EM - Laboratory Manual - 2021

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Laboratory Manual
Course Title: Engineering Materials Lab Course Code: 15EMEP202
Total Contact Hours: 24 hours Duration of SEE: 2 Hrs
ESA Marks: 20 marks ISA Marks: 80 marks
Author: Prof. P M Bhovi, Prof. Adarsh Patil Date: 25-02-2021
Checked By:Prof. I G siddalingeshwar Date: 02-03-2021
Expt. Brief description about the experiment No. of Lab.

Slots
No.
01 Introduction to the Laboratory-Overview of Destructive and Non Destructive 01

Testing methods. (Awareness about the ASM hand books and ASTM
standards)
02 Non destructive test experiments 01
a. Ultrasonic flaw detection.
b. Magnetic particle inspection.
c. Dye penetration testing,
To study the defects of castings and welded specimens.
03 Evaluation of the tensile strength, Compression strength, Shear strength, 01

Bending/ Torsion strength and Impact strength.
04 01
Ex: Should be able to Describe the differences between the tensile behavior of
the metal sample and that of polymer sample, considering that the student
performs the test on two different materials family.
05 To study wear characteristics of ferrous, non-ferrous and composite materials 01

for different loading.
ENGINEERING MATERIALS LABORATORY MANUAL-2020-21 Page 1

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Computation of wear parameters: wear rate, wear resistance, specific wear

rate, frictional force, coefficient of friction, wear coefficient.
06 To study the microstructure of the ferrous and nonferrous alloy and to 01

perform grain size analysis and volume fraction analysis.
 Familiarization with the procedure for preparation of a material

specimen for microscopic examination.
 Familiarization with compound optical microscopes and

metallography.
 Examination of surface characteristics of engineering materials.
 Grain size determination of metals and analysis.
07 To analyze given SEM Micrographs (Microstructure and fracture surface 01

morphology) and conclude on the structure and mode of fracture.
(Familiarization with the advanced characterization of metals by Scanning

electron microscopy).
08 Computer Modeling of Stress Concentration, Crack Opening and Crack 01

Propagation
 Understand the occurrence of stress concentration at geometrical

discontinuities.
 Determine the stress concentration factor at a geometrical

discontinuity.
09 Design an experiment to investigate the spring characteristics of any given 02

spring.
10 Synthesize a novel composite material which is reinforced with a natural fiber 02

in a polymer matrix and perform the mechanical characterization for
investigation of mechanical properties, which is desirable for specified
engineering applications.

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Perform a parametric analysis which affects the mechanical properties of

prepared composites using a statistical approach and find the correlation of
those parameters with properties of composites.
2. Introduction to the laboratory:
The macroscopic properties of materials under applied loads or forces are called as mechanical
properties. They are the measure of the strength & lasting characteristics of a material in service and are
of great importance particularly to the design engineer. It is a characteristic feature of structure
sensitive properties & they are much more affected by crystal imperfection and by other factors such as
composition, grain size, heat treatment etc. Mechanical properties therefore do depend on them in
almost all situations.
Since a great number of properties are best evaluated by testing specimens under various conditions,
material testing is carried out to supply useful information to the design engineer. The study of
mechanical behaviour of material therefore requires the knowledge of both mechanical and various
tests performed under the conditions found in engineering practice.
The mechanical properties that are generally used for the design purposes are as following
 Tensile Strength
 Compressive strength
 Impact Strength
 Torsion Strength
 Shear Strength
The heat treatment process also changes the grain structure of the metals, depending the type of metal
and the study on this grain structure is also conducted. Hence the study of heat treatment process and
their effects on the properties of metals is also studied.
3. General instructions:
I. How to use the Equipments:
a) The students should handle following instruments only in presence of lab instructor or
staff member.

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i) Universal testing machine.
ii) Compression testing machine.
iii) Impact testing machine.
b) The student may handle the following instruments only after he/she is asked to
Operate the same.
i) Hardness testing machine.
c) While operating Impact testing machine following points should be kept in mind.
i) The swinging pendulum in the form of hammer swings with a very high speed on either side of
instrument.
ii) While fixing the specimen (Charpy and Izode) at the bottom of the instrument , it should be supported
firmly in the grip and one person should also support it while gripping.
iii) While releasing the hammer by pulling the rope it should be noted that nobody should stand facing
the hammer, as it strikes with a large velocity.
II. How to avoid misuse:
i) Care should be taken to handle the equipment properly and operate as per the instructions
given to you by the faculty & staff.
ii) Loading carried out on the UTM must be gradual and steady rate.
iii) After the failure of specimen (UTM, Compression testing machine) valves should
be returned to their original position, before the specimen is removed.
iv) After the completion of experiments all the valves should be checked and make
sure that they are in their proper positions.
III. Safety measures:
i) Before starting the machine contact the shop instructors.

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ii) Do not start a machine of which the operation is not known which causes accidents for the end user &
may damage the machine.
iii) Don’t take measurements of the specimen during operation. It causes accidents and damage to the
measuring instruments.
iv) Avoid loose clothing and long unbuttoned sleeves, while working on a machine.
v) Pay attention to specification charts & safety precautions.
vi) Do not perform experiments without wearing Shoes
IV. Dress code:
Student should wear sky blue pant and apron with shoes during his laboratory session.
V. Standard accessories to be possessed:
Scale, pencil, calculator, Journal papers.
VI. Instruction to the students:
All students are
i) required to be present in the laboratory in time.
ii) informed to note down the tabular column, specifications of the machines, calculations, and
observations from lab manual before the commencement of each lab.
iii) informed to follow the procedure, which is given in the laboratory manual to conduct respective
experiment.
iv)informed to come with the write- up and results of the previous experiment without fail for
conducting the next experiment.
v) informed to conduct each experiment in presence of staff member or lab instructor.
vi) informed to take the accessories/tools/specimen/instruments to conduct each experiment and must
return them on completion of that experiment without fail.
4. List of equipments with specifications.

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1. Tensile testing machine / Shear testing machine / Bending testing machine (U.T.M.)
Description UTN / E-100
Measuring system Mechanical (dial type)
Capacity 100 Tons
Min. graduation 200 Kg
Capacity 50 Tons
Capacity 25 Tons
Capacity 10 Tons
ELECTRONIC SYSTEM
Max. Capacity 100 Tons
Range 0- 40 Tons
Range 40-100 Tons
Margin of error  1 % over 1/50 of the maximum capacity

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2. Compressive Testing Machine:
Compressive capacity 200 tons
Oil seal Teflon based disc seal (much

superior to “O” ring seals)
Maximum travel of piston 50 mm
Capacity of reservoir 5 liters
Quality of oil SAE-30
Capacities of load gauges 200-tons, 100-tons
Diameter of dial gauge 200-mm
Isolation valves 50,100-tons gauges
Movement of valves Clockwise (Close), Anticlockwise

(Open)
Pressure withstanding capacity of seamless pipes 10000 psi
3. Impact Testing Machine:
Object Charpy Test Izode Test
Pendulum
Maximum impact energy 300 J 170 J
Angle of drop 140 90

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Effective weight of pendulum 21.3 kg 21.3 kg
Minimum scale graduation 2J 2J
Striking velocity 5.308 m / sec 3.994 m / sec
Permissible total Friction loss 0.5 % 0.5 %
Distance from axis of rotation of pendulum to center of 813.5 mm 613.5 mm

specimen for harpy and up to striking edge for Izode
Distance between physical percussion center and striking  8.135 mm -----------

edge for Charpy
Distance between physical percussion center and striking ------------  8.135 mm

edge for Izode
Support for Charpy 40 mm –0.0 -----------
a.) Distance between support +0.5
b) Angle of test piece support 78to 80
c) Radius of supports 1 to 1.5 mm -----------
------------
Charpy striker
a) Angle of striking edge 30 1 -----------
b) Radius of striking edge 2 to 2.5 mm

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Support for Izode
a) Width of specimen clamping groove --------------- 10 mm + 0.15
b) Distance between top striking edge - 0.25
---------------
22 mm 0.5
Izode striker
a) Angle of striking edge ------------ 75 1
b) Radius at the edge ----------
c) Angle between the normal to the specimen and 0.5 mm to 1

the underside face of the striker at the striking point mm
----------
100 1
4. Hardness Testing Machine:
Make Saroj Engineering Udyog Pvt Ltd Jayasingpur
Model R/ RAS / RAB RABI / RASM / RAB 250/ win
Maximum testing height 230 mm 295 mm
Depth of throat 140 mm 150 mm
Maximum depth of screw below base 240 mm 307 mm
Base (approx) 435 X 173 mm 212 X 472 mm
Height 657 mm 845 mm
Net weight 67 kg 125 kg

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5. Torsion Testing Machine:
Torque capacity 100 kg-m
Torsion speed 0.5 rpm
Clearance between grips 0-600mm
Torque indication Digital display
Angle indication Digital display
Motor drive 2 HP
Grips for round bar (mm) 10-18,18-26,26-30.
Grips for flat width (mm) 5-15,50
6. Rotary Fatigue Testing machine:
Maximum bending movement 200 kg – cm
Load (adjustable) 5-40 kg
Range 100 kg-cm
Griping diameter of test specimen 12 mm
Testing diameter of test specimen 8 mm
Length of test specimen 226 mm
Accuracy of applied bending moment + / - 1%
Revolution counter Electronic digits 8

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Motor 3phase, 0.5hp, 2800 rpm.
Mains supply 3 phase, 440V, 50 H z, AC
Overall size (approx) 1000L X 500 W X 600 H
Weight 120kg
7. Metallurgical microscope
Model Olympus BH2-UMA.
Type Reflected light observation
Objective Magnification 5X, 10X, 20X, 50X.
Eye piece Magnification LB eye piece 10X
Halogen Bulb 12V, 50W, HAL-L-Li.
8. Disc polishing machine
Type Double disc variable speed
No. of discs 02
Main supply 220 / 230V, 50 Hz
Disc diameter 220 mm
Speed 1400 rpm max.

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1. Title of the experiment: - TENSILE TEST
1.1. Aim or objectives of the experiment: -

 To conduct the test on mild steel for its tensile strength & study the characteristics like its
Young’s modulus, stress at limit of proportionality, percentage increases in length and
percentage decrease in cross sectional area of specimen.
1.2. List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications: -
Equipment: UTM, Extensometer
Measuring tools: Vernier calipers, Steel rule.
Consumables: Specimen of Mild Steel.
Technical Specifications: (Refer 4.0)
1.3. Description of the experimental setup: -

The machine (fig.3.1) consists of two units namely the machine frame unit or the loading unit
and the other controlling unit. The machine frame unit consists of two crossheads and one lower
table. Sensing of the load is by means of precision pressure transducer of strain gauge type, if
electronic measurement is selected and precision pendulum dynamometer assembly in case of
mechanical measurement measures the load. For measurement of ram stroke, a rotary encoder is
fitted in the bottom of the machine. Also adjustable limit switches are provided for safety for
limiting the ram stroke. Hydraulic system consists of motor pump unit with cylinder and piston.
Safety relief valve is provided for additional safety. A UTN/UTE selector knob is provided of the

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selection of hydro mechanical measurement or Electronic measurement.
FIG.3.1 UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
1.4. Theoretical background of the experiment: -
To determine the mechanical properties of the material, it is required to know some important
characteristics like strength, elasticity and ductility.
 Strength is the property of the material by virtue of which it offers resistance against
deformation when it is subjected to loading.
 Elasticity is the property of the material by virtue of which material deforms and regains
its original shape on removal of applied load.
 Ductility is the ability of the material to deform under tension without fracture.
Here in this experiment the material is subjected to tensile load and the behavior of the material
is studied.
1.5.Formula required, nature of graph:

a) %Elongation = (Final gauge length- Initial gauge length) /(Initial gauge
length)100
b) %Reduction in area = (Original area – Final area) / (Original area) 100
In the stress- strain diagram shown (fig. 3.2), initially stress is proportional to the strain. This is
given by Hook’s law. We can derive from the nature of graph that there are some limits such as
yield point, maximum stress point etc. All ductile materials exhibit these characteristics.

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FIG.3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
1.6. Step by step procedure to carry out the experiment: -
1) Mark the gauge length and diameter of the original specimen.

2) Grip the specimen vertically and firmly in to the UTM jaws.
3) Attach the extensiometer to the UTM and adjust the reading to zero.
4) Increase the load in uniform steps and note down the increase in length respectively.
5) Continue the loading on the specimen till the specimen breaks & note down the
maximum load at which the specimen breaks.
6) Remove the fractured pieces from the UTM and check the cracked area.
7) Finally join the broken pieces, note down the gauge length and diameter of the specimen
at the crack.
1.7. Table of Observations: -
1) Material tested----Mild steel

2) Initial diameter----a) Diameter of one end = d1= ---------mm
b) Diameter of other end=d2-----------mm
c) Diameter at center = d3= -------mm
Average Diameter =d0= -----------mm
3) Original length = L0=-------mm
4) Original area = A0 = /4 d02 =-------mm2

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5) Gauge length=------mm
6) Final length = lf =-------- mm
7) Final area = Af =--------mm2
8) Final dia = df --------mm
9) Final gauge length=------mm
10) L.C. of the vernier = 0.01mm.
S.L Load in KN (W) Extension in (l) Stress KN/mm2 (W/A0) Strain (l/l)
N0 mm
1
2
3
4
1.8. Plotting of graph: -
Plot a graph of Stress Vs Strain for the mild steel specimen tested.
1.9. Discussion of results and conclusion: -
1. % Elongation = ____________
2. % Reduction in area = ____________
3. Young’s modulus = _____________ N/mm2

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2. Title of the experiment: - SHEAR TEST

To determine the shear strength of the Mild steel specimen.
2.2. List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications:-
Equipment: UTM and fabricated shackle.
Measuring tools: vernier calipers and scale.
Consumables: specimens.

A force that makes or tends to make two adjacent parts of the member to slide relative to one
another along their surface contact is called as shear force. The shear force divided by area of the
surface contact is termed as shear stress. The maximum shear stress the material can withstand is
called shear strength of the material. Shear test involves determination of shear strength of

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material. In this case the material is subjected to single or double shear under tensile or
compressive load. The load which causes the shear failure is noted down.
2.4. Formulae required, nature of graph if any:

If ‘p’ is shear force of failure and ‘d ’ is initial diameter of the specimen. Shear stress is given by
a) For single shear
P
Max = ---------- ----------N/mm2
( /4) d2
b) For double shear

P/2
Max = ------- --------N/mm2
(/4) d2
2.5. Step by step procedure to carry out the experiment:

1) Shear test specimen is sheared off under tensile load or under compressive load.
A suitable fabricated shackle is taken and specimen is inserted. Fork plates of the shackle are
firmly held together to eliminate any bending in the specimen under light load. The nuts are used
to position the specimen rigidly. After measuring the dimensions of specimen with adequate
accuracy, it is inserted in the fabricated shackle and properly griped. The nuts are positioned and
tightened.
2) The tensile or compressive load is applied.The load at which the failure occurs is recorded.
3) From the known failure load and initial diameter of the specimen, the shear stress of given
material is found.
4) The same procedure is repeated for double shear experiment. Here two grip rings are inserted
where as in single shear only one grip ring is inserted.
2.6. Table of observation: -
1) Diameter of mild steel round bar =d1=---------mm.
a) When the material is subjected to single shear
i) The ultimate load for M.S bar = -------KN
a) For single shear

Max = P//4 d2=----------N/mm2
b) When the material is subjected to double shear
i) The ultimate load for M.S bar = -------KN

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a) For double shear

Max = P/2 / /4 d2=----------N/mm2
2.7. Discussion of results and conclusions: -
Mild steel:
a. Shear strength subjected to single shear= ------------N/mm2

b. Shear strength subjected to double shear= -----------N/mm2

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3. Title of the experiment: - COMPRESSION TEST

To determine the maximum compressive strength and find their ultimate stress for mild steel
specimen, bricks & concrete cube.
Equipment: Compression testing Machine.
Measuring tools: Scale.
Consumables: Specimens.
Specification of compressive testing machine: (Refer 4.0)
FIG.3.1.1 COMPRESSION TESTING MACHINE FIG.3.1.2NORMAL FRACTURE OF CONCRETE

TEST CYLINDER IN COMPRESSION
The unit consists of a loading unit and a separate hydraulic motorized control console. The main
loading frame is of four-pillar type, with a square base, on which the four pillars are fitted. An
upper crosshead connects the four columns on a top. An acme threaded lead screw passes through
the top cross head operated by a large hand wheel. To the lower end of the lead screw a platen is
attached with a swivel action. A hydraulic jack is seated on top of the base, tightened from under,
by a long bolt. A dust cover is fitted over the jack. A bottom platen rests on the spacer, centered
by a locating pin. The spacers can be removed and bottom platen can be located on the ram directly
when necessary.

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The motorized pumping unit is accommodated in an elegant console. The double plunger vertical
pump with a large plunger diameter provides high pumping rates even at high loads. Both the
plungers are precisely ground and lapped after hardening. A hand pump is provided to operate the
machine, during power failure. Both the motorized and hand pumps discharge the oil into a
common manifold, where from the oil further travels to the jack and gauges.
So to quicken the initial pumping, the motorized pump can be on and the hand pump as well can
be operated. The oil reservoir is kept on the top and feeds independently the two motorized pumps.
A pressure release valve on the vertical front panel is to start loading and for release on pressure
as well. By tightening in the clockwise direction the loading operation starts, and by rotating it in
the anticlockwise direction the pressure in the system is released. A flow-regulating valve on the
front vertical panel is for regulating oil flow. The clockwise moment gives an increased rate of
loading and the anticlockwise rotation decreases the loading rate. The extreme anticlockwise
position gives no loading at all even though the motor runs and the piston work.
3.4 Theoretical background of the experiment: -
When a material is subjected to compressive load, the material slightly deforms immediately and
resists the load consequently while deformation continues with the load. The resistance offered by
the material to deformation is known as stress. The final resistance to the load at which it fails is
known as ultimate stress.
3.5 Formulae required, nature of graph if any:
Ultimate stress, P= Ultimate load (at failure)/ Bearing area (Original Cross Sectional area)
= W/A N/mm2
3.6 Step by step procedure to carry out the experiment:

1) Measure the dimensions of the specimen and record the data
2) Start the pump and open the released valve in order to bring the bottom plate to lower
position.
3) Place the specimen so as to apply the uniform pressure on the specimen.
4) Lower the top face by using the hand wheel at the top in order to clamp the specimen
tightly.
5) Apply the load gradually till the specimen fails.
6) Note down the fracture load.

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3.7 Table of observation: -

Load ULTIMATE
ULTIMATE
application BEARING AREA STRESS
Sl .No MATERIAL LOAD
(sketch) “A”mm2 P=W/A
‘W’KN
KN/mm2
3.8.Discussion of results and conclusions: -

1.Ultimate stress when (for brick)
a. Laid along the face = ------ N/mm2
b. Laid along the edge = ------ N/mm2
2.Concrete cube:
a. Ultimate stress = ------- N/mm2
3. Mild steel
a. Ultimate stress = ------- N/mm2

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4. Title of the experiment: -TORSION TEST

To determine the torsional yield strength & modulus of rigidity in torsion of the given
M.S specimen.
Equipment: Torsion testing machine.
Measuring tools: Stopwatch, vernier calipers.
Consumable: Specimen.
Specification of Torsion testing machine: (Refer 4.0)
4.3.Theoretical background the experiment: -

The torsion test is conducted to find out modulus of rigidity, Torsional yield strength & modulus
of rigidity in torsion of the specimen. The modulus of rigidity can be calculated from the relation
C=TL/J.
FIG.4.1.1 TORSION TESTING MACHINE
The machine (fig.6.1) used for carry out the torsional test holds the specimen at one end,
a twist at the other end.

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4.4. Formulae required, Nature of graph: -

a) Torsional yield strength = fsy = 16 Ty/d3=------- N/mm2
b)
Shear stress at ultimate torque = 16 Tu/d3= ------N/mm2
c)
Modulus of rigidity = C = (T/) graph  (L/J)= ------N/mm2

1) The diameter & length of the specimen are measured. The diameter is measured at various
sections and average diameter is found.
2) The specimen is fixed between the grips of the machine.
3) The torque is applied initially by hand up to an angle of twist of 10 0. Machine is operated
electrically and torque is recorded at an interval of 5 0 to 100 .
4) Continue this process until the specimen fails. The machine is stopped after the specimen
is broken. From the experimental value of torque& the angle of twist, plot the graph of T
v/s .
4.6. Table of observation: -

1. Average diameter of the specimen = d = ------mm (d1+d2+d3/3)
2.Gauge length of the specimen = L = --------mm.
SL. TIME “t” Gear under “”In “”In

Torque in lb-inch
NO. seconds operation degrees Radians
01
02
03
4.7. Plotting of the graph: -

Plot the graph of torque versus angle of twist, ie, T v/s
4.8. Discussion of results and conclusions: -
a) Torsional yield strength = fsy= ___________N/mm2
b) Shear stress at ultimate torque = __________N/mm2
c) Modulus of rigidity = C = ___________N/mm2

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5. Title of the experiment: - DEFLECTION TEST OR BENDING TEST

To conduct the deflection test on mild steel beam to determine,
i) Stress at limit of proportionality.
ii) Bending stress at ultimate load of ultimate stress.
ii) Modulus of elasticity.
Equipment: UTM.
Measuring tool: Scale.
Technical Specifications: (Refer 4.0)
5.3. Description of the experimental setup:-

When material is subjected to loading (especially along transverse axis), it undergoes certain
deformation i.e., displacement of longitudinal axis in the direction of load and is called deflection.
This test is carried out to know the maximum load carrying capacity of beam in transverse direction
and corresponding maximum deflection under the load.
From simple bending theory

M / I = fb /y = E / R
M= Maximum bending moment.
I = Moment of inertia of the section of beam
fb = Bending stress.
y = Distance of extreme fiber from neutral axis.

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E = Modulus of elasticity.
R = Radius of curvature of deflection.
The deflection for a span of longitudinal beam when subjected to concentrated load at the center
is given by
 = (wl3) / 48EI
By knowing load and corresponding deflection the modulus of elasticity can be calculated.
5.5. Formulae required, Nature of graph:-
Bending stress at limit of proportionality = by =3/2  wyl / πd2
Bending stress at ultimate load = 3/2  wul / πd2
Modulus of elasticity = (w/)  (l3/48 I)

1.To begin with, the dimensions of the specimen are measured.
2.Place the specimen on the bending dogs of the UTM. The bending dogs should be equally
spaced with respect to center and effective span of the beam is noted.
3.The load is applied gradually at the center by ram and corresponding deflection is noted on
the straining unit of the UTM.
4.A graph of load ‘W’ v / s ‘’ is then plotted & bending stress at limit of proportionality and
ultimate load are calculated.
5.7. Table of observation:-
1) Length of the specimen = ------mm.

2) Effective length = ------mm.
Tabular column:
Sl. No Load ‘W’ in KN Deflection 
1
2
3

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5.8. Plotting of the graph: -

Plot the graph of W v/s 
5.9. Discussion of results and conclusions:-
1) Stress at limit of proportionality = by = ________ N / mm2
2) Ultimate bending stress = bu = _______ N /mm2
3) Modulus of elasticity = E = _________N /mm2

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6. Title of the experiment: - IMPACT TEST

To conduct impact test (Izode & Charpy) on a given mild steel specimen (MS)
6.2. List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications:-
Equipment: Impact testing machine.
Measuring tool: scale.
Consumables: specimen.
Specification: (Refer 4.0)

The pendulum impact-testing machine mainly consists of the base, stand and the pendulum
mounted in bearings. The stand is bolted to the base. The bearing housing is bolted on the stand at
the top. The pendulum shaft is mounted in the two bearing brackets with antifriction bearing. The
pendulum is fixed to the pendulum shaft. The pendulum consists of pendulum pipe and the hammer
plates. The suitable striker (charpy or Izode) is to be fixed to the pendulum as per the test to be
conducted. The guard is provided to protect from the pendulum swing partially.
The release mechanism for charpy as well as Izode is common. The latching tube along with
release mechanism is mounted on bearing housing in their respective locating pins either for
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charpy test or Izod test. A handle mounted on the tube itself operates the latch at the end of latch
tube.
The indicating mechanism consists of a dial fixed on the front side of stand and the indicating
pointer, which moves over the dial. The pointer carrier is mounted on the center shaft and moves
along with the pendulum. The indicating pointer indicates energy (in Joules) absorbed by the break
specimen after rupture.
The braking arrangement for stopping the pendulum swing after rupture consists of the braking
strip having leather lining at the top. The brake is to be operated by the brake lever.
6.4 Theoretical background of the experiment/ validation the experiment: -

This test determines the behavior of the material when it is subjected to high rate of sudden loading.
The objective of the experiment is to find the energy required for the plastic deformation and
breaking of specimen by single blow or impact.
Impact testing machine consist of hammer, which is fixed, and this is raised to certain height,
thereby it absorbs potential energy. When it is released, the potential energy is converted in to
kinetic energy. As it strikes the specimen, it absorbs some energy and fails, so that the hammer
looses energy.

Charpy Impact Test:
1.Fix up the charpy Izode block and the charpy striker in their respective position.
2.Place the charpy test specimen on the supports & align the center of specimen notch w.r.t. center
of support by means of charpy setting guage. Touch the striker to the test specimen and adjust the
indicating pointer to 300 J.
3.Adjust the pointer in such away that it just touches the indicating pointer. Lift the pendulum by
hand till it gets latched in position.
4.Release the pendulum. Allow the pendulum swing freely and break the specimen. After rupture,
brake the pendulum slowly by operating brake lever.
5.Read the absorbed energy directly on the dial as indicated by the indicating pointer. Before
proceeding for next test remove the broken pieces of the test piece and bring the indicating pointer
back to 300 J.
Izode impact test: -
1.Fix up the Izode striker & mount the latching tube of Izode test on the bearing housing. 2.Loosen
the clamping screw of the support and insert the test specimen. Align the centerline of the notch
by using the setting gauge and clamp the specimen by clamping screw.
3.Touch the striker to the test specimen and adjust the indicating pointer to the 170 J. Adjust the
pointer carrier in such a way that it just touches the indicating pointer.
4.Lift the pendulum by hand till it gets latched in position. For releasing the pendulum operate
release lever. The further steps may be followed so as to obtain the energy absorbed by the test

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specimen. For removing the broken specimen, hold the specimen by hand and remove the same
after loosening the clamping screw.

Charpy test:
1) Length of the specimen=.................mm
2) Angle of Lifting hammer= ......................deg.
3) Depth of notch=................mm
4) Material given=...............
Sl .NO Breaking load Difference Average Impact
Initial Final In energy energy
(Joules) (Joules)
1
2
3
Izode Test:
1) Length of the specimen=--------mm
2) Angle of notch= ------- deg.
3) Depth of notch=------------------mm
Sl .NO Breaking load Difference Average Impact

Initial Final In energy energy
(Joules) (Joules)
1
2
3
6.7 Discussion of results and conclusions: -
1) Impact energy required to break the given specimen in Charpy test= ______Joules
2) Impact energy required to break the given specimen in Izode test= ________ Joules
*Charpy specimen has more resistance to fracture when sudden load applied compared to
Izode specimen.

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7 Title of the experiment: - NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTS.
7.1 Aim or objectives of the experiment: -

 To study the Nondestructive testing of materials.
7.2 List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications: -
Equipments: Ultrasonic flaw detector, MPI setup & Dye Penetrant test setup.

Mechanical properties of materials are essential for designing engineering components. Engineers
are well used to assigning the properties of a material by means of traditional tests on prepared test
pieces (specimens). There are many standards available for this. Much valuable information is
obtained form these tests including data on the tensile, compressive, shear and impact properties
of the material. It should be remembered that all these tests are destructive in nature. In addition
to this the material properties as determined in the tensile destructive standard test do not
necessarily give a clear guide to the performance characteristics of a complex shaped component,
which forms the part of some large engineering applications. Many a times, it is of great
importance that both individual components and complete engineering assemblies and structures
are free from possible defects and other causes of premature failure.
These defects are of many types and sizes. They may be introduced to material or a component
during manufacture. The exact nature and size of the defect will influence the subsequent
performance of the components. Other defects such as fatigue cracks or corrosion cracks may be
therefore necessary to have reliable means for detecting the presence of defects at the
manufacturing stage and also for detecting & also monitoring rate of growth of defects during the
service life of a component or assembly.
Non-destructive testing and evaluation methods exactly satisfy these requirements.
Non –destructive testing (NDT) and Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) are the two terms used
extensively. NDT basically refers to the testing procedure whereas NDE includes evaluation with
the help of test results. NDE is normally done with the help of designer or the user.
 The detailed explanation of the NDT is given following in the sequence mentioned below.
1. Magnetic particle inspection.
2. Dye penetrant testing.
7.4MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION:

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Inhomogeneities such as blowholes, cracks, and inclusions in a magnetic material produce a distortion in
an induced magnetic field. The path of the magnetic flux is distorted because the inhomogeneities have
different magnetic properties than the surrounding material. All magnetic methods of nondestructive
testing employ some means by which this distortion, often called leakage flux, can be measured or
detected.
Magnetization: A magnetic field can be set up in a magnet in either of three ways: by passing electric
current directly through all or a portion of the specimen, by passing electric current through a conductor
surrounding or in contact with the specimen, and by magnets. A conductor carrying an electric current is
surrounded by a magnetic field, which forms closed circles in a plane at right angles to the direction of
current flow.
When a specimen of magnetizable material is placed across the poles of permanent or electromagnet having
a U-shape core, the specimen completes the magnetic path. This permits the flux to travel by a return path
through the specimen instead of through the air. In general the current values used for magnetizing currents
are not critical. If too weak a current is used, resultant field will not be strong enough to from a pattern. If
too strong a current is used, dense accumulations of particles may result, which makes the pattern difficult
to interpret or may even obscure it. The magnetizing current used for inspecting welds varies from 600 to
2000 amp, depending on plate thickness and prod spacing. In many cases the magnetizing current
requirements are determined by specifications, standards or purchase orders.
The direct current used for magnetization may be steady direct current obtained from batteries, generators,
or full-wave rectified alternating current, Pulsating direct current may be obtained by half-wave
rectification of single-phase alternating current.
FIG. 7.2.1 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION SETUP

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FIG. 7.2.2 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION IN PROGRESS
Step by step procedure to carry out the experiment:
Magnetic particle inspection is a relativity easy and simple technique. It is almost completely free
from any restriction as to size, shape, composition, and heat-treatment of a ferromagnetic
specimen.
Step 1: Magnetization of the material and

Step2: Application of magnetic particles.
1.The surface must be clean, dry and free of slag or rust. Wire brushing or sandblasting will usually
clean the surface sufficiently. In the case of an excessively rough surface, grinding or machining
is advisable.
2. The finely divided magnetic particles or powder can be either dry or suspended in liquid. If the
flaw is a surface flaw or lies sufficiently close to the surface, there will be set up a pair of magnetic
poles which act like small magnets.
3.The magnetic powder is attracted and held by the leakage flux, thus forming a visible indication
of the location and extent of the defect. The surface condition of the object being inspected may
affect the sensitivity of the method especially for locating subsurface flaws. Surface defects usually
produce powder patterns, which are sharp and tightly held with a heavy build-up of powder.
Surface defects usually give less sharply defined powder patterns since the powder is less tightly
held. However, experienced inspectors can evaluate the severity of a flaw by the nature of the
powder pattern.

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7.5DYE PENETRANT TESTING:
Penetrant inspection utilizes the natural accumulation of a fluid around a discontinuity to create a
recognizable indication of a crack or other surface opening. Capillary action attracts the fluid to
the discontinuity as compared to its surroundings. In order to locate the area of excess fluid
(defect region), The background area must be of sufficient contrast thus leading to distinct of the
defect on the surface.
Physical Principles:
Penetrant inspection depends mainly on the ability of liquid to wet the surface of a solid work
piece or specimen and flow over that surface to from a continuous and reasonably uniform coating,
thus penetrating into cavities that are open to the surface. The ability of a given liquid to flow over
a surface and enter surface cavities mainly depends on the surface tension and capillary action.
The cohesive force between the molecules of liquid causes surface tension.
Capillary action is the phenomenon of rise or depression of liquid in narrow cavities. Viscosity,
another factor, although has negligible effect on penetrating ability of liquid, affects the flowability of
penetrant.
Visible light or ultraviolet light is required for inspection of penetrant indications. Initially, the only
detection method used was the unaided observation by the eye of the inspector under visible light.The
characteristics of human eye strongly affect the perception of brightness of an indication. The nature of the
light source strongly affects the proper lighting at the inspection area.
Fluorescence describes the release of light energy by some substances when they are excited by
external radiation such as ultraviolet light. In penetrant inspection, when the incident ultraviolet light strikes
the panicles in fluid, they are excited to a higher energy level. After being excited, each particle then, returns
to the original unexcited level with the emission of light having a wavelength longer then the original
source. Thus the emitted light is in the visible spectrum. Because, the human eye does not normally see the
UV light, It is also called black light. The advantages of this in penetrant appear very bright. When the
Inspection is performed in very subdued light, the regions clear of penetrant material will appear black. Due
to this effect, the visibility of small indications is greatly enhanced.

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FIG. 7.3.1.1 DYE PENETRANT TEST (APPLICATION OF DEVELOPER)
FIG. 7.3.1.2 DYE PENETRANT TEST (INSPECTION & EVALUATION)

Step by step procedure to carry out the experiment:
Penetrant inspection is accomplished with the following sequence of operations.

1.Clean the surface of the component free of dust and dirt with a piece of cloth & brush the surface of the
component to remove scale, rust, paint etc., by a soft wire brush. Spray the cleaner to remove oil, grease,
etc.
2.Applythe dye penetrant (by spraying) adequately to cover the area to be tested. Allow 3 to 5 minutes or
more for dye to penetrate into the cracks.
3.Wipe of the excess penetrant on the surface with a rag. Again spray the surface with the cleaner to remove
the remainants of the red dye.
4. Spray the developer evenly. This layer absorbs the penetrant from the cracks and red spots or lines appear
on the surface to giver a visible indication of the flaws.

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5.The crack if any will be indicated with the red dye absorbed by the white absorbent.
1. Cleaning
One of the most important steps in the penetrant inspection procedure is the initial cleaning of the surface
area to be inspected. The defect that is being sought must be open to the surface for the penetrant to enter.
Scale, flakes, paint, dirt, grease and other chemicals that are not cleaned from the surface will tend to
accumulate the penetrant. This leads to either masking of real indications or creation of defect indications
where none exist. A satisfactory combination of solvents, brushes, rags, etchants, etc., must be chosen for
a particular inspection problem. It is essential that the cleaned surface be adequately dried before the
application of the penetrant since presence of any excess cleaning fluid would dilute the penetrant and
diminish the brilliance of the indication.
2. Penetrant Application
The second step in the inspection process is the application of penetrant fluid to the cleaned surface. The
fluid should spread freely and evenly over the surface and move into the crack. The dwell time, which is
the amount of time required to move into the crack will very depending on the crack size and shape
characteristics and also the environmental conditions such as temperature and surface inclination.
Application of penetrant may be achieved by dipping the component in a bath of penetrant liquid or by
spraying or brushing. A minimum dwell time of about 20 to 30 min. may be allowed after penetrant
application. Larger periods may be necessary in certain circumstances.
3. Removal of Excess Penetrant

This is the most important step the entire process. The desired result is that the surface is completely clear
of penetrant. Yet, the crack/defect retains all of the penetrant that entered into it. Excess cleaning may
remove the penetrant from the upper region of the defect with the result that the developer does not reach
the penetrant and no defect is indicated, On the other hand, insufficient cleaning will leave a background
of penetrant on the surface. Due to this the defect will appear only slightly different from the background
area. This difference in contrast may not be so that neither insufficient cleaning nor over cleaning is done.
4. Application of Developer
After removing the excess penetrant, a thin coating of developer is applied over the surface to draw the
penetrant out of the crack and increase its visibility. Another important function of the developer is that it
covers the surface with a colour that provides good visual contrast to the penetrant. This increases the
visibility of the defect.
5. Inspection and evaluation

The last step in the process is the scanning of the surface for indications. The scanning may be carried out
under visible light conditions or with ultraviolet or laser incident light and the defect recognition may be
made with the human eye or with automated optical scanners. Each indication that is appearing should be
evaluated.

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8.1 Title of the experiment: -Preparation of specimen for metallographic examination of engineering
materials & study of microstructure.

 To study the various parts and functions of metallurgical microscope & disc polishing
machine and preparation of sample for microstructure examination
 To observe the microstructure of a given metal specimen using a metallurgical
microscope.
\8.3 Theoretical background of the experiment: -
FIG.8.1 METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE
Metallurgical microscope (fig.8.1) is a device, which is used in laboratory to study and observe
microstructures of materials. Since a metallography sample is opaque to light, the specimen must
be illustrated by a refracted light. The eyepiece is detachable and can be fixed to the main body
with the help of screw. The specimen is illuminated by a halogen light, which is provided at the
bottom. It is also provided with an aperture, by which the intensity of halogen lamp can be
controlled. It is provided with 3-objective pieces of different magnification. Objective is the part
of microscope that holds all-important parts, which is closer to the object. Two screws control the
vertical movement of the microscope objective. One is coarse adjustment and another is fine
adjustment screw. The platform on which objectives are mounted can be rotated so that we can
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use objectives having particular magnification to observe microscope structure. The magnification
depends upon focal length shorter than greater the magnification. The frame is that part of
microscope which holds all the important parts. The frame holds the entire horizontal platform on
which the space is provided for keeping the specimen. The platform is provided with two screws
to control its horizontal movement. With the help of these screws the platform may be moved in
two mutually perpendicular directions.
FIG.8.2 DISC POLISHING MACHINE
Disc polishing machine (fig.8.2) is a device used to polish the given specimen. It consists of two
rotating discs, an emery paper is placed on one of the disc and on the other velvet cloth. The speed
of rotating discs can be varied with the help of speed control switches. Two water pipes are
provided, so that there is a continuous supply of water. Knobs are provided to control water supply.
Polishing of given specimen is necessary to study its microstructure. The metallurgical microscope
makes use of principle of reflection of light to illuminate the specimen. Good results can be
obtained only when the specimen is finely polished. A properly polished specimen does not leave
scratches.
Metallurgy is not only the art of extracting materials from their ores, but also it is mixing of two or more
metals to form alloys in shaping the very useful products for different activities. A metal is an element
exhibiting properties like strength, plasticity, electrical and thermal conductivity etc. These properties
are due to how atoms are arranged in the form of crystals and also type of bonding between atoms.

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The mechanical properties of metals can be changed by alloying. Physical and chemical properties of
different alloys are well studied by observing their metal structure. The metals crystals are formed rapidly
and they are generally bounded by confined environment, which presents the crystallographic flow
surfaces. Thus the metal crystals must be identified by x-ray diffraction or chemical etching.
The following are details of some materials of which the chemical composition and the phases are
explained.
1) Mildsteel: - the approximate rate of carbon contained of mild steel is 0.3%. for medium carbon steel it
is 0.3-0.6%. The microstructure of  phase of iron and little quantity of pearlite with high magnification
we can see pearlite consisting of smaller structure, which consist of alternate bonds of ferrite and
cementite.
2) Gray cast iron: - Fe-C alloys with more than 2% carbon are called (C I) cast iron. Depending upon the
cooling rate and other alloying elements present in cast iron. The carbon may be present as graphite or
cementite. Gray cost iron contains graphite in the form of flakes in matrix of ferrite. The graphite flakes
are short at their strip and act as stress rises. Thus even though the soft material graphite is present, the
gray cost iron is brittle.
3) Copper:-It is a single-phase microstructure showing big grains having well definite grained boundaries.
We can also find twin boundaries in between.
4) White cast iron: - The alloying element present is cementite. The microstructure of white cast iron
consist of cementite and pearlite. Due to this the large fraction of cementite is present, the cast iron is
very hard and brittle appears white when we see fracture surface.
5) Brass:- Brass is an alloy of copper (60%)and Zinc (40%). Microstructure of brass shows zinc rich phase
embedded in copper matrix.

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FIG.8.3 MICROSTRUCTURE SAMPLES

1) Sample preparation can be done by grinding wheels or belts; the surface to be observed
under microscope is made perfectly plane by filing.
2) Polishing is then done by emery polish papers. First the specimen surface i.e. surface to be
studied under microscope is rubbed in one direction with an emery paper of grain size 120.

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The pressure applied on the specimen during rubbing should be normal to surface, care
should be taken that specimen is moved in one direction only.
3) Turn the specimen by 90 o and rub it by emery paper of grain size 320. The surface should
be rubbed until the scratches provided by previous rubbing are completely removed.
4) Similarly by taking final emery paper 400, rub the specimen by placing 90  to previous
grain direction.
5) Specimen is then polished on disc polishing machine.
6) Due to this the last traces of scratches made by fine polish paper are removed. Then the
specimen for observation under the metallurgical microscope is ready.
7) The appropriate etchant is then put on the surface of the specimen.
8) The polished specimen is placed on the plate of metallurgical microscope above objectives.
9) A suitable objective is placed under specimen that needs to be observed.
10) Slider mounted on the bar plate is adjusted so that the light passing from the halogen lamp should
fall on specimen.
11) Then coarse and fine adjustments are operated in such a way that clear distinct microstructure is
visible.
12) The observed microstructure is then compared with the standard microstructures that are
available for identification.
8.5 Discussion of results and conclusions:
The microstructure of the specimen given is _______________.

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9.1 Title of the experiment: -HEAT TREATMENT

To study different processes of heat treatment of steel.
Equipment:
1) Muffle furnace
2) Water tanks / Quenching oil tanks
Inspection equipment:

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1) Metallurgical microscope (220v ac supply, 50Hz,)

2) Hardness Tester (Rockwell, Brinell)
Tools and consumables:
1) Carbon, alloy steel rounds / flat

2) Etchant
3) Quenching oil & water

Heat treatment may be defined as an operation or combination of operations, involving heating and
cooling of metals or alloys in solid state to obtain the desired properties.
Steel heat treatments are made possible by eutectoid reaction of the iron- carbon system. All the basic
heat treatment process for steel involves the transformation of decomposition of austenite.
Theory of heat treatment is based on the principle that an alloy experiences a change in structure when
heated above a particular temperature and it undergoes again a change in the structure when cooled to
room temperature. Cooling rate is an important factor in developing different (soft & hard) structures.
Slow cooling from above critical range in steel will produce pearlite (soft) structure while rapid cooling
(independent on the steel composition) will give rise to a martensite (hard) structure.
FIG. 9.1 ELECTRIC FURNACE

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1) Annealing:- It is a primary process of heating a metal to given temperature in which a metal structure
or distorted structural state will revoke the instability or distortion and then cooling it slowly so that at
the room temperature structure is stable and strain free.
a) Stress relieving: Stress relief annealing relieves stresses produced by casting, quenching, machining,
cold working, welding etc. stress relieving annealing applies equally well to ferrous and non-ferrous metals
b) Process annealing is a critical annealing and is applied to remove the effects of cold work to soften
and permit further cold work as in sheet and wire industries.
c) Spheroidise annealing: It involves subjecting steel to a selected temperature cycleusually within or
near to the transformation range in order to produce Spherical or globular from of carbide in steel.
d) Full annealing: it implies annealing a ferrous alloy by austenitizing and then Cooling, slowly (in the
furnace itself) though the transformation range. The austenite temperature for hypereutectoid steels is
usually between 72c to 910 and for Hypereutectoid steels it is between 723c to 1130.
2) Normalizing: Normalizing or air quenching consists in heating the steel to about 40 to 45c above its
upper critical temperate and it necessary holding it at he temperature. Normalizing produces micro-
structure consisting of ferrite and pearlite for hypereutectoid steels.
3) Hardening: It is a process in heat treatment where the metal is heated initially to a given temperature
and dipped in quenching oil or water depending the type of metal, which increases the hardness of metal.
Tools and machine parts that do transmit power and components subjected to wear and tear are often
hardened. The hardening of steel requires formation of martensite structure in case of steel.
4) Tempering: The process of tempering consists of heating the steel to a temperature of about 50F below
the lower critical temperature. The purpose of tempering is to release the residual stresses and improve
the ductility and toughness of steel after the hardening process. The increase in ductility and toughness
is usually attained at the sacrifice of hardness.

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 Keep all the specimens inside the furnace and switch on the power supply.
 Heat specimens up to a required temperature based on the process to be done for the
given material.
 Heat treatment is done on given specimen for the following processes.
(a)Annealing (b) Normalizing (c) Hardening
 The polishing and etching is done on specimens after heat treatment.

 Microstructure of each specimen is observed with the help of metallurgical microscope
and microstructures are observed and observed microstructure drawings are prepared.
(If the microscope has the photography attachment photos can also be taken)

From the above experiment we conclude that microstructure of the material varies with different types
of heat treatment processes. The following are the observations made after the above process for the
given specimens.
Annealed structure is _____________ & observed hardness is _____________
Normalized structure is ___________ & observed hardness is _____________
Hardened structure is _____________ & observed hardness is_____________

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10.1Title of the experiment: - Experiment on Wear study.

To determine wear and co-efficient of friction of a standard specimen
using pin-on-disk wear testing machine.
Pin-on-disk wear testing machine with control unit
Weights
Align key
Spanner
Acetone

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Cotton
Standard specimen pin
10.4 Description of the experimental setup: -
Pin on disc tribometer:
This is laboratory method of wear testing comes under mechanical method of testing of wear. For the
testing on pin on disk apparatus the specimens were a pin with a rounded tip and circular disk which
rotate as per given speed in its working range. the position of flat circular disk is exactly perpendicular to
test specimen. A pin is held against the disk. The test machine causes rotation of disk while pin is
stationary. The sliding path is a circular with fixed wear track radius on the disk surface. The pin is
pressed against the disk at a specified load with the help of an arm or lever and attached weights as per
design.

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10.1.5 Theoretical background of the experiment: -
Wear is a loss of material obtained at contacting surfaces of material having relative motion between
them. When two materials comes in contact with each other friction force is applied on the surface, but
friction is related to energy loss Both friction and wear causes surface damage of material results reduce
in reliability. A different type of wear occurs at different surfaces.
The main types of wear are:

1) Abrasive Wear:
This type of wear occurs due to presence of hard particles in contacting material or
in lubricating layer.
2) Adhesive Wear:
When two surfaces slides on each other and they are separated with lubricating film
due to improper lubrication
3) Surface Fatigue:
Wear cracks are in occurs due to mechanical tension in contacting body surfaces. In
this paper adhesive wear is investigated at different conditions of time, speed and load applied.

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Wear Failure and its Effect:

If one surface is slide over another then the asperities come into contact and there is a possibility
that wear can occur.
Wear can occur in different moving machine element such as rotating shafts, brake, lathe, clutch
pedal etc.
Effects:1) Wear affects on mechanical system or parts like pump shaft, IC engines, brakes and
valves their efficiency, operation and reliability.
2) So that to achieve better reliability more focus is on moving parts like bearings seals, piston
cylinder and other moving parts.
3) In system like braking mechanism small amount of wear causes failure of system.
Set up for pin on disc apparatus

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1. Clean the steel disk with acetone to free it from any debris from the
earlier usage.

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2. Remove the existing loads if any on the machine.

3. Fix the specimen in the pin holder using align key.
4. Note down the track radius.
5. Apply a load of 1Kg in the Pan.
6. Switch on the power of the control unit and set the timer to 5minutes.
7. Set the wear and frictional force to zero.
8. Start the wear testing machine and set RPM to 500.
9. Note down the readings of wear and frictional force at the end of 5
minutes.
10. Repeat the experiment with 2Kg, 3Kg and 4kgs.
11. Tabulate the results and calculate the co-efficient of friction.
12. Draw a graph of Wear (μm) Vs Load (N).
10.7 Calculation and Reporting
1) The wear measurements should be reported as the volume loss in cubic millimetres for the pin and
disk, separately.
a) Use the following equations for calculating volume losses when the pin has initially a spherical end
shape of radius R and the disk is initially flat, under the conditions that only one of the two members
wears significantly:
Pin Volume loss in mm3 =
assuming that there is no significant disk wear. This is an approximate geometric relation that is correct
to 1 % for (wear scar diameter/sphere radius) < 0.3, and is correct to 5 % for (wear scar diameter/sphere
radius) < 0.7.
Disc volume loss in mm3 =
assuming that there is no significant pin wear. This is an approximate geometric relation that is correct
to 1 % for (wear track width/sphere radius) < 0.3, and is correct to 5 % for (wear track width/sphere
radius) < 0.8.

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b) Calculation of wear volumes for pin shapes of other geometries use the appropriate geometric
relations, recognizing that assumptions regarding wear of each member may be required to justify the
assumed final geometry.
c) Wear scar measurements should be done at least at two representative locations on the pin surfaces
and disk surfaces, and the final results averaged.
d) In situations where both the pin and the disk wear significantly, it will be necessary to measure the
wear depth profile on both members. A suitable method uses stylus profiling. Profiling is the only
approach to determine the exact final shape of the wear surfaces and thereby to calculate the volume of
material lost due to wear. In the case of disk wear, the average wear track profile can be integrated to
obtain the track cross-section area, and multiplied by the average track length to obtain disk wear
volume. In the case of pin wear, the wear scar profile can be measured in two orthogonal directions, the
profile results averaged, and used in a figure-of-revolution calculated for pin wear volume.
e) While mass loss results may be used internally in laboratories to compare materials of equivalent
densities, this test method reports wear as volume loss so that there is no confusion caused by
variations in density. Take care to use and report the best available density value for the materials
tested when calculating volume loss from measured mass loss.
f) Use the following equation for conversion of mass loss to volume loss.
Constant Load: 3kg; Constant Time: 5min; Speed is Variable.

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Draw a graph of Wear (μm) Vs Load (N).

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The wear coefficient of the tested material is _____________

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11.1 Title of the experiment: - HARDNESS TEST

 To determine the hardness of Mild steel, Aluminium & Cast iron specimens.
Equipment: Rockwell Hardness / Brinell hardness testing machines.
Measuring tool: Microscope.
Consumables: Specimens.
Specifications: (Refer 4.0)
11.4 Description of the experimental setup: -
The hardness tester is of cast- iron body. The enclosed design protects the internal operating parts from
detrimental dust and extraneous elements. The main screw is also protected by a rubber bellow. The
weight under hydraulic dash- pot time control are applied on free end of lever, which transmits the
pressure on plunger and thereby on the work- piece for determination of hardness value. A clamping
device enables the tight clamping of work- piece during the test, which at times cannot be checked
under normal conditions.
FIG.11.1. BRINELL HARDNESS TESTER

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FIG.11.2.ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTER

Hardness of a material may be defined as the resistance offered for plastic deformation or is the
resistance of the material against abrasion, scratching or indentation.
Rockwell hardness test is an indentation hardness test using a verified machine to force a diamond
spheroconicalindentor or hard steel ball indentor under specified conditions, into the surface of the
material under test in two operations, and to measure the difference in depth of the indentation
under the specified conditions of preliminary and total test force.

There are three methods to find out the hardness of the material.
1) Rockwell hardness test.
2) Brinell hardness test.
3) Vickers hardness test.
1.Rockwell hardness test: -

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In this type of hardness test an indentor is allowed to penetrate through the specimen. The hardness
number is read directly from the dial gauge. The steps involved are as follows.
a. Test piece is placed upon the machine. The machine dial is showing any reading.
b. Hand wheel is turned, thereby raising the test piece up against the steel ball indentor till the needle
on the dial reads zero.
c. Major load is applied by pressing the crank provided on the right hand side of the machine.
d. Crank is turned in the reverse direction thereby withdrawing major load but leaving minor load
applied.
e. Hand wheel is rotated and the test piece is lowered.
At this stage the hardness of the test piece material can be directly read from the dial scale. There are
two scales on a Rockwell testing machine. i.e. “B” scale & “C” scale.
‘B’ scale uses a steel ball and diamond cone penetrator is employed for measuring the hardness on ‘C’
scale.
‘B’ scale is used for testing materials of medium hardness such as low & medium carbon steels and ‘C’
scale is used for testing the hardness of alloy cast irons.
In Rockwell testing the minor load for all cases is 10 Kg & major loads for scales ‘C’ & ‘B’ are 150 and 100
Kg respectively.

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2.Brinell hardness test: --
In this test a hard steel ball of specific diameter under a specific load indents metal surface. Measuring
the average diameter of the indentor by a microscope fitted with a scale called Brinell microscope. The
Brinell hardness number of the metal is determined as
______
BHN = 2 P / [ D (D-  (D2- d2))]
Where P= load on indentor.
D=Diameter of the steel ball.
d = Average diameter of the indentor.

1. Load applied on the metal = P = _________kg
2. Diameter of the steel ball = D = _________mm
3. Average diameter of the indentor, d = ________mm
SL.NO. MATERIAL USED HRC DIA.OF INDENTATION LOAD BHN

“d”
1. Mild steel
2. Aluminium
3. Cast iron
( BHN – Brinell Hardness Number, HRA – Hardness on Rockwell scale “A” )

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7.10.8 Discussion of results and conclusions: -

Brinell hardness number for
1) Mild steel = ___________
2) Aluminium = ___________
3) Cast iron = ___________

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Title of the experiment: -COMPUTER MODELING OF STRESS CONCENTRATION,

CRACK OPENING AND CRACK PROPAGATION
Aim or objectives of the experiment: -

 To study the effect an elliptical hole decreases on the stress distribution of a flat plate as
the sharpness of the ellipse from a circle to a narrow crack.
List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications: -

ANSYS Software
Theoretical background of the experiment: -

Changes in geometry such as a circular hole or an elliptical hole cause increase in the
amount of stress created at these discontinuities. This stress, increase is more commonly
known as the stress concentration factor. This factor is a ratio between the maximum
stresses produced at the discontinuity divided by the nominal stress far away from the hole.
These factors have been well-studied and documented, with closed form solutions for more
common geometries available in such texts as equation-1. For an elliptical hole in a flat
plate, the stress concentration will be different depending on the narrowness of the ellipse.
FEA programs such as ANSYS can be used to approximate the stress concentration factor
as calculated using a closed form equation for a given geometry. The accuracy of the model
can be increased by two ways. One is by increasing the mesh density around the
discontinuity in order to better capture the increase in stress. The other method is to
increase the order of the element, such as using an 8-noded quad element vs. a 4-noded
quad element.
Formula required:-
Stress concentration factor:
Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the simple stress
distribution no longer holds good and the neighbouring of the discontinuity is different. This
irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress
concentration. It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes, keyways,
splines, surface roughness or scratches etc.
The stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of maximum stress in a member to
the nominal stress at the same section based upon net area.
Mathematically,
Stress Concentration Factor, Kt=

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Stress Concentration Factor Equations for an Elliptical Hole:

The stress concentration factor for an elliptical hole in a flat plate. Equation (1) is only valid if a/b
ratio is between 0.5 and 10. For this project the ratio of a/b varies from 1 to 5.
K = C1+ C2 (2a/D) +C3 (2a/D)2+ C4(2a/D)3

Where
C1 = 1+ 2(a/b) 1
C2 = - 0.351- 0.021(a/b)1/2 - 2.483(a/b)
C3 = 3.621- 5.183(a/b)1/2 + 4.494(a/b)(a/b)

Where
a = The long radius of ellipse
b = The short radius of ellipse
D = Width of the flat plate
K = Stress concentration factor for an elliptical hole in a flat plate

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Description of the experimental setup:-
In this focus on the specific geometry of an elliptical hole in a flat plate as shown in Figure 1.
1000Mpa
a = Long radius
b = Short radius
120mm
b a
1000M
60mm

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Finite Element analysis:
Figure 2 shows the boundary conditions for the FEA model. The left and right vertical edge
free and the bottom edge being constrained in all direction. The top edge will be where the
load of 1000N is applied.
1000Mpa
Figure 2 FEA model Boundary Conditions
Figure 2 FEA model Boundary Conditions

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There will be two element types used in this report. The first element is a 4-noded quad element.
In ANSYS the name of the element type is Plane42 shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. 4-noded Quad Element
The second element to be used is an 8-noded quad element, called the Plane82 in ANSYS, shown
in Figure 4.
Figure 4. 8-noded Quad Element

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Table of Observations: -
Table 1 shows the stress concentration factor for each of the 5 ellipses used. The first column is
the a/b ratio, which is the ratio between the long and short radius of the ellipse (as seen in Figure
1), the 4 constants C1-C4 needed in equation (1), and the stress concentration factor using equation
(1).
Sl.
a b a/b C1 C2 C3 C4 K
No.
1 1 1
2 1 0.8
3 1 0.6
4 1 0.4
5 1 0.2
Table 1 Stress Concentration Factors for Various Ellipse radii
Table 2a and 2b show the results of the FEA models for the Plane 42 and the Plane 82 elements.
This data was recorded for each model only when the maximum stress produced at the ellipse tip
divided by the nominal stress (1000Mpa) resulted in a stress concentration factor that was within
the + 4% tolerance from the stress concentration calculated by equation (1).
Max. Von Mises stress, K= σmax/

Sl. σnom
a b a/b Deflection,mm Mpa σnom
No. Mpa
σmin σmax
1 1 1
2 1 0.8
3 1 0.6

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4 1 0.4
5 1 0.2
Table 2a Plane42 Element Type FEA model results
Max. Von Mises stress, K= σmax/

Sl. σnom
a b a/b Deflection,mm Mpa σnom
No. Mpa
σmin σmax
1 1 1
2 1 0.8
3 1 0.6
4 1 0.4
5 1 0.2
Table 2a Plane82 Element Type FEA model results

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Discussion of results and conclusion: -REFERENCES
1 Young, Warren; Budynas, Richard, Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain
2 ANSYS Help Menu, ANSYS INC., Release-12.
3.Stress concentration near an elliptical hole in an elastic-plastic plate, N. É. Bauman Moscow

Higher Technical School. Translated from Prikladnaya Mekhanika, Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 85–91,
May, 1972.
4. Stress Distribution on the Boundary of an Elliptical Hole in a Large Plate during Passage of a
Stress Pulse of Long Duration, A. J. Durelli and W. F. Riley, J. Appl. Phys. 32, 1255 (1961).

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Course Title: Engineering Materials Lab Course Code: 15EMEP202

Total Contact Hours: 24 hours Duration of SEE: 2 Hrs

ESA Marks: 20 marks ISA Marks: 80 marks

Author: Prof. P M Bhovi, Prof. Adarsh Patil Date: 25-02-2021

Checked By:Prof. I G siddalingeshwar Date: 02-03-2021

Expt. Brief description about the experiment No. of Lab.

01 Introduction to the Laboratory-Overview of Destructive and Non Destructive 01

02 Non destructive test experiments 01

a. Ultrasonic flaw detection.

b. Magnetic particle inspection.

c. Dye penetration testing,

To study the defects of castings and welded specimens.

03 Evaluation of the tensile strength, Compression strength, Shear strength, 01

05 To study wear characteristics of ferrous, non-ferrous and composite materials 01

ENGINEERING MATERIALS LABORATORY MANUAL-2020-21 Page 1

Computation of wear parameters: wear rate, wear resistance, specific wear

06 To study the microstructure of the ferrous and nonferrous alloy and to 01

 Familiarization with the procedure for preparation of a material

 Familiarization with compound optical microscopes and

 Examination of surface characteristics of engineering materials.

 Grain size determination of metals and analysis.

07 To analyze given SEM Micrographs (Microstructure and fracture surface 01

(Familiarization with the advanced characterization of metals by Scanning

08 Computer Modeling of Stress Concentration, Crack Opening and Crack 01

 Understand the occurrence of stress concentration at geometrical

 Determine the stress concentration factor at a geometrical

09 Design an experiment to investigate the spring characteristics of any given 02

10 Synthesize a novel composite material which is reinforced with a natural fiber 02

ENGINEERING MATERIALS LABORATORY MANUAL-2020-21 Page 2

Perform a parametric analysis which affects the mechanical properties of

2. Introduction to the laboratory:

I. How to use the Equipments:

ENGINEERING MATERIALS LABORATORY MANUAL-2020-21 Page 3

i) Universal testing machine.

ii) Compression testing machine.

iii) Impact testing machine.

Operate the same.

i) Hardness testing machine.

II. How to avoid misuse:

III. Safety measures:

i) Before starting the machine contact the shop instructors.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS LABORATORY MANUAL-2020-21 Page 4

v) Pay attention to specification charts & safety precautions.

vi) Do not perform experiments without wearing Shoes

IV. Dress code:

V. Standard accessories to be possessed:

Scale, pencil, calculator, Journal papers.

VI. Instruction to the students:

All students are

i) required to be present in the laboratory in time.

v) informed to conduct each experiment in presence of staff member or lab instructor.

4. List of equipments with specifications.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS LABORATORY MANUAL-2020-21 Page 5

Description UTN / E-100

Measuring system Mechanical (dial type)

Capacity 100 Tons

Min. graduation 200 Kg

Min. graduation 100 Kg