Section 3.

7 Rational Functions
A rational function is a function of the form
r(x) =
P(x)
Q(x)
where P and Q are polynomials.
Rational Functions and Asymptotes
The domain of a rational function consists of all real numbers x except those for which the
denominator is zero. When graphing a rational function, we must pay special attention to
the behavior of the graph near those x-values. We begin by graphing a very simple rational
function.
EXAMPLE: Sketch a graph of the rational function f(x) =
1
x
, and state the domain and range.
Solution: First note that the function f(x) =
1
x
is not dened for x = 0. The tables below
show the behavior of f near zero.
This behavior can be described in the following analytical way:
f(x) as x 0

and f(x) as x 0
+
The next two tables show how f(x) changes as |x| becomes large.
This behavior can be described in the following analytical way:
f(x) 0 as x and f(x) 0 as x
1
Using the information in these tables and plotting a few additional points, we obtain the graph.
The function f is dened for all values of x other than 0, so the domain is {x | x = 0}. From
the graph we see that the range is {y | y = 0}. A pure analytical way to nd the range is to
nd the inverse of f. Since f
1
(x) =
1
x
and the domain of f
1
is {x | x = 0}, the range of f is
{y | y = 0}.
In the Example above we used the following arrow notation.
The line x = 0 is called a vertical asymptote of the graph of f(x) =
1
x
, and the line y = 0 is a
horizontal asymptote. Informally speaking, an asymptote of a function is a line that the graph
of the function gets closer and closer to as one travels along that line.
2
Transformations of
1
x
A rational function of the form
r(x) =
ax + b
cx + d
can be graphed by shifting, stretching, and/or reecting the graph of f(x) =
1
x
using the trans-
formations studied in Section 2.4. (Such functions are called linear fractional transformations.)
EXAMPLE: Sketch a graph of each rational function, and state the domain and range.
(a) r(x) =
2
x 3
(b) s(x) =
3x + 5
x + 2
Solution:
(a) The graph of r(x) =
2
x 3
can be obtained from the graph of f(x) =
1
x
by shifting 3 units
to the right and stretching vertically by a factor of 2. Thus, r has vertical asymptote x = 3
and horizontal asymptote y = 0.
The function r is dened for all values of x other than 3, so the domain is {x | x = 3}. From
the graph we see that the range is {y | y = 0}. A pure analytical way to nd the range is to
nd the inverse of f. Since f
1
(x) = 3 +
2
x
and the domain of f
1
is {x | x = 0}, the range of
f is {y | y = 0}.
(b) We have
3x + 5
x + 2
=
3x + 6 1
x + 2
=
3(x + 2) 1
x + 2
=
3(x + 2)
x + 2

1
x + 2
= 3
1
x + 2
It follows that the graph of s(x) =
3x + 5
x + 2
can be obtained from the graph of f(x) =
1
x
by
shifting 2 units to the left, reecting in the x-axis, and shifting upward 3 units. Thus, s has
vertical asymptote x = 2 and horizontal asymptote y = 3.
The function r is dened for all values of x other than 2, so the domain is {x | x = 2}.
From the graph we see that the range is {y | y = 3}. A pure analytical way to nd the range
is to nd the inverse of f. Since f
1
(x) =
5 2x
x 3
and the domain of f
1
is {x | x = 3}, the
range of f is {y | y = 3}.
EXAMPLE: Sketch a graph of each rational function, and state the domain and range.
(a) r(x) =
3
x + 1
(b) s(x) =
x 5
x 2
3
EXAMPLE: Sketch a graph of each rational function, and state the domain and range.
(a) r(x) =
3
x + 1
(b) s(x) =
x 5
x 2
Solution:
(a) The graph of r(x) =
3
x + 1
can be obtained from the graph of f(x) =
1
x
by shifting 1 units
to the left and stretching vertically by a factor of 3. Thus, r has vertical asymptote x = 1
and horizontal asymptote y = 0.
The function r is dened for all values of x other than 1, so the domain is {x | x = 1}.
From the graph we see that the range is {y | y = 0}. A pure analytical way to nd the range
is to nd the inverse of f. Since f
1
(x) = 1 +
3
x
and the domain of f
1
is {x | x = 0}, the
range of f is {y | y = 0}.
(b) We have

x 5
x 2
=
x 2 3
x 2
=
x 2
x 2
+
3
x 2
= 1 +
3
x 2
It follows that the graph of s(x) =
x 5
x 2
can be obtained from the graph of f(x) =
1
x
by
shifting 2 units to the right, stretching vertically by a factor of 3, and shifting downward 1 unit.
Thus, s has vertical asymptote x = 2 and horizontal asymptote y = 1.
The function r is dened for all values of x other than 2, so the domain is {x | x = 2}. From
the graph we see that the range is {y | y = 1}. A pure analytical way to nd the range is to
nd the inverse of f. Since f
1
(x) =
2x + 5
x + 1
and the domain of f
1
is {x | x = 1}, the range
of f is {y | y = 1}.
4
Asymptotes of Rational Functions
The methods of the two previous Examples work only for simple rational functions. To graph
more complicated ones, we need to take a closer look at the behavior of a rational function near
its vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =
2x
2
4x + 5
x
2
2x + 1
, and state the domain and range.
Solution:
Vertical Asymptote: We rst factor the denominator
r(x) =
2x
2
4x + 5
x
2
2x + 1
=
2x
2
4x + 5
(x 1)
2
The line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote because the denominator of r is zero and the numerator
is nonzero when x = 1.
To see what the graph of r looks like near the vertical asymptote, we make tables of values for
x-values to the left and to the right of 1. From the tables shown below we see that
f(x) as x 1

and f(x) as x 1
+
Thus, near the vertical asymptote x = 1, the graph of r has the shape shown in the Figure
below.
5
Horizontal Asymptote: The horizontal asymptote is the value y approaches as x .
To help us nd this value, we divide both numerator and denominator by x
2
, the highest power
of x that appears in the expression:
y =
2x
2
4x + 5
x
2
2x + 1
=
2x
2
4x + 5
x
2
2x + 1

1
x
2
1
x
2
=
2x
2
4x + 5
x
2
x
2
2x + 1
x
2
=
2x
2
x
2

4x
x
2
+
5
x
2
x
2
x
2

2x
x
2
+
1
x
2
=
2
4
x
+
5
x
2
1
2
x
+
1
x
2
One can see that the fractional expressions
4
x
,
5
x
2
,
2
x
, and
1
x
2
all approach 0 as x . So
as x , we have
y =
2
4
x
+
5
x
2
1
2
x
+
1
x
2

2 0 + 0
1 0 + 0
= 2
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 2. Since the graph must approach the horizontal
asymptote, we can complete it as in Figure below.
Domain and Range: The function r is dened for all values of x other than 1, so the domain
is {x | x = 1}. From the graph we see that the range is {y | y > 2}.
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =
3x
2
+ x + 12
x
2
5x + 4
, and state the domain and range.
6
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =
3x
2
+ x + 12
x
2
5x + 4
, and state the domain and range.
Solution:
Vertical Asymptotes: We rst factor the denominator
r(x) =
3x
2
+ x + 12
x
2
5x + 4
=
3x
2
+ x + 12
(x 1)(x 4)
The lines x = 1 and x = 4 are vertical asymptotes because the denominator of r is zero and
the numerator is nonzero when x = 1 or x = 4.
Plugging in numbers that are close to 1 and 4 from the left and from the right we conclude
that
f(x) as x 1

and f(x) as x 1
+
and
f(x) as x 4

and f(x) as x 4
+
Horizontal Asymptote: The horizontal asymptote is the value y approaches as x .
To help us nd this value, we divide both numerator and denominator by x
2
, the highest power
of x that appears in the expression:
y =
3x
2
+ x + 12
x
2
5x + 4
=
3x
2
+ x + 12
x
2
5x + 4

1
x
2
1
x
2
=
3x
2
+ x + 12
x
2
x
2
5x + 4
x
2
=
3x
2
x
2
+
x
x
2
+
12
x
2
x
2
x
2

5x
x
2
+
4
x
2
=
3 +
1
x
+
12
x
2
1
5
x
+
4
x
2
One can see that the fractional expressions
1
x
,
12
x
2
,
5
x
, and
4
x
2
all approach 0 as x . So
as x , we have
y =
3 +
1
x
+
12
x
2
1
5
x
+
4
x
2

3 + 0 + 0
1 0 + 0
= 3
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 3. Since the graph must approach the horizontal
asymptote, we can complete it as in Figure below.
Domain and Range: The function r is dened for all values of x other than 1, 4, so the
domain is {x | x = 1, 4}. From the graph we see that the range is (, 13]

11
9
,

.
7
EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =
3x
2
2x 1
2x
2
+ 3x 2
.
Solution:
Vertical Asymptotes: We rst factor
r(x) =
3x
2
2x 1
2x
2
+ 3x 2
=
(3x + 1)(x 1)
(2x 1)(x + 2)
The lines x =
1
2
and x = 2 are vertical asymptotes because the denominator of r is zero and
the numerator is nonzero when x =
1
2
or x = 2.
Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same and
leading coecient of numerator
leading coecient of denominator
=
3
2
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y =
3
2
.
EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =
x
2
4x + 4
9x
2
9x + 2
.
8
EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =
x
2
4x + 4
9x
2
9x + 2
.
Solution:
Vertical Asymptotes: We rst factor
r(x) =
x
2
4x + 4
9x
2
9x + 2
=
(x 2)
2
(3x 1)(3x 2)
The lines x =
1
3
and x =
2
3
are vertical asymptotes because the denominator of r is zero and
the numerator is nonzero when x =
1
3
or x =
2
3
.
Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same and
leading coecient of numerator
leading coecient of denominator
=
1
9
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y =
1
9
.
EXAMPLE: Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of r(x) =
3x
3
+ 6x
2
3x 6
x
3
5x
2
+ 6x
.
Solution:
Vertical Asymptotes: We rst factor
r(x) =
3x
3
+ 6x
2
3x 6
x
3
5x
2
+ 6x
=
3(x
3
+ 2x
2
x 2)
x(x
2
5x + 6)
=
3[x
2
(x + 2) (x + 2)]
x(x 2)(x 3)
=
3[x
2
(x + 2) 1 (x + 2)]
x(x 2)(x 3)
=
3(x + 2)(x
2
1)
x(x 2)(x 3)
=
3(x + 2)(x + 1)(x 1)
x(x 2)(x 3)
The lines x = 0, x = 2, and x = 3 are vertical asymptotes because the denominator of r is zero
and the numerator is nonzero when x = 0, x = 2, or x = 3.
Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same and
leading coecient of numerator
leading coecient of denominator
=
3
1
= 3
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 3.
EXAMPLE: Find the vertical asymptotes of r(x) =
x
2
x 2
x
2
+ 2x 8
.
Solution: We rst factor
r(x) =
x
2
x 2
x
2
+ 2x 8
=
(x 2)(x + 1)
(x 2)(x + 4)
It follows that
r(x) =
x + 1
x + 4
(1)
if x = 2. The line x = 4 is the vertical asymptote because the denominator of (1) is zero and
the numerator is nonzero when x = 4. The line x = 2 is not the vertical asymptote because
the denominator of (1) is nonzero when x = 2.
9
Graphing Rational Functions
We have seen that asymptotes are important when graphing rational functions. In general, we
use the following guidelines to graph rational functions.
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =
2x
2
+ 7x 4
x
2
+ x 2
, and state the domain and range.
Solution: We factor the numerator and denominator, nd the intercepts and asymptotes, and
sketch the graph.
Factor: We have
r(x) =
2x
2
+ 7x 4
x
2
+ x 2
=
(2x 1)(x + 4)
(x 1)(x + 2)
x-Intercepts: The x-intercepts are the zeros of the numerator, x =
1
2
and x = 4.
y-Intercept: To nd the y-intercept, we substitute x = 0 into the original form of the function:
r(0) =
2(0)
2
+ 7(0) 4
(0)
2
+ (0) 2
=
4
2
= 2
The y-intercept is 2.
Vertical Asymptotes: The lines x = 1 and x = 2 are vertical asymptotes because the
denominator of r is zero and the numerator is nonzero when x = 1 and x = 2.
Behavior Near Vertical Asymptotes: We need to know whether y or y on
each side of each vertical asymptote. To determine the sign of y for x-values near the vertical
asymptotes, we use test values. For instance, as x 1

, we use a test value close to and to

the left of 1 (x = 0.9, say) to check whether y is positive or negative to the left of x = 1:
y =
(2(0.9) 1)((0.9) + 4)
((0.9) 1)((0.9) + 2)
whose sign is
(+)(+)
()(+)
(negative)
10
So y as x 1

. On the other hand, as x 1

+
, we use a test value close to and to the
right of 1 (x = 1.1, say), to get
y =
(2(1.1) 1)((1.1) + 4)
((1.1) 1)((1.1) + 2)
whose sign is
(+)(+)
(+)(+)
(positive)
So y as x 1
+
. The other entries in the following table are calculated similarly.
Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same and
leading coecient of numerator
leading coecient of denominator
=
2
1
= 2
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 2.
Additional Values: Graph:
Domain and Range: The function r is dened for all values of x other than 1, 2, so the
domain is
{x | x = 1, 2}
From the graph we see that the range is all real numbers.
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =
x
2
3x + 2
x
2
4x + 3
, and state the domain and range.
11
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =
x
2
3x + 2
x
2
4x + 3
, and state the domain and range.
Solution: We factor the numerator and denominator, nd the intercepts and asymptotes, and
sketch the graph.
Factor: We have
r(x) =
x
2
3x + 2
x
2
4x + 3
=
(x 1)(x 2)
(x 1)(x 3)
(2)
It follows that
r(x) =
x 2
x 3
(3)
if x = 1.
x-Intercept: The x-intercept is the zero of the numerator of the reduced form (3), x = 2. Note
that x = 1 is a zero of the numerator of the original form (2), but it is not the x-intercept,
since it is not from the domain of r.
y-Intercept: To nd the y-intercept, we substitute x = 0 into the original form (2):
r(0) =
(0 1)(0 2)
(0 1)(0 3)
=
(1)(2)
(1)(3)
=
2
3
The y-intercept is
2
3
.
REMARK: In this partcular example one can nd the y-intercept substituting x = 0 into the
reduced form (3) as well. However, in general we recommend to substitute x = 0 into the
original form to avoid mistakes (see Appendix).
Vertical Asymptote: The line x = 3 is the vertical asymptote because the denominator of (3)
is zero and the numerator is nonzero when x = 3. The line x = 1 is not the vertical asymptote
because the denominator of (3) is nonzero when x = 1.
Behavior Near Vertical Asymptote: We need to know whether y or y on
each side of the vertical asymptote x = 3. To determine the sign of y for x-values near the
vertical asymptote, we use test values. For instance, as x 3

, we use a test value close to

and to the left of 3 (x = 2.9, say) to check whether (2) is positive or negative to the left of
x = 3:
y =
2.9 2
2.9 3
whose sign is
(+)
()
(negative)
So y as x 3

. On the other hand, as x 3

+
, we use a test value close to and to the
right of 3 (x = 3.1, say), to get
y =
3.1 2
3.1 3
whose sign is
(+)
(+)
(positive)
So y as x 3
+
.
Horizontal Asymptote: The degrees of the numerator and
denominator are the same and
leading coecient of numerator
leading coecient of denominator
=
1
1
= 1
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 1.
Domain and Range: The function r is dened for all values of x other than 1, 3, so the
domain is {x | x = 1, 3}. From the graph we see that the range is {y | y = 1/2, 1}.
12
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =
5x + 21
x
2
+ 10x + 25
, and state the domain and
range.
Solution:
Factor: r(x) =
5x + 21
(x + 5)
2
x-Intercepts:
21
5
, from 5x + 21 = 0
y-Intercept:
21
25
, because r(0) =
5(0) + 21
(0)
2
+ 10(0) + 25
=
21
25
Vertical Asymptotes: x = 5, from the zeros of the denominator
Behavior Near Vertical Asymptotes:
Horizontal Asymptote: y = 0, because degree of numerator is less than degree of denomi-
nator
Additional Values: Graph:
Domain and Range: The domain is
{x | x = 5}
From the graph we see that the range is approximately the interval (, 1.5].
13
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =
x
2
3x 4
2x
2
+ 4x
, and state the domain and range.
Solution:
Factor: r(x) =
(x + 1)(x 4)
2x(x + 2)
x-Intercepts: 1 and 4, from x + 1 = 0 and x 4 = 0
y-Intercept: None, since r(0) is undened
Vertical Asymptotes: x = 0 and x = 2, from the zeros of the denominator
Behavior Near Vertical Asymptotes:
Horizontal Asymptote: y =
1
2
, because degree of numerator is less than degree of denomi-
nator and
leading coecient of numerator
leading coecient of denominator
=
1
2
Additional Values: Graph:
Domain and Range: The function r is dened for all values of x other than 0, 2, so the
domain is
{x | x = 0, 2}
From the graph we see that the range is all real numbers.
14
Slant Asymptotes and End Behavior
If r(x) = P(x)/Q(x) is a rational function in which the degree of the numerator is one more
than the degree of the denominator, we can use the Division Algorithm to express the function
in the form
r(x) = ax + b +
R(x)
Q(x)
where the degree of R is less than the degree of Q and a = 0. This means that as x
, R(x)/Q(x) 0, so for large values of |x|, the graph of y = r(x) approaches the graph
of the line y = ax + b. In this situation we say that y = ax + b is a slant asymptote, or an
oblique asymptote.
EXAMPLE: Graph the rational function r(x) =
x
2
4x 5
x 3
.
Solution:
Factor: r(x) =
(x + 1)(x 5)
x 3
x-Intercepts: 1 and 5, from x + 1 = 0 and x 5 = 0
y-Intercept:
5
3
, because r(0) =
(0)
2
4(0) 5
0 3
=
5
3
Horizontal Asymptote: None, because degree of numerator is greater than degree of denom-
inator
Vertical Asymptotes: x = 3, from the zeros of the denominator
Behavior Near Vertical Asymptotes: y as x 3

and y as x 3
+
Slant Asymptote: Since the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the
denominator, the function has a slant asymptote. Dividing (see the margin), we obtain
r(x) = x 1
8
x 3
Thus, y = x 1 is the slant asymptote.
Additional Values: Graph:
15
Appendix
EXAMPLE: Find the intercepts and asymptotes of the rational function r(x) =
x
x
2
x
.
Solution:
Factor: We have
r(x) =
x
x
2
x
=
x
x(x 1)
(4)
It follows that
r(x) =
1
x 1
(5)
if x = 0.
x-Intercepts: There are no x-intercepts, since the numerator of the reduced form (5) is nonzero.
Note that x = 0 is the zero of the numerator of the original form (4), but it is not the x-intercept,
since it is not from the domain of r.
y-Intercepts: There are no y-intercepts, since x = 0 is not from the domain of r. Note that if
you plug x = 0 into the reduced form (5), you get y = 1 as the y-intercept, which is false.
Vertical Asymptote: The line x = 1 is the vertical asymptote because the denominator of (5)
is zero and the numerator is nonzero when x = 1. The line x = 0 is not the vertical asymptote
because the denominator of (5) is nonzero when x = 0.
Horizontal Asymptote: Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the
denominator, the horizontal asymptote is y = 0.
16