1

M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Introduction
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation or QAM is a form of modulation which is widely used for modulating data
signals onto a carrier used for radio communications [24]. It uses two amplitude-modulated carriers with a
90 degrees phase angle between them. These are added to produce a signal with amplitude and phase
angle that can vary continuously [25]. In other words, Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, QAM is a signal in
which two carriers shifted in phase by 90 degrees are modulated and the resultant output consists of both
amplitude and phase variations [24].
The motivation for QAM comes from the fact that a DSBSC signal occupies twice the bandwidth of the
message from which it is derived. This is considered wasteful of resources. QAM restores the balance by
placing two independent DSBSC, derived from message #1 and message #2, in the same spectrum space
as one DSBSC. The bandwidth imbalance is removed.

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a modulation method which is used to encode a variable
number of bits into both a phase and amplitude modulated signal. A number of bits are mapped into the in-
phase and quadrature components of a complex symbol which is usually converted to an analog form and
then transmitted over a channel [24].

This scheme utilizes a signal that can be synthesized by summing amplitude modulated cosine and sine
waves. These two components, being 90 degree out of phase, are called quadrature, hence the name
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. By combining amplitude and phase modulation of a carrier signal, we
can increase the number of states and thereby transmit more bits per every state change. One convenient
way to represent the possible states is to use a constellation pattern diagram.

2.3.2 Principle

When the inner product of two functions yields a zero, the two functions are orthogonally oriented. So, we
have two separate channels with independent signals in each channel. Since the cosine and the sine wave
are orthogonally oriented, the in-phase component of the carrier (the cosine component) and the
Quadrature component (the sine component) can be independently modulated. The signal point
arrangement for such a modulation system is shown as signal space diagram.

QAM signal can be written as
) 2 cos( ) (
i c i i
t f A t s O + H = i = 1,2,.M (2.1)
Where,
i
A is the amplitude and
i
O is the phase of the ith signal in the M-ary signal set. Pulse shaping is
usually used to improve the spectrum and for ISI control purpose in QAM. With pulse shaping, QAM signal
is
) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
i c i i
t f t p A t s O + H = , i = 1,2,.M (2.2)
Where p(t) is a smooth pulse defined as [0,T]. Equation (2.2) can be written as
t f t p A t f t p A t s
c i c i i
H H = 2 sin ) ( 2 cos ) ( ) (
2 1
(2.3)
Where,
i i i
A A O = cos
1
and
i i i
A A O = sin
2


2

and ( )
2
2
2
1 i i i
A A A + =
Since, QAM can be expressed as a linear combination of two orthogonal functions. Equation (2.3) can be
written as
) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
t s t s t s
i i i
u + u = (2.4)
Where,
|
|
.
|

\
|
H = u t f t p
E
t
c
P
2 cos ) (
2
) (
1
, 0tT
|
|
.
|

\
|
H = u t f t p
E
t
c
P
2 sin ) (
2
) (
2
[26] 0tT

2.3.3 QAM Constellations

In QAM, the constellations points are usually arranged in a square grid with equal vertical and horizontal
spacing, although other configurations are possible. Since in digital telecommunications the data are
usually binary the number of points in the grid is usually a power of 2(2, 4, 8). Since, QAM is usually
square, some of these are rare the most common forms are 16-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM and 256 QAM.
By moving to a higher-Order constellation, it is possible to transmit more bits per symbol. If the mean
energy of the constellation is to remain the same the points must be closer together and thus more
susceptible to noise and other corruption; this results in a higher bit error rate and so higher-order QAM can
deliver more data less reliably than lower-order QAM.


Fig (2.1) Square QAM constellations



3

2.3.3.1 Types of Constellation

Uniform Constellation
In QAM, the constellation points are usually arranged in a square grid with equal vertical and horizontal
spacing. We refer to this type of constellations as the uniform constellation. The most common forms of
uniform constellations are 16-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM, and 256-QAM. Higher-order constellations can
transmit more bits per symbol thus achieving higher spectral efficiency. But they need more power to
achieve a target BER rate at the same noise power.

Non-uniform Constellation
In a non-uniform constellation, the vertical and horizontal spacing between the points in non-uniform
constellations is not constant. The positions of the points in a non-uniform constellation vary according to
the probability distribution of the received symbols. The non-uniform constellations are better than the
regular constellations when there is phase noise in the receiver.

2.3.4 QAM Modulator and Demodulator

The input data sequence in QAM will be divided into three bit sequences and fed into three different
channels of in-phase (I), Quadrature (Q), and control(C) channel. The C-Channel will determine the
magnitude of the signal in both I (I = C cos(ct)) and Q Channel (Q = C sin (c t)). Bits in both the I
channel and Q channels will be mixed by an adder and a band pass filter to smooth the QAM signal.


2-to- 4-level Low-pass Balanced
Convertor Filter Modulator
I-Channel


I/P

8QAM







Q-Channel

Fig (2.2) Block Diagram of 8-QAM

The magnitude of the C Channel is equal to 0.414 for the lower circle and 1.0 for the upper circle. The
magnitude of each point on the constellation diagram is equal to (mag of I) + (mag of Q) = (0.414) +
(0.414) = 0.586 or 1 + 1 = 1.414 for lower and upper circles respectively and the phase of each point is
equal to tan-1 (mag of Q/mag of I) = -135 or + 135 depending on the location of the point on the
Data
Splitter

Control

Carrier
Oscillator



90


4

constellation diagram. In QAM Systems, Orthogonal I and Q-Channels are modulated independently,
effectively using both the phase and amplitude parameters.
The table below gives the Magnitude, phase and Location of phasors in the 8-QAM Constellation Diagram

Input Data
Sequence
Amplitude Signals in
the I
Channel
Signals in
the Q
Channel
C E Phase Quadrant
0 0 0 1 -0.414
cos(ct)
-0.414
cos(ct)
0.414 0.586 -135 3rd
0 0 1 2 -1.0
cos(ct)
-1.0
cos(ct)
1.0 1. 414 -135 3rd
0 1 0 1 -0.414
cos(ct)
+0.414
cos(ct)
0.414 0.586 +135 2nd
0 1 1 2 -1.0
cos(ct)
+0.414
cos(ct)
1.0 1. 414 +135 2nd
1 0 0 1 +0.414
cos(ct)
-0.414
cos(ct)
0.414 0.586 -45 4th
1 0 1 2 +1.0
cos(ct)
-1.0
cos(ct)
1.0 1. 414 -45 4th
1 1 0 1 +0.414
cos(ct)
+0.414
cos(ct)
0.414 0.586 +45 1st
1 1 1 2 +1.0
cos(ct)
+1.0
cos(ct)
1.0 1. 414 +45 1st
Table (2.1) Magnitude, phase and Location of phasors in the QAM Constellation Diagram

The table below gives a summary of the bit rates of different forms of QAM

Modulation Bits per symbol Symbol Rate
4QAM 2 bit rate
8QAM 3 1/3 bit rate
16QAM 4 1/4 bit rate
32QAM 5 1/5 bit rate
64QAM 6 1/6 bit rate
128QAM 7 1/7 bit rate
256QAM 8 1/8 bit rate
Table (2.2) Symbol rate of different types of QAM













5

2.3.5 Error Probability

For square QAM constellations with M = 2
k
where k is even, the QAM constellation is equivalent to two
MASK signals on quadrature carriers, each having M L = signal points. Since each MASK signal can be
demodulated separately. A QAM symbol is detected correctly only when two MASK symbols are detected
correctly. Thus the probability of correct detection of a QAM symbol is
( )
2
1
M
C
P P = 2.5
Where
M
P is the symbol error probability of a M -ary AM with one-half the average power of the QAM
signal
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
o
avg
M
N M
E
Q
M
M
P
) 1 (
3
1 2
2.6
Where Eavg/No is the average SNR per symbol. The symbol error probability of the square QAM is

( )
2 2
2 1 1
M M M
S
P P P P = = 2.7
At high SNR,
|
|
.
|

\
|

= ~
o
avg
M
S
N M
E
Q
M
M
P P
) 1 (
3
) 1 ( 4
2 2.8
Note that 2.7 is exact for square QAM with M = 2
k
where k is even. When k is odd there is no equivalent
M -ary AM system. However, we can find a tight upper bound
2
) 1 (
3
2 1 1
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

s
o
avg
S
N M
E
Q P 2.9

|
|
.
|

\
|

s
o
b
N M
kE
Q
) 1 (
3
4
for any k 1, where Eb/No is the average SNR per bit.
To obtain bit error probability from the symbol error probability, we observe that square QAM can be
perfectly Gray coded. That is, there is only one bit difference between adjacent symbols. Each symbol error
most likely causes one bit error at large SNR. Thus
M
P
P
S
b
2
log
~ 2.10


6

A more accurate expression for direct computation of BER of Gray coded square QAM is given in as

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
~
2 /
1
2
2
) 1 (
log 3
) 1 2 (
1
1
log
4
M
i O
b
b
N M
M E
i Q
M
M
P 2.11

7

2.3.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of QAM [28]
Advantages:
QAM appears to increase the efficiency of transmission for radio communications systems by utilizing both
amplitude and phase variations

Disadvantages
More susceptible to noise because the states are closer together so that a lower level of noise is needed to
move the signal to a different decision point. Receivers for use with phase or frequency modulation are
both able to use limiting amplifiers that are able to remove any amplitude noise and thereby improve the
noise reliance. This is not the case with QAM.
The second limitation is also associated with the amplitude component of the signal. When a phase or
frequency modulated signal is amplified in a radio transmitter, there is no need to use linear amplifiers,
whereas when using QAM that contains an amplitude component, linearity must be maintained.
Unfortunately linear amplifiers are less efficient and consume more power, and this makes them less
attractive for mobile applications.


2.3.7 Applications of QAM [28]
QAM is in many radio communications and data delivery applications. However some specific variants of
QAM are used in some specific applications and standards.
For domestic broadcast applications for example, 64 QAM and 256 QAM are often used in digital cable
television and cable modem applications. In the UK, 16 QAM and 64 QAM are currently used for digital
terrestrial television using DVB -Digital Video Broadcasting. In the US, 64 QAM and 256 QAM are the
mandated modulation schemes for digital cable as standardized by the SCTE in the standard ANSI/SCTE
07 2000.
In addition to this, variants of QAM are also used for many wireless and cellular technology applications

8