9 we ha#e a great deal of illusion about lo#e, namely as a)))as something one falls in) 1ut the :uestion is that one cannot fall in lo#e, really9 one has to be in lo#e) (nd that means that lo#ing becomes, and the ability to lo#e, becomes one of the most important things in life) [;] The Art of Loving argues that the acti#e character of true lo#e in#ol#es four basic elements8 care, responsibility, respect, and knowledge 2p) %<5) Each of these is difficult to define and can differ markedly depending on the people in#ol#ed and their circumstances) $een in these terms, lo#e is hard work, but it is also the most rewarding kind of work) =ne of the book+s concepts is self>lo#e) (ccording to Fromm, lo#ing oneself is :uite different from arrogance, conceit or egocentrism) ?o#ing oneself means caring about oneself, taking responsibility for oneself, respecting oneself, and knowing oneself 2e)g) being realistic and honest about one+s strengths and weaknesses5) *n order to be able to truly lo#e another person, one needs first to lo#e oneself in this way) Fromm calls the general idea of lo#e in contemporary !estern society gosme deux , a relationship in which each person is entirely focused on the other, to the detriment of other people around them) 6he current belief is that a couple should be a well>assorted team, se0ually and functionally, working towards a common aim) 6his is in contrast with Fromm+s description of true lo#e and intimacy, which in#ol#es willful commitment directed toward a single uni:ue indi#idual) =ne cannot truly lo#e another person if one does not lo#e all of mankind including oneself) 6he book includes e0plorations of the theories of brotherly lo#e, motherly and fatherly lo#e, erotic lo#e, self>lo#e, and the lo#e of @od 2pp) 3,365, and an e0amination into lo#e+s disintegration in contemporary !estern culture 2pp) 33,945) 6o be able to fully comprehend the ideas illustrated in Fromm+s book, one must understand the concept of parado0ical thought, or the ability to concile opposing principles in one same instance) Fromm himself e0plains parado0ical thought in the chapters dedicated to the lo#e of @od and erotic lo#e) Fromm begins the last chapter 6he "ractice of ?o#e saying8 [)))] many readers of this book, e0pect to be gi#en prescriptions of +how to do it to yourself+ [)))]) * am afraid that anyone who approaches this last chapter in this spirit will be gra#ely disappointed )

?ife[edit]

Erich Fromm was born on 7arch %;, 19AA, at Frankfurt am 7ain, the only child of =rthodo0 Bewish parents) .e started his academic studies in 1914 at theCni#ersity of Frankfurt am 7ain with two semesters of -urisprudence) During the summer semester of 1919, Fromm studied at the Cni#ersity of .eidelberg, where he began studying sociology under (lfred !eber 2brother of the better known sociologist 7a0 !eber5, the psychiatrist>philosopher Earl Baspers, and.einrich &ickert) Fromm recei#ed his "hD in sociology from .eidelberg in 19%%) During the mid>19%As, he trained to become a psychoanalyst throughFrieda &eichmann+s psychoanalytic sanatorium in .eidelberg) .e began his own clinical practice in 19%3) *n 19;A he -oined the Frankfurt *nstitute for $ocial &esearch and completed his psychoanalytical training) (fter the 'a/i takeo#er of power in @ermany, Fromm mo#ed first to @ene#a and then, in 19;<, to Folumbia Cni#ersity in 'ew Gork) 6ogether with Earen .orney and .arry $tack $ulli#an, Fromm belongs to a 'eo>Freudian school of psychoanalytical thought) .orney and Fromm each had a marked influence on the other+s thought, with .orney illuminating some aspects of psychoanalysis for Fromm and the latter elucidating sociology for .orney) 6heir relationship ended in the late 19;As) [%] (fter lea#ing Folumbia, Fromm helped form the 'ew Gork branch of the !ashington $chool of "sychiatry in 19<;, and in 19<6 co>founded the !illiam (lanson !hite *nstitute of "sychiatry, "sychoanalysis, and "sychology) .e was on the faculty of 1ennington Follegefrom 19<1 to 19<9) !hen Fromm mo#ed to 7e0ico Fity in 19<9, he became a professor at the 'ational (utonomous Cni#ersity of 7e0ico 2C'(75 and established a psychoanalytic section at the medical school there) 7eanwhile, he taught as a professor of psychology at 7ichigan $tate Cni#ersity from 1953 to 1961 and as an ad-unct professor of psychology at the graduate di#ision of (rts and $ciences at 'ew Gork Cni#ersity after 196%) .e taught at C'(7 until his retirement, in 1965, and at the 7e0ican $ociety of "sychoanalysis 2$7"5 until 193<) *n 193< he mo#ed from 7e0ico Fity to 7uralto, $wit/erland, and died at his home in 194A, fi#e days before his eightieth birthday) (ll the while, Fromm maintained his own clinical practice and published a series of books)

"sychological theory[edit]
1eginning with his first seminal work of 19<1, Escape from Freedom 2known in 1ritain as Fear of Freedom5, Fromm+s writings were notable as much for their social and political commentary as for their philosophical and psychological underpinnings) *ndeed, Escape from Freedom is #iewed as one of the founding works of political psychology) .is second important work, Man for Himself: An n!uir" into the #s"cholog" of Ethics, first published in 19<3, continued and enriched the ideas of Escape from Freedom) 6aken together, these books outlined Fromm+s theory of human character, which was a natural outgrowth of Fromm+s theory of human nature) Fromm+s most popular book was The Art of Loving, an international bestseller first published in 1956, which recapitulated and complemented the theoretical principles of human nature found in Escape from Freedom and Man for HimselfHprinciples which were re#isited in many of Fromm+s other ma-or works) Fentral to Fromm+s world #iew was his interpretation of the 6almud and .asidism) .e began studying 6almud as a young man under &abbi B) .orowit/ and later under &abbi $alman 1aruch &abinkow, a Fhabad .asid, while working towards his doctorate in sociology at the Cni#ersity of .eidelberg, Fromm studied the 6anya by the founder of Fhabad, &abbi $hneur Ialman of ?iadi) Fromm also studied under 'ehemia 'obel and ?udwig Erause while studying in Frankfurt) Fromm+s grandfather and two great grandfathers on his father+s side were rabbis, and a great uncle on his mother+s side was a noted

6almudic scholar) .owe#er, Fromm turned away from orthodo0 Budaism in 19%6, towards secular interpretations of scriptural ideals) 6he cornerstone of Fromm+s humanistic philosophy is his interpretation of the biblical story of (dam and E#e+s e0ile from the @arden of Eden) Drawing on his knowledge of the 6almud, Fromm pointed out that being able to distinguish between good and e#il is generally considered to be a #irtue, and that biblical scholars generally consider (dam and E#e to ha#e sinned by disobeying @od and eating from the 6ree of Enowledge) .owe#er, departing from traditional religious orthodo0y on this, Fromm extolled the #irtues of humans taking independent action and using reason to establish moral #alues rather than adhering to authoritarian moral #alues) 1eyond a simple condemnation of authoritarian #alue systems, Fromm used the story of (dam and E#e as an allegorical e0planation for human biological e#olution and e0istential angst, asserting that when (dam and E#e ate from the 6ree of Enowledge, they became aware of themsel#es as being separate from nature while still being part of it) 6his is why they felt naked and ashamed 8 they had e#ol#ed into human beings, conscious of themsel#es, their own mortality, and their powerlessness before the forces of nature and society, and no longer united with the uni#erse as they were in their instincti#e, pre>human e0istence as animals) (ccording to Fromm, the awareness of a disunited human e0istence is a source of guilt and shame, and the solution to this e0istential dichotomy is found in the de#elopment of one+s uni:uely human powers of lo#e and reason) .owe#er, Fromm distinguished his concept of lo#e from unreflecti#e popular notions as well as Freudian paradoxical lo#e 2see the criticism by 7arcuse below5) Fromm considered lo#e to be an interpersonal creati#e capacity rather than an emotion, and he distinguished this creati#e capacity from what he considered to be #arious forms of narcissistic neuroses and sado>masochistic tendencies that are commonly held out as proof of true lo#e ) *ndeed, Fromm #iewed the e0perience of falling in lo#e as e#idence of one+s failure to understand the true nature of lo#e, which he belie#ed always had the common elements of care, responsi$ilit", respect, and %no&ledge) Drawing from his knowledge of the 6orah, Fromm pointed to the story of Bonah, who did not wish to sa#e the residents of 'ine#eh from the conse:uences of their sin, as demonstrati#e of his belief that the :ualities of care and responsi$ilit" are generally absent from most human relationships) Fromm also asserted that few people in modern society had respect for the autonomy of their fellow human beings, much less the ob-ecti#e %no&ledge of what other people truly wanted and needed) Fromm belie#ed that freedom was an aspect of human nature that we either embrace or escape) .e obser#ed that embracing our freedom of will was healthy, whereas escaping freedom through the use of escape mechanisms was the root of psychological conflicts) Fromm outlined three of the most common escape mechanisms8 automaton conformity, authoritarianism, and destructi#eness) Automaton conformit" is changing one+s ideal self to conform to a perception of society+s preferred type of personality, losing one+s true self in the process) Automaton conformit"displaces the burden of choice from self to society) Authoritarianism is gi#ing control of oneself to another) 1y submitting one+s freedom to someone else, this act remo#es the freedom of choice almost entirely) ?astly, destructiveness is any process which attempts to eliminate others or the world as a whole, all to escape freedom) Fromm said that the destruction of the world is the last, almost desperate attempt to sa#e myself from being crushed by it )[;]

6he word biophilia was fre:uently used by Fromm as a description of a producti#e psychological orientation and state of being ) For e0ample, in an addendum to his book The Heart of Man: ts 'enius For 'ood and Evil, Fromm wrote as part of his .umanist Fredo8 * belie#e that the man choosing progress can find a new unity through the de#elopment of all his human forces, which are produced in three orientations) 6hese can be presented separately or together8 biophilia, lo#e for humanity and nature, and independence and freedom) [<] Erich Fromm postulated eight basic needs8 Relatedness &elationships with others, care, respect, knowledge) Transcendence 1eing thrown into the world without their consent, humans ha#e to transcend their nature by destroying or creating people or things)[5] .umans can destroy through malignant aggression, or killing for reasons other than sur#i#al, but they can also create and care about their creations) [5] Rootedness &ootedness is the need to establish roots and to feel at home again in the world) [5] "roducti#ely, rootedness enables us to grow beyond the security of our mother and establish ties with the outside world)[5] !ith the nonproducti#e strategy, we become fi0ated and afraid to mo#e beyond the security and safety of our mother or a mother substitute) [5] Sense of Identity 6he dri#e for a sense of identity is e0pressed nonproducti#ely as conformity to a group and producti#ely as indi#iduality)[5] Frame of orientation Cnderstanding the world and our place in it) Excitation and Stimulation (cti#ely stri#ing for a goal rather than simply responding) Unity ( sense of oneness between one person and the natural and human world outside) Effectiveness 6he need to feel accomplished)[6] Fromm+s thesis of the escape from freedom is epitomi/ed in the following passage) 6he indi#iduali/ed man referenced by Fromm is man bereft of the primary ties of belonging 2i)e) nature, family, etc)5, also e0pressed as freedom from 8 6here is only one possible, producti#e solution for the relationship of indi#iduali/ed man with the world8 his acti#e solidarity with all men and his spontaneous acti#ity, lo#e and work, which unite him again with the world, not by primary ties but as a free and independent indi#idual)))) .owe#er, if the economic, social and political conditions))) do not offer

a basis for the reali/ation of indi#iduality in the sense -ust mentioned, while at the same time people ha#e lost those ties which ga#e them security, this lag makes freedom an unbearable burden) *t then becomes identical with doubt, with a kind of life which lacks meaning and direction) "owerful tendencies arise to escape from this kind of freedom into submission or some kind of relationship to man and the world which promises relief from uncertainty, e#en if it depri#es the indi#idual of his freedom) 2Erich Fromm, Escape from Freedom [')G)8 &inehart, 19<1], pp) ;6,3) 6he point is repeated on pp) ;1, %56,3)5

Six orientations[edit]
*n his book Man for Himself Fromm spoke of orientation of character ) .e described two ways an indi#idual relates to the world, constituting his or her general character8 15 ac:uiring and assimilating things H assimilation , and %5 reacting to peopleH sociali/ation ) Fromm asserted that these two character systems 2or orientations5, which he belie#ed were the human substitute for animal instincts, represented the way a person responds to conflicts in his or her life9 he also belie#ed that people are ne#er e0clusi#ely one type of orientation) 6hese two kinds of orientation form fi#e types of malignant character, which he called &ecepti#e, E0ploitati#e, .oarding, 'ecrophilous, and 7arketing, and one positi#e character, which he called "roducti#e)

Fromm's influence on other notable psychologists[edit]

Fromm+s four non>producti#e orientations were sub-ect to #alidation through a psychometric test, The #erson (elatedness Test by Elias .) "orter, "hD in collaboration with Farl &ogers, "hD at the Cni#ersity of Fhicago+s Founseling Fenter between 195; and 1955) Fromm+s four non>producti#e orientations also ser#ed as basis for the L F) test, first published in 1963 by $tuart (tkins, (lan Eatcher, "hD, and Elias "orter, "hD and the *trength +eplo"ment nventor", first published in 1931 by Elias .) "orter, "hD)[3]

Friti:ue of Freud[edit]
Fromm e0amined the life and work of $igmund Freud at length) .e identified a discrepancy between early and later Freudian theory8 namely, that prior to !orld !ar *, Freud described human dri#es as a tension between desire and repression, but after the war+s conclusion, he framed human dri#es as a struggle between biologically uni#ersal ?ife and Death 2Eros and 6hanatos5 instincts) Fromm charged Freud and his followers with ne#er acknowledging the contradictions between the two theories)

.e also critici/ed Freud+s dualistic thinking) (ccording to Fromm, Freudian descriptions of human consciousness as struggles between two poles was narrow and limiting) Fromm also condemned him as a misogynist unable to think outside the patriarchal milieu of early %Ath century Jienna) .owe#er, Fromm e0pressed a great respect for Freud and his accomplishments, in spite of these criticisms) Fromm contended that Freud was one of the architects of the modern age , alongside (lbert Einstein and Earl 7ar0, but emphasi/ed that he considered 7ar0 both far more historically important than Freud and a finer thinker)[4]

"olitical ideas and acti#ities[edit]

Fromm+s best known work, Escape from Freedom, focuses on the human urge to seek a source of authority and control upon reaching a freedom that was thought to be an indi#idualKs true desire) FrommKs criti:ue of the modern political order and capitalist system led him to seek insights from medie#al feudalism) *n Escape from Freedom, he found fa#or with the lack of indi#idual freedom, rigid structure, and obligations re:uired on the members of medie#al society8 !hat characteri/es medie#al in contrast to modern society is its lack of indi#idual freedomL1ut altogether a person was not free in the modern sense, neither was he alone and isolated) *n ha#ing a distinct, unchangeable, and un:uestionable place in the social world from the moment of birth, man was rooted in a structurali/ed whole, and thus life had a meaning which left no place, and no need for doubtL6here was comparati#ely little competition) =ne was born into a certain economic position which guaranteed a li#elihood determined by tradition, -ust as it carried economic obligations to those higher in the social hierarchy)[9]

'oam Fhomsky discusses Erich Fromm+s theory of alienation)

6he culmination of Fromm+s social and political philosophy was his book The *ane *ociet", published in 1955, which argued in fa#or of a humanistic anddemocratic socialism) 1uilding primarily upon the early works of Earl 7ar0, Fromm sought to re>emphasise the ideal of freedom, missing from most $o#iet 7ar0ism and more fre:uently found in the writings of libertarian socialists and liberal theoreticians) Fromm+s brand of socialism re-ected both!estern capitalism and $o#iet communism, which he saw as dehumani/ing, and which resulted in the #irtually uni#ersal modern phenomenon ofalienation) .e became one of the founders of socialist humanism, promoting the early writings of 7ar0 and his humanist messages to the C$ and !estern European public) *n the early 196As, Fromm published two books dealing with 7ar0ist thought 2Marx,s -oncept of Man and .e"ond the -hains of llusion: M" Encounter &ith Marx and Freud5) *n 1965, working to stimulate the !estern and Eastern cooperation between 7ar0ist humanists, Fromm published a series of articles entitled *ocialist Humanism: An nternational *"mposium) *n 1966, the (merican .umanist (ssociation named him .umanist of the Gear) For a period, Fromm was also acti#e in C)$) politics) .e -oined the $ocialist "arty of (merica in the mid>195As, and did his best to help them pro#ide an alternati#e #iewpoint to the pre#ailing 7cFarthyism of the time) 6his alternati#e #iewpoint was best e0pressed in his 1961 paper Ma" Man #revail/ An n!uir" into the Facts and Fictions of Foreign #olic") .owe#er, as a co>founder of $('E, Fromm+s strongest political acti#ism was in the international peace mo#ement, fighting against the nuclear arms race and C)$) in#ol#ement in theJietnam !ar) (fter supporting $enator Eugene 7cFarthy+s losing bid for the Democratic presidential nomination, Fromm more or less retreated from the (merican political scene, although he did write a paper in 193< entitled (emar%s on the #olic" of +tente for a hearing held by the C)$) $enate Fommittee on Foreign &elations)

Friticism[edit]
'oam Fhomsky liked Fromm+s attitudes but thought his work was pretty superficial) [1A] *n Eros and -ivili0ation, .erbert 7arcuse is critical of Fromm8 in the beginning he was a radical theorist, but later he turned to conformity) 7arcuse also noted that Fromm, as well as his close colleagues $ulli#an and Earen .orney, remo#ed Freud+s libido theory and other radical concepts, which thus reduced psychoanalysis to a set of idealist ethics, which only embrace the status :uo) [11] Fromm+s response, in both The *ane *ociet"[1%] and in The

Anatom" of Human +estructiveness,[1;]argues that Freud indeed deser#es substantial credit for recogni/ing the central importance of the unconscious, but also that he tended to reify his own concepts that depicted the self as the passi#e outcome of instinct and social control, with minimal #olition or #ariability) Fromm argues that later scholars such as 7arcuse accepted these concepts as dogma, whereas social psychology re:uires a more dynamic theoretical and empirical approach)

1ibliography[edit]
Early wor in !erman[edit]
+as 12dische 'eset03 Ein .eitrag 0ur *o0iologie des +iaspora4 5udentums3, "romotion, 19%%) *$1' ;><5;>A9496>M 6$er Methode und Aufga$en einer anal"tischen *o0ialps"chologie) Ieitschrift fNr $o/ialforschung, 1d) 1, 19;%, $) %4,5<) +ie ps"choanal"tische -hara%terologie und ihre .edeutung f2r die *o0ialps"chologie3 Ieitschrift fNr $o/ialforschung, 1d) 1, 19;%, $) %5;,%33) *o0ialps"chologischer Teil3 n: *tudien 2$er Autorit7t und Familie3 Forschungsberichte aus dem *nstitut fNr $o/ialforschung) (lcan, "aris 19;6, $) 33,1;5) 8&eite A$teilung: Erhe$ungen 2Erich Fromm u)a)5) *n8 $tudien Nber (utoritOt und Familie) Forschungsberichte aus dem *nstitut fNr $o/ialforschung) (lcan, "aris 19;6, $) %%9,<69) +ie Furcht vor der Freiheit, 19<1 2*n English, FearPDread of Freedom 5) *$1' ;><%;>;5A%<>5 #s"choanal"se 9 Ethi%, 19<6) *$1' ;><%;>;5A11>; #s"choanal"se 9 (eligion, 19<9) *$1' ;><%;>;<1A5>M 26he Dwight .) 6erry ?ectureship 19<9P195A5

"ater wor s in English[edit]

Escape from Freedom :;3*3<= The Fear of Freedom :;>< 219<15 *$1' 934>A>4A5A>;1<9>% Man for himself= an in!uir" into the ps"cholog" of ethics 219<35 *$1' 934>A>4A5A>1<A;>3 #s"choanal"sis and (eligion 2195A5 *$1' 934>A>;AA>AAA49><

The Forgotten Language? an introduction to the understanding of dreams= fair" tales= and m"ths 219515 *$1' 934>A>A;>A14<;6>9

The *ane *ociet" 219555 *$1' 934>A><15>6A546>1 The Art of Loving 219565 *$1' 934>A>A6>11%93;>5 *igmund Freud,s mission? an anal"sis of his personalit" and influence 219595

8en .uddhism and #s"choanal"sis 2196A5 *$1' 934>A>%45> 6<3<3>;

Ma" Man #revail/ An in!uir" into the facts and fictions of foreign polic" 219615 *$1' 934>A>;45>AAA;5>%

Marx,s -oncept of Man 219615 *$1' 934>A>4%6<>3391>A .e"ond the -hains of llusion: m" encounter &ith Marx and Freud 2196%5 *$1' 934>A>4%6<>1493>5

The +ogma of -hrist and )ther Essa"s on (eligion= #s"cholog" and -ulture 2196;5 *$1' 934>A><15>%4999>;

The Heart of Man= its genius for good and evil 2196<5 *$1' 934>A> A6>A9A395>%

*ocialist Humanism 219655 @ou *hall .e as 'ods: a radical interpretation of the )ld Testament and its tradition 219665 *$1' 934>A>4A5A>16A5>5

The (evolution of Hope= to&ard a humani0ed technolog" 219645 *$1' 934>1>59A56>14;>6

The Aature of Man 219645 *$1' 934>A>4656%>A4%>3 The -risis of #s"choanal"sis 2193A5 *$1' 934>A><<9>;A39%>% *ocial character in a Mexican village? a sociops"choanal"tic stud" 2Fromm Q 7accoby5 2193A5 *$1' 934>1>56AAA>436>3

The Anatom" of Human +estructiveness 2193;5 *$1' 934>A>4A5A> 16A<>4

To Have or to .e/ 219365 *$1' 934>A>4A5A>16A<>4 'reatness and Limitation of Freud,s Thought 219395 *$1' 934>A> A6>A11;49>6

)n +iso$edience and other essa"s 219415 *$1' 934>A>416<> A5AA>4

For the Love of Life 219465 *$1' A>A%>91A9;A>% The Art of .eing 2199;5 *$1' 934>A>4%6<>A63;>6 The Art of Listening 2199<5 *$1' 934>A>4%6<>11;%>3 )n .eing Human 219935 *$1' 934>A>4%6<>1AA5><