1950

1PROCEEDINGS OF THE I.R.E.

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Frequency

Analysis

of

Variable Networks*

LOTFI A. ZADEHt, ASSOCIATE, IRE

Summary-This paper describes an approach to the analysis of linear variable networks which is essentially an extension of the frequency analysis techniques commonly used in connection with fixed networks. It is shown that a function H(jco; t), termed the system function of a variable network, possesses most of the fundamental properties of the system function of a fixed network. Thus, once H(jw; t) has been determined, the response to any given input can be obtained by treating H(jw; t) as if it were the system function of a fixed network. It is further shown that H(jco; t) satisfies a linear differential equation in t, which has complex coefficients and is for the same order as the differential equation relating the input and the output of the network. Two methods of solution of this equation covering most cases of practical interest are given. In addition to H(jco; t), a network function introduced is the bi-frequency system function r(jw; ju) which is shown to relate the Fourier transforms of the input and the output through a superposition integral in the frequency domain. On the basis of the results obtained in this paper it appears that the frequency domain approach using H(jw; t) possesses significant advantages over the conventional approach using the impulsive response of the network.

A basically different approach to the analysis of variable networks is developed in this paper. The method to be described consists essentially of an extension of the frequency analysis techniques commonly used in connection with fixed linear networks. The advantages of frequency domain analysis, as compared to time domain analysis, are well known to electrical engineers. It will be shown that similar advantages can be secured in the case of variable linear networks in which the elements are functions of time and possibly the input, but not the output. It should be remarked that several attempts have been made in the past, notably by Carson,6 and Neufeld,1 toward extension of Heaviside's operational calculus to variable linear systems. Carson's method is similar in some respects to Schelkunoff's wave perturbation method, while that of Neufeld is based on regarding variability of an element as due to a continuous series of switching operations. Both procedures are I. INTRODUCTION essentially "time domain" methods, as contrasted to the N RECENT years there has been an increasing "frequency domain" approach used in this paper. recognition on the part of communication enII. SYSTEM FUNCTION OF A VARIABLE NETWORK gineers and investigators in allied fields of the potentialities of so-called dynamic or variable networks. The conventional steady-state as well as transient Generally speaking, a variable network is one in which analysis of fixed linear networks is based on the use of one or more element-values are dependent in a specified a function H(jw) which is variously known as the transmanner upon a combination of the three variables- mission function, transfer factor, gain, system functime, input, and output. The simplest, though not tion, etc., of the network under consideration. The necessarily the most useful type of variable network, is physical significance of fI(jw) needs no explanation, but that in which the element-values are functions of time for the purposes of this analysis it will be useful to recall only. that II(jw) may be regarded as the Fourier transform The rather limited use of variable networks at the of the response of the network to a unit impulse applied present time is due largely to lack of practical means at t=O. More generally, denoting a unit impulse ocfor their analysis, synthesis, and mechanization. In par- curring at t= by the usual symbol 5(t- ), and repreticular, the available tools for the analysis of linear senting the associated response by W(t-h), we can variable systems consist essentially of Green's functioni write approach and various perturbation methods of which certain variants of Picard's method,2 and Schelkunoff's H(jw) = Wf(t (1) method,8'4 are probably the most powerful. These meth-x ods are quite useful in certain cases, but on the whole The fundamental characteristic of fixed networks is would not be considered practical by an electrical enthat their impulsive response is dependent solely upon gineer. the so-called age variable, that is, the difference between the instant of observation i and the instant t of applica*Decimal classification: R143. Original manuscript received by tion of the unit impulse. No such property is possessed the Institute, April 11, 194Q. Presented, 1949 IRE West Coast Con- by variable networks, for in these the impulsive response vention, San Francisco, Calif., Septenmber 1, 1949. is of the general form W(t, t). Nevertheless, by analogy t Columbia University, New York, N. Y. 1 E. L. Ince, "Ordinary Differentiail Equations," Dover Publica- with (1) we define the system function of a variable
tions, New York, N. Y., p. 254, et seq. 2 See p. 63 of footnote reference 1. Additional references are given in the text. I S. A. Schelkunoff, "Solutiion of linear and slightly non-linear equations," Quart. App. Math., vol. 3, pp. 348-355; January, 1946. ' M. C. Gray and S. A. Schelkunoff, "Approximate soluition of linear differential equations," Bell Sys. Tech. Jour., vol. 27, pp. 350364; April, 1948. Additional references will be found in the text.

January, 1933.

'J. R. Carson, "Theory and calculation of variable systems," Phys. Rev., vol. 17, pp. 116-134; Februiary, 1921. 6 J. Neuifeld, "Extension of Heaviside's calculus to networks whose parameters vary with time," Phil. Mag., vol. 15, pp. 170-177;

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linear network7 by the relation

HJ(j,w; t)

f W(t, ei()d
_00

-co

(2)

el(O=-JEl(jiw)eiwtdw, 2 7r _00

(7)

where the upper limit of the integral is actually I, since the impulsive response is zero prior to application of the e2(t) = f dwE,(jfr) f W(t, )eiltd{. (8) unit impulse, i.e., W(t, 0)_O for t<t. 27r _x -x It will be observed that in contrast to H(jw), H(jw; t) as defined by (2) is a function of jw involving t as a But, by the definition of H(jco; t) (see equation (2)) parameter. In what follows it will be demonstrated that H(jco; t) represents a natural extension of the notion of W(t, {)ei-4dt = H(jw; t)eiol, (9) the system function of a fixed network. Thus, it will appear that H(j&o; t) not only possesses many of the and hence fundamental properties of H(jw) but, what is more 1 f0 important, can also be used in a similar manner to ob(10) e2(t tain the steady-state as well as the transient response ()=2 7r _oc H(jo; t)Ej(jo)ejloldc. of a variable network to any prescribed input. This result represents a generalization of a familiar relaFormulation tion used in the analysis of fixed networks, namely, Analysis of a variable linear network in which the = 217r fi parameters are functions of time reduces in general to (11) the solution of a linear differential equation of the form Heaviside's Expansion in Variable Networks [an(t)pn + * + al(t)p + ao(t)]e2(t) It is not difficult to see that the conventional tech= [bm(t)pm + * * * + b1(t)p + bo(t)]ej(t), (3) niques used for the evaluation of (11) can be used as or, more compactly, well for the evaluation of (10). In applying these techniques to (10), H(jw; t) should be treated as if it were the L(p; t)e2(t) = K(p; t)ei(t) (4) system function of a fixed network; that is, in H(jw; t), be a t should as fixed For regarded parameter. example, where el(t) and e2(t) denote respectively the input and output signals; the a's and b's are known functions of assuming that H(jw; t) El(jw) has only simple poles, time; and p=d/dt. Throughout this paper it will be we can express e2(t) in a standard form of Heaviside's assumed that the system is of the type described above; expansion that the a's and b's are continuous functions of time, and P(jco -; t) e,2 (t) = E (12) that the system is unexcited, though not necessarily fixed, prior to application of e1(t). Equation (3) will be ______ Q(jcvil; t) la (jcol) referred to as the fundamental equation of the system. We shall now proceed with establishing a few of the where more important properties of the system function of a P(jw; t) =numerator of H(jw; t) El(jo) variable network. First, it will be recalled that by the Q(jw; t) =denominator of H(jw; t) Ei(jw) principle of superposition, jw,,'s=poles of H(jw; t) El(jw). rco e2(t) = W(t, t)ei(t)dS (5) The main advantage of frequency domain analysis over time domain analyses is due largely to the fact where W(t, t), the impulsive response of the system, is that once H(jc; t) has been determined, the output defined by the relation can be obtained from Laplace transform tables-or L (p; t) W (t, t) = K(p; t)5 (t (6) more generally-by means of contour integration. Methods for the direct determination of H(jw; t) will be Expressing ej(t) in terms of its Fourier transform described in part III. In the meantime, it will be instructive to compare the steps involved in the calculaEl(jw), tion of e2(t) (on the assumption that W(t, t) is known a priori), first through use of the superposition integral, 7The relation of H(jw; t) to Green's function of the system, as well as certain other aspects of the problem, will be considered in a and alternatively through use of Heaviside's expansion. forthcoming paper. It recently came to the attention of the writer When W(t, t) is known, calculation of e2(t) reduces that a similar, though somewhat less general, definition has been given by C. Blanc in his paper "Sur les equations differentielles line- essentially to evaluation of (5), which in most cases aires a coefficients lentement variables," Bull. Tech. Suisse Romande, calcuvol. 74, pp. 185-188; July, 1948. Blanc's paper does not contain the would be a difficult problem. On the other hand, lation of H(jco; t) requires evaluation of a generally results given in the present paper.

and substituting (7) into (5), we obtain upon inversion of the order of integration,

e2(t)

00

H(jco)Ej(jc)eioldcw.

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simpler integral, namely,

H(jc,; 1) = e-iwtf W(t, t)eiutd(.
-00

H(j ; t)
(13)

response of the network to eiwt

eJwt

which is identical with the usual definition of the sysOnce H(jw; t) has been determined, the second step tem function of a fixed network. In other words, in the calculation of e2(t), i.e., use of Heaviside's H(jw; t) is the complex envelope of the response of the expansion, does not entail any difficulties, since it in- system to e '"t. volves only algebraic operations, Hence, on the whole it The Case of Noisy Input would be simpler, in genieral, to use frequency analysis The case where the input signal contains some noise even when W(t, t) is known a priori. can be treated very conveniently by means of (16). It When W(t, t) is not known a priori-as would usually be necessary, however, to restrict the analysis to will be the case in practice-the simplest procedure to folin which the variable parameters are largely systems low in most cases would be to determine H(jco; t) diindependent of noise. In other words, the parameters of rectly by using one of the methods described later; and must the either be completely independent of system then use Heaviside's expansion or some other standard or the else the signal-to-noise ratio at the input signal, technique for the evaluation of (10). be must input reasonably high. The method of analysis In passing, it may be noted that the question of below outlined applies only to such cases. stability of a variable network may be resolved in much In view of the assumption made above, the output the same way as in the case of a fixed network. That is, is noise (t) related to the input noise elN(t) through e2N a variable network is stable at all times if the poles of H(jw; t) (whose location in general varies with time) the fundamental equation of the system, i.e., do not pass into the right-half of the complex frequency (17) L(p; t)e2N (t) = K(p; t)elN(t)c plane. Assuming further that ei2(t) is stationary and Gaussian Steady-State Response to Periodic and Almost Periodic with a power spectrum S(f), we can express elN(t) in the form of a Fourier series8 Inputs In many cases of practical interest the input signal is 27r 2r 47r elN(t) A1 cos - t + B1 sin - t + A2 cos- t periodic or almost periodic in nature; in other words it T T T is of the form 4w (18) + B2sin-t + el(t) = Co + A1 cos wit + B1 sin cwit T (14) + A2 cos C02t + B2 sin W2t + * * where T is a long period of time, and the A's and B's where C0, the A's, the B's, and the c's are constants. are normally distributed random variables with the Steady-state response to signals of this type can be following properties: expressed in a convenient form through use of (10). (19) A = B,, = 0, Thus, it can easily be verified that for (14) El(jw) = 7r[2Co(co) + (A1 - jBi)b(ci - co,) (20) A 2 = B,,2 =S(fA)Af, (Af=-T f,= Af) + (A1 + jBi)>(Q. + co,) + * * ] (15) and where b(co) represents a unit impulse in the frequency (21) domain. Substituting (15) into (10), we obtain e2(t); AABl3 = 0. the result can be expressed in several different forms of In (19), (20), and (21), the bars indicate, as usual, the which the one most useful for the purposes of this mean (expected) values. analysis is A similar representation of the output noise may be obtained immediately through use of (16). Thus, we e2 (t) = CoH(0; t) + A1 Re { H(joil; t)eiwlt } + * * (16) find + B1 Im {H(jwi; t)eiwlt} + * * -

where Re and Im have their conventional meaning. It will be noticed that (16) is identical in form to the expression used in the case of fixed networks, the only difference being, as usual, that in (16) H(jw; t) involves t, whereas in the case of fixed networks H(jw) is independent of t. It will also be noted that from (16) it follows that the response of a variable network to a complex exponential eiOt is H(jw; t)eiOt. It is thus evident that H(jw; t) may alternatively be defined as

e2N(t) =

>
IL

[A, Re { H(jw,; t)ei

i'ytI

+ B,,, Im {H(jw,.; t)eidt} ]. (22) It will be observed that e2N(t) is a linear combination of normally distributed random variables having zero mean, and hence at any fixed instant of time e2N(t) is likewise a normally distributed random variable with
8 S. 0. Rice, "Mathematical analysis of random noise," Bell Sys. Tech. Jour., vol. 23, p. 328; July, 1944.

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H (jw;t)

March

zero mean. The ensemble variance a2(t) of e2N(t) may be determined as follows. By the definition of o-2(t),
a2(t)
=

e2N'(t),

(23)

or

o2(t)

; { H(jwo; I)eiw t I E [A,2Re2

+ B 1lm2 { H(jw,; t)eiwtII J. (24)

Making use of (20), (24) reduces to a,.2(t) = j [Re2 I H(jw,; t)eis I}

S(f,)Lf

+ Im2 { H(jw,o; t)eiwt I I

or,

(25)
(26)

1-I

-~~~~~~~~-

2(t) = E S(fm)Af H(j]m; t) 12,

and in the limit as T-> oo we obtain

Fig. 1-Expansion of a periodically varying network.

The type of expansion indicated above suggests a natural extension to networks in which the variation ^2(t) 10 TH(jc; t) (27) of parameters is not periodical. Thus, we are led to introducing the notion of what might be called the bifrequency system function of a variable network. This This result is a generalization of the well-known relation function rFJc; ju) is simply the Fourier transform of t)eiwc (the response to eiOw) with respect to time, f2 H(j&o) 12S(f)df (28) HCjw; i.e.,

S(f)df.

which holds in the case of fixed networks.

P(j; ju)

H(ji; t)eiwte-iutdt.

(30)

such as

Expansion of Variable Networks It is -evident that the system function of a network having periodically varying parameters, is itself a periodic function of time. Letting cwo denote the fundamental frequency of variation of parameters, it follows that the system function of a periodically varying network may be expressed in the form of a Fourier series,
H(jw; t)
=

The bi-frequency system function has a number of interesting properties. For example, it can easily be verified that the Fourier transforms of the input and output are related to each other by rF(&; ju) in the following manner:

E2(jU)

rco
=
-wc

r (jw; ju) El (jc) dco.

(31)

Ho(jcj) + Hl'(jce) cos coot This relation is a frequencydomain analogue of the superposition integral (see (5)). + Hi"(jco) sin coot + H2'(jco) cos 2coot +@* (29) Differential Equation Satisfied by H(Uw; t) An important property of H(jco; t) is that it satisfies where HoUco), H,'jco), Hh"(jw), etc., assume the place a linear differential equation, which, in many practical
-

of usual constants. It will be noticed that Ho(&c), Ho'(jc), Hi"(jco), etc., do not involve time, and hence represent system functions of fixed networks; in practice they would be automatically provided in the process of determination of H(jw; t). (See the illustrative example at the end of part III.) Physically, (29) means that a periodically varying network may be "expanded" as a parallel-series combination of a number of fixed networks having sinusoidally varying gains (see Fig. 1). The advantage of this type of representation is that it places in evidence the mechanism of formation of the sidebands in the output.

is easier to solve than the fundamental equation of the system. Furthermore, it should be remembered that possession of H(jw; t) enables one to find the response to any input signal provided, of course, the parameters of the system are functions of time only; in contrast, solution of the fundamental equation yields only the response to a particular input signal. A convenient starting point for the derivation of the differential equation in question is furnished by the definition of the impulsive response of the system, i.e., L(p; t)W(t, t) = K(p; t)c(t t). (6)
cases,
-

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.

Thus, transforming both sides of (6) with respect to t we obtain

bm(t) (jc,) m + * * * + bi (t)jcw + bo(t)

L(p; t)

which in view of (9) reduces to L(p; t)H(jco; t)eiwS = K(p; I)eiwt.

+ al(t)jw + a.(Q) The physical significance of (38) is rather obvious. = K(p; t) L(t - t)eiwtdt, (32) W(t, t)eiwEdIn plain words it means that the system function of a very slowly varying system is the system function of the

an(i)(jco)n +

* * *

(38)

(33)

This result may also be obtained by noting that HCjw; t)eiwt is the response to ei"'. Now, it can be verified easily that the result of operation of any polynomial operator F(p; t) upon the product of two time functions u(t) and v(t) is given by the expression du dF(p; t) + = F(p, t)uv uF(p; t)v + d v+*
+
1 d%u

n! dtn

t) anF(p; - dpn

v.

(34)

Identifying u with H(co; t), v with eOw, and noting that

apLOP ) dIPAl(;)e<e
is a(io;) p(jw)IA)

(35)

fixed network resulting from freezing the variable network at the instant of consideration. Because of this fact, the ratio Hf(jw; t) = K(jw; t)/LC(jw; t) shall be referred to as the frozen system function of the network (the subscript f standing for "frozen"). The notion of the "frozen system function" provides the basis for a useful interpretation of (37). Thus, referring to (37) it will be seen that H(jco; t) may be formally regarded as the response of a virtual systemof which (37) is the fundamental equation-to an input consisting of the frozen system function of the network. This point of view will be found particularly useful in connection with the solution of (37). It will be seen later that in the case of a slowly varying system Hj(jo; t) furnishes the first approximation to H(jw; t). The question of goodness of this approximation will be discussed in part III. Tentatively, a convenient though rather rough criterion may be stated as follows:

The frozen system function may be regarded as a first to the actual system function of a variable approximation (36) network whenever K(p; t)ejwt K(jw; t)ei"', the coefficients of the fundamental equanot do tion vary appreciably over the width9 of the impulsive we obtain after minor simplifications the following difresponse of the system. ferential equation: It can be shown easily that for large values of co the actual system function tends asymptotically to the + [7 [nAL a(jc)n d + L.. frozen system function, regardless of the rate of variaK (37) tion of the system. The physical significance of this +H= statement becomes quite obvious when one considers the fact that in the case of input signals of very-high where K, L, and H are abbreviations for K(jc; t), frequency the coefficients of the fundamental equation L(jco; t), and H(Uw; t), respectively. It should be under- do not change appreciably over a relatively great numstood that in (37) jw is regarded as a fixed parameter. ber of cycles of the applied signal. In other words, from Equation (37) could be obtained alternatively by noting the point of view of the signal, the system behaves as that the left-hand member in (33) is equivalent to if it were varying at a very slow rate. eico' L(p+jwo; t) H(jw; t). Equation (37) shows that H(jco; t) satisfies a nonIII. DETERMINATION OF SYSTEM FUNCTION homogeneous linear differential equation with complex The problem of finding the response of a variable netcoefficients, the order of which is the same as that of work through analysis in the frequency domain reduces the fundamental equation of the system. The problem essentially to the determination of the system function of solution of this equation will be discussed in part III. of the network. There are two distinct approaches to In the meantime it will be expedient to examine the the solution of the latter problem. The first, and most limiting form of (37) in the case of a slowly varying practical, is to obtain H(jw; t) through the solution of system. (37). The alternative approach is to determine the As the rate of variation of a system decreases the impulsive response of the system, and then obtain time derivatives in (37) decrease accordingly until in H(jw; t) through use of (9). This approach is not, in the limit H(Jw; t) becomes equal to
1

and

d-nL

dnH

dL

(jw)

dH dt

H(jwt) H!(jco; 1) = K(jw;

L(jw;t1)t)

' Roughly speaking, the width of W(t, t) is the length of the time interval outside of which W(t, E) is small by comparison with its maximum value.

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should not have any effect upon the response, and hence the initial values of H(jw; t) within the period of observation can be chosen at will. The apparent arbitrariness that is involved in the choice of a particular solution is eliminated in the process of evaluation of (10). It should be remarked that in most transitionless cases evaluation of (10) is simplest when H(jco; t) is set equal to the steady-state solution of (37). Actually, this is true in most practical cases so that ordinarily the probBoundary Conditions lem of determination of H(jc; t) reduces to finding the The question of boundary values of H(jco; t) in the steady-state solution of (37). time domain arises whenever there is a transition in the state of variability of the system. Physically, a transi- General Solution tion can assume a variety of forms. For instance, the For the purpose of solution of (37) it is somewhat process of initiation of variability represents essentially more convenient to rewrite (37) in the following form: a transition from a fixed state to a variable state. A dnH dH further example is furnished by the case of a dynamic (40) network controlled by the input. Here, at the instant +n dt + co(t)H =f dtR + o of application of the signal there occurs a transition from the state of variability existing prior to applica- where tion of the signal, to a different state which is dependent 1 &"L upon the signal. From a more general point of view, a p 01 ly ... n. a, (t) -, ,u!!49(jw)A transition taking place at, say, t=to, corresponds to a nonanalyticity at t =to in one or more of the coefficients Now H(jf; t) is, so to say, the response of (40) to of the fundamental equation of the system. K = K(jcw; t) and hence it can be expressed in the form It is obvious that, regardless of the nature of vari- of a superposition integral. Thus denoting the impulability of a given system, it is always permissible to sive response of (40) by'0 UH(t, t) it follows that assume that the system has been fixed prior to t =-o. 00 Adopting this point of view we can restate a statement (41) UH(t, t)K(jco; t)d(. t)-= H(jw; made earlier, in a more expressive form which is as follows: The system function of a variable network may be The general solution provided by (41) is largely of formally regarded as the response of an initially unex- academic value since the determination of UH(t, t) cited system, of which (37) is the fundamental equation, would usually constitute a difficult problem. This means to the frozen system function of the network. that ordinarily it would be necessary to use approximate The above statement is perfectly general and applies, methods for the solution of (40). Two such methods in particular, to cases where the period of observation, covering many, if not most, cases of practical interest i.e., the time interval during which the response is ob- are described in the sequel. served, includes one or more transitions in the state of variability of the network. Thus, considering the fact First Method that H(jcw; t) satisfies a nonhomogeneous linear differThis method is essentially an adaptation of Schelential equation of nth order having continuous co- kunoff's wave perturbation method ;3'4 it yields H(jw; t) efficients, it follows immediately that: in the form of a series H(jw; t) and its first n-I derivatives with respect to t (42) H(jco;t) = IHI(jw;t) + H2(jf;t) + H3(jCC;t) + * are continuous at a transition. That is, which is rapidly convergent when the coefficients of - H(jCA; t)(t=to+) = dt H(jo; t)(1 to-)I (40) oscillate in the neighborhood of their mean values. This condition is present in many practical cases, par(39) ticularly in systems having periodically varying parame=u-O,1, ,n-1. Equation (39) provides the necessary information re- ters. the first As step in application of the method, (40) is garding the boundary values of H(jco; t). as rewritten In many practical cases the period of observation is "transitionless." In such cases, it is not difficult to see dH dnH (43) + *I + -+oH K + P{HI} an that any particular solution of (37) within the interval dt dt'n of observation may be chosen as the system function of the network. This follows from the fact that the be1 In mathematical terminology UH(t, t) is a Green's function of havior of H(jco; t) outside the period of observation (40) satisfying homogeneous boundary conditions at t= - *.
= .
,

general, very convenient, even though it is preferable to the use of the superposition integral. It will be found that the two direct methods described in the sequel are generally adequate for the determination of H(jco; t) in most practical cases. As a prerequisite to the solution of (37), it is necessary to establish the boundary conditions to which H(jw; t) is subjected. This matter is examined in the following article.

_00

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where &; is the mean value of ax,(t) or, more generally, a constant approximating a,(t); and P{H} represents the aggregate of perturbation terms, i.e., dnH dH ~ = [~-&,-an(t) ] Y it dtn dt

As the first-order approximation to H, (47) gives

H1 = Hf = frozen system function.

(49)

P{IH I

- ao(t)IH. [-di

(44)

Successive corrections to Hi are given by the iterative relation HU= PIHy 1} ,u= 2,3, ... (50)
It will be noticed that the solution obtained by this procedure is in reality a particular solution of (37); hence, strictly speaking, the method is valid only in transitionless cases. This limitation, however, would generally not be important in practice.

It will be observed that (43) is a nonhomogeneous linear equation with constant coefficients. The first approximation to H(jc; t) is obtained by solving the equation dnH, dHj + aoH = K, an~~ +*' + (45) dt dtn while the successive corrections appearing in (42), i.e., H2, H3, etc. are obtained iteratively from the solution of

Illustrative Example The main points of the two methods described above may be conveniently illustrated by applying these methods to a simple variable network such as, for example, a low-pass bandwidth-modulated RC half-section. The d nH,A, d H, -a+ an dtn + dtn ***+ dt dt = PH, }.(46o) fundamental equation of this network, on the assumption that the bandwidth is varied sinusoidally, may be In this manner the solution of (45) and (46) yields the expressed in the following normalized form: successive terms of (42). The boundary conditions that (p + I + p cos cot)e2(t) = (1 + p cos wot)ei(t) (51) should be used in conjunction with (45) and (46) are the same as those used with (40). It should be remem- where bered, of course, that in transitionless cases it will be amplitude of bandwidth variation sufficient to determine the steady-state (or particular) mean bandwidth solutions of (45) and (46). In practice, the first two terms of (42) will generally frequency of bandwidth variation provide an adequate approximation. Usually it is found coo mean bandwidth that (42) develops as a power series in a small parameter in cases the of of that so many question convergence t= actual time X mean bandwidth. (42) can be resolved by inspection. An example illustrating the use of this method is given at the end of Using (40) it is found immediately that the differential the section. equation satisfied by H(jc; t) is

Pt,

.."

Second Method This method is far simpler in use than the first method; its usefulness, however, is limited to slowly varying systems. The system function furnished by this method has the form of a series such as (42). As in the case of the first method, it is usually found that (42) develops as a power series in a small parameter, so that the matter of convergence of (42) can be investigated in most cases by inspection. As is usual with all other perturbation methods, the first step in the procedure consists of rewriting (37) in a form that places in evidence the perturbation terms. Ordinarily it will be found simplest to regard all derivatives1' of H as perturbations, and write

dH -+(j& + I + p cscot)H dt

= 1 + pCoswo1.

(52)

First, we shall make the assumption that p is small by comparison with unity, and on this basis apply the first method. Next, it will be assumed that co is small by comparison with unity, thus making the second method applicable. And, finally, it will be shown that the same result is obtained from the use of the two methods when it is assumed that both p and coo are small by comparison with unity. Application of the First Method Following the general procedure (52) is rewritten as
dH -+(1 + j)H = 1 + p cos ceot-Hp cos wot, (53) dt from which it follows that the first two terms in (42) are the steady-state solutions of
dli dt

H=Hf = P{FH}
where
1 P{H} = - L L1
11 More

(47)
dH

+ (t) d~ dtnddi

d nH

*+ J(

(48)

generally, only those terms involving derivatives of H beyond a certain order would be regarded as perturbations.

(1 frw)H,

1+p

coswcot

(54)

298

PROCEEDINGS OF THE I.R.E.

March

and
= - HIP Cos ot, t+ (I + jw)Hdi

from where it follows that the first two terms in (42) are

(55)

1l7

Hf =

respectively. and Treating the complex coefficient 1+jw as if it were 1 dH1 real, we find from (54) the first-order approximation H2 = (61) c os wot dt jc + 1 + p to H, respectively. 1 I Substituting Hi as given by (60) into (61) and adding HI ==-I jco+ pcoosincoot +s jCO)2n+ c2 H1 and H2 we find the second-order approximation to H, which is (56) + p COS otj I + p cos toot ( 1+ j+) 2 + 2 Hl(f; t) ico + 1 + Cos coot Substituting H1 as given by (56) into (55) we find next
+

W.1 + 1 + p Cos ,,t

1 + p cos cMOt

(60)

(1

H2

[Cos Wot

+ pcoo sin c
1

(jw + I +

p cos

coot) I
(62)

+ pwo sin wot

(I-+ MI1,)2o+
jcW j)2
o

+
(57)

0(cwo2).

as a power

Adding Hi and H2 we obtain the second-order approximation to H, namely,

H(jw; t)
1
1

It will be observed that in this case H(jc; I) develops series in coo. If in (62) an additional assumption is made to the effect that p is small by comparison with unity, H(jw; t) reduces to
H(jco; t)-=
1 1

cos wot (

pcos

woot

+jw

(I2j)2+U0

3W)
+

PWo

[ (1 + jco)2 + C,oQ] (

jo.)

pWo sin

ceot (1

+-j

O(p2, W02).

(63)

It can easily be verified that (58) reduces to the same when it is assumed that coo<<l. Thus, as expression where 0(p2) stands for the terms involving the second should be expected, the first and second methods lead and higher powers of p. It will be noticed that if higher- to identical results when they are based on identical asorder approximations were included in (58), H(jco; t) sumptions concerning the behavior of the system. would appear as a power series in p and, at the same As was mentioned previously, possession of H(jco;t) time, a Fourier series of wot. This, of course, is in ac- enables one to find the response of the system to any cordance with the general remarks made earlier. prescribed input by using the conventional "fixed netThe second-order approximalion given by (58) would work" techniques. Thus, for example, assuming that the be considered adequate when p is reasonably small by input signal is el(t) =cos co.t, and using (58) and (16), comparison with unity. Higher-order approximations, we find if necessary, may be obtained in exactly the same way @ as the second-order approximation. Once the desired sin w,,t - 2 cos CW8t + 62(t) 1 +@, +@ approximation is obtained, the response to any prescribed input may be found by standard means treatpW.(2w. + wo) ing H(ji; t) as if it were the system function of a fixed W.2) [I + (Wo. + WO)2] 2(1 network.
+ O(pi)
1

(58)

COS

(W.

Wo)

Application of the Second Method In this case the assumption is that coo is small by comparison with unity; no restrictions are placed on the magnitude of p. Following the general procedure (52) is rewritten as 1 + p Cos wot
jco

pW, (2 w.
C,2)[1

o)

2(1

(WO
+

-Co

)21

cos

(c-

o)t

pC+ , [co,inc,
2(1
+

o) -1 ]

W.2)[1

(2 , + WO)t sin (c. + Co)2Wo)

-

ps [C6(CO
2(1

1]
o)21 W

c,.2)f1

+ (COC

(in

+ 1 + p Cos wot
______________ jc + I + pcos wo
1

+ O(P2).

(64)

. dH
di

(59)

It can easily be verified that the direct solution of (51) leads to the same result.

1950

PROCEEDINGS OF THE I.R.E.

299

CONCLUSIONS The frequency domain technique described in this paper provides a powerful mathematical tool for the analysis of linear variable systems. An important advantage of this technique, at least from the point of view of an electrical engineer, is its similarity with the standard procedures used in the analysis of fixed networks. In general, it may be said that frequency analysis works best when the system under consideration is varying at a relatively slow rate, and when, furthermore, the period of observation is transitionless. On the other hand, the advantages of frequency analysis are least when the system is controlled by the input,

and is varying at a rapid rate. It should be recognized however, that cases such as these are difficult to handle by any means available at present.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to express his appreciation of the continued help and encouragement given him by John R. Ragazzini, under whose supervision this work was carried out. Thanks are also due John B. Russell for many helpful suggestions, and to staff members of the department of electrical engineering, Columbia University, for their constructive criticism and cooperation.

Input Impedance
T.

of a Two-Wire Open-Line
WINTERNITZt,
ASSOCIATE, IRE

Cylindrical-Center Driven Antenna*

W.

and

Summary-Using the potential theory, a method of analysis of the input impedance of a transmission line terminated by a cylindrical antenna is described. The results of application of this method to a particular configuration of line and antenna are presented

These equations may both be converted to equations in current and scalar potential difference, and from the line equation an expression for the desired input imDecimal classification: R221 X R326.61 1. Original manuscript pedance at the generator may be obtained in terms of received by the Institute, February 3, 1949. Revised manuscript received, October 5, 1949. This paper is based on a doctoral dissertation the ratio of scalar potential difference to current at the presented at Harvard University in 1948 under the direction of junction of line and antenna (Zs). From the antenna W. P. King. t Formerly, Cruft Laboratory, Harvard University, Cambridge, equation a second independent value for this ratio may Mass.; now, Bell Telephone Laboratories, WVhippany. N. J. be obtained, and it may be then eliminated by substituE. Hall6n, Nova Acta Royal Soc. Sci., Upsala 11, p. 1; 1938. current tion into the line equation. 'The D. and Middleton, antenna; 'R. King cylindrical and impedance," Quart. Appl. Math., vol. 3, p. 302; January, 1946. " R. King and T. W. Winternitz "The cylindrical antenna with 4R. King, "Electromagnetic Engineering," vol. I, McGraw-Hill
*

Tl VHE ANALYSIS of the cylindrical antenna by Hallen' and King2.' using an integral equation to obtain the current distribution has proven itself to be a very effective approach and has given good values for the input impedance of such antennas. However, in this approach, the assumed driving source of potential has been taken as an infinitesimally thin charge separating region at the center of the antenna. Since such a source is physically unrealizable, and since the values of impedance predicted by this analysis can only apply to antennas whose driving conditions closely simulate such a "slice generator," a further analysis applying to an antenna center driven by a balanced two-wire line terminated in the center of the antenna across a finite gap has been carried through. This analysis leads to values of impedance for the antenna and line taken at a point down the line and away from the antenna a sufficient distance so that the mutual coupling terms have died out. For convenience, this distance may be taken as an integral number of halfwave lengths, so that for a lossless line, as assumed, the impedance values may be construed as antenna imped-

ance. The analysis applies only to the configuration shown in Fig. 1. The method used is to set up two equations in vector and scalar potential differences-one along the line in a manner analogous to that used in an exact transmission line analysis,4 but including the effect of the vector potential along the antenna, and one analogous to that of the Hallen and King analyses, but including the effect of the vector potential due to the antenna currents.

- 2

8~~~~2

Fig. 1-Cylindrical antenna driven by two-wire open transmssion line.

R.

gap," Quart. A pp. Math., vol. 5, p. 403; January, 1948.

Book Co., New York, N. Y.; 1945.