Astronaut Selection and Training

National Aeronautics and NP-1997-07-006JSC

Space Administration July 1997
Information Summaries
Divers prepare for astronaut verification tests in the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory at the Sonny Carter Training Facility.
Astronaut Chris Hadfield removes a thermal shroud covering on a heat pipe radiator to verify its design.
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The 21st century promises the challenge for humans to live and
work in space. The achievements of scientists, engineers, tech-
nicians, and specialists who will build and operate the Space
Station are the legacy of the National Aeronautics and Space
Administrations (NASAs) many years of experience in select-
ing and training astronauts to work on the frontier of space.
History of Astronaut Selection
Mans scope of space exploration has broadened since the
first U.S. manned space flight in 1961. But the Nation can
never forget the original seven space pilots who focused our
vision on the stars. In 1959, NASAasked the U.S. military ser-
vices to list their members who met specific qualifications. In
seeking its first astronauts, NASArequired jet aircraft flight
experience and engineering training. Height could be no more
than 5 feet 11 inches because of limited cabin space available
in the Mercury space capsule being designed. After many
series of intense physical and psychological screenings, NASA
selected seven men from an original field of 500 candidates.
They were Air Force Captains L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., Virgil
Gus Grissom, and Donald K. Deke Slayton; Marine
Lieutenant Colonel John H. Glenn, Jr., Navy Lieutenant M.
Scott Carpenter and Navy Lieutenant Commanders Walter M.
Schirra, Jr., and Alan B. Shepard, Jr.
Each man flew in Project Mercury except Slayton, who was
grounded for medical reasons. Sixteen years later, Slayton was
an American crew member of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project,
the worlds first international manned space flight.
Nine pilot astronauts were chosen in September 1962, and
fourteen more were selected in October 1963. By then, prime
emphasis had shifted away from flight experience and toward
superior academic qualifications. In October 1964, applica-
tions were invited on the basis of educational background
alone. These were the scientist astronauts, so called because
the 400-plus applicants who met minimum requirements had a
doctorate or equivalent experience in the natural sciences,
medicine or engineering. Of these 400 applicants, six were
selected in June 1965.
In April 1966, 19 pilot astronauts were named and in
August 1967, 11 scientist astronauts were added to the pro-
gram. When the Air Force Manned Orbiting Laboratory pro-
gram was canceled in mid-1969, seven astronaut trainees
transferred to NASA.
Shuttle Era Astronaut Candidate Recruiting
The first group of astronaut candidates for the space shuttle
program was selected in January 1978. In July of that year, the
35 candidates began a rigorous training and evaluation period
at NASAs Johnson Space Center (JSC), Houston, Texas, to
qualify for subsequent assignment for future space shuttle
flight crews. This group of 20 mission scientist astronauts and
15 pilots completed training and went from astronaut candi-
date status to astronaut (active status) in August 1979. Six of
the 35 were women and four were minorities.
Eight groups of pilots and mission specialists have been added
since then: 19 in 1980, 17 in 1984, 13 in 1985, 15 in 1987, 23
in 1990, 19 in 1992, 19 in 1995 and 35 in 1996.
Selection and Training for the Future
In the future, the United States with its international part-
ners Japan, Canada, Russia and the European Space Agency,
will operate a man-tended space station. From that orbiting
depot, humans will continue their journeys to the Moon and
Mars. As these plans become reality, the need for qualified
space flight professionals will increase.
To respond to these needs, NASAaccepts applications for
the Astronaut Candidate Program on a continuous basis.
Candidates are selected as needed, normally every two years,
for pilot and mission specialist categories. Both civilian and
military personnel are considered for the program. Civilians
may apply at any time. Military personnel must apply through
their parent service and be nominated by their service to
NASA.
The astronaut candidate selection process was developed
to select highly qualified individuals for human space pro-
grams. For mission specialists and pilot astronaut candidates,
the education and experience requirements are at least a
bachelors degree from an accredited institution in engineer-
ing, biological science, physical science, or mathematics.
Astronaut candidate Eileen M. Collins retreats from the
water during a water survival training school hosted by the
Naval Air Station in Pensacola, Florida.
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For mission specialist applicants, three years of related, pro-
gressively responsible professional experience must follow
the degree. An advanced degree is desirable and may be sub-
stituted for all or part of the experience requirement (i.e.,
masters degree = 1 year of work experience, doctoral degree
= 3 years of experience).
Pilot astronaut applicants must also meet the following
requirements prior to submitting an application:
(1) At least 1,000 hours pilot-in-command time in jet air-
craft; flight test experience is highly desirable.
(2) Ability to pass a NASAClass I space physical, which is
similar to a military or civilian Class I flight physical,
and includes the following specific standards: for
vision-distance visual acuity - 20/70 or better uncor-
rected, correctable to 20/20, each eye. For Blood
Pressure-140/90 measured in a sitting position.
(3) Height between 64 and 76 inches.
Mission specialists have similar requirements to pilot astro-
nauts, except that the qualifying physical is a NASAClass II
space physical, which is similar to a military of civilian Class
II flight physical and includes the following specific standards:
for vision-distance visual acuity - 20/200 or better uncorrected,
correctable to 20/20, each eye. For Blood pressure-Same as for
Pilots. Height requirements for mission specialists are between
58.5 and 76 inches.
The application package may be obtained by writing to the
Astronaut Selection Office, Mail Code AHX, Johnson Space
Center, Houston, TX 77058-3696.
Applicants who meet the basic qualifications are evaluated
by discipline panels. Those selected as finalists are screened
during a week-long process of personal interviews, thorough
medical evaluations, and orientation. The Astronaut Selection
Boards recommendations are based on the applicants educa-
tion, training, and experience as well as unique qualifications
and skills. Because several hundred applicants fulfill the
requirements, the final selection is based largely on personal
interviews. Astronauts are expected to be team players and
highly skilled generalists with just the right amount of individ-
uality and self-reliance to be effective crew members.
Selected applicants are designated astronaut candidates and
assigned to the astronaut office at the Johnson Space Center
for a 1 to 2 year training and evaluation program. Civilian can-
didates who successfully complete the training and evaluation
and are selected astronauts are expected to remain with NASA
for at least 5 years. Successful military candidates are detailed
to NASAfor a specified tour of duty.
Salaries for civilian astronaut candidates are based on the
Federal Governments General Schedule pay scales for grades
GS-11 through GS-14, and are set in accordance with each
individuals academic achievements and experience.
SPACE SHUTTLE CREW POSITIONS
Commander/Pilot Astronauts
Pilot astronauts serve as both space shuttle commanders and
pilots. During flight, the commander has onboard responsibili-
ty for the vehicle, crew, mission success, and safety of flight.
The pilot assists the commander in controlling and operating
the vehicle and may assist in the deployment and retrieval of
satellites using the remote manipulator system (RMS), referred
to as the robot arm or mechanical arm.
Mission Specialist Astronauts
Mission specialist astronauts work with the commander and
the pilot and have overall responsibility for coordinating shut-
tle operations in the following areas: Shuttle systems, crew
activity planning, consumables usage, and experiment/payload
operations. Mission specialists are trained in the details of the
Orbiter onboard systems, as well as the operational character-
istics, mission requirements/objectives, and supporting equip-
ment/systems for each of the experiments conducted on their
View of astronaut candidates and payload specialists dur-
ing a training flight on the KC-135. The trainees experience
weightlessness in the hold of the aircraft as it performs
parabolic flight maneuvers.
Astronaut Claude Nicollier in water egress training. View is
of Nicollier in one-man life raft.
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assigned missions. Mission specialists perform extravehicular
activities (EVAs), or space walks, operate the remote manipu-
lator system, and are responsible for payloads and specific
experiment operations.
Payload Specialists
Payload specialists are persons other than NASAastronauts
(including foreign nationals) who have specialized onboard
duties; they may be added to shuttle crews if activities that
have unique requirements are involved and more than the min-
imum crew size of five is needed.
First consideration for additional crew members is given to
qualified NASAmission specialists. When payload specialists
are required they are nominated by NASA, the foreign spon-
sor, or the designated payload sponsor. In the case of NASAor
NASA-related payloads, the nominations are based on the rec-
ommendations of the appropriate Investigator Working Group
(IWG). Although payload specialists are not part of the
Astronaut Candidate Program, they must have the appropriate
education and training related to the payload or experiment.
All applicants must meet certain physical requirements and
must pass NASAspace physical examinations with varying
standards depending on classification.
ASTRONAUT CANDIDATE TRAINING
Astronaut candidates receive training at JSC near Houston,
Texas. They attend classes on shuttle systems, in basic science
and technology: mathematics, geology, meteorology, guidance
and navigation, oceanography, orbital dynamics, astronomy,
physics, and materials processing are among the subjects.
Candidates also receive training in land and sea survival train-
ing, scuba diving, and space suits.
As part of the Astronaut Candidate training program,
Astronaut Candidates are required to complete military water
survival prior to beginning their flying syllabus, and become
SCUBAqualified to prepare them for the extravehicular activi-
ty training. Consequently, all Astronaut Candidates will be
required to pass a swimming test during their first month of
training. They must swim 3 lengths of a 25M pool in a flight
suit and tennis shoes. The strokes allowed are freestyle, breast,
and sidestroke. There is no time limit. They must also tread
water continuously for 10 minutes.
Candidates are also exposed to the problems associated
with high (hyperbaric) and low (hypobaric) atmospheric pres-
sures in the altitude chambers and learn to deal with emergen-
cies associated with these conditions.
In addition, astronaut candidates are given exposure to the
microgravity of space flight. Amodified KC-135 jet aircraft
produces periods of weightlessness for 20 seconds. During this
brief period, astronauts experience the feeling of microgravity.
The aircraft then returns to the original altitude and the
sequence is repeated up to 40 times in a day.
Pilot astronauts maintain flying proficiency by flying 15
hours per month in NASAs fleet of 2-seat T-38 jets; they
Astronaut Candidate Leroy Chiao participates in a class-
room session during his astronaut candidate training
period.
Astronaut Bernard A. Harris, Jr., prepares to make use of a
Sky Genie device used in emergency egress training. The
device would aid in emergency egress operations aboard
a troubled space shuttle.
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build up jet aircraft hours and also practice Orbiter landings
in the Shuttle Training Aircraft, a modified corporate jet air-
craft. Mission specialist astronauts fly a minimum of 4 hours
per month.
ASTRONAUT FORMAL TRAINING
The astronauts begin their formal space transportation sys-
tem training program during their year of candidacy by reading
manuals and by taking computer-based training lessons on the
various Orbiter systems ranging from propulsion to environ-
mental control.
The next step in the training process is the single systems
trainer (SST). Each astronaut is accompanied by an instructor
who helps in the learning process about the operations of each
Orbiter subsystem using checklists similar to those found on a
mission. The checklists contain information on normal system
operations and corrective actions for malfunctions. The astro-
nauts are trained in the SSTs to operate each system, to recog-
nize malfunctions, and to perform corrective actions.
Following the SST portion of the training program, the
astronauts begin training in the complex Shuttle Mission
Simulators (SMSs). The SMS provides training in all areas of
shuttle vehicle operations and in all systems tasks associated
with the major flight phases: prelaunch, ascent, orbit opera-
tions, entry and landing. The orbit training includes payload
operation, payload deployment and retrieval, maneuvers, and
rendezvous. Two additional simulators, a fixed base and a
motion base, are used to train the astronauts.
The fixed base crew station is used for both specific mis-
sion/payload training and launch descent and landing training.
It is the only trainer with complete fore and aft consoles,
including an RMS console. Adigital image generation system
provides visual cues for out-the-window scenes of the entire
mission, e.g., the Earth, stars, payloads and the landing runway.
Missions can be simulated literally from launch to landing.
The motion base crew station is used to train pilots and
commanders in the mission phases of launch, descent, and
landing. Motion cues are provided by the 6-degrees-of-free-
dom motion system which also allows the flight deck to be
rotated 90 degrees to simulate lift-off and ascent.
Astronauts begin their training in the SMS using generic
training software until they are assigned to a particular mis-
sion, approximately 10 months before flight. Once they are
assigned to a flight, astronauts train on a flight simulator with
actual flight-specific training software.
During this last 11 weeks, the astronauts also train with the
flight controllers in the Mission Control Center (MCC). The
SMS and MCC are linked by computer in the same way the
Orbiter and MCC are linked during an actual mission. The
astronauts and flight controllers learn to work as a team, solv-
ing problems and working nominal and contingency mission
timelines. Total hours in the SMS for the astronauts, after flight
assignment, is about 300 hours.
In parallel with the SMS training there are several other
part-task trainers that are used to prepare astronauts for shuttle
missions. These trainers are in varying degrees of fidelity and
each serve a particular purpose.
The Sonny Carter Training Facility, or Neutral Buoyancy
Laboratory (NBL), provides controlled neutral buoyancy oper-
ations in the facility water tank to simulate the zero-g or
weightless condition which is experienced by the spacecraft
and crew during space flight. It is an essential tool for the
design, testing and development of the space station and future
NASAprograms. For the astronaut, the facility provides
important pre-flight training in becoming familiar with
planned crew activities and with the dynamics of body motion
under weightless conditions.
Several full-scale mockups and trainers are also used to train
astronauts. The full fuselage trainer is a full-sized plywood
STS-44 Commander Frederick D. Gregory (left) and Pilot
Terence T. Henricks are at their appointed positions on the
forward flight deck of the Fixed Base (FB) Shuttle Mission
Simulator (SMS) in JSCs Mission Simulation and Training
Facility, Bldg 5.
High angle view of Building 9 Training Facilities including
the Space Shuttle Full Fuselage Trainer and the Remote
Manipulator System (RMS) mock-up. Also visible is a
mock-up of the Hubble Space Telescope for use in training
with the RMS.
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Orbiter mockup with nonfunctional mid-deck and flight deck,
and full-scale payload bay. It is used for onboard systems orien-
tation and habitability training. Astronauts practice meal prepa-
ration, equipment stowage, trash management, use of cameras,
and experiment familiarization. This trainer is also used for
emergency egress training after shuttle landings.
The crew compartment trainer is a mockup of the forward
section of the Orbiter crew station, without a payload bay, that
can be tilted vertically. It is used to train for on-orbit habitabili-
ty procedures and also emergency pad egress and bailout oper-
ations. The crew stations of both trainers are similar.
The manipulator development facility is a full-scale mock-
up of the payload bay with full-scale hydraulically operated
RMS, the mechanical arm on the Orbiter which is used to
move payloads in and out of the payload bay. Mission special-
ists use this trainer to practice deploying and reberthing of pay-
loads into the Orbiter.
Pilots training for a specific mission receive more inten-
sive instruction in Orbiter approach and landing in Shuttle
Training Aircraft (STA), which are four Gulfstream II busi-
ness jets modified to perform like the Orbiter during landing.
Because the Orbiter approaches landings at such a steep
angle (17-20 degrees) and high speed (over 300 miles per
hour), the STAapproaches with its engines in reverse thrust
and main landing gear down to increase drag and duplicate
the unique glide characteristics of the Orbiter. Assigned pilots
receive about 100 hours of STAtraining prior to a flight,
which is equivalent to 600 shuttle approaches. In between
training sessions, the crew members continue to keep them-
selves up-to-date on the status of the space craft and payloads
for their assigned mission. In addition, the astronauts study
flight rules and flight data file procedures, and participate in
mission-related technical meetings. They also participate in
test and checkout activities at the NASAKennedy Space
Center in Florida, the launch site for the space shuttle.
The months of preparation pay off and the mission is a suc-
cess; the actual mission will have far fewer contingencies than
were practiced for. The accuracy of the simulations and train-
ing is remarkable. Astronauts often comment that only the
noise and vibration of launch and the experience of weightless-
ness are missing from the practice sessions; everything else in
training accurately duplicates the space experience.
Astronauts who participate in the Russian Space Station
Mir program receive Russian language training before trans-
ferring to the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center for
approximately 13 months. Four weeks prior to the shuttle
launch that will deliver them to Mir, the astronaut returns to
JSC to train and integrate as part of the shuttle crew during
the final phase. Russian language courses continue at the
Gagarin Training Center until the astronaut reaches the level
required to begin technical training.
The Russian technical training includes theoretical train-
ing on the Russian vehicles design and systems, EVAtrain-
ing, scientific investigations and experiments, and biomed-
ical training.
The astronauts mission continues even after the Orbiter
has returned. The crew will spend several days in medical
testing and debriefing, recounting their experiences for the
benefit of future crews to assist in future training and to add
to the space flight knowledge base.
Members of the media also receive a detailed post-flight
briefing by the crew. Then, the studies and training that may
eventually lead to another space flight are resumed.
Astronauts Norman E. Thagard and Bonnie J. Dunbar
leave the Mir Space Station Simulator at the Gagarin
Cosmonaut Training Center (Star City), near Moscow,
Russia.
This and other NASA/JSC fact sheets can be found on the Internet at: http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/pao/factsheets/