BMM1511 Labsheets

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BMM1511 Engineering Mechanics Lab 1Vesion 1 ( Nurhani & Lee ) Implementation Date: 01-09-2012

LABORATORY INSTRUCTION MANUAL

BMM1511 ENGINEERING MECHANIC LAB

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CONTENTS MARKS
1 General Safety Rules
2 Submission Of Reports
3 Laboratory

Lab 01 Vickers Hardness Test
8

Lab 02 Impact Test
8

Lab 03 Metallography
8

Lab 04 Steel Heat Treatment: Quenching And
Tempering
18

Lab 05 Creep Test
8

Lab 06 Structural Analysis:
Basic Roof Truss
8

Lab 07 Bell Crank Lever Experiment
8

Lab 08 Friction On An Inclined Plane
8

Lab 09 Bar Forces of Crane J ib Experiment 18

Lab 10 Precision Friction Measurement
8

100

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General Safety

Safety laboratory procedures

Safe laboratory procedure help to reduce the accident exposed to the student.

The safety working procedures emphasized on:

1. Some detail on how to carry out the experiment safely.
2. Include certain degree of pre-cautious steps while dealing with laboratory work. For
instance, Avoid direct contact with skin or Wear rubber hand glove while dealing
with specimen etc
3. Some first aid measures and emergency response in term of emergency

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

The use of PPE will reduced and avoid the chances of workers expose to the risk at laboratory workl.
The following are some example of basic PPE that used in laboratory:

i) Safety goggle
A device to protect the eye from chemical splash or accidentally in contact with chemical vapor.

ii) Face shield
A device to protect the eye and faces of the wearer while dealing with laboratory work such as burning
test of chemical compounds, such as magnesium

iii) Apron/ Lab coat
A protective clothing to protect the body of the workers while dealing with chemical or biological
compound. Different type of aprons (For example: rubber, plastic or PVC apron) give different level of
protection to body. When dealing with combustable material, fire-retardant type of apron or other mean
of protective clothing need to be used.

iv) Safety hand-glove
A protective glove to avoid the contact of chemical (corrosive or toxic) or specimen with the workers
fingers/ hands/ skin / arms since some of these compound can cause irritation, dermatitis or even burn.
Chemical Storage

Since most the laboratory will be using variable and different quantity of chemicals, therefore proper
storage shall be carried out to ensure the hazards exposed to student/staff is minimized.

The following are some of the approach to deal with chemical storage:

i) Store chemical in proper ventilated area (e.g. force ventilation)
ii) Installation of smoke detector at the storage area
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iii) Fire extinguisher of the approved type (e,g, powder form, CO
2
) shall be located near the entrance
route to the storage area.
iv) ALL the chemicals shall be labeled. This include the test solution or material.
v) Seal chemicals or solvents that are not being used. Make sure all the container lids are intact and
closed.
vi) Do not store flammable/oxidizing agent together as it could cause explosion. Proper designed
flammable chemical storage room is recommended.

Student working in the laboratory shall take pre-cautious steps as follows:

i) Wear PPE provided where necessary
ii) Never work alone in the laboratory
iii) Do not eat, drink in the laboratory
iv) Wash hands after handling chemical/ biological compounds..
v) Do not practicing mouth pipette.
vi) Always know where the safety equipment located in case of emergency. (E.g. Fire extinguisher,
emergency shower or eye wash facilities)
vii) Before carry out any experiment read the operating procedure ,check for equipment worthiness
and need for calibration.

Submission of reports

All reports must be submitted the following working day unless required otherwise.

Reports must have front page with Title of Experiment, Group members names and Metric No.

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1.0 Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test uses a square base diamond pyramid as the indenter. The included
angle between the opposite faces of the pyramid is 136. The Vickers hardness tester operates on
the same basic principle as the Brinell tester, the numbers being expressed in the terms of load
and area of the impression. As a result of the indenters shape, the impression on the surface of
the specimen will be a square. The length of the diagonal of the square is measure through a
microscope fitted with an ocular micrometer that contains movable knife-edges. The loads are
between 1 and 1,000 g which referring to microhardness test. The Vickers hardness values are
calculated by the formula:

( )
|
.
|
\
|
= =
2 2
8544 . 1
2
sin 2
HV
d
P
d
P

where
P = the applied load (kg)
d = the diagonal length (mm).

Figure 1: Vickers Hardness Testing Schematic.

Lab 01 Vickers Hardness Test

Lab Location
Materials Laboratory

Lab Objective
To compare the different hardness at various position for welded (butt joint) mild
steel and coated workpiece.
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2.0 Test Location for Hardness Testing

If indentation is placed too close to the edge of specimen, the work piece edge will bulge and the
hardness number will decrease accordingly. To ensure an accurate test, the distance from the
center of the indentation to the edge of the specimen must be at least two and one-half diameters.
An indentation hardness test cold works the surrounding material. If another indentation is placed
within this cold worked area, the reading usually will be higher than the real value. Generally,
the softer the material, the more critical the spacing of indentions becomes. However, a distance
three diameters from the center of one indentation to another is sufficient for most materials.

3.0 Hardness Testing in Estimating Other Material Properties

Hardness testing has always appeared attractive as a means of estimating other mechanical
properties of metals. The following equation is used to predict tensile strength of steels by means
of hardness measurement.

4.0 Equipment and Materials

1. Test loads: 1 to 1,000 g.
2. Indenter: 136 square-base Vickers diamond pyramid
3. Specimens: 2 welded (butt joint) mild steel of different filler and coated workpiece.

5.0 Experimental Procedures

1. Prepare the specimens.
2. Observe the location for the indenter to be pressed. Make sure the surface of the specimen is
flat.
3. Use a specific test load (e.g. 250 g).
4. Measure the hardness from the center of the specimen until the edge of the specimen.
Micrometer is used to make sure the distance is equally spaced.
5. The indenter is pressed into the sample by an accurately controlled test force.
6. The force is maintained for a specific dwell time, normally 10 15 seconds.
7. After the dwell time is complete, the indenter is removed leaving an indent in the sample that
appears square shaped on the surface.
8. The hardness values of the specimen are determined and recorded. Repeat the same steps
twice and find its average.
9. Repeat the same steps (step 2 8) for other specimens.

NOTES: To ensure an accurate test, the distance from the center of the indentation to the edge of
the specimen must be at least two and one-half diameters. The test is conducted according to
ASTM E384-10e2 Standard Test Method for Knoop and Vickers Hardness of Materials.

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6.0 Result and Discussion

1. Calculate and compare the average Vickers hardness number of the points from one edge to
another edge and state its hardness rank.
2. Determine the Brinell hardness number using the conversion chart. Tabulate your answers.
(Specimens, Points, Vickers hardness, Brinell hardness and Tensile strength)
3. Discuss the differences of hardness between the specimens and draw hardness distribution
graph.
4. Describe the importance of microhardness test in the mechanical engineering field.

7.0 Conclusion
Conclude of what you have learnt by carrying out this experiment.

8.0 References
State any references used especially any standard involve.

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Lab 02 Impact Test

Lab Location

Lab Objective
To investigate the impact strength of polymers using Charpy test method.

1.0 Impact Test

This test provides a mesure of energy required to break a material under impact loading. The test
consists essentially of a hammer with a given amount of energy striking a notched test piece of
fixed dimensions and recording the energy required to fracture the test piece at a specific
temperature and recording whether the fracture mode was ductile or brittle. Ductile fracture is
usually a consequence of plastic deformation. A ductile crack is one which as a result of intense
localized plastic deformation at the crack tip. The most common form is a cup-and-cone
apperance in a tensile test. Brittle fracture in contrast is often preceded by little or no plastic
deformation. Intercrystalline fracture occurs by separation (or loss of cohesion) along the grain
boundaries.

1.1 Charpy Test

Usually, the Charpy test uses a 10mm square bar notched in the center of one face. A standard
length of 55mm (0.1mm) is used. The notch determines the direction of crack propagation
while, the Charpy impact properties will depend on the orientation of this notch. In the Charpy
test a sample is laid horizontally on two supports against an anvil as shown in Figure 1(a). The
sample is notched in the center and the notch side is positioned away from the pendulum. When
the pendulum swings through the gap in the anvil, it impacts the center of the sample with a
radiused hammer. Most Charpy testing machines are dimensioned to give an energy rating of 300
joules.

1.2 Izod Test

Izod test specimens vary depending on what material is being tested. Metallic samples tend to be
square in cross section, while polymeric test specimens are often rectangular, being struck
parallel to the long axis of the rectangle.

Izod test sample usually have a V-notch cut into them, although specimens with no notch as also
used on occasion. The Izod test involves striking a suitable test piece with a striker, mounted at
the end of a pendulum. The test piece is clamped vertically with the notch facing the striker as
shown in Figure 1(b). The striker swings downwards impacting the test piece at the bottom of its
swing. As the sample breaks, energy is absorbed by the sample. The height the pendulum attains
after impact is measured by an indicator on a fixed scale which reads in joules (ft-lb) and is
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tested at room, cold or elevated temperatures. The impact strength is the loss of momentum in the
pendulum while breaking the sample off at the notch.

(a) (b)

Figure 1: Schematic of (a) Charpy test piece (b) Izod impact test piece


1. Bench Top Tester - 50 kJ (Figure 2).
2. Different types of polymer (PVC, HDPE, LDPE and PP).

Figure 2: Impact test equipment
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3.0 Experiment Procedures

1. Prepare the specimens.
2. Put on safety glasses.
3. Move the pendulum up to its locked position, and ensure that it is locked in place.
4. Place the specimen in position. Simply lay the specimen against the stops supported on both
sides, with the notch facing away from the direction the pendulum will come.
5. Ensure that all safety guards are in place.
6. Ensuring that the path of swing for the pendulum is clear, release the pendulum using the two
hand release mechanism.
7. Record the reading from the display of the test equipment.
8. Pull on the red handled brake for the pendulum.
9. Return the pendulum to its locked position.
10. Repeat the above steps twice using the same type of specimen and find its average.
11. Repeat the same steps (step 4 10) for other type of specimens.

NOTES: The test is conducted according to ASTM D6110-06 Standard Test Method for
Determining the Charpy Impact Resistance of Notched Specimens of Plastics.
1. Calculate the impact strength for all specimens and tabulate it in the table.
2. Plot a bar graph of impact energy (joule) versus types of specimen.
3. Discuss the impact energy (joule) for different types of specimen.
4. Give one example of engineering application where impact is a real concern.
5.0 Conclusion
Conclude of what you have learnt by carrying out this experiment.

6.0 References
State any references used especially any standard used.

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Lab 03 Metallography

Lab Location

Lab Objectives
To sketch and label the constituents of plain carbon steel and cast iron
microstructures at different composition and heat treatment.
To analyze the microstructures of plain carbon steel and cast iron at different
composition and heat treatment.

1.0 Metallographic Study

Metallography is a technique used to reveal the internal structure of materials. The technique was
developed originally for examining internal structure of minerals, metals and alloys, and is still
used extensively for that purpose. The technique has been expanded and adapted to look at other
materials including composites, and ceramics. The technique involves sectioning a sample to a
size suitable for evaluation, grinding to provide a flat surface and for the removal of deformation
caused by sectioning, polishing to remove deformation caused by grinding and then etching to
reveal internal structure(s) and or feature(s). Etching selectively attacks the constituent parts of
the microstructure, causing them to appear separately under the microscope due to differences in
the chemical and physical conditions of the constituents.

The crystalline microstructure of metals can be studied by examining it under a microscope at
magnifications from 100 to 1000 times. The shape and size of the crystals indicates the
composition, work hardening, and heat treatment a metal has received.

In a cold worked specimen, the specimen to be examined should be removed parallel to the
direction of the cold work. In a heat treated specimen, the sample should include a portion of the
outer skin, so that surface conditions like scale and decarburization can be examined.

Steel, in the annealed condition, consists of pearlite with ferrite or cementite, depending on the
carbon content. The carbon content may be estimated by observing the amount of pearlite
present.

1. Metallurgical microscope
2. 5 standard sample of plain carbon steel and cast iron (sample no 2, 3, 4, 12 and 14)
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1. Before getting started, you should recognize the objective lenses and eyepieces used for the
metallurgical microscope and make sure to handle and install them properly.
2. Observe microstructure of each specimen at 100X-400X magnification.
NOTES: The test is conducted according to ASTM E-3 Standard Practice for Preparation of
Metallographic Specimens.
1. Sketch each microstructure at 100X-400X magnification. Label the constituents (ferrite,
pearlite, grain boundaries, graphite, inclusions, etc.) and describe the important features of
the microstructure for low carbon steel, medium carbon steel (annealing), medium carbon
steel (normalizing), white cast iron, and ductile cast iron.
2. Discuss the purpose of etching metallographic samples.
3. Describe the difference between white cast iron and ductile cast iron.
4. Write down the eutectoid reaction in Fe-Fe
3
C system.
5. Briefly explain the effect of grain size on the strength of a metal.
6. Describe the significance of microstructure in the material properties.

5.0 Conclusion
Conclude on what you have learnt by carrying out this experiment.

6.0 References
State any references or standard used.

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Lab 04
Steel Heat Treatment:
Quenching And Tempering

Lab Location

Lab Objectives
To observe the quenching and tempering process on plain carbon steel
To examine and analyze the structural changes of plain carbon steel after
quenching and tempering.
To examine the property changes of plain carbon steel during quenching and
tempering

1.0 Quenching Process

Plain carbon steel is typical engineering steel which contains approximately between 0.03% to
1.2% Carbon. The mechanical properties of the steel (such as strength and toughness) can be
changed through heat treatment. The effects of these heat treatments can be seen on the
microstructure (Figure 1) and hardness of the steel.

Quenching is when steel is heated to austenite then cooled rapidly in water or oil. The material
produced becomes harder because the carbon in the steel percipitates out in carbon nodules.

The steel is heated to about 800C to 900C and then it was quenched in water. This cooled the
steel very quickly, and instead of developing the ferrite and pearlite microstructure, a martensitic
microstructure was produced. This is an example of a "diffusionless" phase transformation. The
ferrite and pearlite form by a phase transformations involving diffusion.

The martensite is extremely hard. This is because of carbon atoms which become trapped during
the very quick diffusionless phase transformation. Unfortunately, the martensite is also
extremely brittle and the steel is virtually useless in this condition.

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Figure 1: Variation on the microstructure of eutectoid carbon steel by continously cooling at
different rates

2.0 Tempering Process

Tempering is a heat treatment technique for metals and alloys. In steels, tempering is done to
"toughen" the metal by transforming brittle martensite into bainite or ferrite. Precipitation
hardened alloys, like many grades of aluminum and superalloys, are tempered to precipitate
intermetallic particles which strengthen the metal.

In metallurgy, there is always a tradeoff between ductility and brittleness. This delicate balance
highlights many of the subtleties inherent to the tempering process. Precise control of time and
temperature during the tempering process are critical to achieve a metal with well balanced
mechanical properties.

Typically steel is heat treated in a multi-step process. First it is heated to create a solid solution of
iron and carbon in a process called "austenizing". Austenizing is followed by quenching to
produce a martensitic microstructure. The steel is then tempered by heating it in the range of
400-600 degrees Celsius. The steel is held at that temperature until the carbon trapped in the
martensite diffuses to produce either bainite, or a mixture of ferrite and cementite. In banitic
steels, upper banite or lower banite may form depending on the length and temperature of the
tempering process. It is thermodynamically improbable that the martensite will be totally
converted during tempering, so a mixture of martensite, bainite, ferrite and cementite is often
formed.
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1. 6 plain carbon steel specimens
2. Furnace
3. Metallurgical microscope
4. Wheel polisher/grinder
5. Rockwell hardness tester
6. Quenching medium: water and oil in tank
7. Tongs


1. Preheat the furnace to 900
o
C. Put 2 plain carbon steel specimens in the furnace at 900C and
soak for 30 minutes.
2. Take out the specimens from the furnace and put the first specimen in the water tank for 2
seconds and the second specimen in the oil tank for 30 seconds. Leave the third specimen as
reference.
3. Mount, grind, polish and etch the specimens to prepare them for microscopic examination.
4. Examine the specimens using the metallurgical microscope and describe the structural
features.
5. Use the Rockwell hardness tester to determine the Rockwell hardness of your sample.
6. Measure Rockwell hardness at three different points for the specimens and find its average.
Record the readings in a table.
7. Next, you are given three quenched specimens.
8. Preheat the furnace to 300C.
9. Reheat the first specimen at 300C and the second specimen at 650C for 1 hour. Leave the
third sample for reference.
10. Switch off the furnace and remove the samples.
11. Grind the specimens with different grades of abrasive paper and followed by polishing.
12. Examine the specimens using the metallurgical microscope and describe the structural
features.
13. Determine Rockwell hardness at four different points for all samples and record the readings
in a table.

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5.0 Result and discussion

1. Sketch, label and describe the microstructure of each specimen for those two heat treatment
processes (quenching and tempering).
2. Compare the hardness between the specimens and explain the differences for each of heat
treatment process.
3. Discuss the effects of quenching medium on the steel microstructure.
4. Discuss the effects of cooling rate on steel hardness when the sample experienced:
i. Rapid cooling
ii. Slow cooling
5. Discuss the relationship between the grain size and hardness number.
6. Describe the phase transformation in tempering process.
7. Explain the microstructure changes when the samples are heated.
8. Discuss the effects of austenite grain size on hardenability.
6.0 Conclusion

7.0 References

Note: Submit your report within one week after laboratory completion
Report Contents
Introduction/theory:
Experiment procedure
Results:
Discussion:
Conclusion:
References

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Lab 05 Creep Test

Lab Location

Lab Objectives
To determine the creep rupture behavior for metal and plastic material with
static load and constant temperature

1.0 Creep Test

The creep or time-rupture test serves to determine the behavior of the material with a static load.
When determining the creep rupture behavior, in addition to the level of the load, in other words,
the tensile stress in the material, the temperature is also important. For this reason, details of
creep rupture behavior must also contain the temperature.

1.1 Creep In Metals

In metallic materials, creep occurs above the crystal recovery temperature in the material under
load. Whereas in a normal tensile test the material is strain-hardened below the crystal recovery
temperature and elongation comes to a halt under constant load, above the crystal recovery
temperature, equilibrium may occur between recrystallisation and strain-hardening. The material
is continuously elongated with a certain strain or creep rate.
Significant creep responses generally occur at temperature above 0.4 0.5Ts, whereby Ts is the
absolute melting temperature.

1.2 Creep In Plastics

Creep curve in plastics are similar to those of metals. Various plastics such as polypropylene
(PP) or polyethylene (PE) also indicate pronounced creep behavior at room temperature.
However, the reasons for creep are different to those of metals. In creep, the macromolecules are
straightened and extended. Here, too, creep depends on stress and temperature. Because of the
different molecule structures, it is difficult to specify generally valid relationships for creep in
plastics.

1. TQ SM1006 Creep Machine (figure 1)
2. Stop-watch
3. Metal (Lead specimens)
4. Plastic (Polyethylene specimens)
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Figure 1: TQ SM1006 Creep Machine

1. Before getting started, you should accurately measure and record the width and thickness of
the specimens.
2. Put the weight hanger in position and fit its support pin in its highest hole to hold the arm up
and ready for the test specimen as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Put the weight hanger in position and fit its pin in the highest hole
3. Based on Figure 3, fit the steel specimen support clips to the specimen.

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Figure 3: Fit the steel specimen support clips
4. Then, fit the specimen into place between the black support block and the arm, and fit the
pins as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Fit the specimen into place (bottom first) and fit the pins
5. Cool the cool pack and put it next to the specimen.
6. Put the transparent cover into place around the specimen. Make sure that the thermometer is
in its hole in the top of the cover and its tip is near to the specimen. Wait for at least five
minutes for the temperature reading to stabilize, and then record the temperature around the
specimen.
7. Fit a suitable weight to the weight hanger, to give stress that gives the longest test time that
you can allow.
8. Ask an assistant to prepare the timer.
9. According to Figure 5, carefully remove the weight hanger support pin from the highest hole
in the weight hanger.
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Figure 5: Remove the weight hanger support pin from the highest hole in the weight hanger
10. Switch on the digital indicator and press its origin button to set its display to zero. Make sure
that it is set to work in reverse (press the +/- button so that the word REV is shown in its
display).
11. Lift the weight hanger and support it while you fit the support pin in the lowest hole.
12. Gently let go of the weight hanger and start your timer. Slide the rubber mat onto the base
plate, underneath the weight hanger.
13. Record the specimen extension every 30 seconds, until it fractures or stops extending due to
the limits of the machine.
14. Repeat the test on new specimens at higher loads (stresses), so that you have a set of at least
two more stress results.
15. Repeat the test on different specimen materials.

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1. Plot a graph elongation (deflection) over time for lead sample.
2. Plot a graph elongation (deflection) over time for polyethylene sample.
3. There are three phases of creep rupture that we can see/obtain from the graph in Question 1.
Describe these three phases.
4. Describe the graph and elaborate on stress relaxation. Show an elastic relaxation and plastic
relaxation on the graph.
5. Describe the use of lead and polyethylene as samples in this experiment.
6. Discuss the importance of having cool pack in this experiment.
7. Calculate the percent of the sample extension corresponds to the elongation for both samples.

5.0 Conclusion

6.0 References

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Lab 06
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS:
BASIC ROOF TRUSS

Lab Location:
Statics and Dynamics Laboratory

Lab Objectives:
To compare the experimental and theoretical values of each members of the
girder forces at various angle.
1. Calibration
Calibration all the girders (Figure 1) before the experiment by using the 30N weight and the dial
gauge provided. Obtain the constant value , k.
For example, with the 50N weight and the dial gage reading is -0.22mm,

Figure 1: Calibration experiment

2. Experiment Setup

The girder structure, is setup as shown in the figure below. The girders joints are numbered I to
III and members S
1
to S
3
.

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The three types of girder structure setup angles are set as follows.

Angle

60
o
60
o
60
o

90
o
45
o
45
o

120
o
30
o
30
o

1 Use the girder/girder with spacer tube to set the exact length of each member.
2 Before each loading set the dial gauge on the girder structure to zero.
3 Load 30 N at joint III
4 Take the reading of every dial gauge and tabulate to compare the calculated and
experimental value.
5 Repeat step 1-4 for other girder structure setup.

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SETUP 1
SETUP 3
SETUP 2
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3. Discussion

1.0 Use free body diagrams and for each setup calculate the forces at each of the members
and state whether it is in tension or compression. State any assumption.
2.0 Tabulate to compare the calculated with the experimental values.
3.0 State the percentage errors between the experimental and calculated values of every
member for each setup and discuss the possibilities of errors.
4.0 State any improvement required to reduce the errors above.
5.0 Compare the calculated with the experimental values of the reactions for each setup.

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Lab 07 Bell Crank Lever Experiment

Lab Location

Lab Objectives
To compare the experimental torque and the calculated torque using the Bell
Crank Lever.

1. Lever and Torque

Torque =Force * Lever Length
M =F * I where, M =Torque, F =Force, I =Effective lever length

Lever Principle

Equilibrium prevails on the lever when the sum of counter-clockwise moments is equal to the
sum of clockwise moments for the two examples below.

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2. Equipment and Components
1. TM 120 Bell crank lever.
2. Weight blocks (10N and 20N).

Figure 1: Bell Crank Lever Apparatus
3. Experiment Procedure

Figure 2: Parts of Bell Crank Lever Apparatus

1. Place the bell crank lever apparatus on a flat, horizontal bench.
2. Push the slider (1) to the desired lever length and secure it in position with the knurled
screw (2).
3. Return the angle lever to equilibrium with the balance weight (3); the pin of the read-off
point (5) must be positioned in the center of the hole.
4. Set the scale ring (7) of the load cell (8) to zero.

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5. Place the desired weight of (8,11,14,17 & 20 N) on the pendulum.
6. Adjust the measuring device with the adjuster screw (6) so that the pin (5) is again
positioned in the centre of the hole.
7. Read and note down the displayed value on the load cell (8)
8. Conduct the experiment with l
1
at 200, 250, 300, 350 and 400mm.
9. Tabulate the experimental and calculated force F2.
10. Show a sample calculation.
4. Discussions
1. Calculate the percentage errors and discuss any improvement can be made to reduce the
errors.
2. Why is equilibrium important in statics and dynamics.
3. Why do you need to place the equipment on a flat, horizontal bench to perform the
experiment?
4. Referring to the given figure below, simplify the horizontal arm force to equivalent
system and calculate the value of F
2
if F
1
=5.0 kN, I
1
=500mm, I
2
=300mm.Illustrate
your answer with a free body diagram.

6. Give three(3) examples of the application of this experiment.

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1. Determination of Friction Coefficient on horizontal plane
Figure 1 shows a body on a horizontal plane connected to a weight using a light string over a
pulley. The weight is increased gradually until the body starts to move. The equilibrium free
body diagram is as shown.
N G F
y
= = 0 eq. 1

R S F
x
= = 0 eq. 2

Figure 1: Equilibrium of forces in a system

The friction law gives the relation between friction force R and normal force N.

N R = eq. 3

From which the friction coefficient is

Lab 08
FRICTION ON AN
INCLINED PLANE

Lab Location

Lab Objectives:
To determine the friction coefficient for different combination of materials
To study the static equilibrium forces on the inclined plane.

Body
Pulley
Weight
S
G
N
R
x
y
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G S = or
G
S
= eq. 4

Forces on an Inclined Plane

The equilibrium condition for forces on a body on an inclined plane requires that the
weight be increased or decreased gradually until the system tends to move (Figure 2).

N G F
n
+ = = cos 0 , with cos G N = eq. 5

Upward motion: sin 0 G R S F
t
= = eq. 6
Downward motion: sin 0 G R S F
t
+ = = eq. 7

The friction law gives the relationship between frictions force R and Normal force N
cos G N R = = eq. 8
From which the tension S in the rope is;
For upward motion: ) cos (sin + =G S , eq. 9
For downward motion: ) cos (sin =G S eq. 10

Body
y
Pulley
Weight

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Figure 3: Equipment for friction experiment

1.0 Sliding objects:
Materials: Polypropylene (PP) / Steel / Aluminium / Brass
Weight: 10 N
2.0 Weight set:
Weights hanger, own weight 1 N
Weights: 1 x 0.5 N, 4 x 1 N, 1 x 5 N
3. Experiment Procedure
a) To determine the coefficient of friction
1. Set the plane horizontal (working on resopal).
2. Place the sliding object (polypropylene) on the horizontal plane (resopal
combination) and hook them to the empty weights hanger by means of a rope.
3. Add weights to the hanger until the sliding objects tend to move.
4. Record the rope force and friction coefficient for the sliding object (polypropylene
on resopal combination) in Table 1.
5. Repeat step 1 to step 4 with other material combinations.
6. Compare the results and discuss the differences among the friction coefficient,
,obtained for each material?

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Table 1: Determination of the coefficient of friction
Angle of the plane, =0, Weight G =10 N,
G
S
=
Material
combinations
Rope force, S (N)
Coefficient of
friction
Polypropylene /
Resopal

Steel / Resopal
Aluminium / Resopal
Brass / Resopal
b) To determine the rope force on an inclined plane

1. Carry out the experiment for the plane inclined at 30
0

For:
i) Downward motion
ii) Upward motion
2. Tabulate the result to compare the S
experiment
and S
theory
using the
coefficient of friction from Table 1.

4. Discussions

1. Discuss the possibilities of errors between S
theory
and S
experiment
.
2. What are the differences between static friction and sliding friction.
3. States the advantages and disadvantages of friction in engineering.
4. A factory uses a conveyer belt to move packages from upstairs to downstairs as shown in
Figure 4. Explain the role of coefficient of static friction between the packages and the
inclined conveyer belt.

Figure 4: The package on conveyer belt
Page 33 of 39

Lab 09
Bar Forces of Crane Jib
Experiment

Lab Location

Lab Objectives
To determine the forces on a crane jib

1. Central Force System (Concurrent and Coplanar Forces)

Several forces F
1
, F
2
and F
3
are applied to a central point A, the system is referred as a central
force system (Figure 1). In this case all the lines of action of the forces applied run through this
central point and on the same plane.

Figure 1: Central force system

The force apparatus unit consists of the following components (Figure 2):
A
F2
F3
F1
Figure 2: Force apparatus unit layout

Page 34 of 39

1. Base plate (1)
2. Upright (2) with clamping elements (3)
3. Lower spring balance (4), upper spring balance (5)
4. Guide pulley (6)
5. Hanger with weights (7)
6. Link chain (8)
7. Adjuster (9)
8. Rope (10) with hook
9. Hook, broad, for centering the weights

3. Experiment Procedure (Figure 3)

1. Set a crane arrangements with any values of a,b,c,x and y.
2. Use two set of weights for each crane arrangement.
3. Measure and note down position of pulley axes x and y (central point A) without load.
4. Determine the forces F
10
(upper) and F
20
(lower) at the spring balances without load.
5. Attach desired weights (either suspends from rope or directly at pulley axis using the broad
hook).
6. Move central point back to previously measured x and y position using the adjuster and by
altering the length of the chain.

(a) (b)
Figure 3: Crane geometry

7. Measure distances a, b, c for the calculation of the angle , , .
8. Using free body diagram determine by calculation the bar forces at spring balances F
1
(upper)
and F
2
(lower) for various weight.
9. Tabulate the result of step 7 and 8, and calculate the errors.
10. Repeat step 1 to 9 with different second set of weight.
11. Repeat step 1 to 9 with different crane arrangements that is different values of a,b,c,x and y.

A
Page 35 of 39

4. Discussions
1.0 Base on only one crane arrangement and a single set of weights, discuss the result
obtained in the Table by constructing the polygon of forces for the experimental and
calculated forces.
2.0 Discuss the possibilities of errors between theoretical and experimental values.
3.0 With the help of an illustration suggest an improvement on the design of the given crane
especially without the clamp.
4.0 For the improved design, show how the forces are calculated.
5. Conclude on what you have learnt by carrying out this experiment.
6. State any references used.
Note: Submit your report within a week.

Report Contents
Introduction/theory:
Experiment procedure
Results:
Discussion:
Conclusion:
References

Page 36 of 39

Lab 10
Precision Friction
Measurement

Lab Location

Lab Objectives
To identify the influence of frictional force as a function of normal force

1. Theoretical Principles of Frictional Force in Motion.
Generally, if the magnitude of P acts on the block is increased, greater than F
s
, the frictional
force at the contacting surfaces drops slightly to a smaller value of F
k
, called kinetic frictional
force. The block will not held in equilibrium (P>F
k
) and it will begin to slide with an increasing
speed as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1

F
k
=
k
N

Here the constant of proportionality k, is called the coefficient of kinetic friction.
Graph in Figure 2 shows the variation of the frictional force F versus the applied load P. Here
the frictional force is categorized in three different ways. F is a static-frictional force if
equilibrium is maintained; F is a limiting static-frictional force F
s
when it reaches a maximum
P
Motion
W
R
n
F
k
N

Page 37 of 39

value needed to maintain equilibrium and F is termed a kinetic-frictional force F
k
when sliding
occurs at the contacting surface. Notice also from the graph that for very large values of P or for
high speeds, F
k
and
k
begin to decrease.

Figure 2
2.0 Equipment and Components
1.0 TM 210 Precision Friction Measurement. (Figure 3)
2.0 Winch drum, diameter 7.5 mm with towing clip - 1 unit.
3.0 Friction object, brass / felt F
G
=1N 1 unit.
4.0 Friction plate, glass 1 unit.
5.0 Friction plate, PVC 1 unit.
6.0 Six(6) weights, F
G
=0.5 N

Figure 3: Precision Friction Measurement Apparatus

Motion No motion
F=P
P
F
k
F
s
F

45
o

Page 38 of 39

3. Experiment Set-up
Before/during the experiment, remember that;
1. Ensure that the tow-platform do not collide with the track stop. Please shut off the motor before
it occurs.
2. Lubricate the track with a drop of oil (Vaseline oil).
3. Adjust the height of the force gage to be parallel to the tow platform when necessary.

4. Experiment 1

Experimental conditions:
Friction plate: Felt
Friction object: Brass
Winch drum: 7.5 mm diameter
Using normal force: 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5 & 4.0N

1. Use Felt friction plate and put it at its place.
2. Take Brass friction object and fastened it with thread to the force measurement unit.
3. Place it at the top of the friction plate.
4. Fastened the other thread under the tow platform.
5. Move the tow platform close to the force measurement unit.
6. Reset the force measurement unit to zero (0).
7. Switch on the winch drum and at the same time takes the reading on the measurement unit.
8. Repeat steps 1 to 7 for different loads.
9. Repeat steps 1 to 8 for experiment 2 and 3.
Experiment 2
Friction plate: PVC
Friction object: Felt, 1N
Winch drum: 7.5 mm Diameter
Using normal force : 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5 & 4.0N

Experiment 3
Friction plate: Glass
Friction object: felt surface, 1N
Winch drum: 7.5 mm Diameter
Using normal force: 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5 & 4.0N

Page 39 of 39

5. Results and Discussion
1. Plot the graph of friction force versus normal force for all the experiments.
2. Show a sample calculation for each experiment.
3. Explain the consequences if the force gauge is not parallel to the surface of the tow-
platform while performing the experiment?
4. Lubricant need to be used to reduce friction during the experiment. Explain with the help
of free body diagram a part in the experiment that is not lubricated.
5. What are the possible factors that contribute to an error reading in this experiment?

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