Communication Systems

(EEEg4172)
Chapter III
Digital Modulation Techniques and Their Noise
Performance Analysis

Instructor:
Fisiha Abayneh
Email: fisiha.abayneh@aastu.edu.et
 Chapter III

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
3.3 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
3.4 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

2
 3.1 Introduction

The purpose of digital modulation is to transform a digital bit stream to

a suitable signal form, for transmission over an analog communication
channel.
Example: bit streams over a PSTN network (freq. range: 0.3 –
3.4kHz), or over band limited radio frequency.
This is achieved by modulating an analog carrier signal (sine or cosine
wave) by a discrete message signal.
By doing so, the attributes of the carrier signal (amplitude, phase,
frequency or their combination) are made to change according to
variations in the levels of the message signal.

3
 3.1 Introduction

The result is an analog wave form, carrying a message signal, and can
be transmitted over an analog channel.
The fundamental digital modulation techniques are based on keying
(PSK, ASK, FSK, QAM…etc).
The incoming message bit stream to be transmitted will be grouped in
to code words (usually contain equal number of bits), which represent
modulation symbols.
These modulation symbols form modulation alphabet.
In digital modulation based on keying, each symbol from modulation
alphabet is mapped to a specific attribute (amplitude, phase or
frequency) of the carrier signal.

4
 3.1 Introduction

Recall this picture from

Chapter 1.
 It shows ASK, FSK &
PSK schemes when a
carrier signal is
modulated by a message
bit stream.
 Here, only two
modulation symbols are
available, each
represented by one bit.
 And, note that there is
only one carrier signal
(sine or cosine wave).
5
 3.1 Introduction

Unlike other techniques, QAM requires two carries signals:-

 In-phase (I) signal (Eg: a cosine wave)
Quadrature-phase (Q) signal (Eg: a sine wave)
M-array Modulation:
When the modulation alphabet contains more than 2 symbols, it can be called
Multi-level or M-array modulation.
Usually, the number of symbols will be in the order of powers of 2.
In that case:
𝑀 = 2𝑁
Where: M – number of symbols.
N – number of bits that represent the symbols.

6
 3.1 Introduction

As a result, PSK can take different forms as: 2-PSK, 4-PSK, 8-PSK;
and the same works for others too.
Constellation Diagram:
PSK, ASK (and also FSK) can be operated using the principle of QAM.
As a result, for PSK, ASK & QAM (where carrier frequency is fixed),
the modulation alphabet can be represented on a constellation
diagram.
In constellation diagram, the amplitude of I-signal is represented on
real (x-axis) and that of Q-signal on imaginary (y-axis) of complex
plane.
Symbols can be expressed as complex numbers from constellation
diagram. (i.e: as a combination of I & Q signals like: I + jQ).
7
 3.1 Introduction

Fig: Constellation diagram of 8-PSK.

The diagram shows information is

transmitted as one of 8 "symbols",
each representing 3 bits of data. Each
symbol is encoded as a different phase
shift of the carrier sine wave: 0°, 45°,
90°, 135°, 180°, 225°, 270°, 315

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation_diagram#/media/File:8PSK_Gray_Coded.svg 8
 3.1 Introduction

General Steps used by Modulator to Transmit Data:

1. Group the incoming bits in to code words, each representing
symbols to be transmitted.
2. Map code words (symbols) to attributes of carrier signal. (NB: here
attributes of equivalent low pass I and Q signals are considered)
3. Limit the bandwidth and form the spectrum of the equivalent low
pass signal, by adopting pulse shaping or some other filtering.
4. Perform Digital to Analog conversion. (steps 3 & 4 are usually done
together using DSP)
5. Carry out the modulation by multiplying a high frequency sine
and/or cosine wave by the equivalent low pass I and/or Q signals.
(Here the equivalent low pass signal is frequency shifted to modulated pass band
or RF signal)
6. Amplification and analog band pass filtering.
9
 3.1 Introduction

General Steps performed by Demodulator in the receiver side:

1. Bandpass filtering
2. Gain control, to compensate for signal attenuation.
3. Frequency shifting of RF signal to an equivalent low pass I and/or
Q signal, or intermediate (IF) signal.
4. Sampling and Analog to Digital conversion.
5. Equalization filtering, to avoid ISI & symbol distortion.
6. Detection of attributes. (amplitude of I and Q signals, OR phase or
frequency of IF signal).
7. Quantization of attributes to the nearest allowed symbols.
8. Mapping quantized attributes to code words (symbols).
9. Parallel to serial conversion of code words in to a bit stream.
10
 3.1 Introduction

In digital communication systems:

The designs of both modulator and demodulator should be done
simultaneously.
Transmitter-Receiver pairs should have prior knowledge of how
data is encoded and represented.
Transmitter and receiver are structured to perform an inverse
operation
Usually, they are constructed on the same device. (In which case
the device is called modem).

11
 3.1 Introduction

BER Over AWGN Channel:

The performance of digital modulation schemes is usually measured by
their data rate (in bits/s) and bit error rate (BER).
BER is defined as the ratio of the number of bit errors over the number
of transmitted bits.
Usually, the BER is calculated in the form of bit error probability (Pb).
In this chapter, BER of digital modulation schemes over AWGN
channel will be discussed.
AWGN (Additive White Gaussian Noise) is a basic noise model that
can represent the effects of different random processes occurring in
nature.
12
 3.1 Introduction

It’s name indicates:

Additive: obviously it is to be added to the message & other noises.
White: indicates that it has uniform power across the frequency
band of the message signal, expressed as w/Hz.
Gaussian: It has a normal distribution (or pdf) with zero mean (μ =
𝑁
0) and variance(𝜎 2 ) of 0 (noise spectral density in w/Hz).
2
Pdf of a Gaussian (normal) distribution is given by:

1 𝑥−𝜇 2
−
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝜎 2
2𝜋𝜎 2

13
 3.1 Introduction

A channel with AWGN is simpler to analyze, hence it can be used as a

bench mark to compare other complex channels against it.
The bit error probability (Pb) of digital modulation schemes is
calculated using a Q-function, Q(x).
Q(x) can be defined as a probability that a normal (Gaussian) random
variable will obtain a value larger than x standard deviations; or
equivalently, it is a probability that a standard normal random
variable takes a value larger than x.
It’s formula is as given below:

1 ∞ −1𝑡 2
𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑒 2 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋
14
 3.1 Introduction

Q-function can also be expressed using error or complementary error

functions as shown below.

1 1 𝑥 1 𝑥
𝑄 𝑥 = − erf = erfc
2 2 2 2 2

1 𝑥 −𝑡 2 2 𝑥 −𝑡 2
Where: erf 𝑥 = −𝑥
𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑒 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 𝜋

2 ∞ −𝑡 2
erfc 𝑥 = 1 − erf 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑒 𝑑𝑡
𝜋

15
 3.1 Introduction

Other important variables to analyze the error performance of digital

modulation schemes include:
 Eb – bit energy, or energy per bit.
 Es = nEb - symbol energy, or energy per symbol with n bits.
 Tb – bit duration.
 Ts – symbol duration.
1
 𝑁𝑜 – noise spectral density (in w/Hz) of AWGN channel.
2
 Pb – probability of bit error.
 Ps – probability of symbol error.
 B – bandwidth in Hz.
1
 Rb = – bir rate in bits/s.
𝑇𝑏
1 𝑅𝑏
 Rs = = - symbol rate (baud rate) in symbols/s.
𝑇𝑠 𝑛
 𝜌 – bandwidth efficiency in bits/s/Hz. 16
 Chapter III

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
3.3 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
3.4 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

17
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

In PSK, finite number of phases are used to represent the message.
Each phase represents a specific code word or symbol to be
transmitted.
There are two fundamental ways of using a phase of carrier signal to
convey a message:-
1. The phase itself represents an information
2. The change in the phase represents an information.
The first case requires the demodulator to have the reference signal to
compare the phase of received signal with it.
This is known as Coherent PSK, or simply CPSK.

18
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

The second case usually do not require the demodulator to have a

reference signal, as the message is conveyed by the change of the phase
in the transmitted signal.
Commonly, the phase changes for 1s, and do not change for 0s.
This scheme is known as differential PSK, or simply DPSK.
DPSK is significantly simpler to implement than CPSK, because it is a
non-coherent scheme. (i.e: the demodulator do not need to keep track of
the reference signal.)
As a trade off for this advantage, DPSK has higher demodulation error.

19
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

The M-array PSK variants include:

Binary PSK (BPSK), or simply 2-PSK.
Quadrature PSK (QPSK), or simply 4-PSK.
8-PSK.
Theoretically, any number of phases (in the order of powers of 2) can be
used for PSK modulation scheme.
But, usually, 8-PSK is the highest order of PSK constellation deployed
on different applications.
For more than 8 phases, the phases will be too close, and the error rate
becomes higher.
In this section, BPSK & QPSK will be covered.

20
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Binary PSK (BPSK):

It uses two phases which are separated by 180°.
BPSK is the most robust of all PSKs in terms of BER, because it can
handle the highest level of error before the demodulator makes a wrong
decision.
BPSK handles only 2 symbols which are represented by 1 bit.
So the baud rate is 1bit/symbol only! As a result, BPSK has the lowest
data rate of all PSKs.

21
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Binary PSK (BPSK):

The signal for BPSK can be represented by the following general
equation.
2𝐸𝑏
𝑆𝑛 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + 𝜋 1 − 𝑛 ; 𝑛 = 0, 1.
𝑇𝑏

Which yields two phases, 0 and π, for n = 1 and 0 respectively.

So, we can define the signals to represent bit values 0 & 1 as follows:
2𝐸𝑏 2𝐸𝑏
𝑆𝑜 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + 𝜋 = − cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ; for binary 0.
𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏

2𝐸𝑏
𝑆1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 1.
𝑇𝑏
22
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Binary PSK (BPSK):

Exploiting the similarity between the two signals for 0 and 1, the
signal space, which is one dimensional, can be represented easily by
defining a single basis function, ∅ 𝑡 , as follows.
2
∅ 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡
𝑇𝑏

Then,
1 is represented by 𝐸𝑏 ∅(𝑡), and
0 is represented by − 𝐸𝑏 ∅(𝑡).

23
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Binary PSK (BPSK):

An example of constellation diagram for BPSK is shown below:

24
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Binary PSK (BPSK):

The bit error probability of BPSK is given by:

2𝐸𝑏 1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑄 = erfc
𝑁𝑜 2 𝑁𝑜

The symbol error rate is the same as BER for BPSK because only one
bit defines the symbols.

25
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Binary PSK (BPSK):

Due to its simplicity, BPSK is adopted in various applications such as:
Wireless LAN standard, IEEE 802.11b-1999, uses DBPSK at the
basic rate of 1Mb/s.
The 6 & 9Mb/s rates of high speed wireless LAN standard,
IEEE802.11g-2003, uses OFDM modulation with each sub carrier
using BPSK.
 IEEE 802.11g-2003 standard has 8 data rate options (6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48 &
54Mb/s).
It is used in RFID standards such as ISO/IEC 14443, which is
adopted for biometric passports, credit cards…etc.

26
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Quadrature PSK (QPSK):

QPSK uses four phases, representing four symbols, each of them
encoded by 2 bits.
So, it has twice the data rate (2bits/symbol) of BPSK. (i.e: this also means
that it uses half a bandwidth for the same data rate.)
It can be represented by four points in a constellation diagram which
are equi-spaced around a circle, and therefore equidistant from the
origin.

27
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Quadrature PSK (QPSK):

The signals for QPSK signals can be generally represented as follows:

2𝐸𝑠 𝜋
𝑆𝑛 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + 2𝑛 − 1 ; 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4.
𝑇𝑠 4

𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
The resulting phases are: , , , .
4 4 4 4
This forms a two dimensional signal space in a constellation diagram,
and can be represented by defining two basis functions for in-phase and
quadrature components.
28
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Quadrature PSK (QPSK):

Here, ∅1 𝑡 can be used as in-phase (I) component and ∅2 𝑡 as
quadrature (Q) component.
2
∅1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡
𝑇𝑠

2
∅2 𝑡 = sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡
𝑇𝑠

𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑠
So, the QPSK signal will have a form: ± ∅ 𝑡 ± ∅ 𝑡 .
2 1 2 2
29
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Quadrature PSK (QPSK):

Though there are many ways to implement QPSK, the following is one
possible structure of QPSK modulator.

Even bits

Eg: Here the 1st

symbol ’10’ is
Odd bits.
represented as:
𝐸𝑏 ∅1 𝑡 − 𝐸𝑏 ∅2 𝑡
30
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-shift_keying#/media/File:Transmisor_QPSK_2.png
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Quadrature PSK (QPSK):

And, the following is a corresponding structure of QPSK demodulator.

31
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-shift_keying#/media/File:Receiver_QPSK.PNG
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Quadrature PSK (QPSK):

As it can be observed well in the above discussion, QPSK can be
considered as two BPSKs operated in parallel.
Due to this fact, QPSK has the same bit error probability as BPSK,
which is given as:
2𝐸𝑏 1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑄 = erfc
𝑁𝑜 2 𝑁𝑜

But, note that a single QPSK signal carries two bits (i.e: it has
2bits/symbol).
Consequently, even though it has the same Pb as BPSK, the symbol
error probability is different from BPSK.
32
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Quadrature PSK (QPSK):

The symbol error probability is given as:
2

2 2
2𝐸𝑏 2𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑠 = 1 − 1 − 𝑃𝑏 = 2𝑃𝑏 − 𝑃𝑏 = 2𝑄 − 𝑄
𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜
If the SNR is high (which is expected for QPSK, and this makes Pb very small, =>
Pb2 << 2Pb), then Ps can be approximated as:

2𝐸𝑏 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑠 ≈ 2𝑄 = erfc
𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜
33
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

Quadrature PSK (QPSK):

QPSK is usually deployed on applications which need higher data rates
than BPSK can provide. These include:
DQPSK is used in IEEE 802.11b-1999 to provide the 2Mb/s data
rate.
IEEE 802.11g-2003 uses OFDM modulation with QPSK to provide
12 and 18 Mb/s data rates.
Bluetooth 2 uses π/4-QPSK for its lower rate of 2Mb/s.
Widely used in SD and HD satellite broadcasting channels.
Reading Assignment:
 Differential PSK (DPSK).
 Variants of QPSK.
 Higher order PSK.
34
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

M-array PSK:
It is very difficult to develop a formula for error rates of higher order
PSK (except for QPSK as a special case).
But, a general formula approximating a symbol error probability of M-
array PSK can be given as:

2𝐸𝑠 𝜋 𝐸𝑠 𝜋
𝑃𝑠 = 2𝑄 sin = erfc sin
𝑁𝑜 𝑀 𝑁𝑜 𝑀

35
 3.2 Phase Shift Keying

M-array PSK:
The channel bandwidth required to pass M-array PSK signals defined
by pass band basis functions (considering the main lobe, or null to null
bandwidth, of the power spectrum) is given by:
2
𝐵= ; where 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑛𝑇𝑏 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑀 𝑇𝑏
𝑇𝑠
1
And, the bit rate is defined as: 𝑅𝑏 =
𝑇𝑏
So, the bandwidth can be expressed in terms of the bitrate as:
2𝑅𝑏
𝐵=
𝑛
So, the bandwidth efficiency of M-array PSK is:
𝑅𝑏 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑀
𝜌= = =
𝐵 2 2
36
 Chapter III

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
3.3 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
3.4 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

37
 3.3 Frequency Shift Keying

FSK is a digital modulation technique in which finite number of

frequencies are used to represent modulations symbols.
Though higher order M-array FSKs are theoretically possible, the most
common and simplest FSK is binary FSK ( or BFSK).
Like the PSK, FSK can be categorized as:
Coherent or
Non-coherent, both of which are practically applicable.
FSK can also be categorized based on whether the phase is continuous
or nor:
Continuous phase FSK
Non-continuous phase FSK.
38
 3.3 Frequency Shift Keying

The use of multiple oscillators to generate carrier signals with different

frequencies is the main cause of phase discontinuity.
Based on the above categories, implementation techniques and other
factors, a number of FSK variants are available, such as:-
 Continuous-phase FSK
 Gaussian FSK
 Audio FSK
 Minimum FSK (MSK) …etc
In this section, coherent and continuous-phase BFSK will be discussed.
(Take a look in other variants as a reading assignment)

39
 3.3 Frequency Shift Keying

Binary FSK (BFSK):

In BFSK, two different frequencies will be chosen to represent binary
digits ‘1’ and ‘0’ (which are also symbols).
Commonly, binary ‘1’s are referred as marks, and ‘0’s as spaces.
Then, the two signals, representing the marks and spaces, can be
defined as follows:
2𝐸𝑏
𝑆𝑛 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑛𝑡 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏.
𝑇𝑏
Where: n = 1,2. and the transmitted frequency is:,
𝑖+𝑛
𝑓𝑛 = ;for i = some fixed integer.
𝑇𝑏
40
 3.3 Frequency Shift Keying

Binary FSK (BFSK):

Here the symbol ‘1’ is represented by 𝑠1(𝑡) and symbols ‘0’ by 𝑠2(𝑡).
𝑠1(𝑡) & 𝑠2(𝑡) are arranged in such a way that they are orthogonal.
For such a case, the following basis function can be defined:
2
∅𝑛 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑛𝑡 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏. & 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒.
𝑇𝑏

So, the signals for ‘1’ and ‘0’ can be expressed as:
𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑏 ∅1(𝑡) ; and

𝑠2 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑏 ∅2(𝑡)
41
 3.3 Frequency Shift Keying

Binary FSK (BFSK):

Unlike BPSK, BFSK cannot be represented on one dimensional signal
space. So, it needs two dimensional space with two message points in
the constellation diagram.
The two message points can be expressed as 𝐸𝑏 , 0 & 0, 𝐸𝑏 , with
Euclidean distance b/n them 2𝐸𝑏.

Source: Simon Haykin, page 382 42

 3.3 Frequency Shift Keying

Binary FSK (BFSK):

The BER for BFSK is defined as:

𝐸𝑏 1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑄 = erfc
𝑁𝑜 2 2𝑁𝑜

Comparing with BPSK, BFSK needs to double the energy per bit to
achieve the same BER as BPSK.
The BER is inversely proportional to the minimum distance (dmin) b/n
symbols, which is 2 𝐸𝑏 for BPSK, and 2𝐸𝑏 for BFSK.
BER decreases exponentially as dmin increases.
43
 3.3 Frequency Shift Keying

M-array FSK:
Though it is difficult to develop a general formula of error rates for M-
array FSK, an upper bound on symbol error probability can be given as
follows for any M.
𝑛𝐸𝑏 1 𝑛𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑠 ≤ 𝑀 − 1 𝑄 = 𝑀 − 1 erfc ; 𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑀
𝑁𝑜 2 2𝑁𝑜

FSK scheme requires the message bearing adjacent signals to be

orthogonal; and
To maintain this condition, adjacent signals of M-array FSK need to be
1
separated from each other by a frequency difference of .
2𝑇𝑠
44
 3.3 Frequency Shift Keying

M-array FSK:
As a result, the bandwidth of M-array FSK is defined as:
𝑀
𝐵=
2𝑇𝑠
In terms of the bit rate, the bandwidth can be redefines as:
𝑀𝑅𝑏
𝐵=
2𝑛
So, the band width efficiency will be:
𝑅𝑏 2𝑛
𝜌= =
𝐵 𝑀
As M increases, the spectral efficiency of FSK decreases. (i.e: M-array
FSK scheme is spectrally inefficient!)
45
 3.3 Frequency Shift Keying

Applications of FSK:
Audio FSK (AFSK) is used in early telephone line modems to send and
receive data at a rate of 1.2kb/s.
Gaussian MSK is used in GSM (2G) mobile standard.
FSK is used in different standards of caller ID (displaying and
processing callers number) and remote metering.
DTMF (dual tone multi frequency) signaling is a good example of FSK
application in caller ID.
DTMF is an in-band telecommunication signaling system using the
voice-frequency band over telephone lines.

46
 3.3 Frequency Shift Keying

Applications of FSK:
DTMF uses a combination of two (high & low tone) frequencies to
represent caller numbers and other related message.

47
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-tone_multi-frequency_signaling
 Chapter III

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
3.3 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
3.4 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

48
 3.3 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Unlike PSK and FSK, ASK will not have a constant envelope, making
it less preferable than others for passband data transmission over
nonlinear channels.
In ASK, finite number of amplitude levels will be used to represent
modulation symbols.
M-array implementations are possible in ASK, but higher order ASKs
are not common on applications, because equivalent QAM techniques
are more efficient.
The most common ASK scheme is 2-ASK (BASK), which is commonly
known as On-Off Keying (OOK).
The coherent form of OOK will be discussed in this section.

49
 3.3 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

On-Off Keying (OOK):

In 2-ASK, two amplitude levels are used to represent binary bits ‘1’ and
‘0’, which are modulation symbols in this case.
OOK is a special case, the most common implementation of 2-ASK.
In, OOK, 2-ASK is implemented as a switch; in which the presence of a
carrier signal represents a binary ‘1’ and the absence represents ‘0’.
OOK Signals representing ‘1s’ and ‘0’s can be defined as:
4𝐸𝑏
𝑆1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 𝜃𝑐 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 1
𝑇𝑏
𝑆2 𝑡 = 0 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 0.

50
 3.3 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

On-Off Keying (OOK):

Then, the BER, which is also the symbol error rate in this case, is given
as:

𝐸𝑏 1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑄 = erfc
𝑁𝑜 2 2𝑁𝑜

Which is actually the same as BFSK.

51
 3.3 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

On-Off Keying (OOK):

OOK, and ASK in general, is used at radio frequencies to transmit
Morse code.
ASK schemes in general are used to transmit data over optical fiber.
If LED transmitters are used, the presence of a short pulse of light
represents binary ‘1’, and absence of light represents binary ‘0’. So,
basically an OOK scheme.
Laser transmitters can emit light with different intensity
(amplitudes) which can represent multiple symbols.

52
 3.3 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

The bandwidth of M-array ASK schemes can be generally given as:

(1+𝑑)
𝐵= ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑 (0 ≤ 𝑑 ≤ 1) 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.
𝑇𝑠
In terms of the bit rate:
1 + 𝑑 𝑅𝑏
𝐵=
𝑛
For ideal case (d = 0) in which case B is equal to the baud rate (Rs).
For d = 1 ; the bandwidth will be similar to PSK schemes.
Anyway, the bandwidth efficiency is given as:
𝑅𝑏 𝑛
𝜌= =
𝐵 (1 + 𝑑)

53
 Chapter III

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
3.3 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
3.4 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

54
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

QAM is a modulation scheme which uses two carrier signals to convey

a message through a channel.
The two carrier signals are known as the in-phase (I) and quadrature
(Q) components, and they are 90° out-off phase with each other.
In Digital QAM, finite number of amplitudes and finite number of
phases will be used to represent the modulation symbols.
The QAM signal will be the sum of the two carrier signals whose phase
and/or amplitude represent a message to be conveyed.
So, it can be said that QAM is a combination of both PSK and ASK
modulation schemes.

55
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

PSK can be considered as a special case of QAM in which the

amplitudes of the two signals are left constant while their phases do
change to represent a message.
Consequently, BPSK & 2-QAM, and also QPSK & 4-QAM can be
considered operationally equivalent.
QAM schemes are usually preferable for applications that require data
rates beyond the limit that 8-PSK can offer.
These makes 16-QAM, the lowest order QAM usually deployed on
applications.
The high data rate capability and their high bandwidth efficiency make
QAM schemes to be highly deployable in modern telecommunications.

56
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

There are different ways of arrangement for QAM message point in a

constellation diagram, such as:
 Rectangular
 Circular
 Cross
 Hierarchical… arrangements.
But, the usual and most convenient arrangement for QAM is the
square arrangement.
As a result, 16-QAM, 64-QAM and 256-QAM are the most common
forms QAM digital modulation scheme.
Error performance of general M-array QAM for a square constellation
will be discussed later in this section.
57
 3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

Below, a rectangular (square)(b) and circular (a) constellation

arrangements are shown in pictures:

a) b)

58
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:16QAM_Gray_Coded.svg
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

M-array QAM:
Generally, M-array QAM signal can be represented by defining two
orthogonal passband basis functions as follows:
2
∅1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑠

2
∅2 𝑡 = sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑠
These are similar basis functions as QPSK. But, note that, the amplitudes are
not fixed in the case of QAM.
So, different formulation is needed to represent the message points of QAM.
59
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

M-array QAM:
Using the two basis functions, the transmitted M-array QAM pass
band signal can be generally expressed as:

2𝐸𝑜 2𝐸𝑜
𝑆𝑘 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑘 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 − 𝑏𝑘 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑠 𝑇𝑠
Where:
 𝑎𝑘, 𝑏𝑘 are any integers.
 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, . .
 Eo is the energy of the signal with the lowest amplitude.

60
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

M-array QAM:

 The gif image here shows a

demonstration of 16-QAM
constellation points
represented by amplitude,
phase, and code.

61
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:QAM16_Demonstration.gif
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

M-array QAM:
Due to the fact that the transmitted signals have different amplitudes,
the energy of the signals, and therefore, the energy per symbol Es and
energy per bit Eb are different for different symbols.
So, it will be difficult to express the error rates for QAM in terms of Eb
or Es.
Instead, Eo(energy of the symbol represented by a signal of lowest
amplitude) or Eav(the average symbol energy) can be used to define the
error rates. The later is more convenient and common.
Expressions are available for M-array QAM with square constellation.

62
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

M-array QAM:
Square constellation is possible when the number of symbols (M)
satisfies the following relation.
𝐿 = 𝑀 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟.
So, 16-QAM, 64-QAM, 256-QAM…
The symbol error rate (Ps) of M-array QAM with square constellation is
given by:

1 3𝐸𝑎𝑣 1 3𝐸𝑎𝑣
𝑃𝑠 ≈ 4 1 − 𝑄 =2 1− erfc
𝑀 𝑀 − 1 𝑁𝑜 𝑀 2 𝑀 − 1 𝑁𝑜

63
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

M-array QAM:
Note that, if the amplitudes are left constant (PSK special case), Eav
will be just Es.
Constellations of square 4-QAM and QPSK are of the same type. So, for
this special case symbol error rate of this two schemes will be equal.
𝐸𝑏
If ≫ 1 , and Gray coding is used, it can be assumed that symbol
𝑁𝑜
error is caused by one bit error. In that case BER can be approximated
as:
4 1 3𝑛𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑣 2 1 3𝑛𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑣
𝑃𝑏 ≈ 1− 𝑄 = 1− erfc
𝑛 𝑀 𝑀 − 1 𝑁𝑜 n 𝑀 2 𝑀 − 1 𝑁𝑜

Where: 𝐸𝑎𝑣 = 𝑛𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑣 , Ebav being average bit energy. 64

3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

M-array QAM:
The channel bandwidth required to pass M-array QAM basically has
the same form with that of M-array PSK.
So, using signals defined by pass band basis functions, and considering
the main lobe, or null to null bandwidth, of the power spectrum, the
bandwidth is given by:
2
𝐵= ; where 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑛𝑇𝑏 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑀 𝑇𝑏
𝑇𝑠
The bandwidth can be expressed in terms of the bitrate as:
2𝑅𝑏
𝐵=
𝑛
Then, the bandwidth efficiency of M-array QAM is:
𝑅𝑏 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑀
𝜌= = =
𝐵 2 2 65
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).

M-array QAM Applications:

High speed wireless LAN standard IEEE802.11g-2003, uses OFDM
with QAM for the fastest for modes. (24, 36, 48 & 54Mb/s).
QAM schemes (commonly 16-QAM and 64-QAM) are being used in
optical communication systems.
64-QAM & 256-QAM are often used in digital cable television.
Currently, some Ethernet devices use 1024-QAM and 4096-QAM to
provide 500Mb/s.
Future devices that use ITU-T G.hn standard for networking over
existing home wiring(telephone line, power line…etc) will also use 1024
or 4096-QAM (with OFDM) to provide data rates up to 2Gb/s.
ADSL technology uses 32768-QAM (15bit per tone). 66
 References:

Simon Haykin, Communication Systems, 4th ed. (CH-6)

Leon W. Couch, Digital and Analog Communication Systems. (CH-7).
Additional Reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/digital_communication/digital_commun
ication_digital_modulation_techniques.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-shift_keying
http://www.dsplog.com/2007/08/05/bit-error-probability-for-bpsk-
modulation/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrature_amplitude_modulation
67