Aws WJ 201203

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
March 2012
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for MIG welding, the Fabricator 252i is the compact welder designed
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3 WELDING JOURNAL
CONTENTS
32 Undertaking a Complex Underwater Repair
A cargo ship filled with iron ore suffered extensive damage
from a grounding, but was put back together again by an
underwater repair team
D. Phillips
40 FABTECH Comes to Canada
This popular all-inclusive fabricating and welding exhibition
opens up to a Canadian audience
43 Welded Aluminum on Ships An Overview
As shipbuilding techniques evolved, so did the use of
aluminum
G. A. Mirgain
48 Build Your Own Campfire Grill
This do-it-yourself project has everything you need to know to
get started
B. Pelky
51 New AWS Spec Details Flux Cored and Metal Cored
Electrodes
A new filler metal classification system addresses the new
generation of flux cored and metal cored electrodes
D. Crockett
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published
monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-
sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 550 NW LeJeune Rd.,
Miami, FL 33126-5671; telephone (305) 443-9353.
Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and addi-
tional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address
changes to Welding Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd.,
Miami, FL 33126-5671. Canada Post: Publications
Mail Agreement #40612608 Canada Returns to be
sent to Bleuchip International, P.O. Box 25542,
London, ON N6C 6B2
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti-
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.
Departments
Editorial ............................4
Press Time News ..................6
News of the Industry ..............8
International Update ............12
Stainless Q&A ....................14
RWMA Q&A ......................20
Point of View ....................24
Product & Print Spotlight ......26
Conferences ......................60
Coming Events....................62
Certification Schedule ..........64
Society News ....................73
Tech Topics ......................74
Guide to AWS Services ........84
Personnel ........................88
American Welder
Learning Track ..................96
Fact Sheet......................100
Classifieds ......................106
Advertiser Index ................108
65-s Continuous Cooling Transformation Behavior in the
CGHAZ of Naval Steels
Transformation diagrams were developed for the coarse-grain
heat-affected zone of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-100 steels
X. Yue et al.
74-s Developing an Alternative Heat Indexing Equation
for FSW
A heat transfer model was developed to help predict the
correlation between weld tool geometry and process parameters
J. A. Querin and J. A. Schneider
81-s Improving Supermartensitic Stainless Steel Weld
Metal Toughness
Experiments were conducted to achieve weld metal toughness
improvements through varying postweld heat treatments
S. Zappa et al.
89-s Ultrasonic Wave Assisted GMAW
Metal transfer showed improvement with the application of an
auxiliary detaching force
Y. Y. Fan et al.
Features
The American Welder
Welding Research Supplement
32
93
43
March 2012 Volume 91 Number 3
AWS Web site www.aws.org
On the cover: A Hydrex senior diver/welder/technician welds a longitudinal
stiffener on the side of the Eleftheria K in October 2011 as part of a major repair
after the ship had grounded off the Suez Canal. (Photo copyright 2011, Hydrex.)
91 How to Pick the Right-Sized Welding Cable
A formula is given to calculate a safe size welding cable,
depending on the current used and distance from the power
source
A. F. Manz
93 Welded Benches for Fun and Fund-Raising
Whimsical garden benches were designed and fabricated to
help raise funds for a project in Guatemala
H. Woodward
EDITORIAL
Welding, brazing, and soldering are great careers for women. You and I know it, but
for most people, it is a well-kept secret. I want to change that perspective, and one way
we can do that is for all of us to celebrate women in welding.
While the image of welding is improving, the general public often thinks of welding
as a man wearing a helmet working in a rough and dirty environment. . . Boo, hiss!
As people are learning, the pay is very good, and there are many career opportunities
associated with welding, brazing, and soldering. These include welder, Certified Welding
Inspector, welding technician, welding engineer, and welding distributor. And those are
just a few of the many opportunities. Others include brazer, welding or brazing operator,
robotic or semiautomatic welding operator, brazing and soldering engineer, welding
salesperson, and welding or brazing artist. All are open to both men and women, and
more and more women are joining in. (Pun intended.)
There are many misconceptions women may have about welding. Following are just
a few.
1. All welding professionals work under a helmet (which makes for a bad hair day).
While a helmet is necessary for watching the arc, much needs to be done before and after
the arc is struck. Choice of materials and process, cleanliness and preparation of the
joint, design, testing, and qualification all require the working knowledge of the welding
or brazing professional, and much of that work is accomplished without a welding
helmet.
2. Welding is done in a rough and dirty place. These days, much welding and brazing
is performed under clean conditions, and many workplaces that were once very dirty
have now been cleaned up. Welding schools strive to ingrain in their students that it is
important to keep their workplace picked up and clean. It is easier to produce a clean,
quality weld if the environment in which it is made is the same. Its true, huge parts are
welded and welding may be done outdoors such as at construction sites; however, weld-
ing and brazing are also done on small parts in clean and precisely controlled environ-
ments.
3. Women dont like arcs and sparks. Maybe some dont, just as some men dont. But
others do. Arcs and sparks make for an exciting place to work. However, much of weld-
ing and brazing are done automatically or semiautomatically, which frequently allows the
operator to stand clear of the process. That type of welding still needs a person to set it
up and make sure the welding is done properly, but the operator can usually step away
and not be exposed to the arcs and sparks, particularly with processes that have flux cov-
ering the weld pool. Other examples are robotic welding operations, which for safety
sake require the operator to stay clear of the robots operation. If youre a welding engi-
neer, you are designing, specifying, and overseeing the work, not making the arc and
sparks yourself. However, if you like arcs and sparks, there are plenty of opportunities
for that, too.
If you are a woman involved with any part of our profession, I would like to learn
about you and what you do. As I travel as your AWS president next year, I hope to spread
the word and celebrate women in welding, brazing, and soldering, and show that these
are open and viable fields for women. It will help to share stories of women in a variety
of joining careers and to have the statistics to show that womens presence in our indus-
try is not an anomaly. If you would like me to share
your story, please e-mail a short description (my sug-
gestion is 200 words or less) to ncole@aws.org or mail
it to Nancy Cole, American Welding Society, 550 NW
LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126. If possible, please also
send a photo of yourself, preferably taken at your
workplace.
With you, I look forward to celebrating women in
welding.
MARCH 2012 4
Officers
President William A. Rice Jr.
OKI Bering
Vice President Nancy C. Cole
NCC Engineering
Vice President Dean R. Wilson
Kimberly-Clark Global Safety
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center
J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
J. C. Bruskotter (Past President), Bruskotter Consulting Services
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Thermadyne Industries
D. A. Flood (Dist. 22), Tri Tool, Inc.
R. A. Harris (Dist. 10), Consultant
D. C. Howard (Dist. 7), Concurrent Technologies Corp.
J. Jones (Dist. 17), Thermadyne Industries
W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC
R. C. Lanier (Dist. 4), Pitt C.C.
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center
M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Corp.
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
D. L. McQuaid (At Large), DL McQuaid & Associates
J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding
S. P. Moran (At Large), ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.
W. R. Polanin (Dist. 13), Illinois Central College
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), Desert Rose H.S. and Career Center
N. S. Shannon (Dist. 19), Carlson Testing of Portland
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
Lets Celebrate Women in
Welding
Nancy C. Cole
AWS Vice President
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PRESS TIME
NEWS
AWS Careers in Welding Trailer Makes Appearance at
Michigan Governors State Address
The AWS Careers in Welding Trailer, on
display in front of Michigans State Capi-
tol on January 18, served as a nice comple-
ment to Governor Rick Snyders State of
the State address. The exhibit attracted
guests throughout the day with messages
about how young people who choose often-
lucrative welding careers can fill a crucial
gap in the economy.
We need to do a much better job with
connecting our workforce development ef-
forts with our community colleges and eco-
nomic development organizations, Snyder
said. He spent much of the day promoting
the job-training and placement initiatives
he proposed in December.
Not only do Michigan employers have
difficulty filling jobs today, but if we do not act, they will tomorrow as well, Snyder said
at the time. Engineers, nurses, welders, and a number of trades face significant staffing
challenges.
By the year 2019, welding will have an estimated shortfall of 240,000 skilled workers
in the United States. Michigan alone has an estimated demand of nearly 70,000 welding
professionals that is not met by the supply.
During the recent event, nearly 100 attendees from representatives and senators to
welding students toured the 53-ft, single-expandable trailer designed and built by MRA
Experiential Tours & Equipment, Madison Heights, Mich. Its 650-sq-ft of exhibit space
features VRTEX 360 virtual reality arc welding training stations by The Lincoln Elec-
tric Co., Cleveland, Ohio; interactive educational exhibits; a Day in the Life of a Welder
display; a life-size welder highlighting welding as a safe profession; a social media kiosk;
and welding scholarship details.
I was delighted to hear many of the legislators talk about skill training, and I hope
they incorporate those thoughts into educational funding, said Sam Gentry, executive
director, AWS Foundation. Also present at the address was Monica Pfarr, corporate di-
rector, workforce development, AWS.
Mobile App Introduced for IIWs 2012 Summit
For the first time, the International Institute of
Welding (IIW) Annual Assembly and International
Conference has gone mobile. At the summit, set
for July 814, 2012, in Denver, Colo., a smartphone
mobile app called IIW 2012 will give attendees a
convenient way to navigate the event.
The app provides participants with necessary
information, including speaker lists, floor plan
maps, and an interactive schedule. In addition, it
allows social media interaction with a live feed of
Tweets and a photo gallery where attendees can
snap pictures and upload for all to see. The app
is available for iPhone, Blackberry, and Google
Android phones. To download, visit
www.iiw2012.com/phone_app.html.
The 2012 IIW Annual Assembly will be offi-
cially hosted by the IIW American Council, which
consists of the American Welding Society (AWS), the Edison Welding Institute, and the
Welding Research Council. The conference is in its 65th year, but it has only been held
in the United States three times, most recently in 1997.
AWS has organized a planning committee of American Council members and other
welding experts co-chaired by Damian Kotecki and Tom Mustaleski, both AWS past
presidents. Dr. Kotecki is IIW treasurer and AWS Executive Director Ray Shook cur-
rently serves as IIW vice president. For more information, visit www.iiw2012.com.
MARCH 2012 6
MEMBER
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
Design and Production
Managing Editor Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Sylvia Ferreira
sferreira@aws.org
550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126
(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary
T. Birky, Lincoln Electric Co.
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
J. Deckrow, Hypertherm
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
D. Levin, Airgas
E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. Mueller, Thermadyne Industries
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrup Grumman Ship Systems
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
R. Ranc, Ex Off., Superior Products
W. A. Rice, Ex Off., OKI Bering
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
D. Wilson, Ex Off., Kimberly-Clark Global Safety
Copyright 2012 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec-
tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in-
tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
A smartphone mobile app has been
created for the International Institute
of Weldings 65th Annual Assembly to
be held this year from July 8 to 14 in
Denver, Colo.
Legislators along with students toured the
AWS Careers in Welding Trailer, shown here
against the backdrop of Michigans State
Capitol, during the day of Governor Rick Sny-
ders State of the State address.
GREINER
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quality. Over the years, weve added equipment to handle jobs that few
could match. We continue to super-size our capabilities while doing more
on the fabrication end that reduces labor time on the installation end
resulting in a better product at a lower cost. Hows that for value-added?
Call us at 800-782-2110 for a free quote on your
next Metal Bending job.
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Cutting Services
Industrial Coatings
Industrial & Electrical Contracting
Crane Rental & Trucking Services
Heat-Bending Services
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Able to 90-degree bend a 1-inch thick, grade-50 steel
plate the full 40-foot length of the bed
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Larger capacity means fewer cuts, which
means fewer seams to weld, which means less
labor, which means lower cost!
Greiners new Press-Brake, shown
cone-forming 2-inch thick plate.
NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY
Northeast Wisconsin Technical College,
Marinette Marine to Train Shipbuilders
Hundreds of current and future shipbuilders will be trained
in Marinette, Wis., thanks to a contract signed by Northeast Wis-
consin Technical College (NWTC) and Marinette Marine Corp.
Through the two-year agreement, the college will provide
130,000 hours of training to Marinette Marines new hires and
incumbent workers. Focusing on shipfitters, welders, pipefitters,
and electricians, training will be provided at the NWTC Marinette
campus and the new North Coast Marine Manufacturing Center
along with Marinette Marine facilities. The college has hired a
training center coordinator and several instructors to work with
area marine and general manufacturing employers.
The signing signifies a forward step for the Wisconsin/Michi-
gan regions growing shipbuilding industry. Changing workforce
demographics and skilled worker shortages in nearly all areas of
the industry prompted marine manufacturers to join together
with NWTC and two additional higher education institutions to
form the North Coast Marine Manufacturing Alliance.
Working with the alliances shipbuilding companies, the col-
lege created marine manufacturing training options beyond in-
cumbent worker training, offering a marine construction techni-
cal diploma and marine engineering technology associate degree
programs. For more information, visit www.nwtc.edu/marine.
Also, in related news, NWTC and the Department of Work-
force Developments Bureau of Apprenticeship Standards intro-
duced a welder-fabricator apprenticeship program in Green Bay,
Wis. Structured for four years, it includes 7560 hours of on-the-
job learning plus 440 hours of related instruction. This is the
fourth of six new apprenticeship programs to be developed
through the $6 million Sectors Alliance for the Green Economy
project grant from the U.S. Department of Labor.
National Initiative Launched by Maritime
Industry Leaders
The Lighthouse Campaign, launched officially at the Ship-
builders Council of Americas fall meeting last year, recently sent
representatives to a meeting at the National Center for Con-
struction Education and Research headquarters in Alachua, Fla.,
to finalize plans for developing a national Maritime Workforce
Development program and establishing the National Maritime
Education Council to provide program oversight.
The council will meet this month in Mobile, Ala., in conjunc-
tion with the Gulf States Shipbuilders Consortiums 2012 annual
meeting, where its interim board is expected to draft bylaws, form
committees, and formalize the groups structure.
Daigle Welding & Marine Chosen for
Constructing the NPA Osprey
The Nanaimo Port Authority (NPA) selected Daigle Welding
& Marine Ltd., both of B.C., Canada, to design and build its new
EagleCraft 39-ft boat, the NPA Osprey. Designed by Steve Daigle
and his naval architect Felipe Garcia, the multitask vessel will
serve as a pilot/fire boat, patrol vessel, and water ambulance for
the Port of Nanaimo. It is expected to be in service this spring.
The NPA Osprey is the second vessel the authority has pur-
chased in the past year from Daigle Welding & Marine. The NPA
Eagle, a 32-ft smaller version, recently had a 110-hp diesel fire
pump installed with monitors on the bow and stern.
Having two near-sister vessels will provide operational effi-
Maritime Advances Sail Strong
MARCH 2012 8
Recently, Northeast Wisconsin Technical College (NWTC) and
Marinette Marine signed a two-year contract to provide shipbuild-
ing skills and talent. The above welding image was taken at the Alu-
minum Center of Excellence (ACE) Marine in Green Bay, Wis.;
both ACE Marine and Marinette Marine are part of the Fincantieri
Marine Group. (Photo courtesy of CJ Janus/NWTC.)
A new 39-ft multitask vessel will be fabricated by Daigle Welding &
Marine for the Nanaimo Port Authority (NPA). Shown here is the
authority testing its new firefighting equipment on the NPA Eagle.
9 WELDING JOURNAL
ciencies from a critical spares and training perspective, said Ed-
ward Dahlgren, NPA.
Navy Metalworking Center to Improve
Doors on Littoral Combat Ship
The Navy Metalworking Center started a Navy ManTech proj-
ect that will employ design for manufacturing and assembly prin-
ciples, lean manufacturing, and other solutions to reduce the
weight and cost of sliding doors on the Freedom Class Littoral
Combat Ship. These entrances are challenging to make, requir-
ing several welds accomplished in a labor-intensive manner.
The project will evaluate the current door configuration and
manufacturing approach, plus recommend improvements. The
integrated project team will also evaluate and down-select pro-
posals. Enhancements to be considered include using metallic
sandwich structures; automated or lower heat input welding; im-
proved fixturing, part and process consolidation, and simplifica-
tion; and modular assembly. After subscale testing, the teams
suggestions will be prototyped and demonstrated.
Brazil Acquires Three Ocean
Patrol Vessels
The Brazilian Navy signed a contract worth approximately
$209.5 million with BAE Systems, London, UK, for the supply
of three ocean patrol vessels and ancillary support services. The
contract also contains a manufacturing licence to enable addi-
tional vessels of the same class to be constructed in Brazil.
The three, 295-ft vessels, originally constructed for the gov-
ernment of Trinidad and Tobago, will provide the Brazilian Navy
with enhanced maritime capability in the near term, pending the
acquisition of future ships under its Prosuper program. The first
two ships will be delivered this year; the third will follow in early
2013.
The ocean patrol vessels are capable of speeds in excess of 25
knots and weigh 2200 tons fully loaded. With a 30-mm cannon
and two 25-mm guns, as well as a helicopter flight deck and in-
flatable boat, they will be useful for performing maritime secu-
rity roles in Brazils territorial waters. They are designed to ac-
commodate a 70-member crew, with extra accommodation for
50 embarked troops or passengers, and are effective for
search/rescue and disaster-relief operations.
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The vessels bought by the Brazilian Navy will provide enhanced
maritime capability in the near term. Displayed is the Port of Spain
on sea trials. (Copyright 2010 BAE Systems. All rights reserved.)
MARCH 2012 10
Stevens Welding Shop Achieves Milestone
Stevens Welding Shop, situated in the small town of Sumner,
Neb., is currently celebrating 40 years in business.
Owner Duane Stevens, who has been an AWS member for 27
years and serves as treasurer of the AWS Mid-Plains Section,
started the company when he was 19 years old. Today, he still op-
erates as a one-man shop but hires an extra hand as required for
completing bigger projects. He assists the local farm and ranch
community by making machinery repairs, building feed bunks
and bale feeders, and fabricating panels for hog confinements.
His range of services include gas metal arc, shielded metal arc,
and gas tungsten arc welding; brazing; and plasma cutting. He
travels with portable equipment to work sites, too.
Theyre different all the time. Youre learning every day,
Stevens said of the jobs he receives. He added that it is satisfying
to know he helps people.
An event to commemorate the companys 40th anniversary,
held earlier this year at the community center across the street
from the welding shop, attracted 170 attendees. Among the indi-
viduals present from the AWS Mid-Plains Section were Chair
Dan Rucker and member Rex Cross. Also on hand was Duanes
welding instructor, Latham Mortensen, from Central Commu-
nity College, Hastings, Neb.
FMA Forms Green Manufacturer Network
The Fabricators & Manufacturers Association, Intl (FMA),
Rockford, Ill., invites manufacturing executives to join its new
Green Manufacturer Network, an organization of individual
members working together to drive the transition toward envi-
ronmentally friendly manufacturing. Members receive discounts
on conferences, workshops, and webinars; event announcements
and topical discussions; and access to sustainability resources.
Joining the network costs $150. Members will also be able to
share knowledge on sustainable manufacturing and promote
1-800-245-3186
www.bugo.com
Bug-O Fill-It 1000
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with 50 lb. vertical carrying
capacity
Smallest, Strongest, Lightest
and Most Precise Weaving
Fillet Welder in the Industry
Wireless Remote Control
Digital Control of all functions
The Dynamic Welding Duo
Latham Mortensen (left), a welding instructor at Central Commu-
nity College, and Duane Stevens, owner of Stevens Welding Shop,
pose in front of a banner honoring the companys 40th anniversary.
awareness that going green can increase profitability while form-
ing contacts with other green leaders through volunteer and ed-
ucational opportunities. For more information, e-mail
network@greenmanufacturer.net.
Pendarvis Manufacturing Celebrates Its
30-Year Anniversary
Pendarvis Manufacturing (www.pendarvismanufacturing.com),
Anaheim, Calif., an AWS Supporting Company, has been in serv-
ice for 30 years. Founded by Robert Bud Pendarvis and now
managed by his sons, Brian and Robert, the company has ex-
panded its capabilities to meet the increased demand for custom
manufacturing services in the southern California area.
In the last 30 years, we have grown from a 2400-sq-ft build-
ing with two employees to more than 14,000-sq-ft of manufac-
turing space, with more than 20 shop employees and two engi-
neers, said Brian Pendarvis.
The company offers turnkey precision machining, metal fab-
rication, welding, and assembly services, and manufactures parts
up to 10 tons. Pendarvis has also increased its base to serve vari-
ous industries in the area, including aerospace, transportation,
instrumentation, research, defense, solar energy, architectural,
and specialty as well as sewage treatment equipment.
Caterpillar, Lincoln Partner with School to
Increase Students Interest in Skilled Trades
Caterpillar, Peoria, Ill., and The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleve-
land, Ohio, partnered with Pulaski High School, Milwaukee, Wis.,
to increase the interest of young adults in skilled trades at man-
ufacturing companies focusing on welding operations.
We wanted to drive interest for kids in skilled trades and
show them that this is a good occupation. We communicated,
This is a skill that can never be taken away from you once you
learn it, said Adam Schrank, weld/fabrication group manager.
Work started last year when John Losineki, now a retired in-
dustrial arts teacher at the school, approached Caterpillar to see
11 WELDING JOURNAL For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
Pendarvis Manufacturing has been in operation for 30 years serv-
ing southern California. Pictured is a group shot taken in front of a
truck loaded with a large steel project.
continued on page 104
INTERNATIONAL
UPDATE
Kennametal to Buy UK-Based Deloro
Stellite Group
Kennametal, Inc., Latrobe, Pa., recently announced it will buy
the Deloro Stellite Group from Duke Street Capital for approxi-
mately $366.9 million. It is the companys first acquisition in more
than two years.
Deloro Stellite is a global manufacturer of alloy-based criti-
cal wear solutions for extreme environments involving high tem-
perature, corrosion, and abrasion. Based in the UK, the com-
pany employs approximately 1300 people at seven primary oper-
ating facilities around the world, including locations in the United
States, Canada, Germany, Italy, India, and China. The company
has approximately $292.7 million in annual sales.
The acquisition remains subject to customary regulatory ap-
proval and negotiated conditions for closing.
UK Manufacturer Adds Robots to Increase
Capacity and Ease Strain on Welders
Valen Fittings, a man-
ufacturer of pipefit-
tings in the United
Kingdom, recently in-
stalled two Fanuc ro-
bots to increase pro-
duction capacity and to
remove the physical
strain manual plasma
arc cutting and welding
places on its workers.
The company manu-
facturers butt-joint
weld fittings for the oil
and gas industry from a
wide of range of mate-
rials, none of which are
ferrous. Currently, 37
materials are used.
Sizes range from 8 to 48
in. in diameter. Some
fittings require a
welder to weld contin-
uously for up to 15 min.
We continuously aim
to improve productivity
but because of the many
fittings, types of mate-
rial, range of thicknesses, and low volume call off, we dont have
the luxury of being able to implement basic welding robot princi-
ples, said Len Sandford, Valen managing director. Our aim is al-
ways to adapt our existing manning skills so we can maintain the
quality and reduce operator strain.
The company worked with welding automation specialist Pen-
tangle Engineering and first addressed the issue of accurately
plasma cutting part finished pressings. A Fanuc Robotics M-16
iB, inverted on a jib, is used to plasma cut edges and then cut a
weld preparation angle along the same edge. The second robot,
a 6-axis ARC Mate 120-iC positioned with a single-axis manipu-
lator, is used to weld prepared sections.
Our overall productivity has improved since the installation
of the robots, Sandford concluded. They provide more consis-
tency, and the quality they deliver is faultless. From a project
point of view, we knew what we wanted to achieve we didnt
want a large team looking after each cell we wanted a simple,
one-man operation that allowed our existing skilled operators to
have a simpler, safer, cleaner, and less stressful way to work. And
we believe weve achieved that.
Mitsubishi Motors to Stop Building Cars in
Europe by 2013
Mitsubishi Motors Corp., Tokyo, Japan, recently announced
it will stop production of automobiles at its subsidiary European
production site Netherlands Car B.V. (NedCar) beginning in
2013. NedCar currently produces Colt and Outlander models des-
ignated for sales in the companys European market.
The move is believed to be the first withdrawal from Europe
by a major Japanese car maker. NedCar was established in 1991,
and has produced 1.1 million Mitsubishi vehicles since that time.
However, its output never reached its production capacity of
200,000 units a year. The production plant in Born, The Nether-
lands, will be sold. The plant employs 1500 workers.
Production and delivery of Mitsubishi models for Europe from
Japan and Thailand will continue.
Final Sections Joined in France for Brazils
First Scorpene Submarine
The 12 welders of
the French-Brazilian
team recently started
final operations at
the DCNS Groups
facility in Cherbourg,
France, for joining
the sections of the
first Scorpene subma-
rine for Brazil. The
operation consists of
welding the rings
forming the forward
part of the subma-
rine. The resulting
assembly, around 6 m
in diameter, 24 m long, and weighing 200 tons, will subsequently
accommodate systems including the operations center, the tor-
pedoes, and utilities such as water, gas, and electricity.
Throughout the first half of this year, the tanks and large struc-
tures will be added to the hull as well as the bridge fin, ballast
tanks, access trunk, and fresh-air induction cupola. The next as-
sembly operation will take place in Brazil.
As part of the technology transfer, the Brazilian welders have
received three months of training so that they could obtain the re-
quired qualifications. The contract covers the design and construc-
tion of four conventional submarines with technology transfer. The
Cherbourg center is currently hosting 36 Brazilian trainees, bring-
ing the number of trainees to 115 since the start of the contract.
The DCNS Group, headquartered in Paris, France, is con-
tracted to assist with the design and construction of the nonnu-
clear part of the first Brazilian nuclear-powered submarine, and
support for the construction of a naval base and a shipyard. The
first of the four conventional submarines covered in the contract
is scheduled to enter active service in 2017.
Valen Fittings recently installed two robots
at its facility. Automating the companys
cutting and welding operations proved
challenging because of the many types of
fittings the company makes, types of ma-
terial used, range of thicknesses, and low
volume.
A DCNS worker monitors welding opera-
tions for assembling the rings forming the
forward part of the first submarine for
Brazil.
MARCH 2012 12
STAINLESS
Q&A
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI
Q: We have a customer who wants us to
build a thin-wall (
1
4-in.) vessel out of 316H
to be used in service at 1000F. Apparently
this is for a test that they expect will run for
five years. Of course theyre concerned with
welding consumables having 0.04 to 0.05%
carbon and ferrite less than 5 FN, and sug-
gested we use 316Ti. To my knowledge,
transferring Ti can be an issue, and Im
wondering if 318 would be a good choice.
A: First of all, 316Ti is not a designation
for an AWS-classified filler metal as either
a bare wire in AWS A5.9/A5.9M nor as a
covered electrode in AWS A5.4/A5.4M. It
is also not a designation in the correspon-
ding ISO 14343 or ISO 3581 standards, re-
spectively. It may be a designation indicat-
ing addition of titanium to a 316 composi-
tion, but I do not know for sure to what
your customer is referring. You can find
Asian products identified as ER316Ti on
the Internet, but there is no connection to
AWS specifications.
On the other hand, 318 designates filler
metal that is similar to 316 except that it
has an addition of niobium (Nb). Niobium
is a stabilizing element, just like titanium.
Both alloy elements are used to prevent
Fig. 1 The iso-ferrite lines are labeled with the expected Ferrite Number,
while solidification modes are indicated by A as 100% austenite solidification
for compositions above the 0 FN line, AF as primary austenite solidification
for compositions below the 0 FN line to the first dashed line, FA as primary
ferrite solidifacation for compositions between the two dashed lines, and F as
100% ferrite solidification below the second dashed line.
MARCH 2012 14
chromium carbide precipitation, and
thereby prevent sensitization.
However, it is time for a reality check:
At 1000F (540C), the 316H base metal
will become completely sensitized regard-
less of the filler metal used. So there is no
point being concerned about sensitization
in the filler metal. Furthermore, sensitiza-
tion is of no concern in high-temperature
service. Sensitization is an issue in ambi-
ent-temperature corrosion resistance, not
in high-temperature service.
I would not recommend 318 filler
metal with less than 5 FN because niobium
enhances susceptibility to solidification
cracking at low ferrite levels. 316H filler
metal would be more resistant to solidifi-
cation cracking at low FN than would be
318 filler metal. But there is a still better
choice than 316H filler metal for service at
1000F, especially if you must have weld
metal below 5 FN. That better choice is
the largely overlooked 16-8-2 composi-
tion, and, though it may take a bit of look-
ing to find a supplier, it is generally made
with less than 5 FN. The 16-8-2 composi-
tion is highly resistant to solidification
cracking at very low ferrite content. Table
1 compares the AWS composition limits
for 316H, 318, and 16-8-2 filler metals as
covered electrodes and as bare wires.
It is noteworthy that the 16-8-2 compo-
sition is considerably lower in alloy content
than the 316H and 318 compositions. This
is important for two reasons. The first is
that, beginning from the same ferrite level,
16-8-2 weld metal is much more resistant
to formation of sigma phase at elevated
temperatures like 1000F than is either
316H or 318 weld metal. With lesser sigma
formation, the creep behavior of 16-8-2
weld metal is improved. As noted by Mar-
shall and Farrar (Ref. 1), these special
properties of 16-8-2 weld metal have re-
sulted in the ASME Code allocating higher
stress-rupture factors to 16-8-2 weld metal
than to 308- and 316-type weld metals.
The second reason is that, as a result of
lower total alloy content, 16-8-2 weld
metal requires less ferrite in order to ob-
tain primary ferrite solidification, which in
turn provides maximum resistance to so-
lidification cracking. The WRC-1992 Dia-
gram (Fig. 1) shows that the boundary
below which primary ferrite solidification
is obtained is tilted somewhat relative to
the iso-ferrite lines. So 16-8-2 weld metal,
with a chromium equivalent of about 17 or
a bit less, will solidify as primary ferrite
with even less than 1 FN, while 316H weld
metal, with a chromium equivalent of
above about 20, requires at least 3 FN to
solidify as primary ferrite.
Marshall and Farrar (Ref. 1) describe
16-8-2 as the overlooked or neglected
austenitic stainless steel weld metal. I
agree with that description. Weld metal of
16-8-2 type was studied rather extensively
during the 1960s through the 1980s when
power-generating plants were being ex-
tensively built in the United States see,
for example, Klueh and Edmonds (Ref. 2).
Today, because there has been so little
power-generating plant construction over
the last 20 years, there are not a lot of man-
ufacturers of this filler metal composition,
but it remains available. I would suggest
that this is the best filler metal choice for
welding your 316H vessel.
References
1. Marshall, A. W., and Farrar, J. C. M.
2001. Lean austenitic Type 16.8.2 stainless
steel weld metal, Stainless Steel World 2001
Conference Proceedings, paper P0114, KCI
Publishing, Zutphen, The Netherlands.
2. Klueh, R. L., and Edmonds, D. P.
1986. Chemical composition effects on the
creep of Type 316 and 16-8-2 stainless steel
weld metal. Welding Journal 65(6): 156-s to
162-s.
Table 1 316H, 318, and 16-8-2 Composition Limits
AWS Class Chemical Composition, wt-% (Single value is a maximum.)
Standard C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Mo Cu Nb
E316H-XX 0.04 to 0.5 to 0.04 0.03 1.00 17.0 to 11.0 to 2.0 to 0.75
0.08 2.5 20.0 14.0 3.0
A5.4 E318-XX 0.08 0.5 to 0.04 0.03 1.00 17.0 to 11.0 to 2.0 to 0.75 6x%C to
2.5 20.0 14.0 3.0 1.00
E16-8-2-XX 0.10 0.5 to 0.03 0.03 0.60 14.5 to 7.5 to 1.0 to 0.75
2.5 16.5 9.5 2.0
ER316H 0.04 to 1.0 to 0.03 0.03 0.30 to 18.0 to 11.0 to 2.0 to 0.75
0.08 2.5 0.65 20.0 14.0 3.0
A5.9 ER318 0.08 1.0 to 0.03 0.03 0.30 to 18.0 to 11.0 to 2.0 to 0.75 8x%C to
2.5 0.65 20.0 14.0 3.0 1.0
ER16-8-2 0.10 1.0 to 0.03 0.03 0.30 to 14.5 to 7.5 to 1.0 to 0.75
2.0 0.65 16.5 9.5 2.0
DAMIAN J. KOTECKI is president,
Damian Kotecki Welding Consultants, Inc. He
is treasurer of the IIW and a member of the
A5D Subcommittee on Stainless Steel Filler
Metals, D1K Subcommittee on Stainless Steel
Structural Welding; and WRC Subcommittee
on Welding Stainless Steels and Nickel-Base
Alloys. He is a past chair of the A5 Committee
on Filler Metals and Allied Materials, and
served as AWS president (20052006). Send
questions to damian@ damiankotecki.com,
or Damian Kotecki, c/o Welding Journal Dept.,
550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126.
CHAMPION WELDING ALLOYS

Lake Linden, MI 49945
800.321.9353 906.296.9633 Fax: 906.296.9631
www.ChampionWelding.com INFO@ChampionWelding.com

Please note that our phone and fax numbers have changed!

Champion Welding Alloys can supply you with the AWS A5.5 chrome-
moly electrodes and related welding consumables that you need.
We manufacture B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B8 and B9 electrodes. We also
manufacture the low carbon grades for select alloys. Call, visit our
website or email us for more information.
15 WELDING JOURNAL
Friends and Colleagues:
I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feel
have a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the standards
set by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you look to the most
senior members of your Section or District in considering members for nomination. In many cases,
the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most familiar with their contributions, and
who would normally nominate the candidate, are no longer with us. I want to be sure that we take
the extra effort required to make sure that those truly worthy are not overlooked because no obvious
individual was available to start the nomination process.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Fellow nomination form in this issue
of the Welding Journal. Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made
major contributions to our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1,
2012. The Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2013
consideration.
Sincerely,
Thomas M. Mustaleski
Chair, AWS Fellows Selection Committee
Fellow Description
DEFINITION AND HISTORY
The American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to recognize members for
distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and technology, and for promoting and sustaining the professional
stature of the field. Election as a Fellow of the Society is based on the outstanding accomplishments and technical impact of the
individual. Such accomplishments will have advanced the science, technology and application of welding, as evidenced by:
Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and technology
Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of welding
Innovative development of welding technology
Society and chapter contributions
Professional recognition
RULES
1. Candidates shall have 10 years of membership in AWS
2. Candidates shall be nominated by any five members of the Society
3. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS Headquarters
4. Nominations must be submitted to AWS Headquarters no later than July 1 of the year prior to that in
which the award is to be presented
5. Nominations will remain valid for three years
6. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence
7. No more than two posthumous Fellows may be elected each year
NUMBER OF FELLOWS
Maximum of 10 Fellows selected each year.
AWS Fellow Application Guidelines
Nomination packages for AWS Fellow should clearly demonstrate the candidates outstanding contributions to the advance-
ment of welding science and technology. In order for the Fellows Selection Committee to fairly assess the candidates qualifica-
tions, the nomination package must list and clearly describe the candidates specific technical accomplishments, how they con-
tributed to the advancement of welding technology, and that these contributions were sustained. Essential in demonstrating the
candidates impact are the following (in approximate order of importance).
1. Description of significant technical advancements. This should be a brief summary of the candidates most
significant contributions to the advancement of welding science and technology.
2. Publications of books, papers, articles or other significant scholarly works that demonstrate the contributions cited
in (1). Where possible, papers and articles should be designated as to whether they were published in
peer-reviewed journals.
3. Inventions and patents.
4. Professional recognition including awards and honors from AWS and other professional societies.
5. Meaningful participation in technical committees. Indicate the number of years served on these committees and
any leadership roles (chair, vice-chair, subcommittee responsibilities, etc.).
6. Contributions to handbooks and standards.
7. Presentations made at technical conferences and section meetings.
8. Consultancy particularly as it impacts technology advancement.
9. Leadership at the technical society or corporate level, particularly as it impacts advancement of welding technology.
10. Participation on organizing committees for technical programming.
11. Advocacy support of the society and its technical advancement through institutional, political or other means.
Note: Application packages that do not support the candidate using the metrics listed above
will have a very low probability of success.
Supporting Letters
Letters of support from individuals knowledgeable of the candidate and his/her contributions are encouraged. These
letters should address the metrics listed above and provide personal insight into the contributions and stature of the
candidate. Letters of support that simply endorse the candidate will have little impact on the selection process.
Return completed Fellow nomination package to:
Wendy S. Reeve
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
550 N.W. LeJeune Road
Miami, FL 33126
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293
SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 2012
(please type or print in black ink)
FELLOW NOMINATION FORM
DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________
LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS FELLOW ACCOMPANY NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY BE IN-
CORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
SEE GUIDELINES ON REVERSE SIDE
SUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________
Print Name___________________________________
The Proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. Signatures on this nominating form, or
supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition to the Proposer. Signatures may be acquired
by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package should
be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________
CLASS OF 201
SUBMISSION DEADLINE July 1, 2012
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RWMA
Q&A
BY DONALD F. MAATZ JR.
Q: What is the process used to determine
if a sheet metal spot welding schedule is
suitable for the application? We have been
utilizing the schedules the integrator rec-
ommended when we purchased the tooling,
but we want to improve them, if possible.
A: This question reminds us of the fact
that no matter how much research we do,
and despite all of the advances in the re-
sistance welding industry (and there have
been many), at some point we have to ac-
tually get down to business and make a
weld. To accomplish this, we must under-
take a good fundamental review of the
process coupled with a thorough knowl-
edge of the standard we are evaluating the
welding against. Please note that the
newer adaptive weld controls may require
a different approach, but this is a subject
for another time.
Before we go any further, it is impor-
tant to understand what a resistance spot
welding schedule is. Specifically, it is the
recipe used to create a weld and should
contain all of the required elements
needed to replicate the condition. These
most likely include weld force in units of
pounds-force (lbf) or kilo-Newton (kN),
secondary weld current (either AC or DC)
expressed as kilo-Amps (kA), and weld
time in either milliseconds (ms) or cycles
(c), based on 50 or 60 Hertz (Hz) AC
power. The weld time callout should also
specify the pulsing and cool time method-
ologies, if required. Other elements po-
tentially included as part of the schedule
are squeeze time, hold time, and in rare
instances, the need for a pre/post heat
treatment (quench and temper) or the
up/down sloping of current. Additionally,
the electrode geometry should be speci-
fied, including contact face diameter and
perhaps the material composition (or
class) of copper. Last, but most certainly
not least, the values for the above ele-
ments are typically unique for a specific
range of substrate thicknesses so it is com-
mon to see the schedule list them in a
table.
Resistance spot welding of sheet metal
is a mature process with a great deal of re-
search and history associated with it. The
end result of much of this research was
creation of established and well-
documented welding schedules for vari-
ous sheet metal and electrode configura-
tions, schedules that have been refined
over time. These spot welding schedules
are beneficial for equipment sizing and
serve as a starting point as the initial tool-
ing launch and ramp-up process seeks to
establish a consistent weld. One of these
schedules (and there are many to choose
from) was most likely the source of the in-
tegrators recommendation (Refs. 1, 2).
But to help answer your question, it
would be wise for us to keep in mind that
any discussion regarding weld schedule
development cannot take place unless the
following items are understood:
The quality requirements are known
and rational for the application.
This is typically not an issue, especially
since so many industry-recognized stan-
dards and reference guides, such as AWS
D8.1, AWS C1.1, AWS D17.2, and the
RWMA Resistance Welding Manual, are
available. That being said, it is still possi-
ble to encounter a situation where rational
thought and good engineering seem to be
missing, so it pays to do your own home-
work.
The welding characteristics of the
material are known.
This item relates directly to which weld
schedule methodology should be em-
ployed for the application. An example of
the important characteristics that can
drive the need for a unique schedule in-
cludes substrate coating, strength, and
gauge. Additional items to consider are
the number of faying surfaces to be joined
and the ratio of the gauges being
assembled.
The tooling, including the electrodes,
is capable of supporting the needed force,
current, and time, and at the desired rate.
This item should almost be self-
evident, but, just as with the quality re-
quirements, it pays to do your homework.
A lack of oversight in this area may result
in the unfortunate discovery that an excel-
lent weld may be achieved at 1400 lbf, but
the weld gun is only capable of 1000 lbf.
The Weld Lobe
One way to express the robustness of
a particular resistance spot welding appli-
cation is to determine its lobe Fig. 1. A
weld lobe is a means of graphically ex-
pressing the numerous combinations of
weld current and weld time that produce
satisfactory welds for a specific set of con-
ditions (weld force, electrode cap config-
uration, metal stackup, etc.). The lobe
(sometimes called a window) is created by
plotting the values of weld current vs. weld
21 WELDING JOURNAL
time that correspond to a particular meas-
urable characteristic, most typically weld
size. The left boundary of the lobe curve
displays the combinations of weld current
and weld time that produce a weld that
meets the minimum acceptable quality re-
quirements. The combinations of weld
current and weld time to the left of the
curve may still produce welds, but they
will generally be of a less-than-desired
quality as measured against a particular
characteristic. The right boundary of the
lobe displays the combinations of weld
current and time that correspond to sub-
strate expulsion or flashing. However,
welds produced with parameters to the
right of this curve may still meet engineer-
ing intent. The distance between these two
boundaries at a given weld time is referred
to as the current range. A wide current
range is one indication of process robust-
ness. As such, the stackup in question
would be tolerant of changes in the man-
ufacturing process and welding equip-
ment resulting from normal process vari-
ation and equipment degradation. Con-
versely, a narrow current range is indica-
tive of a process that is far less tolerant of
typical manufacturing process variations.
Such processes are most likely fussy and
seem to demand much more than their
fair share of attention.
There are many other characteristics
and factors related to evaluating and uti-
lizing a lobe. A few examples are high-
lighted below:
The lobe is actually a single slice of
a three-dimensional object. For example,
if the third weld schedule variable of weld
force is taken into account, it would be
possible to construct a graphical repre-
sentation of the lobe in three dimensions.
For practical reasons, this is not typically
needed (although it has been done) as ad-
justments to the appropriate weld force
contribute little to a change in overall heat
input when compared to alterations of
weld time, and especially, weld current.
The shape of the lobe can reveal if
the stackup responds to changes in weld
time. The lobe in Fig. 1 is similar to a par-
allelogram. As such, it almost does not
matter which of the tested weld times is
selected as the final schedule. But what
does it mean if the lobe is wider at the top
and narrower at the bottom, much like an
ice-cream cone? It may indicate that the
lower weld times may not be able to pro-
duce an acceptable weld before the onset
of expulsion and that operating at those
levels would be, at best, ill advised.
A narrow overall width to the lobe
may indicate that other factors need to be
evaluated and modified so that the
process window can be opened. As the
lobe only captures changes to current and
time, other aspects of the welding process
such as electrode geometry and weld time
methodology (single vs. poly pulse, etc.)
are common candidates for review and al-
teration before another attempt to deter-
mine the weld window.
As a rough rule of thumb, the mini-
mum desired weld range, dependent on
material and process, is 1015% of the op-
erating current to achieve a satisfactory
weld. The weld time should be as low as
practical to achieve the desired range but
not so low as to contribute to process in-
stability. Additionally, the operating cur-
rent should be slightly less than the mid-
point of the range, again dependent on
material and process. This takes advan-
tage of the repeatability typically associ-
ated with producing acceptable welds at
the lower end of the range and minimizes
Fig. 1 A resistance spot weld lobe.
the potential for spurious expulsion asso-
ciated with higher current values.
As your question alludes to the fact the
process is presently producing welds of
acceptable quality, how does the concept
of a weld lobe apply to your situation? The
answer to that question would be to de-
termine where your process actually is in
the lobe. This is not something that should
be undertaken lightly, but, with care, you
might be able to open the window under
which acceptable welds can be produced
and potentially discover how close to the
edge of the lobe you actually are. A pos-
sible methodology would be to make small
weld schedule changes of either weld time
or weld current to a part that is going to
be subjected to an off-line destructive
evaluation. These small changes, if made
at approximately the same time in the
electrode life cycle, would be the source
of the values used to construct your lobe.
Once the welds are evaluated and com-
pared to your particular measurable char-
acteristic, the actual process window can
be constructed. As previously mentioned,
caution should be exercised as you make
your changes. However, if you keep a few
guidelines in mind, the process should go
smoothly.
Any final schedule changes will need
validation throughout the entire elec-
trode life cycle.
Make weld time changes in no more
than 5% increments, if possible.
Maintain the same weld time method-
ology with all changes.
Make changes to the value of second-
ary weld current of no more than 2%,
if possible.
Do not change weld force unless you
have reason to believe it is too low, then
reestablish the proper weld time and/or
weld current.
My suggestion is not to attempt to map
the entire lobe, but rather to get a feel for
the effect of different changes on your
process. If you are able to determine that
you have a robust process, it will give you
a degree of confidence in the product
you are producing. On the other hand,
if you discover your process is not as ro-
bust as desired, you can begin a deeper
evaluation into how to improve it. So,
just as you need and expect your car to
start each morning, you need and expect
your tooling to be capable of producing
a quality weld. A robust weld schedule
is an excellent first step.
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank Tom Morris-
sett, former AWS D8 chairman, for his
invaluable perspective on weld lobe
development.
References
1. Resistance Welding Manual, revised
4th Edition. 2003. Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
2. AWS C1.1:2000 (R2006), AWS
C1.1:2000, Recommended Practices for Re-
sistance Welding. Miami, Fla.: American
Welding Society.
MARCH 2012 22
DONALD F. MAATZ JR. is a laboratory
manager, RoMan Engineering Services. He
is chair of the AWS Detroit Section, serves
on the D8 and D8D Automotive Welding
committees, is vice chairman of the Certi-
fied Resistance Welding Technician work-
ing group and of the RWMA Technical
committee. He is a graduate of The Ohio
State University with a BS in Welding En-
gineering. This article would not have been
possible were it not for the assistance from
members of the RoMan team. Send your
comments/questions to Don at dmaatz@ro
maneng.com, or to Don Maatz, c/o Weld-
ing Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami,
FL 33126.
T E C H NOL OGY F OR T H E WE L D E R S WOR L D .
The industry is changing...
Change with it.
TIME FOR CHANGE.
DELT-MIG
Contact your regional Binzel sales representative

for additional details.
www.binzel-abicor.com
POINT OF
VIEW
For many years, the American Weld-
ing Society (AWS) has issued specifica-
tions for the classification of welding filler
metals and allied materials. As stated in
each specification, AWS American Na-
tional Standards are developed through a
consensus standards development process
that brings together volunteers represent-
ing various viewpoints and interests to
achieve consensus. The issuance and
maintenance of these documents is the re-
sponsibility of the AWS A5 Committee on
Filler Metals and Allied Materials and its
22 working subcommittees.
In recent years, the American Welding
Society has worked in cooperation with
the International Organization for Stan-
dardization (ISO) to develop interna-
tional ISO standards. Some ISO specifi-
cations are very close to the correspon-
ding AWS specifications. For example, the
newly issued AWS A5.32M/A5.32:2011
(ISO 14175:2008 MOD), Welding Con-
sumables Gases and Mixtures for Fusion
Welding and Allied Processes, is a modified
adoption of the ISO 14175 specification.
Now one might conclude that the logical
end game of all this effort should be the
development of a set of international ISO
standards that eventually would supplant
the AWS standards completely. It may be
logical but would it be smart? This writer
thinks not and would make the following
case for AWS specifications:
1. AWS A5 subcommittees can work
to expedite provisions for new electrode
types, emerging technologies, enhanced
weld deposit compositions, updated qual-
ification requirements, etc., to better ad-
dress the needs of U.S. manufacturers and
markets. Examples would be the D op-
tional, supplemental designator (to indi-
cate conformance to seismic require-
ments) and the Q optional, supplemen-
tal designator (to indicate conformance
to U.S. military requirements) that were
incorporated into the AWS A5.20 flux
cored specification. More recently, the
AWS A5M subcommittee finalized a new
specification, AWS A5.36/A5.36M, Speci-
fication for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel
Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding and
Metal Cored Electrodes for Gas Metal Arc
Welding, in which provisions were made
for electrode types intended for use with
modified waveforms. See page 51 of this
issue of Welding Journal for more infor-
mation on this specification.
It is not realistic to expect that the pri-
orities of an international code body will
always align with issues related to U.S.
markets or that any action will be taken.
In addition, the structure and member-
ship of an international code body virtu-
ally precludes the fast tracking of docu-
ment revisions.
2. AWS subcommittees have the abil-
ity to take a leading role in eliminating ob-
solete, unnecessary, and expensive test re-
quirements. The AWS A5M subcommit-
tee did this when it eliminated the fillet
weld test as a classification requirement
for flux cored electrodes in the new AWS
A5.36/A5.36M specification.
The AWS subcommittees can also add
or modify testing requirements to their
documents to ensure that the test proce-
dures are consistent with the welding pro-
cedures the manufacturer recommends.
This was done when the AWS A5M sub-
committee added procedure controls in
AWS A5.20/A5.20M for the hydrogen
testing of flux cored electrodes based
upon the manufacturers published pro-
cedure ranges. The AWS A5B submerged
arc subcommittee also took the initiative
when it added a two-run welding classifi-
cation procedure for submerged arc weld-
ing. This was done to better reflect the
mechanical property results that can be
expected on limited-pass applications
such as the two-run technique used in the
manufacture of line pipe.
3. Manufacturers using AWS-classified
products are familiar with the AWS clas-
sifications and have them written into
their Welding Procedure Specifications
and Procedure Qualification Records. We
could expect serious objections from end-
users over the cost involved in converting
from AWS to ISO-only classified prod-
ucts. The AWS A5M subcommittee faced
this same type of issue when developing
the new AWS A5.36/A5.36M document.
There was tremendous resistance to com-
pletely replace the fixed classification sys-
tem and designations (specified in AWS
A5.18/A5.18M, A5.20/A5.20M, A5.28/
A5.28M, and A5.29/A5.29M) with a new
open classification system having new des-
ignations. For that reason, a number of
widely used and accepted electrode types
were grandfathered into the AWS
A5.36/A5.36M specification with their ex-
isting classification designations and clas-
sification requirements.
4. Welding consumables classified to
AWS specifications may also be classified
to ISO specifications, if required. One
does not necessarily preclude the other.
5. The work done by the AWS A5 Com-
mittee and subcommittees has value be-
yond the specifications they generate.
AWS committee work provides a forum
for manufacturers (who in many cases are
direct competitors), end-users and inter-
ested parties to work together to the ben-
efit of their industry. The younger mem-
bers gain valuable experience through
their participation and interaction. The
older members provide years of experi-
ence, insight, and a historical perspective.
All of this serves our industry and our
markets.
The Case for AWS Specifications
BY DENNIS CROCKETT
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mittee on Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel
Welding.
MARCH 2012 24
New PFERD
POLIFAN
-CURVE
Features Radical
Design for Ultimate
Grinding Precision
PERFECT FIT
PERFECT PITCH
POLIFAN
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PERFECT CIRCLE
here, here.
Working Edge Fits
Easily Into Crevices
PRODUCT & PRINT
SPOTLIGHT
Wire Gives High Deposition
Rates for Shipbuilding
UltraCore HD-C, a mild-steel gas
shielded flux cored wire, is an option for
out-of-position welding requirements
with 100% CO
2
in the shipbuilding indus-
try and other fabrication applications. De-
signed to provide high deposition rates
and a flat bead appearance in all positions,
it delivers good arc performance and fast-
freezing slag with a low fume-generation
rate. The wire has a wide operating range
and is able to reach deposition rates of up
to 10 lb/h, even in out-of-position appli-
cations. Also, it exhibits low spatter levels
and is formulated to weld over light rust,
mill scale, and primer. It conforms to AWS
A5.20/A5.20M:2005, Carbon Steel Elec-
trodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding, E71T-
1C-H8 and E71T-9C-H8. The wire is of-
fered in 0.045, 0.052, and
1
16 in. wire diam-
eters wound on 15-lb plastic spools, 33-lb
fiber spools, and 50-lb coils.
The Lincoln Electric Co.
www.lincolnelectric.com
(888) 355-3213
Welding Carriage Useful for
Building Ships, Trailers
The Wel Twin portable welding car-
riage, tested in shipyards worldwide, car-
ries two torches. The heavy-duty machine
is designed to weld on both sides of a stiff-
ener rib or I-beam up to 24 in. tall. Com-
mon uses are for ship and trailer building
along with custom I-beam construction.
The unit is magnetically attached from
both sides of the plate by a main and sub
carriage. An interface is included to send
signals to both wire feeders when welding
is to begin. Semiautomation improves
quality, production times, and reduces
welder fatigue. The machine is driven and
held on a vertical plate gripped by the main
and sub carriage to maintain consistent
welds. The company can provide informa-
tion on running multiple carriages at once
to provide a flexible panel line as well.
Koike Aronson/Ransome, Inc.
www.koike.com
(800) 252-5232
MARCH 2012 26
The Fabricator 181i, the first in a series of 3-in-1 multi-
process, integrated portable welding systems designed to han-
dle GMA, SMA, and GTA applications, delivers up to 180 A of
output power. Weighing less than 33 lb, the compact system en-
ables the ability to go from job to job as easily as users can go
from GMA to SMA to GTA welding. It is suited for farm and
ranch use along with other applications such as for do-it-your-
selfers, automotive, light fabrication, hobbyists, maintenance,
repair, and educational training. The products standard fea-
tures include a detailed weld setup guide for good welding per-
formance over a range of materials and shielding gases; digital
meters with preview; infinitely variable voltage control; and
metal feed plate with quick-change drive rolls and a receptacle
for connecting remote control devices/spool gun. The system is
made complete with Tweco and Victor accessories.
Thermal Arc
www.thermalarc.com
(800) 426-1888
GMA, SMA, and GTA Welding Machine Suited for Do-It-Yourselfers
Brochure Pictures
Industrial Hydraulics
The 28-page, full-color Intelligent Hy-
draulics in New Dimensions brochure dis-
cusses the companys manufacturing fa-
cilities with well-illustrated discussions on
its product lines. Featured are general
descriptions of proportional valves and
electronics, pumps, motors, accumulators,
standard valves, manifolds, filters, power
units, piping systems, and its engineering
services. Sections are dedicated to the au-
tomotive, civil engineering, entertain-
ment, heavy industry, defense systems,
marine and offshore, mining, plastics,
power-generation, pulp and paper, and
wind-energy industries.
Bosch Rexroth
www.boschrexroth-us.com
(610) 694-8300
Oxygen Indicator Includes
PPM Sensor
The InterPurge Model 772 oxygen in-
dicator measures rest oxygen levels down
to 1 part/million (ppm) volume. The ce-
ramic sensor, which is nondepleting, is de-
signed for job site as well as clean room
work for many years before replacement.
The model also incorporates a heavy-duty
pump, and the bright LED display has a
measuring range of 1999 ppm.
Intercon Enterprises, Inc.
www.intercononline.com
(800) 665-6655
27 WELDING JOURNAL
B|||1|N9 B||1
|1l|N 0NB1k 1k9|N9
l|kN B1|N9 | N.
Wherever and whatever you need to cut or gouge power through more work faster,
with the full line of versatile Duramax torches for Powermax
systems.
75 Handheld
Full-length machine
15 Handheld
MANUAL PLASMA | MECHANIZED PLASMA | LASER | AUTOMATION | CONSUMABLES | SOFTWARE
For a closer look, visit
www.hypertherm.com/duramax
Mini machine
Cyclone Spark Arrester
Installs with Duct Clamps
The SparkShield is a compact, in-line
spark arrester that requires little to no
floor space. The patent-pending design
ensures almost 100% efficiency in the re-
moval of sparks and other potential haz-
ards that may cause a fire. The product
not only protects welding fume extraction
systems against sparks, it also increases
the lifespan of filter cartridges. Inspection
hatches can be placed around it, which
make looking inside the ductwork possi-
ble to check whether cleaning is neces-
sary. Two duct clamps make it easy to in-
stall, dismantle, service, and maintain.
Plymovent Corp.
www.plymovent.com
(800) 644-0911
MARCH 2012 28
SUMNER MANUFACTURING COMPANY, INC.

N I LD L O H

P P N VEE H E V I E P I P G NG
EEA , SY SY AA , CK C I U Q A

Quick-release
button allows
A JA STTA S ND N AA S CK C A J D EA EA H
SA CLA FOR O F MP M A L C E F A S

S
R

Pe

Perfect for securing
f pipe t
Threads permit
positive gripping

eads perm
ive grippin
to vee hea

Rugged steel
frame for
years of use
clamp arms to
open and close
in seconds.

open and close

Pe
pipe layout work
CAUTION: Hold-E is a clamping device
and should not be used for
threading or lifting.

Perfect for securing
pipe layout work
Arms Extend Open In
Raised Position
CAUTION: Hold-E is a clamping device
and should not be used for
9 9 . 8 8 8
u s . w w w

Arms Extend Open In
Raised Position
0 1 9 6 . 9 9
m o c . r e n m
SUMNER M

Grips 3/4" - 6" pipe
(20 - 152mm)
or 1" - 6-1/2" tubing
(25 - 165mm)
SUMNER M FA ANUFACTURING COMPANY, Y, INC

, INC.
Wireless Crane Scale
Keeps Users Far from Load
The Alliance/CAS Caston II crane
scale, with a heavy-duty swivel hook, is de-
signed for weighing products from an
overhead hoist or crane and features a
standard hand-held wireless remote con-
trol, on/off, zero and tare functions, and
auto span calibration with auto zero track-
ing. Allowing users to stand clear from the
load, the product has a 1.2-in. LED dis-
play. Equipped with a rechargeable bat-
tery pack, the scale includes a spare bat-
tery pack and charger. Weighing 37.5 lb,
it is offered in three capacities 1000
0.5 lb, 2000 1 lb, and 5000 2 lb and
operates on 6 VDC power.
Alliance Scale, Inc.
www.alliancescale.com
(800) 343-6802
Use of Lifting Magnets
Discussed in Literature
The 24-page Lifting Magnets Complete
Line brochure discusses the various indus-
trial lifting magnets and how to use them
to pile, unpile, lift, and move steel plates
and shapes. Featured are the SafeHold
permanent lifting magnet models and the
complete line of electric lift magnets. De-
tailed are permanent magnets with lifting
capacities up to 10,000 lb and electric lift
magnets up to 59,000 lb, with line draw-
ings and specifications for each magnet
plus photos that show the type of indus-
trial applications most suited for each
model. A PDF edition may be down-
loaded from www.eriez.com/Products/Safe-
holdPermanentLiftingMagnets. A hard
copy may be ordered by e-mailing the re-
quest to eriez@eriez.com or online at the
Web site shown below. Request brochure
MB-2300.
Eriez
www.eriez.com
(888) 300-3743
Orbital Weld Heads Utilize
Digital Technology
The Model 860 fusion welds tube from
2 to 6 in. The company recently intro-
duced the 800 Series, a line of enclosed
autogenous orbital weld heads that utilize
digital technology. The product is a com-
pact and lightweight 6-in. head. Just 0.75
in. of straight length is required, tungsten
to collet face. It is 1.7 in. wide, allowing
use for tight clearance applications weld-
ing fitting-to-fitting or fitting-to-valve.
Magnatech LLC
www.magnatechllc.com
(860) 653-2573
Dual Torch Hard Surfacing
System Installs Quickly
The company has redesigned its dual
torch shredder disc rebuild system that re-
29 WELDING JOURNAL
duces installation time to 30 min or less.
It can apply 50 lb of weld metal per hour
and includes two weld carriages that sup-
port the weld arm and adjustable open arc
torches, wire feeders, and 60-lb coils of
wire. The carriages opening design allows
the main beam and legs to be installed first
and the carriages second. The controls
have been consolidated into a single hand-
held pendant. With remote start/stop, the
user can pause to inspect the work and
begin again without worrying about wire
whiskers because a built-in, melt-back
circuit eliminates the welding wire stick-
ing to the workpiece. The disc rebuild sys-
tem is a match with Stoody 110MC, a
modified high-chromium manganese-
steel metal cored wire.
Mavrix Welding Automation, Inc.
www.mavrixweld.com
(262) 679-3800
Digital System Measures
Instantaneous Current
Joulebox 2, a portable, digital system,
is designed to measure instantaneous volt-
age, amperage, and power (J/s) in accor-
dance with ASME IX, QW-409.1(c) where
waveform-controlled welding power
sources are in use. The unit can be used
with any power source. Additionally,
measurements are taken near the arc, so
cables, torches, or other items that influ-
ence results are eliminated.
Euroweld, Ltd.
www.euroweld.com
(704) 662-3993
MARCH 2012 30

Manufacturing
Flux Cored
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elding Wire
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uring

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31 WELDING JOURNAL
MARCH 2012 32
T
he Eleftheria K (Fig. 1), a Capesize-
class bulk carrier, ran aground at the
mouth of the Suez Canal in July
2011. European Navigation, Inc., Piraeus,
Greece, operates the ship, which was built
in Japan in 1985. The Eleftheria K is 297
m long overall, 50 m in the beam, 214,263
metric tons DWT (dry weight), with a
26.7-m depth, 19.8-m draught, and a dis-
placement of 240,311 tons.
The Damage
When she ran aground, the Eleftheria
K had on board a full cargo of iron ore
concentrate, totaling 212,297.75 metric
tons, which had been loaded at the ports
of Odessa and Yushny in the Ukraine for
discharging at Rizhao and Qingdao,
China. The starboard bilge strake was
grounded at the level of double-bottom
ballast tanks (DBBTs) 1, 2, and 3. The
damage was extensive, covering about 85
m along the hull. The grounding caused
severe indentation of the bilge strake,
opening seven holes and cracks along the
damaged area resulting in the flooding of
ballast tanks 1, 2, and 3 Fig. 2.
A local diving company in Egypt car-
ried out temporary repairs using doubler
plates and putty from the outside and ce-
ment boxes on the inside Fig. 3. The
ship then resumed its voyage to China.
However, one week after sailing from
Suez, the ballast tanks flooded again and
a vertical crack developed on the star-
board vertical side shell plating, on the aft
part of the area damaged by the ground-
ing and just forward of the bulkhead be-
tween DBBTs 2 and 3, and cargo holds 3
and 4 Fig. 4.
The approximately 1300-mm-long
crack had an average uneven gap of
100200 mm. Had it propagated upward,
the crack would have caused cargo holds
3 and 4 to flood, which could have been
A damaged freighter needed repairs to
stop a leak, prevent buckling, and keep
cracks from spreading so the ship could
sail to where she could unload
(dphillips@hydrex.us) is with
Group Communications,
Hydrex, Clearwater, Fla.
Undertaking a Complex
Underwater Repair
BY DAVID PHILLIPS
Fig. 1
The Eleftheria K
at sea.
33 WELDING JOURNAL
catastrophic for the vessel and her cargo.
The most difficult part of the under-
water repairs was covering this crack/frac-
ture for it to become watertight while at
the same time maintaining local and lon-
gitudinal strength to a level higher than
the minimum required by the rules.
Underwater repairs and reinforce-
ments had to be carried out at a depth of
approximately 19 m with the ballast tank
flooded, meaning equal pressure from in-
side and outside. Repair procedures and
welding quality had to be at maximum in
order to hold firm while deballasting the
ballast tank so the shell plate could cope
with the resulting hydrostatic pressure
from the outside. To effect these repairs,
the ship had to be diverted to an anchor-
age at Fujairah, United Arab Emirates.
Inspection
S. Georgiou, technical manager of Eu-
ropean Navigation, Inc., called in Hydrex,
an international underwater repair and
maintenance company based in Antwerp,
Belgium. The Hydrex inspection revealed
a new vertical crack directly on the bulk-
head between ballast tanks 2 and 3.
Georgiou said he decided to call in Hy-
drex for the repairs because due to the
extent and the severity of the damage, the
job was considered very difficult; there-
fore, we decided a specialized company
such as Hydrex, with a successful record,
well organized, safety oriented, and expe-
rienced in underwater welding jobs,
should be arranged. Furthermore, any
other option to discharge her cargo ashore
and/or transfer the cargo to another ship
was impossible due to the ships size, her
deep draft, quantity of cargo on board, no
availability of suitable port/berth facilities
for a vessel of that size in the area, and no
availability of shore floating cranes.
Toon Joos, an experienced senior
diver/welder/technician with Hydrex, flew
to Dubai to conduct a detailed inspection
at Fujairah 20 miles off the coast. His re-
port and some of the photos from that in-
spection follow.
Fig. 2 The ship at anchor near
Fujairah, UAE. The ship has a severe
list to starboard due to the leaks and
flooding of the ballast tanks.
Fig. 3 (Top) The buckled hull and the previous attempt at repairs.
Fig. 4 (Bottom) Close-up showing the severity of the long, vertical
crack discovered in the hull.
MARCH 2012 34
Fig. 5 Sketches of the damage and
repair proposal: A Transverse view
of the side shell vertical fracture; B
repair proposal for the vertical fracture.
Fig. 6 Exterior view of the side shell
repair proposal for the vertical fracture.
A
B
The damage starts approximately on
frame number 315 and runs all the way to
frame number 227, a total length of ap-
proximately 100 m with a height on the
vertical side of approximately 6 m and a
width under the flat bottom of approxi-
mately 3 m. All the plating is pushed in-
side heavily with several cracks that have
been repaired by other diving companies
by means of doublers and epoxy putty. Un-
fortunately, there are still leaks. We cant
determine the locations due to the previ-
ous repairs and because the tanks (num-
bers 1, 2, and 3) are flooded. Between
tanks 2 and 3, I can see there is a crack
1300 10 mm just in front of the bulk-
head. There is a repair done by (local com-
pany), but the shell plating is pushed in-
side due to the water pressure when the
tank was pumped out.
Planning the Repair
Part of Jooss report was a proposal for
repair of the damage. The idea was to
make sufficient repairs for the vessel to
sail to China to unload her freight. Then
she could be drydocked and permanent
repairs made. The main problem was to
sufficiently reinforce the 1.3-m vertical
crack to prevent the torsion of the ship
while under way from expanding it and
breaking the ship, and to make the hull
watertight so that the ballast tanks could
be pumped out. The first step of the pro-
posal was to involve a naval architect so
that the various drawings and calculations
could be done and approved.
The Naval Architect
Hydrex had recently worked success-
fully with Michalis Chourdakis of C. N.
Zachopolous & Associates Ltd., marine
surveyors and consultant engineers, Pi-
raeus, Greece. The company recom-
mended his services to Georgiou, who was
in charge of the repair operation for Eu-
ropean Navigation. Chourdakis is also a
technical consultant with Tsavliris Salvage
Co., one of the worlds leading salvors. In
this case, no salvage operation was re-
quired so Tsavliris was not involved, but
Chourdakis explained that his work with
Tsavliris has given him a great deal of ex-
perience with major repairs of this nature.
Chourdakis and his colleague, P. Kout-
sourakis, a surveyor and specialist in 3D
drawings and presentations, studied the
results of the Hydrex inspection and the
proposed repairs and worked out the en-
gineering details. They came up with a
new description of the damage, a plan for
repairs, calculated the various strengths
and thicknesses required, and produced
a set of drawings.
Grounding Damage
Following is the new damage descrip-
tion and temporary repairs proposal.
The damage description is based on in-
formation received from the Hydrex diver
on board at Fujairah on May 9, 2011.
The report stated in part: On the side
35 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 7 Sketches of the sequence
(left to right) for fitting the repair.
shell plate starboard side and in the area
of the double-bottom ballast tank No. 2
starboard found a vertical crack of ap-
proximate dimensions 1300 10 mm lo-
cated between frames No. 228 and 229 and
on the first plate after the bilge plate. Dou-
ble-bottom ballast tank No. 2 starboard is
flooded Fig. 5.
Repairs Proposal
The purpose of the repairs was to ac-
complish the following:
Stop the crack (avoid propagation).
Reinforce the damaged area.
Reinstate water tightness of double-
bottom ballast tank No. 2.
Reinstate the continuity of the double-
bottom side longitudinals.
Reinforce the cracked side shell plate
to avoid movement.
Following is the repair plan:
To stop the crack and avoid propaga-
tion, drill adequate crack-arrest holes
on the shell plate at both ends of the
crack Fig. 6.
To reinforce the damaged area, fit four
angle bars and weld them externally on
the shell plate in line with the existing
double-bottom tanks side longitudinals
covering two web frame spaces.
Extend the stiffening longitudinally
from frame 225 to frame 231.
Fit same-size angle bars and weld them
vertically and in line with frames 228 and
229. These would be extended one side
longitudinal up and down from the
cracks ends Fig. 6.
Form the web of the angle bars to ex-
actly fit the hulls actual shape.
Three-dimensional fitting sketches
show how the repair was planned to go
forward Fig. 7.
Hydrex confirmed that the plan could
be executed, and European Navigation
accepted the proposals.
All calculations for the local and lon-
gitudinal strength of the vessel were sub-
mitted and approved by the vessels clas-
sification society, Nippon Kaiji Kyokai
(Class NK), and H&M Underwriters sur-
veyors. While the work was being con-
ducted, a Class NK surveyor was on site
to verify the repairs were carried out ac-
cording to the approved drawings.
Chourdakis noted that for the job to
be successful, high-quality welding and
precise premeasurements were required.
Making the Repairs
Hydrex flew two experienced divers/
technicians, Cedric Wyckmans and Philip
Martens, from Antwerp to Dubai to make
preparations for the job, including secur-
ing a suitable workboat and other neces-
sary equipment. A week later, Joos flew
in with a team of four additional divers/
welders/technicians. Work began and con-
MARCH 2012 36
Fig. 8 (Top) Construction of the initial
frame on the deck of the freighter.
Fig. 9 (Bottom left) The distorted
shape of the hull was carefully measured
in relation to the frame, with
measurements taken every 5 cm, so the
plates that would become the structure of
the box could be accurately cut to fit.
Fig. 10 (Bottom right) The plates were
lowered down the side of the ship so they
could be fitted accurately to the damaged
hull before being welded into a watertight
box on deck.
tinued intensively, day and night, for the
next 5 weeks.
The first step was to take measure-
ments for the frame that would be fabri-
cated and then welded in place over the
large vertical crack. The frame would form
the structure of the cofferdam that would
be used to make the crack watertight and
would also be used as a frame of reference
so that accurate measurements could then
be made and plates cut and welded in
place. Hydrex welders working with sub-
contractors on the deck of the Eleftheria
K constructed the frame Fig. 8.
With the frame in place, measurements
could then be taken so that the sides of
the cofferdam could be cut to the shape
of the badly buckled hull and then fitted
Fig. 9. Joos explained, A good fitting
makes it much easier to weld. Under the
water, a gap of 1 cm is a lot harder to weld
than a gap of 3 mm. If you go over 1 or 1.2
cm, then you have to build up. So about 1
cm is the limit. Some welders can handle
a 1 cm gap. A good fit makes it much eas-
ier. If you have a zero gap, it saves hours
and hours of welding time. With the ship
out of service until the repairs could be
completed, the old adage, time is
money, took on a whole new meaning.
The plates were cut on deck, then low-
ered and tacked to the hull so they could
be adjusted to ensure a close fit before
being welded to the box Fig. 10.
After the plates were fitted, the 300
60 cm box was constructed on deck Fig.
11. This was done because surface weld-
ing is somewhat faster than underwater
welding.
The finished box was then lowered into
the water and welded to the frame and the
hull, inside and out, three passes through-
out Fig. 12.
Once the box was in place, the stiffen-
ers were ready to be welded onto the hull
extending fore and aft from the cracked
hull area. The stiffeners were fabricated
on deck, then lowered into position and
tack welded in place. They were then strip
welded with a 15-cm strip every 15 cm, top
and bottom of the stiffeners Fig. 13.
The next step was to close the coffer-
dam by welding a plate on top of the box
that had already been welded to the hull
and the frame. When the cofferdam was
sealed, the crack was no longer open to
the sea Fig. 14.
Joos recalled the problems encoun-
tered when ballast tanks 1, 2, and 3 were
deballasted Fig. 15. When we started
pumping, unfortunately some cracks
broke. Nobody knew what was inside
how many longitudinals were still attached
on the inside so we put additional stiff-
eners and then tried to pump again.
Again, we had a few minor cracks. Be-
cause the depth of the vessel was 24 me-
ters on the bottom, there was a huge
amount of pressure forcing inward. The
full structure needed to resist the pres-
sure. We had a few cracks again so we de-
Fig. 11 (Left) The 300 60 cm box
fabricated on deck prior to being lowered
into the water and welded to the hull.
Fig. 12 (Right) Close-up showing the
box in position over the crack.
Fig. 13 Strip welding the longitudinal
stiffeners in place on the shell plate.
cided to stop and put in some additional
stiffeners in more layers to get more
strength on the welds. The third time we
started deballasting everything went okay.
There was no further leak.
Georgiou added, Furthermore, dur-
ing the course of repairs due to failure
of the reinforcements the original re-
pair plan had to be reviewed twice and
extra stiffeners had to be fitted. This
proved the degree of difficulty of the job,
according to Georgiou.
Finally, just 27 days after work began,
the repair was finished with all stiffeners
and brackets in place and welded. Epoxy
was applied to prevent the welds from
rusting Fig. 16.
Another team worked on the inside
after the crack was made watertight and
the ballast tanks could be pumped out. It
was with this repair fully completed with
classification society approval that the
ship was able to sail.
External welding totaled approxi-
mately 500 m, an incredible amount of
welding for the given timeframe, particu-
larly when one considers that most of it
was underwater and at considerable
depth. Shielded metal arc welding was
used throughout. Two welding machines
worked constantly, and there was a third
on standby as a backup. The equipment
is basically the same as is used above water
except that a different electrode, suitable
for underwater use, is employed.
The underwater external repair was
carried out by seven Hydrex welders work-
ing in shifts. The diving routine consisted
of two hours under the water followed by
a 21-min decompression stop at 3 m and
then a 4-h interval before diving again in
the afternoon, following the same routine.
The divers dove once or twice daily fol-
lowing the same routine, with two divers
in the water at the same time. All the
MARCH 2012 38
Fig. 14 Closing the cofferdam
over the crack.
39 WELDING JOURNAL
divers used nitrox, a 40% oxygen/60% ni-
trogen mixture.
At the beginning, the divers worked at
a depth of 20 to 21 m. When the ballast
tanks were emptied and the ship came up
straight, recovering from its list, they were
working at 17 m.
Georgiou, who chose the repair com-
pany and the naval architects, was very
satisfied with the work and the results.
We had very good cooperation during
the entire period of repairs, he said of
the teamwork between European Naviga-
tion, the naval architect, and Hydrex. The
repair was successful, allowing the vessel
to sail to China; therefore, the quality of
the job was good. The job completed in
about 27 days, which was very close to
quoted time (24 days), but it should be
considered that additional reinforcement
had to be carried out, therefore the speed
was also satisfactory.
Conclusion
The purpose of this repair to the Eleft-
heria K was to stop the leak, prevent buck-
ling, and stop the cracks from spreading
so the ship could sail to where she could
discharge her full load and then go to dry-
dock for permanent hull repair. The re-
pair was warranted because although the
ship is 27 years old, she has several years
of service life ahead.
The vessel arrived at its port of desti-
nation for discharging doing good speed
despite encountering heavy weather and
without any damage to the repairs carried
out or any other damage, Chourdakis
said.
Georgiou said, Upon completion of
underwater repairs, some additional re-
pairs/reinforcements carried out inside
the ballast tanks (according to the request
of naval architect) and the vessel was in-
spected by Class. Everything was found
okay and she resumed her voyage to China
to discharge her cargo. The ship arrived
in China after about 30 days voyage, with-
out any problem or water ingress in the
ballast tanks during the voyage, and dis-
charged/delivered all her cargo safely, at
the ports of Rizhao and Qingdao. The
provisional repairs carried out by Hydrex
at Khorfakkan anchorage enabled the ves-
sel to perform the voyage to her destina-
tion safely.
The repairs to the Eleftheria K can be
considered a major accomplishment in the
field of underwater ship repair and a tes-
timony to the skill and teamwork of the
ship operator, the naval architect, and the
divers/technicians who carried it off suc-
cessfully.
Fig. 15 A Additional reinforcement was added
to the repairs to ensure the welds would hold up
when the ballast tanks were emptied; B a close-
up of the reinforcement.
Fig. 16 The finished repair. The
welds were protected with epoxy to
prevent corrosion.
A
B
MARCH 2012 40
The land of maple leaves will host the
inaugural FABTECH Canada exhibition
March 2022 at the Toronto Congress
Centre. The center is located in the heart
of Canadas engineering and technology
region, and will be Canadas only exclusive
welding, fabricating, and metalforming
event. Sponsors of the event are the
American Welding Society, Society of
Manufacturing Engineers, and Fabrica-
tors & Manufacturers Association.
Following are just some of the reasons
why the show partners decided to estab-
lish FABTECH Canada and locate it in
Ontario.
Canada has an estimated 1.5 million
manufacturing professionals in indus-
tries ranging from automotive and en-
ergy to transportation and construction.
Canada has a large export industry.
Eighty percent of Ontarios exports are
to the United States.
Canada is the third largest exporter of
automotive products after Japan and
the United States, accounting for 16.7%
of North America vehicle production.
There are 11,160 fabrication companies
in Canada.
Welding represents about 75,000 jobs at
the technician and welding operator
level in Canada.
Forty-five percent of all construction
materials fabricated in Canada are
made out of metal; capital construction
indicates more than $100 billion of eco-
nomic activity.
When you attend FABTECH Canada,
youll be able to see tools and technologies
from hundreds of companies at one time
and at one place; meet experts and your
professional peers; and get the opportunity
to attend expert-led educational sessions.
General Information
Location
Toronto Congress Centre
650 Dixon Rd., Toronto
Show Dates and Times
Tuesday, March 20, 10 a.m. to 6 p.m.
Wednesday, March 21, 10 a.m. to 6 p.m.
Thursday, March 22, 10 a.m. to 4 p.m.
Registration
Complimentary advanced registration
is available until Monday, March 19. Reg-
istration after March 19 is $30 (tax in-
cluded).
Visitors must register to receive a show
badge to attend the event. For more in-
formation on registration, conferences,
and accommodations, go to www.fabtech-
canada.com.
Featured Technologies
Following are just some of the tech-
nologies that youll see first-hand on the
show floor or that will be covered in the
conference sessions:
Arc Welding
Assembly
Bending and Forming
Brazing and Soldering
Coil Processing
Finishing
Fastening and Joining
Forging
Gases and Gas Equipment
Hydroforming
Inspection and Testing
Joining
Lasers
Lubrication
Material Handling
FABTECH
Comes to
Canada
Discover innovative products and solutions
from leading suppliers, and exchange ideas
and find answers from industry experts at
the inaugural FABTECH Canada
A view of the Toronto skyline showing the landmark CN Tower. (Photo courtesy of Tourism Toronto.)
41 WELDING JOURNAL
Maintenance and Repair
Metal Suppliers
Press Brakes
Plate & Structural Fabricating
Punching
Resistance Welding
Roll Forming
Robotics
Safety and Environmental
Software
Saws
Stamping
Stud Welding
Tool and Die
Tube and Pipe
Thermal Spraying
Tooling
Welding Consumables
Welding Machinery
Conferences
Prices range from $175 member/$200
nonmember for one session to $555 mem-
ber/$645 nonmember for the full confer-
ence (four to five sessions). Nonmembers
who sign up for three or more conference
sessions receive a full one-year member-
ship to the sponsoring organization of
their choice.
The Toronto harbourfront. Toronto and the province of Ontario form the center of Canadas
engineering and technology region. (Photo courtesy of Tourism Toronto.)
Tuesday, March 20
10:15 AM 12:15 PM
Fundamentals of Laser Welding
Hot Wire Laser Cladding for
Life Cycle Cost Reduction
Comparative Cutting:
Advancements in Cutting
Laser Cutting Considerations for FirstTime
Buyers
Avancements in Plasma Cutting Process Op
timization Resulting from CuttoCut Cycle
Time Reduction
1:15 PM 3:15 PM
Preventing WeldAssociated
Cracking in NickelBased Alloys
Lasers: General to Advanced Laser
Cutting Considerations
Laser Processing Technology Today
NIR Laser Cutting Dynamics with High Beam
Quality
Fiber vs. CO
2
Cutting
Conference at a Glance
Wednesday, March 21
10:15 AM 12:15 PM
Essential Tips for Welding
Aluminum
Refill Friction Stir Spot Welding
Aluminum Filler Alloy Selections
Aluminum Welding Machine Selection
Tube & Pipe: Forming and
Fabricating Tube & Pipe
Tube and Pipe Mill Set Up
Laser Tube Cutting
1:15 PM 3:15 PM
HighPower Laser Applications in
Industry
Roll Forming: General to Advanced
Roll Forming Concepts
Advanced Roll Forming of Steel Framing
Components
Moden Lubricants for Roll Form Processes
Thursday, March 22
10:15 AM 12:15 PM
The Future of the Welding
Industrys Workforce
Green Stud Welding Saves Energy and Labor
Costs
Utilizing Technology to Address the Need for
a Manufacturing Workforce
Brake & Punch: Fabricating Sheet
Metal
Press Brakes
Press Brake Tooling
Press Brake Troubleshooting
A Joint High-Speed Vessel
being launched at the Austal
yard in Mobile, Ala.
(jmirgain@esab.com) is global product line
manager, Aluminum, ESAB AB, Rolla, Mo.
BY GIRARD A. MIRGAIN
43 WELDING JOURNAL
T
he news, in January, about cruise
ship Costa Concordia suffering a
long portside gash then tipping
aground off the coast of Italy reminded
the author of his 1976 line voyage from
Sydney, through the Panama Canal, to
Southampton aboard the SS America
Fig. 1. She was a typical ocean liner of the
time with riveted steel keel, frame, and
plates. Launched in 1939, America was
built using construction methods not sub-
stantially different from those used for the
Titanic some 30 years earlier (Table 1).
The Use of Aluminum in
Shipbuilding
The story of welded aluminum on ships
begins with the design and construction
of the SS United States Figs. 2, 3. Con-
ceived and designed by Fredric and
William Gibbs as a 1000-ft express super-
liner, taking advantage of the technolo-
gies that had been rapidly evolving up to
and through WWII, SS United States was
an avant garde vessel. In addition to meet-
ing all the criteria to become a competi-
tive commercial ocean liner, she had to
be designed and built to rigid U.S. Navy
standards in order to qualify for substan-
tial U.S. government capital subsidies as
an emergency auxiliary troop transporter.
Among the additional criteria set out for
this, she needed to be the following:
Fireproof. She would contain no wood
except butcher block and the pianos.
Aluminum was used extensively to re-
place most wooden items including
furniture.
Convertible within 48 hours into a trans-
porter for 15,000 troops.
A Panamax vessel (just narrow
enough to transit the Panama Canal)
with a 10,000 nautical mile cruising
range at high speeds, and on a single
bunker of fuel.
Robust in combat, capable of enduring
a single bomb or torpedo hit and still be
able to move out of harms way. She
The story of the use of welded aluminum
on ships is ever evolving
Welded Aluminum
on Ships
Fig. 1 The SS America in Papeete,
French Polynesia, in 1976.
An Overview
MARCH 2012 44
would be extensively compartmental-
ized and have two separate and inde-
pendent engine rooms.
In describing the United States, her de-
signer, William Francis Gibbs, said, You
cant set her on fire, you cant sink her,
and you cant catch her.
In an effort to conceal design secrets,
her keel was laid at Newport News Ship-
yard directly on the floor of a graving dock
so as not to be easily visible from a dis-
tance. As soon as the watertight hull con-
struction was completed, the dry dock was
flooded to further conceal her commer-
cial secrets. Her construction required
1500 miles of welds.
The United States had, for the first
time, 2000 tons of welded aluminum in
her superstructure; however, the super-
structure was not all aluminum. The fore
and aft framing and some of the plating
were aluminum. This material all came
from Alcoa, which was developing filler
metals to weld such material. It is believed
the filler metal used for this project was
Alcoa XC56S, the great grandfather of Al-
coTec Almigweld 5356.
The Heliarc process (gas tungsten
arc welding) had been developed during
WWII and was becoming commercially
available at the end of the war. It was skill
intensive, however, and slow. An entirely
new welding process was conceived and
developed to weld this comparatively mas-
sive aluminum SS United States super-
structure. This process utilized inert gas
shielding as with Heliarc but instead of
a tungsten electrode, it used a continu-
ously fed welding wire as the process elec-
trode. The first commercial name for this
process was Aircomatic in 1948 Fig.
4. Later, of course, it became known as
metal inert gas welding (MIG), and now
is known as gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) since it is far more extensively
used now with active gas for welding, most
commonly, steel.
Technology is said to be autocatalytic.
It is interesting to recall that the particu-
lar convergence of technologies called up
for the SS United States project was also a
catalyst for development of the manually
operated, gas shielded continuous elec-
tric arc wire welding machines that domi-
nate the world welding industry today.
The SS United States dominated its
realm for the remainder of the trans-
Atlantic ocean liner era until the air travel
industry displaced the line voyage market.
Unfortunately, this early foray into
GMAW of aluminum ship superstructures
was not continued after SS United States
was launched. It was fully ten years later,
in 1962, before another ocean liner, the
SS France, was built that incorporated an
aluminum superstructure (1600 tons).
Table 1 Comparison of Three Ships
Vessel Name LOA (ft) Knots Passengers Shipyard Commissioned/Flag Owner Hull/Superstructure
SS America 636 22.5 2440
(a)
Newport News USA 1940/USA United States Lines All Riveted Steel
SS United States 990 3238 1930 Newport News USA 1952/USA United States Lines Welded Steel/Welded Alum.
MV Costa Concordia 925 2123 4300 Fincantieri Sestri Ponente 2006/Italy Carnival Corp.
(b)
Welded Steel/Welded Alum.
(a) Passenger numbers for SS America included large numbers of third-class steerage berths.
(b) London and Miami; traded on New York and London stock exchanges.
Fig. 2 (Left) A 1952 Alcoa magazine
ad for the SS United States (from
Alcoa/AlcoTec photo archives).
Fig. 3 (Right) The 55-ft welded
aluminum funnel of the SS United
States in 1952 (from Alcoa/AlcoTec
photo archives).
Fig. 4 (Bottom) The Aircomatic #1,
1948, the first manual GMAW wire
feeder. It was designed specifically for
welding aluminum. (From ESAB NA
photo archives, compliments of
Bob Bitzky.)
This gap is understandable since new con-
cepts then needed to be developed in pe-
ripheral supporting industries and tech-
nologies:
Industrial gas companies needed to
retool and develop appropriate shield-
ing gases along with handling, distribu-
tion, and control methods to support the
changing welding industry. In fact, indus-
trial gas companies, with the most to gain,
assumed a lead in developing ever-better
welding equipment and some materials
to capture the GMAW business.
In conjunction with a newly recon-
stituted Aluminum Association, a new,
nationally agreed upon four-digit alu-
minum alloy numbering system was de-
veloped. This numbering system is now
used nearly worldwide (Russia being a no-
table exception).
New application-appropriate alu-
minum base materials needed to be de-
veloped along with companion alloys to
weld them. With a growing number of
base metal combinations, research
needed to be done for filler metals appro-
priate to many base metal combinations.
Aluminum welding wire showed
marked improvements in quality and con-
sistency in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
In 1965, four years after the SS France
was commissioned, the author crewed on
Coast Guard Cutter Westwind, while in
Bethelehem Steel Shipyard, Baltimore,
Md., as she was fitted with an all-welded
telescoping aluminum flight hangar for
helicopters Fig. 5. It was in 1967, 15
years after SS United States was placed in
service, before the U.S. Coast Guard
commissioned its first Hamilton class cut-
ter incorporating an all-welded alu-
minum superstructure.
Activity in Australia
After U.S. Coast Guard military serv-
ice and university studies, the author
moved in 1974 to Australia where he spent
the best part of 25 years in the welding in-
dustry. This article continues from that
geographical perspective.
The Blue Riband and the
Need for Speed
From Ambrose Light, N.Y., to Bishop
Rock, UK, was the measure for the ship
which shall, for the time being, have
crossed the Atlantic ocean at the highest
average speed. For 38 years, from 1952
until 1990, the Hales Trophy and the right
to fly the Blue Riband, belonged to the
SS United States. The concept was that the
aluminum superstructure reduced her
displacement and increased her resist-
ance-to-power ratio and, therefore, her
speed. In June 1990, her record was fi-
nally beaten by an aluminum catamaran
45 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 5 (Above) In 1965, the U.S.
Coast Guard Cutter Westwind was fitted
with a new aluminum helicopter hangar.
Fig. 6 (Left) Incat owner Robert Clif-
ford poses with the Hales Trophy in
1990.
Fig. 7 (Bottom) The Incat yard utilizes
a uniform technique for all its aluminum
welding operations.
ferry boat built in Hobart, Tasmania
Fig. 6. Since then, three vessels in succes-
sion, each built by Incat in Tasmania, have
taken this trophy. Average crossing speed
for the SS United States was 34.5 knots.
The current record average speed for the
latest Incat vessel is 41.3 knots.
A shipping accident in 1975 was Incats
genesis. Hobart, Tasmania, was cut in half
when a freighter took out a bridge pier
and section over the Durwent River.
Robert Clifford, whose initial responding
concept was better than his timing, began
work building a ferry to replace the miss-
ing river crossing. The ferry was not com-
pleted before the bridge was repaired.
This situation precipitated an alternative
concept: to build and sell catamaran ferry
boats to the world market. Hence, the
name International Catamaran, which
was subsequently shortened to Incat.
Some Incat Yard Concepts
Hiring carpenters and training them to
weld aluminum. It was reasoned that, at
least initially, in a relatively small city
located on a remote timber industry is-
land, it would be easier to find and train
carpenters, who could already measure,
mark, and cut, to weld aluminum than
to find and retrain steel welders. An up-
side of this decision is that it was easier
to effect a uniform welding technique
and methodology throughout the yard.
Holding welding operators to be ac-
countable as their own first-quality man-
agers. The cost to remove and repair a
weld is far greater than correctly weld-
ing the first time.
Use of a single filler metal for all yard
aluminum welding applications reduces
inventory and shelf life, and eliminates
risk of an incorrect filler metal being
applied.
Demand standard welding preparation,
including aggressive cleaning to bright
bare metal.
Training and enforcing a uniform weld-
ing technique Fig. 7.
Using only equipment that can deliver
such welding technique.
Avoiding large-dimension fillet welds
whenever possible. Instead milling cor-
ner radii adjacent to double-V butt joint
welds Fig. 8.
Using run-on and run-off tabs in criti-
cal applications Fig. 9.
Tapering the thicker element of dissim-
ilar thickness butt joints.
Develop and focus on a best-in-class de-
sign for the market and the real and in-
tended capabilities of the yard, then
build only that design vessel.
Build vessels on spec. The risks were
high, mostly related to finance and in-
ventory, but the potential gain was great.
Continuity of workforce and reduction
of skills and training costs.
Direct application of lessons learned for
continuous improvement.
Saving the one-time higher cost to build
the first vessel in a series.
Reduce time from order receipt to de-
livery and payment.
Reduce lost orders due to lead time.
Justification to build single-vessel
design-specific equipment and even
buildings.
Building a wide (Panamax beam) 1000-
ft-long assembly building (Fig. 10)
through which standard-width vessels
can progress as they are being assem-
bled (stern first to sea) with shop floor
troughs for each hull that is flooded for
float-out launches Fig. 11.
Incat is currently building an LNG-pow-
ered vessel for service between Argentina
and Brazil Fig. 12. In this market, LNG
fuel is competitive with diesel, but the risks
are much lower for a spill in a situation such
as Costa Concordia finds itself.
The World Aluminum
Shipbuilding Market
Costa Concordia is a cruise ship owned
and operated by Costa Cruises, Italy,
which is in turn owned by Carnival Corp.,
which operates some 80 cruise ships
owned by the following companies:
Carnival Cruise Lines
MARCH 2012 46
Fig. 8 (Below top) Incat mills
corner radii to avoid large-sized
fillet welds.
Fig. 9 (Right) An example of
tapering the thicker element of
dissimilar thickness butt joints and
use of a run-on tab.
Fig. 10 (Below bottom) A
Panamax-width ships transom
under construction.
Holland America Line
Princess Cruises (owner of Sapphire
Princess Fig. 13)
Seabourn
Aida Cruises
Costa Cruises
Ibero Cruises
P&O Cruises (UK)
P&O Cruises (Australia).
The business concept of the Miami-
and London-based owner is to build and
operate cruise ships with aluminum su-
perstructures capable of carrying large
numbers of passengers on a holiday expe-
rience not very far and not very fast. These
ships are not made in the United States
nor even registered in the U.S.A., but the
concept that drives the business is to serve
a relatively affluent first-world market
such as the United States and Europe.
They are not made in U.S.A. but made
in the world.
The world cruise industry is an exam-
ple to us that if the United States is to be
prominent in the world market, it must
produce made in the U.S.A. products
such as the great welded aluminum ves-
sels being built at Austal, in Mobile, Ala.
(see lead photo). We need also to apply
our best efforts to ensure that a signifi-
cant amount of the world market in ship-
building and welding technology contin-
ues to be conceived in the U.S.A.
47 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 11 (Left) The companys 1000-ft-long
assembly building showing two vessels
under construction.
Fig. 12 (Right) The LNG-powered vessel Incat
under construction. The vessel will be in service
between Argentina and Brazil.
Fig. 13 The Sapphire Princess
is a sister ship to the MV Costa
Concordia, which recently ran
aground and capsized off the
coast of Italy.
MARCH 2012 48
O
ne of the best ways for home shop enthusiasts and do-it-
yourselfers to hone their skills is to build projects that
are of interest to them. Some build tools and equipment
for their shop, while others build gadgets and accessories for
recreational vehicles. This article focuses on a project you can
do for fun in your home shop build your own campfire grill.
Most of the tripod-style campfire grills you find on the mar-
ket today are cumbersome and unstable. This grill plan easily dis-
assembles to allow for efficient use of space when traveling, and
the grill grate is adjustable to just the right height for the heat
level you need. Easy-to-build accessory holders and handles com-
plete the package.
To build your own grill, use the following directions. In addi-
tion, to serve as a visual aide, the drawing plans can be down-
loaded at Millerwelds.com/interests/projects/campfire-grill-stand/.
Materials Needed
Here is a list of the materials you will need to build your camp-
fire grill. Much of this can be found at your local steel supply
store.
(3) 3-ft-long, 1
3
4-in. square tubes
(1) 3
3
4-ft-long, 1
3
4-in. square tube
(4) 8-in.-long, 1
3
4-in. square tubes
(1) 1-ft-long, 1
3
4-in. square tube
(4) 6-in.-long, 1
1
2-in. square tubes
(1) 8-in.-long, 1
1
2-in. square tube
(2) 19
1
4-in.-long,
1
8- 1- 1-in. angle irons
(2) 21
1
4-in.-long,
1
8- 1- 1-in. angle irons
(2) 10-in.-long,
1
4- 1-in. flat irons
(2) 8-in.-long, -in. rods
(3) 3-in.-long,
1
8-in. rods
(6)
5
16- 1-in. bolts
(6) matching nuts
(4) matching washers
(2) 10
1
2- 19-in. replacement gas grill grates
(2) 6-in.-long, 1
1
2-in. wood dowels
Tools Required
For this project, gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is recom-
mended. You will need a GMAW machine in the 140-A range
a light-duty unit you will find in many home shops. It is also rec-
ommended that you follow all proper safety measures by wear-
ing an autodarkening or other type of helmet, a welding jacket,
and welding gloves. Make sure to wear safety glasses at all times
as well.
Additional tools you will need are as follows:
C-clamps
Horizontal band saw (or cutoff wheel in your grinding tool
or hand-held band saw)
4
1
2-in. grinding tool
Drill or drill press

5
16 drill bits
-in. wrench
Hammer
Ruler.
By following 11 easy-to-
understand steps, you can
soon be barbecuing with a
unique, homemade grill
is a manufacturing/maintenance
technician with Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
(www.millerwelds.com), Appleton, Wis.
Build Your Own
Campfire Grill
BY BOB PELKY
49 WELDING JOURNAL
Building the Base
Step 1: On one piece of 36-in., 1-in. tubing, drill two
5
16-in.
holes starting 1 in. from each end, spaced 1 in. apart, and weld
in
5
16-in. nuts. On the same side as the holes, weld 1
1
2-in. square
tubing to the center of the tube.
Step 2: Weld the remaining two pieces of the 1-in. square
tubing to the ends of the two pieces of 1
3
4-in. square tubing.
Step 3: Piece together completed sides to finish the base.
Building the Upright Frame
Step 4: Drill two
5
16-in. holes in one end of the 1
3
4- 45-in. tub-
ing. Weld the
5
16-in. nuts into holes. Clamp the 45-in. piece to the
bench to prevent warping when welding. Measuring 12 in. up
from the bottom, weld each 8- 1-in. square tube to the base,
spaced 4 in. apart.
Step 5: Assemble to the base and firmly snug all bolts.
Building the Grill Grate Frame
Step 6: Saw the corners of the angles to 45 deg.
Step 7: Weld the square frame together. Weld 1-in. square
to the center of the 21-in. side.
Step 8: Weld the - 1-in. flat onto the angle along the sides
of the 1
1
2-in. square for strength.
Step 9: Weld on two
5
16-in. washers to each side 3 in. apart
to attach the handles.
Building the Accessory Holder
Step 10: Drill two
5
16-in. holes in the 1-in. square tubing 2
in. apart for the handles. Weld 1-in. square to the opposite ends
of the holes. Bend three pieces of
1
8-in. square rod to form hooks
and weld to the side for cooking utensils.
Building the Grill Grate Handles
Step 11: Drill a -in. hole in the center of each dowel end.
Pound the rods into place to create handles.
At this stage, you have built the entire structure. You can now
brush all exposed welds smooth and paint as desired. The grill
grates can be found at most hardware or home warehouse-style
stores.
You are now ready to take the grill with you on your next
camping trip, or simply set it up in your backyard for your next
barbecue.
Construction Steps
STEP 1 STEP 2
STEP 3 STEP 4
continued on next page
MARCH 2012 50
STEP 5 STEP 6
STEP 7 STEP 8
STEP 9 STEP 10
STEP 11 STEP 11
Flux cored electrodes used for flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
can be either gas shielded or self-shielded (no external shielding
required). These tubular electrodes typically contain a fill mix-
ture having nonmetallic components comprising 5 to 15% of the
total electrode weight. Carbon steel flux cored electrodes for
FCAW are currently classified under AWS A5.20/A5.20M, Spec-
ification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding.
Low-alloy steel flux cored electrodes are classified under AWS
A5.29/A5.29M, Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes for
Flux Cored Arc Welding.
Metal cored electrodes used for gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) are always gas shielded. Like flux cored electrodes,
metal cored electrodes are composite tubular electrodes with a
fill mixture containing both metallic and nonmetallic compo-
nents. However, the fill mixture in metal cored electrodes con-
tains a relatively small amount of nonmetallic components, usu-
ally less than 2% of the total electrode weight. Carbon steel metal
cored electrodes are currently classified under AWS
A5.18/A5.18M, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes and Rods
for Gas Shielded Arc Welding. Low-alloy metal cored electrodes
are classified under AWS A5.28/A5.28M, Specification for Low-
Alloy Steel Electrodes and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding.
It is important to note that these four specifications utilize
classification systems developed years ago. These are fixed clas-
sification systems with defined requirements for weld metal ten-
sile strength, Charpy V-notch toughness, condition of heat treat-
ment, etc. While still useful for the majority of applications, they
do not adequately provide for the classification of electrodes de-
signed for enhanced weld metal properties, for use with other
commonly used shielding gases, for alternate conditions of heat
treatment, or for use with advanced power sources.
New AWS A5.36/A5.36M Specification
To address the issues noted above, the AWS A5 Committee on
Filler Metals and Allied Materials has authorized the issuance of a
new specification. This new document, developed by the AWS A5M
Subcommittee, will be issued as AWS A5.36/A5.36M, Specification
for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Flux Cored Electrodes for Flux Cored
Arc Welding and Metal Cored Electrodes for Gas Metal Arc Welding.
Listed below are the major features of this document:
Provides for the classification of both the carbon steel flux
cored electrodes and low-alloy steel flux cored electrodes pre-
viously classified under AWS A5.20/A5.20M and AWS
A5.29/A5.29M, respectively
Transfers to this document for classification the carbon steel
metal cored electrodes and low-alloy steel metal cored elec-
trodes previously classified under AWS A5.18/A5.18M and
AWS A5.28/A5.28M, respectively
51 WELDING JOURNAL
A new document introduces an open classification system to address
new electrode types and alternate weld deposit requirements
DENNIS CROCKETT (denniscrockett@att.net) is chair, AWS A5M Subcommittee on Carbon and LowAlloy Steel Electrodes for Flux
Cored Arc Welding and Metal Cored Electrodes for Gas Metal Arc Welding.
New AWS Spec Details Flux Cored and
Metal Cored Electrodes
BY DENNIS CROCKETT
Retains the fixed classification system
for those carbon steel flux cored and
metal cored electrodes for which there
is wide acceptance with their existing
classification requirements
Introduces an open classification sys-
tem to address new electrode types and
alternate weld deposit requirements.
This classification system is similar to
the system already used in AWS speci-
fications for the classification of sub-
merged arc flux and electrode combi-
nations. The flux cored and metal cored
electrodes covered by the A5.36 speci-
fication utilize a classification system(s)
based upon U.S. Customary Units.
Electrodes covered by the A5.36M
specification utilize a system(s) based
upon the International System of Units
(SI). For the purpose of discussion, spe-
cific examples are given only in U.S.
Customary Units.
Fixed Classification System
The fixed classification system has
been carried over or grandfathered into
this specification from AWS A5.20/
A5.20M (carbon steel flux cored elec-
trodes) or from AWS A5.18/A5.18M (car-
bon steel metal cored electrodes) for the
classification of those electrodes which,
with the specific mechanical properties
specified for them in A5.20/A5.20M or
A5.18/A5.18M, have gained wide accept-
ance for single-pass and multiple-pass ap-
plications. These electrodes represent the
majority of the market. The classifications
of these electrodes for which the fixed
classification system has been retained are
given in Table 1.
Open Classification System
The flux cored and metal cored elec-
trodes classified utilizing the open clas-
sification system are classified based upon
the following:
1. The mechanical properties of the
weld metal. (The A5.36 document offers
the choice of eight different strength lev-
els and eleven options for Charpy V-notch
impact strength.)
2. The positions of welding for which
the electrode is suitable.
3. Certain usability characteristics of
the electrode, including the presence or
absence of a shielding gas. (Three new
electrode types, based upon usability, are
introduced in A5.36.)
4. The nominal composition of the
shielding gas, if any. (The list of classifi-
cation shielding gases, as defined in AWS
A5.32/A5.32M, has been expanded in
A5.36.)
The condition of postweld heat treat-
ment (PWHT), if any.
5. Chemical composition of the weld
metal.
The classification designation system
for flux cored and metal cored carbon and
low-alloy steel electrodes under AWS
A5.36/A5.36M follows.
EX
1
X
2
TX
3
X
4
X
5
X
6
X
7
where,
E designates an electrode
X
1
is the tensile strength designator
(refer to Table 2 in AWS A5.36/
A5.36M)
X
2
is the position designator (0 for
flat and horizontal, 1 for all position)
TX
3
is the electrode usability designa-
tor (refer to Table 4 in AWS A5.36/
A5.36M)
X
4
is the shielding gas designator (refer
to Table 5 in AWS A5.36/A5.36M)
X
5
designates the condition of heat
treatment (A for as welded, P for
postweld heat treated)
X
6
is the impact designator (refer to
Table 3 in AWS A5.36/A5.36M)
X
7
is the deposit composition designa-
tor(refer to Table 6 in AWS A5.36/
A5.36M)
The provision is made in the A5.36/
A5./36M specification for three different,
optional supplemental designators that
can be added to the end of the classifica-
tion designation. It is important to note
that these do not constitute part of the
classification designation but are optional
designators that can be added to indicate
conformance to supplemental require-
ments. These optional designators are the
diffusible hydrogen designator (HX) and
the D or Q designators. The D and Q des-
ignators are used to indicate that the weld
metal will meet supplemental mechanical
property requirements when deposited
under special welding procedures as spec-
ified for seismic applications (D designa-
tor) or for military applications (Q desig-
nator).
The following are examples utilizing
the open classification system in AWS
A5.36.
E71T1-C1A2-CS1-H4. The complete
classification designation for this elec-
trode is E71T1-C1A2-CS1. It refers to an
all-position, flux cored electrode that,
when used with C1 (CO
2
) shielding gas
and welded under the conditions pre-
scribed in this specification, will produce
weld metal in the as-welded condition hav-
ing a tensile strength of 7095 ksi and
Charpy V-notch impact strength of at least
20 ft-lbf at 20F. The weld deposit will
meet the CS1 carbon steel composition
requirements. The H4 is not part of the
electrode classification designation but is
an optional, supplemental designator in-
dicating the weld metal will have a maxi-
mum average diffusible hydrogen of 4
mL/100 g of deposited weld metal when
tested under the conditions of the AWS
A5.36 specification.
E80T5-M21P6-Ni2. This is a com-
plete classification designation for a flat
and horizontal flux cored electrode that,
when used with M21 shielding gas (see
Table 5 of AWS A5.36) under the condi-
tions prescribed in the AWS A5.36 speci-
fication, will produce weld metal in the
postweld heat-treated condition having a
MARCH 2012 52
Table 1 Electrode Classicatons Utlizing the Fixed Classicaton System
Classicaton Shielding Gas Electrode Type
(Previously Classied Under)
E7XT1C
(a)
CO
2
E7XT1M 7585 Ar/bal CO
2
E7XT5C CO
2
2
E7XT6 None (self shielded) Flux Cored
E7XT8 None (self shielded) (AWS A5.20)
E7XT9C CO
2
2
E7XT12C CO
2
2
E70T4 None (self shielded)
E7XT7 None (self shielded)
E70C6M 7585 Ar/bal CO
2
Metal Cored
(AWS A5.18)
(a) The X indicates the positon of welding capability. A 0 is used to indicate at and horizontal
only. A 1 is used to indicate allpositon capability.
tensile strength of 80100 ksi and Charpy
V-notch impact strength of at least 20 ft-
lbf at 60F. The weld deposit composi-
tion conforms to the Ni2 composition re-
quirements (see Table 6 of AWS A5.36).
E71T8-A4-Ni1. This is a complete clas-
sification designation for a self-shielded (no
shielding gas designator appears), all-posi-
tion flux cored electrode. It refers to an elec-
trode that will produce weld metal that,
when tested under the conditions pre-
scribed in the AWS A5.36 specification, will
have a tensile strength of 7095 ksi and
Charpy V-notch impact strength of at least
20 ft-lbf at 40F in the as-welded condi-
tion. The weld deposit composition con-
forms to the Ni1 composition requirements
for self-shielded electrodes.
E90T15-M22A2-D2. This is a com-
plete classification designation for a flat and
horizontal metal cored electrode. It refers
to a metal cored electrode that, when used
with M22 shielding gas (see Table 5 of AWS
A5.36) under the conditions prescribed in
this specification, will produce weld metal
in the as-welded condition with a tensile
strength of 90110 ksi and Charpy V-notch
impact strength of at least 20 ft-lbf at 20F.
The weld deposit composition conforms to
the D2 composition requirements (see
Table 6 of AWS A5.36).
E80T15S-M20. This is a complete
classification designation for a single-pass
(only) metal cored electrode. Under the
welding and testing conditions prescribed
in the AWS A5.36 specification, this metal
cored electrode, when used with M20
shielding gas (see Table 5 of AWS A5.36)
will produce weld metal having a mini-
mum tensile strength of 80 ksi.
Dual Classification
Considerations
Electrodes classified under one classi-
fication shall not be classified under any
other classification in this specification
with the exception of the following:
1. The electrodes classified utilizing the
fixed classification system under A5.36 (as
shown in Table 1) may also be classified
utilizing the open classification system.
2. Electrodes may be classified using
different shielding gases.
3. Electrodes may be classified both in
the as-welded and in the postweld heat
treated (PWHT) conditions.
4. Electrodes may be classified under
A5.36 using U.S. Customary Units, or
under A5.36M using the International
System of Units (SI), or both. Standard
dimensions based on either system may
be used for sizing of electrodes or pack-
aging, or both, under the A5.36 and
A5.36M specifications. Electrodes classi-
fied under either A5.36 or A5.36M must
meet all requirements for classification
under that unit system.
It is recognized that the documenta-
tion required by manufacturers, end users,
and code bodies to transition from the
classification of flux cored and metal
cored electrodes from their previous clas-
sifications under AWS A5.20/A5.20M,
AWS A5.29/A5.29M, AWS A5.18/
A5.18M, or AWS A5.28/A2.28M, as ap-
plicable, to their new classification desig-
nations under AWS A5.36/A5.36M re-
quires a provision for a transition period.
Therefore, flux cored electrodes may be
classified under AWS A5.20/A5.20M (or
AWS A5.29/A5.29M, as applicable),
under AWS A5.36/A5.36M, or under
both. Metal cored electrodes may be clas-
sified under AWS A5.18/A5.18M (or AWS
A5.28/A5.28M, as applicable), under
AWS A5.36/A5.36M, or under both. Man-
ufacturers, at their option, may list both
electrode classifications on the labels and
packaging. The provision for dual classi-
fication provided in the specification
expires at the end of year 2015. At that
time classification to AWS A5.36/A5.36M
is required.
53 WELDING JOURNAL
Celebrate the exciting world of welding.
Attend your local AWS section meeting to watch our national
presentation, learn more about careers in welding, meet individuals
in your community who work in welding, and MORE!
Visit:
www.aws.org/w/a/sections/dist_list.html
to find the AWS section closest to you.
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Covers requirements for welding stainless steel structural
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A3.0M/A3.0:2010, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions $164
Individual catalog prices would be $844/$633SAVE $127/$95 $844
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D1.4/D1.4M:2011, Structural Welding CodeReinforcing Steel $116
D1.5M/D1.5:2010, Bridge Welding Code $348
D1.6/D1.6M:2007, Structural Welding CodeStainless Steel $240
Individual catalog prices would be $1,548/$1,161SAVE $232/$174 $1,548
80h0L 8:2012 $1,316l$987
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D1.5M/D1.5:2010, Bridge Welding Code $348
80h0L 0:2011 $428l$321
8undIe 0.2012 {8eismic 8undIe)
D1.8/D1.8M:2009, Structural Welding CodeSeismic Supplement $132
80h0L 0:2012 $558l$418
8undIe .2011 {eavy Machinery 8undIe)
D14.3/D14.3M:2010, Specification for Welding Earthmoving, Construction and
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B2.1/B2.1M:2009, Specification for Welding Procedure and Performance Qualification $240
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D1.6 $240/$180
01.7I01.7M.2010, 6uide fer
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D1.7 $108/$81
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A supplement to D1.1, applicable to welded joints in seis-
mic load resisting systems designed in accordance with
the Seismic Provisions of AISC. Covers additional controls
on detailing, materials, workmanship, testing, and inspec-
tion necessary to achieve adequate performance of welded
steel structures under conditions of severe earthquake-
induced inelastic straining. Commentary offers guidance
on interpreting and applying this supplement. 124 pages,
9 annexes, commentary, 22 figures, 8 tables, (2009).
D1.8 $132/$99
inth ditien, eIume 1, weIding 8cience
and echneIegy
Presents the latest developments in the basic science and
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continues with chapters on the physics of welding and
cutting; heat flow; welding metallurgy; design; test methods;
residual stress; welding symbols; tooling and positioning;
monitoring and control; mechanized, automated, and
robotic techniques; economics; weld quality; inspection;
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and safe practices. 932 pages, 17 chapters, 2 appendices,
530 illustrations, 168 tables, hardbound. 8" x 10",
(2001).
WHB-1.9 $192/$144
inth ditien, eIume 2, weIding
Frecesses, Fart 1
Presents comprehensive information on welding and related
processes. Contains detailed information on arc welding
power sources; shielded metal arc, gas tungsten arc, gas
metal arc, flux cored arc, submerged arc, and plasma arc
welding processes. Includes chapters on electroslag welding,
stud welding, oxyfuel gas welding, brazing, soldering,
oxygen cutting, and arc cutting and gouging. 736 pages,
15 chapters, 260 line drawings, 100 photographs, 148
tables, hardbound. 8" x 10", (2004).
WHB-2.9 $192/$144
inth ditien, eIume 3, weIding
Frecesses, Fart 2
Over 600 pages of comprehensive information on solid-
state and other welding and cutting processes. The book
includes chapters on resistance spot and seam welding,
projection welding, flash and upset welding and high-
frequency welding. In addition to a chapter on friction
welding, a new chapter introduces friction stir welding.
The most recent developments in beam technology are
discussed in the greatly expanded chapters on laser beam
welding and cutting and electron beam welding. A
diverse array of processes are presented in chapters on the
ultrasonic welding of metals, explosion welding,
diffusion welding and diffusion brazing, adhesive
bonding and thermal and cold spraying. The last chapter
covers various other welding and cutting processes,
including modernized water jet cutting. 669 pages, 15
chapters, 3 appendices, 438 illustrations, 59 tables;
hardbound. 8" x 10", (2007)
WHB-3.9 $192/$144
inth ditien, eIume 4, MateriaIs and
AppIicatiens, Fart 1
Extensively revised and updated from the eighth edition,
this comprehensive volume had more than 50 experts in
materials and materials applications assure its accuracy
and the currency of its content. It is a great reference
source for engineers, educators, welding supervisors, and
welders. Covers carbon and low-alloy steels; high-alloy
steels; coated steels; tool and die steels; stainless and
heat-resisting steels; clad and dissimilar metals; surfac-
ing; cast irons; maintenance and repair welding; and
underwater welding and cutting. Includes more than
500 tables, charts, and photos. 10 chapters, hard-
bound, 8" x 10", (2010).
WHB-4.9 $192/$144
ighth ditien, eIume 3, MateriaIs and
AppIicatiens - Fart 1
Covers nonferrous metals, plastics, composites, and ceramics;
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water welding and cutting. Includes applications of the
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Featured Pubs
w 0II0. A2.4:2012, Standard Symbols
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Examination
Establishes a method of specifying certain welding, braz-
ing, and nondestructive examination information by
means of symbols. Contains detailed information and
examples for the construction and interpretation of these
symbols. This system provides a means of specifying
welding or brazing operations and nondestructive exam-
ination, as well as the examination method, frequency,
and extent. 150 pages, (2012).
A2.4 $156/$117
A3.0M/A3.0:2010, Standard Welding Terms
and Definitions
Alphabetical glossary of over 1,400 standard terms and
definitions for welding, brazing, soldering, resistance
welding, etc., as well as hybrid processes. Each term has
one clearly applicable definition, accurately reflecting
the terms use in the joining world. Includes figures to
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dard terms are also included. Contains a Master Chart of
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Chart. 160 pages, 62 figures, 5 tables (2010).
A3.0 $164/$123
B1.10M/B1.10:2009, Guide for the
Nondestructive Examination of Welds
Addresses which examination method visual, liquid
penetrant, magnetic particle, radiographic, ultrasonic,
electromagnetic (eddy current), or leak testing best
detects various types of discontinuities. Note: Does not
address acceptance criteria. 64 pages, 30 figures, 4
tables, (2009), fourth edition.
B1.10 $104/$78
B1.11:2000, Guide for the Visual
Examination of Welds
Provides guidance on visual examination of welds,
including sections on prerequisites, fundamentals, sur-
face conditions, and equipment. Sketches and color pho-
tographs illustrate common weld discontinuities. 48
pages, 3 annexes, 48 figures, (2000).
B1.11 $104/$78
B2.1/B2.1M:2009, Specification for
Welding Procedure and Performance
Qualification
Covers all fusion welding processes and an exhaustive
array of materials used in metal fabrication. Specifies
requirements for the qualification of welding procedures,
and for performance qualification of welders and weld-
ing operators for manual, semiautomatic, mechanized,
and automatic welding. 298 pages, 43 figures, 25
tables, 5 forms (2009).
B2.1 $240/$180
B4.0:2007, Standard Methods for
Mechanical Testing of Welds
Describes the most common mechanical test methods
applicable to welds and welded joints. Each test method
gives details concerning specimen preparation, test
parameters, testing procedures, and suggested report
forms. Acceptance criteria are not included. Three new
weldability tests (WIC, trough, and GBOP) and resistance
weld tests have been included in this new edition. (Note:
Joint tests for brazements are covered in AWS
C3.2M/C3.2.) U.S. Customary Units. 152 pages, 97
figures, (2007).
B4.0 $104/$78
w 0II0. C1.1M/C1.1:2012,
Recommended Practices for Resistance
Welding
Covers spot, seam, projection, flash, and upset welding,
as well as weld bonding for uncoated and coated carbon
and low-alloy steels, aluminum alloys, stainless steels,
nickel, nickel-base alloys, cobalt-base alloys, copper and
alloys, and titanium and alloys. Details equipment and
setup, welding variables, joint preparation, cleaning,
welding schedules and parameters, weld quality testing,
safety, and health. Approx. 116 pages, (2012).
C1.1 CALL FOR PRICE
07.2M.2010, 8ecemmended Fractices fer
Laser 8eam weIding, 0utting, and AIIied
Frecesses
Covers common applications of the process, including
drilling and transformation hardening. Describes
equipment and procedures. Practical information,
including figures and tables, should prove useful in
determining capabilities in the processing of various
materials. 142 pages, 85 figures, 8 tables, (2010).
C7.2 $100/$75
01.2I01.2M.2008,
8tructuraI weIding 0edeAIuminum
Covers welding requirements for any type of structure
made from aluminum structural alloys, except
aluminum pressure vessels and fluid-carrying pipelines.
Includes sections on design of welded connections,
procedure and performance qualification, fabrication,
inspection, stud welding, and strengthening and repair
of existing structures. A commentary offers guidance on
interpreting and applying the code. 226 pages, 59
figures, 24 tables, (2008).
D1.2 $200/$150
D9.1M/D9.1:2006,
Sheet Metal Welding Code
Covers arc and braze welding requirements for nonstruc-
tural sheet metal fabrications using commonly welded
metals available in sheet form up to and including 3
gauge, or 6.4 mm (0.250 in.). Applications of the code
include heating, ventilating, and air conditioning sys-
tems, food processing equipment, architectural sheet
metal, and other nonstructural sheet metal applications.
Sections include procedure and performance qualifica-
tion, workmanship, and inspection. Nonmandatory
annexes provide useful information on materials and
processes. Not applicable when negative or positive pres-
sure exceeds 30 kPa (5 psi). 70 pages, 29 figures, 10
tables, (2006).
D9.1 $72/$54
D14.1/D14.1M:2005, Specification for
Welding of Industrial and Mill Cranes and
Other Material Handling Equipment
Specifies requirements for welding of all principal struc-
tural weldments and all primary welds used to manufac-
ture cranes for industrial, mill, powerhouse, and nuclear
facilities. Also applies to other overhead material-han-
dling machinery and equipment that support and trans-
port loads within the design rating, vertically or
horizontally, during normal operations. Additionally,
when agreed upon between the owner and manufacturer,
it may apply to loading caused by abnormal operations
or environmental events, such as seismic loading. All
provisions apply equally to strengthening and repairing
of existing overhead cranes and material handling
equipment. Contains figures and tables with prequalified
joint details, allowable stress ranges, stress categories,
and nondestructive examination techniques. Does not
apply to construction or crawler cranes or welding of
rails. 150 pages, 60 figures, 21 tables (2005).
D14.1 $104/$78
D17.1:2010, Specification for Fusion
Welding for Aerospace Applications
Specifies general welding requirements for welding air-
craft and space hardware. Includes fusion welding of
aluminum-based, nickel-based, iron-based, cobalt-
based, magnesium-based, and titanium-based alloys
using arc and high energy beam welding processes.
Includes sections on design of welded connections, per-
sonnel and procedure qualification, fabrication, inspec-
tion, repair of existing structures and nonflight hardware
acceptance. Additional requirements cover repair welding
of existing hardware. 98 pages, 7 annexes, commen-
tary, 33 figures, 18 tables, (2011).
D17.1 $160/$120
WI:2000, Welding Inspection Handbook
This invaluable training reference helps inspectors, engi-
neers, and welders evaluate the difference between dis-
continuities and rejectable defects. 254 pages 18
chapters, index, 108 figures, 16 tables, 61/2" x 9",
(2000), third edition.
WI $76/$57
WIT-T:2008, Welding Inspection Technology
For at-home study, this official reference textbook for the
three-day AWS core seminar for CWI exam preparation is
readable, informative, and comprehensive. 329 pages,
10 chapters, 379 figures and photographs, (2008).
WIT-T $272/$204
Brazing Handbook
A comprehensive, organized survey of the basics of braz-
ing, processes, and applications. Addresses the funda-
mentals of brazing, brazement design, brazing filler
metals and fluxes, safety and health, and many other
topics. Includes new chapters on induction brazing and
diamond brazing. A must-have for all brazers, brazing
engineers, and students. 740 pages, 36 chapters, 3
appendices, 308 figures, 116 reference tables, fifth
edition, (2007).
BRH $136/$102
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CONFERENCES
Automated Welding Conference
March 6, 7
Orlando, Fla.
Talks will be given on a variety of topics, including tandem arc
welding, hybrid welding, several hot wire processes, and the new
SAT process from Sweden, as well as presentations on the latest
in networking, laser beam welding, welding of aluminum, robotic
inspection, and friction stir welding. Speakers will also discuss
U.S. Army challenges, such as GMAW of titanium and the weld-
ing of ballistic steels.
FABTECH Canada
March 2022
Toronto, Canada
With the growing success of FABTECH, North Americas
largest metal forming, fabricating, welding, and finishing event,
comes the launch of FABTECH Canada, located in the heart of
Canadas engineering and technology region. This is the only ex-
clusive fabricating, welding, and metal forming event in Canada.
International Electron Beam
Welding Conference
March 2630
Aachen, Germany
The second International Electron Beam Welding Confer-
ence (IEBW) will bring together scientists, engineers, and tech-
nical personnel from around the globe involved in the research,
development, and application of electron beam welding
processes. IEBW is organized by the American Welding Soci-
ety, German Welding Society, and International Institute of
Welding.
5th International Brazing &
Soldering Conference
April 2225
Las Vegas, Nev.
Join hundreds of other professionals, scientists, and engineers
from around the globe involved in the research, development,
and application of brazing and soldering. The four-day confer-
ence will provide one of the most comprehensive technical pro-
grams available to the brazing and soldering community, as well
as valuable networking, preconference educational programs,
and exhibits where attendees can find out more about the latest
trends, products, processes, and techniques available in the braz-
ing and soldering industry.
The Energy Boom:
Get on the Bandwagon
June 12, 13
San Diego, Calif.
The demands for new and improved welding technology from
the expanding energy markets are starting to pay off in the de-
velopment of superior hybrid welding processes, new filler met-
als, and a host of cladding procedures. These technologies are
showing up in nuclear power plants, in coal-fired utilities, and
especially in new 1700-mile-long pipelines designed to bring oil
and natural gas to American markets. On the agenda are talks
on Lincoln Electrics new laser hot wire cladding process and the
ICE process from ESAB in Sweden that is intended for wind-
power fabrication. Other topics will include the successes of the
new P87 filler metal, the variety of applications for explosion
welding, and, from Edison Welding Institute, a close look at the
less-expensive plasma/GMA hybrid welding process.
15th Annual Aluminum
Welding Conference
September 18, 19
Seattle, Wash.
A panel of distinguished aluminum industry experts will
survey the state of the art in aluminum welding technology and
practice.
The 15th Aluminum Welding Conference will also provide
several opportunities to network informally with speakers and
other participants, as well as an exhibition showcasing products
and services of interest to the aluminum welding industry.
Aluminum lends itself to a wide variety of industrial applica-
tions because of its light weight, high strength-to-weight ratio,
corrosion resistance, and other attributes. However, because its
chemical and physical properties are different from those of steel,
welding of aluminum requires special processes, techniques, and
expertise.
FABTECH 2012
November 1214
Las Vegas, Nev.
North Americas largest metal forming, fabricating, welding,
and finishing event heads to the Las Vegas Convention Center.
If your job requires you to look for new ways to work smarter,
operate leaner, and boost productivity, then you and your team
need to attend FABTECH. Make plans now to attend your in-
dustrys main event and youll find the products, resources, and
ideas to strengthen your business and achieve your manufactur-
ing goals.
For more information, please contact the AWS Conferences and Seminars Business Unit at (800) 443-9353, ext. 264, or e-mail
zoliva@aws.org. You can also visit the Conference Department Web site at www.aws.org/conferences for upcoming conferences and
registration information.
MARCH 2012 60
COMING
EVENTS
Automated Welding Conf. March 6, 7. Orlando, Fla. Topics in-
clude laser, tandem arc, and hybrid welding; several hot wire
processes; the new SAT process; networking; welding aluminum;
robotic inspection; and friction stir welding. Sponsored by the
American Welding Society. www.aws.org/conferences.
FABTECH Canada 2012. March 2022. Toronto Congress Cen-
tre, Toronto, Ont., Canada. Sponsored by the American Welding
Society, Society of Manufacturing Engineers, and Fabricators &
Manufacturers Association, Intl. A one-stop venue for welding,
lasers, fabricating, metalforming, and other technologies tailored
to the needs of Canadian manufacturing industries. Visit
www.fabtechcanada.com; show updates will be posted on Twitter
and LinkedIn.
2nd Intl Electron Beam Welding Conf. March 2630. Aachen,
Germany. Cosponsored by AWS, the German Welding Society,
and Intl Institute of Welding. www.aws.org/conferences.
Tube 2012, Intl Tube and Pipe Trade Fair. March 2630. The Fair-
grounds, Dsseldorf, Germany. To exhibit in the North American
Pavilion, contact Messe Dsseldorf North America, (312) 781-
5180; FAX (312) 781-5188; www.mdna.com.
WESTEC 2012. March 2729, Los Angeles Convention Center,
Los Angeles, Calif. Sponsored by the Society of Manufacturing
Engineers. www.westeconline.com.
Japan Intl Welding Show 2012. April 1114. Intex Osaka, Osaka,
Japan. Sponsored by The Japan Welding Engineering Society and
Sanpo Publications, Inc. Visit www.weldingshow.jp/english/.
NASCC, North American Steel Construction Conf. April 1820.
Gaylord Texan Convention Center, Dallas, Tex.
www.aisc.org/nascc.
5th Intl Brazing and Soldering Conf. April 2225. Red Rock
Casino Resort Spa, Las Vegas, Nev. A joint activity of the Amer-
ican Welding Society and ASM International, it will bring to-
gether scientists and engineers from around the world who are in-
volved in the research, development, and application of brazing
and soldering. www.asminternational.org/IBSC.
GAWDA Spring Management Conf. April 28May 1. Baltimore
Marriott Waterfront, Baltimore, Md. Gases and Welding Distrib-
utors Assn. www.gawda.org/spring-management-conferences-2012.
Offshore Technology Conf. April 30May 3. Reliant Park, Hous-
ton, Tex. www.otc.org/2012.
AWS Weldmex. May 24. Mexico City, Mexico. Sponsored by the
American Welding Society, the event will focus on welding and
cutting products, including thermal spray, metal finishing, and
safety equipment. The show co-locates with Metalform Mexico
and FABTECH Mexico. www.weldmex.com.
Manufacturing 4 the Future. May 810, Connecticut Convention
Center, Hartford, Conn. Sponsored by the Society of Manufac-
turing Engineers. www.mfg4event.com.
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
MARCH 2012 62
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63 WELDING JOURNAL
9th Intl Laser Technology Congress AKL 12. May 911. Aachen,
Germany. www.lasercongress.org/en/index.html.
Montreal Manufacturing Technology Show. May 1416, Place
Bonaventure, Montreal, QC, Canada. Sponsored by the Society
of Manufacturing Engineers. www.mmts.ca.
Intl Tube and Pipe Trade Fair and Aluminum/Non-Ferrous Trade
Fair. May 2831. ZAO Expocenter, Moscow, Russia. Organized
by Messe Dsseldorf Moscow and Metal-Expo. Contact Messe
Dsseldorf North America, (312) 781-5180, www.mdna.com.
SME Annual Conf. June 35, Cleveland Marriott Downtown
Hotel, Cleveland, Ohio. Sponsored by the Society of Manufac-
turing Engineers. www.sme.org/conference.
17th Beijing-Essen Welding and Cutting Fair. June 47. New
China Intl Exhibition Centre, Beijing, China. www.cmes.org/
essen/en/index.htm.
North American Manufacturing Research Conf. (NAMRC). June
48, University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Ind. Sponsored by
the Society of Manufacturing Engineers. www.sme.org/namrc.
Global Petroleum Show. June 1214. Stampede Park, Calgary,
Alb., Canada. http://globalpetroleumshow.com.
The Energy Boom: Get on the Bandwagon. June 12, 13, San
Diego, Calif. Sponsored by the American Welding Society.
www.aws.org/conferences.
Optimizing Operations through Continuous Improvement Conf.
June 2628. Loews Vanderbilt Hotel, Nashville, Tenn. Sponsored by
Tube & Pipe Assn., Intl; UK-based Intl Tube Assn.; and Fabricators
& Manufacturers Assn., Intl; www.pipetubeconf.com/nashville.
Educational Opportunities
Machinery Vibrations, Introduction. March 2023, Indianapolis,
Ind. Fee $1025. Vibration Institute, www.vibinst.org.
Canadian Welding Bureau Courses. Welding inspection courses
and preparation courses for Canadian General Standards Board
and Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission certifications. The
CWB Group. www.cwbgroup.org.
Art Using Welding Technology Classes and Workshops. Miami,
Fla. With artist and sculptor Sandra Garcia-Pardo. Meet the
artist at www.theartlink.org; (786) 547-8681.
ASM Intl Courses. Numerous classes on welding, corrosion, fail-
ure analysis, metallography, heat treating, etc., presented in
Materials Park, Ohio, online, webinars, on-site, videos, and
DVDs; www.asminternational.org, search for courses.
Automotive Body in White Training for Skilled Trades and
Engineers. Orion, Mich. A five-day course covers operations,
troubleshooting, error recovery programs, and safety procedures
for automotive lines and integrated cells. Applied Mfg.
Technologies; (248) 409-2000; www.appliedmfg.com.
Basic and Advanced Welding Courses. Cleveland, Ohio. The
Lincoln Electric Co.; www.lincolnelectric.com.
Basics of Nonferrous Surface Preparation. Online course, six
hours includes exam. Offered on the 15th of every month by The
Society for Protective Coatings. Register at www.sspc.org/training.
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors Training Courses and
Seminars. Columbus, Ohio; www.nationalboard.org; (614) 888-
8320.
CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
Indianapolis, IN Mar. 1116 Mar. 17
Portland, OR Mar. 1116 Mar. 17
Phoenix, AZ Mar. 1116 Mar. 17
Boston, MA Mar. 1823 Mar. 24
Anchorage, AK Mar. 1823 Mar. 24
Chicago, IL Mar. 1823 Mar. 24
Mobile, AL Exam only Mar. 24
Rochester, NY Exam only Mar. 24
York, PA Exam only Mar. 24
Miami, FL Mar. 2530 Mar. 31
Miami, FL Exam only Apr. 12
Knoxville, TN Exam only Apr. 14
Dallas, TX Apr. 1520 Apr. 21
St. Louis, MO Exam only Apr. 21
Springfield, MO Apr. 1520 Apr. 21
Portland, ME Apr. 1520 Apr. 21
Las Vegas, NV Apr. 1520 Apr. 21
San Francisco, CA Apr. 29May 4 May 5
Nashville, TN Apr. 29May 4 May 5
Jacksonville, FL Apr. 29May 4 May 5
Waco, TX Exam only May 5
Baltimore, MD May 611 May 12
Detroit, MI May 611 May 12
Albuquerque, NM May 611 May 12
Corpus Christi, TX May 611 May 12
Miami, FL May 611 May 12
Miami, FL Exam only May 19
Long Beach, CA Exam only May 26
Spokane, WA June 38 June 9
Oklahoma City, OK June 38 June 9
Birmingham, AL June 38 June 9
Hartford, CT June 1015 June 16
Pittsburgh, PA June 1015 June 16
Beaumont, TX June 1015 June 16
Miami, FL Exam only Aug. 18
9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education require-
ments without taking the exam. The exam can be taken at any site
listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Dallas, TX Mar. 1217 No exam
Miami, FL Apr. 1621 No exam
Sacramento, CA Apr. 30May 5 No exam
Pittsburgh, PA June 49 No exam
San Diego, CA July 914 No exam
Miami, FL July 1621 No exam
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
New Orleans, LA Apr. 1620 Apr. 21
Minneapolis, MN July 1620 July 21
CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Houston, TX Apr. 1620 Apr. 21
Las Vegas, NV May 711 May 12
Miami, FL June 48 June 9
Dallas, TX July 1620 July 21
The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
WEEKS OF, FOLLOWED BY LOCATION AND PHONE NUMBER
May 11, Aug. 10, Nov. 9 at
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
May 21, Aug. 20, Dec. 3 at
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Mar. 2, Oct. 22, Oct. 26 at
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Apr. 23, July 9, Oct. 15 at
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
Mar. 12, May 7, July 9, Sept. 10, Nov. 5 at
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
Certified Welding Engineer (CWEng) and Senior Certified Welding
Inspector (SCWI)
Exams can be taken at any site listed under Certified Welding
Inspector. No preparatory seminar is offered.
Advanced Visual Inspection Workshop
Miami, FL May 17, 18 May 19
Miami, FL Aug. 16, 17 Aug. 18
International CWI Courses and Exams Schedules
Please visit www.aws.org/certification/inter_contact.html.
MARCH 2012 64
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the
seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application dead-
line dates by visiting our website www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept.
to confirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, visit
www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply early to avoid paying
the $250 Fast Track fee.
AWS Certification Schedule
Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations
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Friends and Colleagues:
The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual
members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image and
impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an individuals career of
outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in the
welding industry by one or more of the following:
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the welding
industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as
evidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities.
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to training and
vocational education in the welding industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an
ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employee in
industry activities.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Counselor nomination form in this
issue of the Welding Journal. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2012. The committee looks
forward to receiving these nominations for 2013 consideration.
Sincerely,
Alfred F. Fleury
Chair, Counselor Selection Committee
Nomination of AWS Counselor
I. HISTORY AND BACKGROUND
In 1999, the American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize indi-
vidual members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the
image and impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an
individuals career of outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in
the welding industry by one or more of the following:
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the
welding industry. (The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing
commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees
in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA, NSRP SP7 or other
similar groups.)
Leadership of or within an organization that has made substantial contribution to training
and vocational education in the welding industry. (The individuals organization shall
have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of partici
pation of its employees in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA,
NSRP SP7 or other similar groups.)
II. RULES
A. Candidates for Counselor shall have at least 10 years of membership in AWS.
B. Each candidate for Counselor shall be nominated by at least five members of
the Society.
C. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS
headquarters.
D. Nominations must be submitted to AWS headquarters no later than July 1
of the year prior to that in which the award is to be presented.
E. Nominations shall remain valid for three years.
F. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence.
G. Candidates who have been elected as Fellows of AWS shall not be eligible for
election as Counselors. Candidates may not be nominated for both of these awards
at the same time.
III. NUMBER OF COUNSELORS TO BE SELECTED
Maximum of 10 Counselors selected each year.
Return completed Counselor nomination package to:
Wendy S. Reeve
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
550 N.W. LeJeune Road
Miami, FL 33126
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293
SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 2012
B
L
I
N
D

P
E
R
F
(please type or print in black ink)
COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM
DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________
LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY
BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
**MOST IMPORTANT**
The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All in-
formation and support material provided by the candidates Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.
SUBMITTED BY:
PROPOSER_______________________________________________
AWS Member No.___________________
The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include a
detailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the can-
didate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition
to the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the sig-
natures are secured, the total package should be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
CLASS OF 201
SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2012
3
Register today.
the world of brazing and soldering.
ASM International
and the American

Welding Society again team to
organize this four-day technical
event. Recognized by industry
professionals as the worlds premier
event for the brazing and soldering
community, IBSC brings together
scientists and engineers from around
the world who are involved in the
research, development, and
application of brazing and soldering.
Hear renown speakers like
Dr. Steven Liu and Eric Slezak
Connect with colleagues during
professional seminars on Sunday
Bond with industry leaders,
customers and friends at
Monday evenings welcome
reception and Tuesday nights
poolside Viva Las Vegas social
Exposition and Sponsorship
The IBSC Exposition provides
exhibitors with a forum to showcase
the latest trends, products,
processes and techniques in the
industry. Traditional and custom
exposition and sponsorship
opportunities are available. Secure
your exhibit space today!
Visit www.asminternational.org/ibsc
for the latest conference information
and registration.
Be part of the future of brazing
and soldering technology.
Plan to attend IBSC 2012.
Register today.
Visit www.asminternational.org/ibsc for the latest conference information and registration.
SOCIETYNEWS SOCIETYNEWS
BY HOWARD M. WOODWARD
woodward@aws.org
73 WELDING JOURNAL
John Mendoza, AWS 2011 president,
named the U.S. Navys USS Freedom LCS
1 to receive the 2011 AWS Extraordinary
Welding Award. It is the first Littoral Com-
bat Ship (LCS) of the U.S. Navy to feature
deckhouse and superstructure panels fab-
ricated from aluminum extrusions that
were friction stir welded.
The friction stir welded aluminum
deckhouse is very flat, which, combined
with an angular design, makes it difficult
for radar systems to spot.
Many creative people contributed to
move the USS Freedom from concept to
reality. Cited were John DeLoach, man-
ager, welding, and Maria Posada, technol-
ogy lead of friction stir welding technolo-
gies within the Welding, Processing and
NDE Branch NAVSEA, Naval Surface
Warfare Center. Also honored were offi-
cials from Friction Stir Link, Inc.: John F.
Hinrichs, VP technology; Christopher
Smith, VP engineering and operations;
Scott Gillis, design engineer; and Dan
Rawson, a design and manufacturing en-
gineer. Other major contributors who
could not attend the event were AWS Dis-
trict 12 Director Dan Roland and Bruce
Halverson, from Marinette Marine Fin-
cantieri, and Westin Allen, Friction Stir
Link, Inc.
The AWS Extraordinary Welding
Award is presented for technical design
for outstanding development in welded
fabrication recognizing welding excellence
in construction, fabrication, and manufac-
turing, and to designate those welded
structures whose purpose has historical im-
portance or an influence on history.
Built by Marinette Marine, Marinette,
Wis., the USS FreedomLCS 1 keel was laid
June 2, 2005, and it was commissioned
Nov. 8, 2008. Its home port is San Diego,
Calif.
The Freedoms propulsion system uses
two diesel power plants and two Rolls-
Royce MT30 gas turbines with steerable
water jet propulsion. Its overall length is
378 ft, beam is 57.4 ft, with a draft of 12.8
ft, and weighs about 3000 metric tons. The
The Fast, Focused, Fearless USS Freedom LCS 1 uses innovative materials and joining
methods to make it stronger, lighter weight, and difficult to spot on radar.
2011 Extraordinary Welding Award Presented
John DeLoach (left) and Maria Posada,
from the Naval Surface Warfare Center, ac-
cept the Extraordinary Welding Award from
John Mendoza, AWS 2011 president.
Sharing in the presentation are (from left)
John Hinrichs, Christopher Smith, Scott
Gillis, and Dan Rawson who worked on
making the LCS 1 a reality. Not shown are
major contributors Bruce Halverson and
AWS District 12 Director Dan Roland from
Marinette Marine Fincantieri, and Westin
Allen from Friction Stir Link, Inc.
light aluminum deckhouse and super-
structure panels help it to move faster than
40 knots. Its crew ranges from 15 to 50
core members, up to 75 with aviation de-
tachments. The ships seal proclaims its
bragging rights, Fast, Focused, Fearless.
MARCH 2012 74
Tech Topics
Standards Approved by ANSI
A5.36/A5.36M:2012, Specification for
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Flux Cored
Welding. Approved 12/20/11.
G2.5/G2.5M:2012, Guide for the Fusion
Welding of Zirconium and Zirconium Al-
loys. Approved 1/17/12.
A5.22/A5.22M:2012, Specification for
Stainless Steel Flux Cored and Metal Cored
Welding Electrodes and Rods. Approved
1/17/12.
Two New Standards Projects
Development work has begun on a re-
vision of A5.24 and a new standard, D14.9.
Affected individuals are invited to con-
tribute to this work. Contact the staff rep-
resentative shown for complete informa-
tion. Participation on AWS Technical
Committees and Subcommittees is open
to all persons.
A5.24/A5.24M:20XX, Specification for
Zirconium and Zirconium-Alloy Welding
Electrodes and Rods. This specification
prescribes the requirements for classifi-
cation of zirconium and zirconium alloy
electrodes and rods for GTA, GMA, and
PA welding. The compositions specified
for each classification represent the latest
state of the art. Additional requirements
are included for testing procedures, man-
ufacture, sizes, lengths, and packaging. A
guide is appended to the specification as
a source of information concerning the
classification system employed and the in-
tended use of the zirconium alloy filler
metal. Stakeholders: Welding industry. A.
Diaz, ext. 304.
D14.9/D14.9M:20XX, Specification for
the Welding of Hydraulic Cylinders. This
specification establishes definitions and
provides hydraulic industry-specific de-
tails as they relate to base materials, con-
sumables, weld joint design, welding
process controls, workmanship and qual-
ity requirements, inspection, repair, and
modification. Stakeholders: hydraulic
cylinders industry. M. Rubin, ext. 215.
Standards for Public Review
B2.4:20XX, Specification for Welding
Procedure and Performance Qualification
for Thermoplastics. $25. 3/19/12.
B5.16:20XX, Specification for the Qual-
ification of Welding Engineers. $25. 3/19/12.
D9.1M/D9.1:20XX, Sheet Metal Weld-
ing Code. $42. 3/19/12.
D14.4/D14.4M:20XX, Specification for
the Design of Welded Joints in Machinery
and Equipment. $69. 3/12/12.
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by the
American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as approved
by ANSI, require that all standards be
open to public review for comment dur-
ing the approval process. The above re-
vised standards were submitted for public
review with the review expiration dates
shown. To order draft copies, contact Ros-
alinda ONeill, roneill@aws.org, (305) 443-
9353, ext. 451.
Technical Committee Meetings
All AWS technical committee meet-
ings are open to the public. To attend a
meeting, call the staff secretary, (305) 443-
9353, at the extension shown.
March 1316, D1 Committee on Struc-
tural Welding. San Diego, Calif. M. Rubin,
ext. 215.
March 20, 21. A5 Committee on Filler
Metals and Allied Materials. Orlando,
Fla. R. Gupta, ext. 301.
March 21, A5T Subcommittee on Filler
Metal Procurement Guidelines. Orlando,
Fla. R. Gupta, ext. 301.
March 22, A5A Subcommittee on Car-
bon and Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes and
Rods for Shielded Metal Arc and Oxyfuel
Gas Welding. Orlando, Fla. R. Gupta, ext.
301.
April 1719, D14 Committee on Ma-
chinery and Equipment. Miami, Fla. M.
Rubin, ext. 215.
April 1719, D14B Subcommittee on
General Design and Practices. Miami, Fla.
M. Rubin, ext. 215.
April 1719, D14C Subcommittee on
Earthmoving and Construction Equip-
ment. Miami, Fla. M. Rubin, ext. 215.
April 1719, D14E Subcommittee on
Welding of Presses and Industrial and Mill
Cranes. Miami, Fla. M. Rubin, ext. 215.
April 1719, D14G Subcommittee on
Welding of Rotating Equipment. Miami,
Fla. M. Rubin, ext. 215.
April 1719, D14I Subcommittee on
Hydraulic Cylinders. Miami, Fla. M.
Rubin, ext. 215.
April 24, B2E Subcommittee on Sol-
dering Qualification. Las Vegas, Nev. A.
Diaz, ext. 304.
April 24, B2D Subcommittee on Stan-
dard Welding Procedure Specification.
Las Vegas, Nev. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
April 25, B2C Subcommittee on Mate-
rials. Las Vegas, Nev. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
April 25, B2B Subcommittee on Weld-
ing Qualifications. Las Vegas, Nev. A.
Diaz, ext. 304.
April 26, B2 Committee on Procedure
and Performance Qualification. Las
Vegas, Nev. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
April 25, 26, C3 Committee and Sub-
committees on Brazing and Soldering.
Las Vegas, Nev. S. Borrero, ext. 311.
Robotic and Automatic Welding
The D16 Committee on Robotic and
Automatic Welding seeks general interest
and educators to help revise: D16.1M/
D16.1, Specification for Robotic Arc Weld-
ing Safety; D16.2M/D16.2, Guide for Com-
ponents of Robotic and Automatic Arc
Welding Installations; D16.4M/D16.4,
Specification for the Qualification of Ro-
botic Arc Welding Personnel. Brian Mc-
Grath, bmcgrath@aws.org; ext. 311.
Soldering; Joining Nickel Alloys
The B2E Subcommittee on Soldering
Qualifications; G2C Subcommittee on
Nickel Alloys to review B2.3/B2.3M, Spec-
ification for Soldering Procedures and Per-
formance Qualification. Contact Steve
Hedrick, steveh@aws.org; ext. 305.
Local Heat Treating of Pipe Work
The D10P Subcommittee for Local
Heat Treating of Pipe to revise D10.10,
Recommended Practices for Local Heating
of Welds in Piping and Tubing. Contact B.
McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org; ext. 311.
Magnesium Alloy Filler Metals
A5L Subcommittee on Magnesium
Alloy Filler Metals to assist in the updat-
ing of AWS A5.19-92 (R2006), Specifica-
tion for Magnesium Alloy Welding Elec-
trodes and Rods. Contact Rakesh Gupta,
gupta@aws.org, ext. 301.
Soldering; Joining Nickel Alloys
The B2E Subcommittee on Soldering
Qualifications; G2C Subcommittee on
Nickel Alloys to review B2.3/B2.3M,
Specification for Soldering Procedures and
Performance Qualification. Alex Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org; ext. 304.
Thermal Spray
C2 Committee on Thermal Spraying
to update C2.16, Guide for Thermal Spray
Operator Qualification; C2.21, Specifica-
tion for Thermal Spray Equipment Accept-
ance Inspection; and C2.25, Specification
for Thermal Spray Feedstock Solid and
Composite Wire and Ceramic Rods.
Surfacing Industrial Mill Rolls
D14H Subcommittee on Surfacing and
Reconditioning of Industrial Mill Rolls
to revise AWS D14.7, Recommended Prac-
tices for Surfacing and Reconditioning of
Industrial Mill Rolls. Contact Matt Rubin,
mrubin@aws.org, ext. 215.
Opportunities to Contribute to AWS Welding Standards and Codes
75 WELDING JOURNAL
Sustaining Members
Abtrex Industries, Inc.
59640 Market St.
South Bend, IN 46614
Representative: Keith Byars
www.abtrex.com
Abtrex Industries fabricates carbon,
stainless steel, and plastic tanks for the
steel and chemical-processing industries.
It manufactures pipe weldments and clas-
sifying equipment for the power-genera-
tion and mining industries. Since 1969, its
specialty has been making abrasion- and
corrosion-resistant linings and coatings,
using rubber, PVC, FPP, and technical thin
films.
Fish & Associates, Inc.
3148 Deming Way, Ste. 160
Middleton, WI 53562
Representative: Philip E. Fish
www.fishassoc.com
Founded in 2001, Fish & Associates
provides quality assurance programs, de-
sign and detailing consultation, structural
and special inspection services, nonde-
structive testing, project management,
owners representation and related serv-
ices for both public and private sector
clients in the building, transportation, and
infrastructure areas. The company is a cer-
tified small business enterprise that is au-
thorized for professional engineering prac-
tice by the Wisconsin Department of Reg-
istration and Licensing.
Hayes Mechanical
5959 S. Harlem Ave.
Chicago, IL 60638
Representative: Jamie D. Walker
www.hayesmechanical.com
Hayes Mechanical, founded in 1918, is
a pioneer in the boiler, construction, and
repair industry. It is a union contractor
holding five ASME Code and the NBIC
R stamp(s). Through a steady well-
planned growth program, the company has
become a leading, full-service contractor
offering boiler, piping, sheet metal, plumb-
ing, and HVAC services.
Supporting Companies
Control Total de Calidad
C. Fuente De Diana No. 165
Col. Metropolitana, 2da. Seccion
Nezahualcoyotl, 57740, Mexico
Distefano Technology & Mfg. Co.
3838 S. 108 St.
Omaha, NE 68144
Affiliate Companies
John Beever Australia Pty. Ltd.
78 Berkshire Rd., North Sunshine
Victoria 3020, Australia
Matrix Service, Inc.
5100 E. Skelly Dr. 700
Tulsa, OK 74135
Multicare Safety & Industrial
Inspections LLC
PB 121089
Al Ghusais Dubai, UAE
Pacific Stair Corp.
8690 Stair Way NE
Salem, OR 97305
Smiths Welding and Fabrication
1631 N. 4th Ave.
Altoona, PA 16601
Service Machine
PO Box 2083, 12421 Maple St.
Ashland, VA 23005
Welding Distributors
Educational Institutions
Indiana County Technology Center
441 Hamill Rd.
Indiana, PA 15701
Kankakee Community College
100 College Dr.
Kankakee, IL 60901
LoneStar College System CyFair
9191 Barker Cypress Rd.
Cypress, TX 77433
AWS Member Counts
February 1, 2012
Grades
Sustaining ......................................522
Supporting.....................................303
Educational ...................................585
Affiliate..........................................476
Welding Distributor........................55
Total Corporate ..........................1,941
Individual .................................58,335
Student + Transitional ...............11,575
Total Members.........................69,910
New AWS Supporters
November 5, 2012, is the deadline for
submitting nominations for the 2013 Prof.
Koichi Masubuchi Award.
This award is presented each year to
one person, 40 years old or younger, who
has made significant contributions to the
advancement of materials joining through
research and development.
Nominations should include a descrip-
tion of the candidates experience, list of
publications, honors, and awards, and at
least three letters of recommendation
from fellow researchers.
This award is sponsored by the Dept.
of Ocean Engineering at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (M.I.T.), this
award includes a $5000 honorarium.
E-mail your nomination package to Todd
A. Palmer, assistant professor, The Pennsyl-
vania State University, tap103@psu.edu.
Nominate Your Candidate for the M.I.T. Prof. Masubuchi Award
District 8 Director Joe Livesay has
nominated the following members for
this award.
Greater Huntsville Section
Frank Miller, Randy Hammond,
and Jim Higdon.
Nashville Section
Charles Fredericks, Tim Singleton,
and Greg Ralphs.
Northeast Mississippi Section
Tavares Irions, George Smith, and
Ricky Collier.
The District Director Award pro-
vides a means for District directors to
recognize individuals who have con-
tributed their time and effort to ben-
efit the affairs of their local Sections
and/or District.
District Director Awards
MARCH 2012 76
Listed below are the members partici-
pating in the 20112012 AWS Member-
Get-A-Member Campaign. Standings are
as of January 20. For campaign rules and
a prize list, see page 85 of this Welding
Journal. For complete campaign rules,
visit www.aws.org/mgm. Call the AWS
Membership Department at (800) 443-
9353, ext. 480, with any questions about
your member-proposer status.
Winners Circle
Listed are the sponsors of 20 or more In-
dividual Members per year, since June 1,
1999. The superscript denotes the number
of years the member has earned Winners
Circle status.
E. Ezell, Mobile
8
J. Compton, San Fernando Valley
7
J. Merzthal, Peru
2
G. Taylor, Pascagoula
2
L. Taylor, Pascagoula
2
B. Chin, Auburn
1
S. Esders, Detroit
1
M. Haggard, Inland Empire
1
M. Karagoulis, Detroit
1
S. McGill, NE Tennessee
1
B. Mikeska, Houston
1
W. Shreve, Fox Valley
1
T. Weaver, Johnstown/Altoona
1
G. Woomer, Johnstown/Altoona
1
R. Wray, Nebraska
1
Presidents Club
Sponsored 38 new members
M. Pelegrino, Chicago 10
E. Ezell, Mobile 7
J. Walker, Blackhawk 6
T. Palmer, Atlanta 5
G. Bish, Atlanta 3
B. Goerg, Fox Valley 3
D. Hale, East Texas 3
J. Miller, Oklahoma City 3
G. Mulee, South Carolina 3
P. Phelps, Western Carolina 3
D. Wright, Kansas City 3
Presidents Honor Roll
Sponsored 2 new members
T. Baber, San Fernando Valley
T. Baldwin, Atlanta
D. Biddle, Milwaukee
M. Boggs, Stark Central
O. Burrion, S. Florida
G. Fehrman, Philadelphia
J. Gordy, Houston
G. Holl, Lexington
G. Jacobson, Cumberland Valley
J. Mueller, Ozark
G. Sanford, Houston
H. Suthar, Charlotte
T. White, Pittsburgh
C. Whitesell, Tulsa
Student Sponsors
M. Pelegrino, Chicago 90
G. Bish, Atlanta 50
R. Belluzzi, New York 34
M. Box, Mobile 34
R. Hammond, Birmingham 32
A. Alvarez, Houston 27
D. Berger, New Orleans 27
D. Saunders, Lakeshore 27
M. Anderson, Indiana 24
H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley 24
S. Siviski, Maine 24
W. England, W. Michigan 23
M. Boggs, Stark Central 22
G. Gammill, NE Mississippi 21
R. Huston, Olympic 20
J. Fox, NW Ohio 19
T. Palmer, Atlanta 18
A. Baughman, Stark Central 17
J. Bruskotter, New Orleans 17
J. Ciaramitaro, N. Central Florida 17
W. Davis, Syracuse 17
J. Dawson, Pittsburgh 17
C. Donnell, NW Ohio 17
R. Evans, Siouxland 17
R. Wahrman, Triangle 17
N. Baughman, Stark Central 16
R. Jones, Houston 16
S. Miner, San Francisco 16
E. Norman, Ozark 16
R. Richwine, Indiana 6
S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley 15
J. Daugherty, Louisville 14
D. Pickering, Central Arkansas 4
C. Daily, Puget Sound 12
R. Hutchinson, Long Bch/Or. Cty 11
J. Johnson, Madison-Beloit 11
D. Schnalzer, Lehigh Valley 11
E. Ramsey, Johnstown-Altoona 10
R. Simpson, Charlotte 10
C. Kipp, Lehigh Valley 9
B. Wenzel, Sacramento 9
J. McCarty, St. Louis 7
J. Boyer, Lancaster 6
R. Ledford Jr., Birmingham 6
S. Poe, Central Michigan 6
J. Ginther, Pittsburgh 5
J. McCarty, St. Louis 7
T. Moore, New Orleans 5
W. Wilson, New Orleans 5
J. Crocker, N. Texas 4
C. Hobson, Olympic Section 4
A. Reis, Pittsburgh 4
H. Rendon, Rio Grande Valley 4
B. Amos, Mobile 3
S. Colton, Arizona 3
P. Deslatte, New Orleans 3
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
Honorary Meritorious Awards
William Irrgang
Memorial Award
This award is given to the individual
who has done the most over the past five
years to enhance the Societys goal of ad-
vancing the science and technology of
welding. It includes a $2500 honorarium
and a certificate.
International Meritorious
Certificate Award
This honor recognizes recipients sig-
nificant contributions to the welding in-
dustry for service to the international
welding community in the broadest terms.
The award consists of a certificate and a
one-year AWS membership.
National Meritorious
Certificate Award
This award recognizes the recipients
counsel, loyalty, and dedication to AWS
affairs, assistance in promoting cordial re-
lations with industry and other organiza-
tions, and for contributions of time and
effort on behalf of the Society.
George E. Willis Award
This award is given to an individual
who promoted the advancement of weld-
ing internationally by fostering coopera-
tive participation in technology transfer,
standards rationalization, and promotion
of industrial goodwill. It includes a $2500
honorarium.
Honorary Membership Award
This award acknowledges eminence
in the welding profession, or one who is
credited with exceptional accomplish-
ments in the development of the welding
art. Honorary Members have full rights
of membership.
The deadline for nominating candidates for these awards is December 31 prior to the year of the awards presentations. Send can-
didate materials to Wendy Sue Reeve, wreeve@aws.org; 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126.
77 WELDING JOURNAL
SECTIONNEWS SECTIONNEWS
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@thermadyne.com
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
Shown at the Long Island Section program are (from left) speaker Joe Kane, Tom Gartland, District 2 Director Harland Thompson, Chair
Brian Cassidy, Alex Duschere, Jesse Provler, Ken Messimer, and Pat Nugent.
Shown are (from left) District 2 Director Harland Thompson, speaker Jeff Wiswesser, and
Philadelphia Section Chair Mike Chomin.
York-Central Pennsylvania Section Chair
Jim Henry (left) is shown with speaker Pat
Belsole.
LONG ISLAND
JANUARY 12
Speaker: Joe Kane
Topic: Discussion of structural and pipe
welds from the World Trade Center and
other edifices
Activity: The program was held in Wan-
tagh, N.Y.
PHILADELPHIA
JANUARY 11
Speaker: Jeff Wiswesser
Affiliation: Welders Training and Testing
Institute
Topic: AWS prequalified procedures, qual-
ifying a procedure and the documents in-
volved, qualifying a welder, and how to
apply the various welding standards.
Activity: The program was held at Villaris
Restaurant in Sicklerville, N.J.
YORK-CENTRAL PA.
JANUARY 5
Speaker: Pat Belsole, district sales man-
ager
Affiliation: Hypertherm, Inc.
Topic: What Hypertherms HPR systems
can do for you
TIDEWATER
OCTOBER 7
Activity: The Section held its annual Larry
OBryan Memorial Golf Tournament at
Sleepy Hole Golf Course in Suffolk, Va.,
for 84 participants.
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director
(610) 820-9551
mike@welderinstitute.com
District 4
Roy C. Lanier, director
(252) 321-4285
rlanier@email.pittcc.edu
MARCH 2012 78
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com
Tidewater Section members are shown during their tour of the Thomas Jefferson National
Accelerator Facility on October 13.
Shown at the Florida West Coast Section
program are Chair Damen Johnson (left)
and speaker Jake Doty.
South Carolina Section Chair Gale Mole
discussed welder and procedure certifica-
tions at the November program.
Florida West Coast members are shown at the January program.
OCTOBER 13
Activity: The Tidewater Section members
toured the Thomas Jefferson National Ac-
celerator Facility in Newport News, Va.
The facility conducts basic atomic research
at the quark level. The tour escorts were
Michelle Lechman, Will Oren, Debbie Ma-
galdi, Ryan Brodenstein, Mark Wiseman,
Bill Hunewill, and Bill Clemens.
NOVEMBER 10
Speaker: J. P. Christein, structural engi-
neer
Affiliation: Newport News Shipbuilding
Topic: Common errors in applying ANSI/
AWS A2.4 welding symbols
Activity: This Tidewater Section event was
held at Kelleys Tavern in Hampton, Va.
FLORIDA WEST COAST
JANUARY 11
Speaker: Jake Doty, quality inspector
Affiliation: GMF Industries, Inc.
Topic: Bridge fabrication projects
Activity: The program was held at Frontier
Steakhouse in Tampa, Fla. Chair Damen
Johnson announced the annual Shrimp-A-
Roo event will be held at a new location.
For tickets, contact Johnson at this address:
Mark Your Calendar: May 5
Annual Shrimp-A-Roo
Yuengling Brewery
11111 N. 30th St., Tampa, Fla.
Contact Chair Damen Johnson
cmedamen@msn.com
SOUTH CAROLINA
NOVEMBER 16
Speaker: Chair Gale Mole, NDT manager
Affiliation: Soil Consultants, Inc.
Topic: Discussion of WPS, PQR, and
welder certifications
Activity: The program was held at Soil Con-
sultants, Inc., in North Charleston, S.C.
79 WELDING JOURNAL
District 7
Don Howard, director
(814) 269-2895
howard@ctc.com
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
KAPhyInc@gmail.com
At the Dayton Section Oct. 11 event, the
Miami Valley Career Technology Center stu-
dents demonstrated various fabrication
techniques.
Shown at the Dayton Section Nov. 8 pro-
gram are blacksmiths Steve Roth (left) and
Gary Ward.
Shown at the New Orleans Section program
are (from left) Bruce Hallila, Paul Newton,
and Chair Aldo Duron.
Detroit Section speaker David Harwood
(left) is shown with Tom Sparschu.
Travis Moore (left) and New Orleans Sec-
tion Chair Aldo Duron (center) are shown
with speaker Rodney Dufour.
Student speakers at the New Orleans Sec-
tion program are Catherine Chifici and
Matthew Blackwell.
DAYTON
OCTOBER 11
Activity: The Section members met with
the welding students at Miami Valley Ca-
reer Technology Center in Clayton, Ohio.
The students served as the instructors
demonstrating GMA and SMA welding
and automated plasma arc cutting tech-
niques. The attendees had a hands-on op-
portunity to work with the equipment.
NOVEMBER 8
Activity: The Dayton Section members vis-
ited the Miami County Fairgrounds in Troy,
Ohio, to attend the annual Southern Ohio
Forge and Anvil Society (SOFA) demon-
strations. The event included some hands-
on activity for the attendees. Leading the
program were Steve Roth, a Dayton Sec-
tion member and a SOFA blacksmith, and
Gary Ward, SOFA president.
DECEMBER 13
Speaker: Steve Whitney
Affiliation: Yaskawa America, Inc., Mo-
toman Robotics, Division
Topic: Sensor technology for adaptive ro-
botic welding
Activity: Following the talk, the members
toured the new Motoman Robotics facility
in Miamisburg, Ohio.
in Section activities. The presenters were
Matthew Blackwell, a student at New Or-
leans Pipe Trades; and Catherine Chifici,
studying at South Central Louisiana Tech-
nical College. Paul Newton was recognized
for taking first place in the Sections weld-
ing competition, instructor level. Inspec-
tion Specialists contributed rod ovens as
door prizes. The event was held at and
catered by Caf Hope, in Marrero, La.
NEW ORLEANS
JANUARY 17
Speaker: Rodney Dufour
Affiliation: Inspection Specialists, Inc.
Topic: Inspection trends in the welding in-
dustry
Activity: Two students presented talks on
why students should become more involved
DETROIT
JANUARY 12
Speaker: David Harwood, director nuclear
development
Affiliation: DTE Energy
Topic: Michigans electric energy outlook
Activity: Gold Member certificates were
presented to J. E. Black Jr., Richard Haver,
District 8
Joe Livesay, director
(931) 484-7502, ext. 143
joe.livesay@ttcc.edu
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
ts@bellsouth.net
District 10
Richard A. Harris, director
(440) 338-5921
richaharris@windstream.net
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rmwilcox@wowway.com
MARCH 2012 80
R. Heinz, Gerald Hoffmeyer, Martin
Keasal Jr., G. Ragsdale, and Amos Win-
sand for 50 years of service to the Society.
Life Member certificates were presented
to Charles Beach, Rollin Bondar, Paul
DAngelo, Gordon Ebsch, John McKenzie,
Robert Shaw Jr., Clyde Slade, and Robert
Wilcox for 35 years of service. Silver Mem-
ber certificates were presented to William
Daavettila, Kevin Ede, Ronald Grobbel,
Tony Morris, Marvin Owens, Thomas
Srigley, Russell Wilcox Jr., and Julian
Williams for 25 years of membership.
NORTHWEST OHIO
Mark Your Calendar: April 5, 69 p.m.
16th Annual Lincoln
Motorsports Welding Program
Owens Community College
Toledo, Ohio
Contact Chair Dick West
rawtreeman1@aol.com
Some of the Detroit Section old timers are (from left) Phil Temple, John McKenzie, Gordon Ebsch, Don Maatz, Dennis Willette, Charles
Beach, and Paul DAngelo.
Greg Siepert, Kansas Section vice chair, is shown holding the banner with the attendees at the students night event in October.
Hutchinson C. C. student Courtney Cauble
demonstrates cutting at the Kansas Section
event.
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director
(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.ncantieri.com
District 13
W. Richard Polanin, director
(309) 694-5404
rpolanin@icc.edu
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director
(765) 378-5378
bobrichwine@aol.com
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
81 WELDING JOURNAL
Southeast Nebraska Section members are shown during their tour of the Kawasaki Motors facilities in January.
John Mendoza (far left), AWS 2011 president, is shown at the El Paso holiday event.
Welding contestants from Industrial High School, Vanderbilt, Tex., pose with instructor, Ardy
Tiner (third from right), at the Houston Section-sponsored competition.
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
(913) 782-0635
awscwi1@comcast.net
Jose Pep Gomez (center) is shown with
John Bray (left), District 18 director, and
John Mendoza, AWS 2011 president, at the
El Paso Section program.
David Twitty (left) and Mike Jordan received
awards at the El Paso Section event.
KANSAS
OCTOBER 13
Speaker: Jack Minser, district manager
Affiliation; Thermadyne Industries
Topic: Plasma and oxyacetylene cutting
processes and future applications
Activity: This student night event was held
at Hutchinson Community College in
Hutchinson, Kan. Following the talk,
Minser performed various cutting opera-
tions using both oxyacetylene and plasma
arc technologies.
SOUTHEAST NEBRASKA
JANUARY 17
Activity: Sixty-four Section members
toured the Kawasaki Rail Car, Inc., facil-
ity in Lincoln, Neb., to study its methods
for producing commuter rail cars.
NORTH TEXAS
JANUARY 17
Speaker: Brad Plank
Affiliation: Unified Services of Texas
Topic: Failure analysis
Activity: The event was held at
Humperdincks in Arlington, Tex.
tion Meritorious Award; Jose Pep Gomez
the Section Educator and District Direc-
tor Awards; and David Twitty the District
and Section Dalton E. Hamilton Memo-
rial CWI of the Year Awards. This holiday
party event was held at Great American
Land & Cattle Co. BBQ and Steakhouse
in El Paso, Tex.
EL PASO
DECEMBER 6
Speaker: John Mendoza, AWS 2011 presi-
dent
Affiliation: Lone Star Welding
Topic: A history of AWS CWI certification
Activity: On the last trip of his presidency,
John Mendoza and District 18 Director
John Bray presented Mike Jordan the Sec-
HOUSTON
OCTOBER 14
Activity: Section members and District 18
Director John Bray served as judges at the
Gulf Coast Welding Expo and Contest held
at Wharton County Jr. College for 71 con-
testants. Awards were presented for each
of seven skill levels.
District 17
J. Jones, director
(940) 368-3130
jjones@thermadyne.com
District 18
John Bray, director
(281) 997-7273
sales@afliatedmachinery.com
MARCH 2012 82
Some of the attendees at the Rio Grande Valley Section program are shown at the students night event.
Puget Sound Section past chairs posed at the January 5 program are (from left) front row Jerry Hope, Sid Capouilliez, Shawn McDaniel,
and Steve Pollard; back row Charles Daily, Mike Weaver, Chris Sundberg, Ken Johnson, Jay Dwight, Frank Drumm, and Frank Gatto.
A Newport High School student cuts steel at
the Puget Sound Robotics Welding Work-
shop under the watchful eye of instructor
Robert White.
RIO GRANDE VALLEY
NOVEMBER 9
Speaker: John Bray, District 18 director
Affiliation: Affiliated Machinery, presi-
dent
Topic: What AWS membership can mean
to you
Activity: Students from San Benito High
School and the South Texas Community
Tech Campus and their parents attended
this event. The program was held at South
Texas College in McAllen, Tex.
PUGET SOUND
NOVEMBER 19
Activity: The Section held its first Robot-
ics Welding Workshop at Everett Commu-
nity College in Everett, Wash.
JANUARY 5
Speaker: Mike Virgilio, NDE structural
steel manager
Affiliation: Mayes Testing Engineers, Inc.
Topic: Using AWS D1.8 Structural Steel
Seismic Supplement in the field
Activity: This Puget Sound Section hon-
ored its past chairs. Attending were Jerry
Hope, Sid Capouilliez, Shawn McDaniel,
Steve Pollard, Charles Daily, Mike Weaver,
Chris Sundberg, Ken Johnson, Jay Dwight,
Frank Drumm, and Frank Gatto.
COLORADO
JANUARY 12
Speaker: Adam Chavez, training coordi-
nator
Affiliation: Pipefitters Local 208
Topic: Apprenticeship training program
Activity: Following the talk, the members
toured the Pipefitters Local 208 facility in
Denver, Colo. Eric Ortega demonstrated
his orbital welding technique. The Local
seeks applicants for its apprentice pro-
gram. Learn more at www.pipe208.com.
IDAHO/MONTANA
DECEMBER 9
Activity: The Section members attended
the Eastern Idaho Engineering Councils
annual Christmas social at Shiloh Inn in
Idaho Falls, Idaho. The event attracts
members from various engineering soci-
eties, including ANS, ASCE, ASME,
AlChE, IEEE, INCOSE, IAS, AWIN, ISA,
ISPE, and ACS.
District 19
Neil Shannon, director
(503) 201-5142
neilshnn@msn.com
District 20
William A. Komlos, director
(801) 560-2353
bkoz@arctechllc.com
District 21
Nanette Samanich, director
(702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com
83 WELDING JOURNAL
Shown at the Los Angeles-Inland Empire Section meeting are (from left) Tim Serviss; Chair
George Rolla; Mariana Ludmer; Robert Doiron; Kenneth Reid; Gene Lawson, a past AWS
president; Che Chancy; and Nanette Samanich, District 21 director.
District 22
Dale Flood, director
(916) 288-6100, ext. 172
d.ood@tritool.com
Shown at the Puget Sound Sections Robotics Welding Workshop are Everett Community
College Student Chapter members, from left, (front row) Josh Woods, Jason Spiecher, Eric
Arnold, Nick Heiner, and Shawn Hiner; (middle row) Steve Pollard, Nina Smith, Eric
Daniels, and Stewart Matthews; (back row) John Burton, Bob Jones, Chris Sansbry, Jason
Heard, Robert White, and Jerry Hop.
Shown at the Los Angeles/Inland Empire
Section program are (from left) Vice Chair
Robert Doiron, AWS 2011 President John
Mendoza, and Gene Lawson, a past AWS
president.
Shown at the Idaho/Montana Section event
are (from left) Ofilia Tremblay, Jason Wright,
Dave Koelsch, and Rae Nims.
Shown during the Colorado Section tour are
Chair John Steele, speaker Adam Chavez,
and pipe welder Eric Ortega.
Liisa Pine, San Francisco Section co-chair,
presents a speaker gift to Mark Bell.
Chris Chwala is shown with Liisa Pine, San
Francisco Section co-chair.
LOS ANGELES/
INLAND EMPIRE
SEPTEMBER 14
Speaker: John Mendoza, AWS president
2011
SAN FRANCISCO
JANUARY 4
Speaker: Mark Bell
Affiliation: Bell Metallurgy
Topic: Welding on in-service pipelines
Activity: The program, held at Spengers
Restaurant in Berkeley, Calif., attracted 34
members. Member Chris Chwala, presi-
dent of Ryco Steel Products, Inc., donated
$1000 to the Section. Elizabeth Moore has
resigned as Section chair. Liisa Pine and
Sharon Jones will serve as co-chairs for the
remainder of Moores term.
Affiliation: Lone Star Welding
Topic: The importance of welder certifica-
tion here and abroad
Activity: Gene Lawson, treasurer and a past
AWS president, attended the program.
DECEMBER 29
Activity: The Los Angeles/Inland Empire
Section board members met to discuss Sec-
tion activities for the coming year.
MARCH 2012 84
Guide to AWS Services
550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126; (800/305) 443-9353; FAX (305) 443-7559; www.aws.org
Staff extensions are shown in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
William A. Rice
brice@oki-bering.com
1411 Connell Rd.
Charleston, WV 25314
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Jeff Weber.. jweber@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)
Chief Financial Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252)
Executive Assistant for Board Services
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)
Administrative Services
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
IT Network Director
Armando Campana..acampana@aws.org . .(296)
Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
Director of IT Operations
Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(245)
Human Resources
Director, Compensation and Benefits
Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266)
Director, Human Resources
Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)
International Institute of Welding
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international
societies and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,
(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors fed-
eral issues of importance to the industry.
CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS
Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Selvis Morales.....smorales@aws.org . . . . . .(239)
ITSA International Thermal
Spray Association
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa.kathydusa@thermalspray.org . . .(232)
RWMA Resistance Welding
Manufacturing Alliance
Manager
Susan Hopkins.. susan@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(295)
WEMCO Welding Equipment
Manufacturers Committee
Manager
Natalie Tapley.. tapley@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(444)
Brazing and Soldering
Manufacturers Committee
GAWDA Gases and Welding
Distributors Association
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)
INTERNATIONAL SALES
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Corporate Director, International Sales
Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities involving cer-
tification, publication, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Department Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238)
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Society and Section News Editor
Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director
Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org . . . . . . .(226)
Public Relations Manager
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456)
Section Web Editor
Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)
MEMBER SERVICES
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWS
headquarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities including all inter-
national certification programs.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam
scoring.
Director, Certification Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification pro-
grams, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and
AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Director, Education Development
David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS
Senior Manager
Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards, Fellow and Counselor
nominees.
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Managing Director
Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American Coun-
cil of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
Director, National Standards Activities
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(299)
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plas-
tics and Composites, Welding Iron Castings, Welding
in Sanitary Applications, Personnel and Facilities
Qualification
Senior Manager, Technical Publications
Rosalinda ONeill.. roneill@aws.org . . . . . . .(451)
AWS publishes about 200 documents widely used
throughout the welding industry.
Senior Staff Engineer
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International Filler
Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc Welding and
Cutting Processes
Staff Engineers/Standards Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307)
Thermal Spray, Automotive Resistance Welding, Oxy-
fuel Gas Welding and Cutting
Stephen Borrero.. sborrero@aws.org . . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and
Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,
Railroad Welding, Definitions and Symbols
Alex Diaz.. adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Aircraft
and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Brian McGrath . bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . . . .(311)
Methods of Inspection, Mechanical Testing of Welds,
Welding in Marine Construction, Piping and Tubing,
Friction Welding, Robotics Welding, High-Energy
Beam Welding
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(215)
Structural Welding, Machinery and Equipment
Notes: Official interpretations of AWS standards may
be obtained only by sending a request in writing to An-
drew R. Davis, managing director, Technical Services,
adavis@aws.org.
Oral opinions on AWS standards may be ren-
dered, however, oral opinions do not constitute offi-
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PERSONNEL
OKI Bering Taps COO
OKI Bering, Cincinnati, Ohio, a whole-
saler of welding, safety, and industrial sup-
plies, has promoted
Roch Monahan to
chief operating offi-
cer. Monahan has as-
sumed the duties of
Byron Crampton
who retired at the end
of 2011. Monahan,
who has an extensive
background in the
welding industry, will
continue to hold his
previous position of
vice president of sales.
Two Presidents Named at
Panasonic Corp.
Panasonic Corp. of North America, Se-
caucus, N.J., has named Tom Gebhardt
president of Panasonic Automotive Sys-
tems Co. of America, based in Peachtree
City, Ga.; and M. Faisal Pandit president
of Panasonic Factory Solutions Co. of
America, based in Rolling Meadows, Ill.
Pandit, who succeeds Gebhardt in the
post, previously served as director of solu-
tions within the same company.
Two ESAB VPs Appointed
Colfax Corp., Fulton, Md., a supplier of
gas- and fluid-handling and fabrication
technology, has named Kenneth D.
Konopa vice president of marketing for
ESAB and Vincent Northfield vice presi-
dent of global manufacturing for ESAB.
Konopa previously served as president of
Danaher Corp.s Fluke Industrial and
Ormco divisions. Northfield most recently
was executive vice president of global op-
erations for Teleflex Medical.
Airgas Names Executives
Airgas, Inc., Radnor, Pa., has named R.
Jay Worley vice president strategic pric-
ing. J. Barrett Strzelec, director of investor
relations for Airgas, Inc., will assume lead-
ership of the investor relations function.
Worley, with the company since 1993, pre-
viously served as vice president commu-
nications and investor relations since 2008.
President Named at
LA-CO Industries
LA-CO Indus-
tries, Inc./Markal
Co., Elk Grove Vil-
lage, Ill., has ap-
pointed George Bow-
man president, suc-
ceeding John Hardin
who has retired. Prior
to joining the com-
pany, Bowman was
president of Enerpac
at Actuant Corp. and
worked at General Electric Industrial Sys-
tems for 11 years in various sales and en-
gineering leadership positions.
Noble Gas Appoints Sales
Director
Noble Gas Solu-
tions, Albany, N.Y.,
has appointedPatrick
ODonnell director of
sales. ODonnell pre-
viously worked six
years for General
Electric Co.
Kaman Fills Two Key Posts
Kaman Industrial Technologies Corp.,
Bloomfield, Conn., has appointed Kyle
Ahlfinger area vice president of its Mi-
narik division; and Gary Yingling director
and general manager, shops and services.
Previously, Ahlfinger was corporate vice
president and chief marketing officer at
Flowserve Corp. Prior to joining the com-
pany, Yingling worked for Stanadyne
Corp. as director, global accounts, and at
Molex, Inc., as director and general man-
ager of its industrial communications and
software business. Kaman is a supplier of
automation, material-handling, motion-
control, bearings, mechanical power
transmissions, and other industrial parts.
RIA Names Chair
The Robotic Industries Assn. (RIA),
Ann Arbor, Mich., has named Catherine
Morris chair of the board. She becomes
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Roch Monahan
George Bowman
Patrick ODonnell
the 20th chair since the RIA was founded
in 1974, and is the first woman to serve in
the position. Morris is senior account
manager for ATI Industrial Automation.
American Torch Tip Hires
Account Executive
American Torch Tip, Bradenton, Fla.,
has appointed Tony Ragle regional ac-
count executive for Illinois, Indiana, Ken-
tucky, and Tennessee. Ragle brings more
than 35 years of experience in semiauto-
matic and robotic welding applications.
ARC Specialties Hires Asst.
Project Manager
ARC Specialties,
Inc., Houston, Tex., a
manufacturer of au-
tomated and robotic
welding systems, has
hired Hoang Nguyen
as assistant project
manager. Nguyen has
interned with Hitachi
GST, Applied Mate-
rials, and Neptec Op-
tical Solutions.
Sancap Abrasives Names
Account Executive
Sancap Abrasives, Alliance, Ohio, has
appointed James Moran regional sales
manager to work with its national sales
representatives and distribution network.
Moran brings 30 years of industrial and
distribution expertise to the post.
SME Names President and
Education Board Execs
The Society of Manufacturing Engi-
neers (SME), Dearborn, Mich., has
elected LaRoux K. Gillespie president for
2012. Gillespie is a metal finishing con-
sultant and a retired Kansas City Honey-
well quality leader. The SME Education
Foundation has named its 2012 board of
directors representing business, industry,
and academia. Appointed were Glen H.
Pearson, president; Brian A. Ruestow,
vice president and secretary; Peter F.
Mackie, treasurer and chair of finance;
and Edward M. Swallow, assistant treas-
urer and vice chair of finance. Pearson was
with Eastman Kodak Co. (ret.); Ruestow
is with F. W. Roberts Mfg. Co., Inc.;
Mackie is with Wells Fargo Advisors LLC;
and Swallow is with Northrop Grumman
Information Systems. The mission of the
foundation is to inspire, support, and pre-
pare the next generation of manufacturing
engineers and technologists for the ad-
vancement of manufacturing education.
Wolf Robotics Names
Manager for Brazil
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, Colo., has
hired Marcio Mininel as regional man-
ager for all of Brazil, based in Piracicaba.
Mininel has more than a decade of expe-
rience in programming and robotic weld-
ing implementation. He most recently
worked as a process engineer for Cater-
pillar Brazil.
Obituary
William Bill H. Kielhorn
William Bill Kielhorn, 80, died Jan.
6 at his home in Longview, Tex. Recently
named an AWS Fellow, he is remembered
as the LeTourneau University professor
who never missed teaching a class for 45
years. He presented his final class using a
laptop from a
hospital bed.
Kielhorn was
born in Oxford,
Wis., then lived
in Chicago and
North Carolina
before enlisting
in the U.S. Air
Force in 1951
for four years.
In 1956, he en-
rolled in Le-
Tourneau Tech-
nical Institute
where he grad-
uated with a degree in welding engineer-
ing in 1959. He received his masters de-
gree from the University of Wisconsin,
Madison. Kielhorn served as a welding en-
gineer at Worthington Pump in Harrison,
N.J., from 1959 to 1966 then returned to
LeTourneau College to teach in the weld-
ing department. He served the American
Welding Society in many capacities with
the East Texas Section and as District 17
director for eight years. He was a past
member of the AWS Technical Activities
and National Scholarship Committees,
and chapter chair for Aluminum Welding
in the Welding Handbook, 8th edition, Vol.
3, and the Survey of Welding Processes
chapter of the 9th edition, Vol. 1. Kielhorn
is survived by his wife, Betty; two daugh-
ters; and five grandchildren. The family
requests donations be made to the
William H. Kielhorn Scholarship Fund at
LeTourneau University, PO Box 7001,
Longview, TX 75607; or made online at
www.letu.edu.
89 WELDING JOURNAL
Hoang Nguyen
William Bill Kielhorn
June 1213, 2012 / San Diego, Calif.
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THE AMERICAN WELDER
91 WELDING JOURNAL
Most welders know that the use of the wrong cable size can lead to cable overheat-
ing, insulation failure, electric shock, and even fires. The wrong size can even affect the
welding condition.
Picking a Safe Cable Size
To answer the question above, you need to know the welding current and the distance
from the power supply. The safe American Wire Gauge (AWG) size is based on a 4-V
cable loss, due to the welding current flowing through the cable resistance. (Note: Years
ago, it was agreed that a 4-V cable loss, due to welding current, would be acceptable. A
4-V drop does not have too much effect on the arc system or the system efficiency.)
Table 1 shows that at 250 A and 150 ft from the power supply, the correct size is a 4/0
AWG cable, which is the same as the #0000 AWG in Table 2.
Another Method
You can also pick a safe cable size by using the formula below, and Table 2, for cop-
per cables. First, calculate the safe circular mil size needed. Circular mil (CM) is an engi-
neering measure of the cable cross-section area.
CM = 10.37 A (total cable length, ft)/4 V
Now, use the calculated CM value and the AWG sizes in Table 2 to select a cable (the
10.37 value is only good for copper cables). Always pick an AWG cable size with a CM
How to Pick the
Right-Sized Welding
Cable
Here are a formula and tables that will help you to choose
a safe-sized cable every time
BY AUGUST F. MANZ
AUGUST F. MANZ is a Fellow of the
American Welding Society.
What size welding cable do you need to be safe when you are using
XX amperes and are about YY feet from the power supply?
Table 1 Recommended Sizes of Copper Welding Leads
Amps Distance in Feet from Welding Machine
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 350 400
100 2 2 2 2 1 1/0 1/0 2/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
150 2 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
200 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 4/0
250 2 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0
300 1 2/0 3/0 4/0
350 1/0 3/0 4/0
400 1/0 3/0 4/0
450 2/0 4/0
550 3/0 4/0
600 3/0
*Based on direct current and 4-V drop. Double the distance for total length.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2012 92
value larger than the calculated value. Do
not pick an AWG size smaller than #2
because of needed mechanical strength.
The following is an example CM cal-
culation:
To determine the safe AWG size cable
needed for 250 A and a total cable length
of 300 ft [150 ft 2 (from the power sup-
ply to the arc and return)], you use the
following formula:
CM = 10.37 (250)(300)/4 = 194,438 cm
In Table 2, the next larger CM is 211,600
cm, for #0000 AWG cable. This is the
same 4/0 size you found in Table 1.
The actual voltage drop in the cable
can be calculated as follows: From Table
2, for #0000 AWG, at 20C (the estimat-
ed room temperature) there are 0.04901
ohms per 1000 ft. Using Ohms Law as
follows:
Volts = (ohms) (amperes)
= (0.04901 ohms/1000 ft)(300
ft)(250 A)
= 3.68 V
The calculated 3.68-V loss is smaller
than the acceptable 4-V loss agreed upon,
and is okay. Calculations like this were
used to generate the data in Table 1.
The Bottom Line
With the tables and information in this
article, you can choose a safe cable size
every time.
Table 2 Wire Table, Standard Annealed Copper American Wire Gauge
Cross Section 20C Ohms per 1000 ft
Gauge Dia. in Circular Square Pounds 0C 20C 50C
No. Mils at 20C Mils Inch 1000 ft (32F) (68F) (122F)
0000 460.0 211,600 0.1662 640.5 0.04516 0.04901 0.05479
000 409.6 167,800 0.1318 507.9 0.05695 0.06180 0.06909
00 364.8 133,100 0.1045 402.8 0.07181 0.07793 0.08712
0 324.9 105,500 0.08289 319.5 0.09055 0.09827 0.1099
1 289.3 83,690 0.06573 253.3 0.1142 0.1239 0.1385
2 257.6 66,370 0.05213 200.9 0.1440 0.1563 0.1747
3 229.4 52,640 0.04134 159.3 0.1816 0.1970 0.2203
4 204.3 41,740 0.03278 126.4 0.2289 0.2485 0.2778
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THE AMERICAN WELDER
WELDING PROJECT
93 WELDING JOURNAL
Welded Benches for Fun
and Fund-Raising
BY HOWARD WOODWARD
Caniz studied welding under Eric Ockerhausen, Peoria Section treasurer and advisor to
the Sections Student Chapter, who used the funds raised from selling these benches to
help finance a pet project of his based in Guatemala.
Ockerhausen explained that he and Caniz would spend 13 days in Guatemala build-
ing a cost-effective system he designed to dry coffee beans using solar energy and mate-
rials found locally. The project, if successful, would benefit the local economy.
As for designing the benches, Ockerhausen explained, You dont really need meas-
urements because each type of bench should be different. I chose a cat but another stu-
dent did a rhino, because that was his animal of choice.
For this project, the bill of materials included six, four-ft-long boards 1 in. by 6 in.; 24
carriage bolts; four sections of angle iron 4 ft long; plus eight pieces of angle iron cut to
fit (12 ft total). The cats dimensions are roughly 28 in. long, by 18 in. high, with a 17-in.-
Fig. 1 Attention-getting bench designs are easy to make and limited only by the welders
imagination. This cat motif was inspired by a small cast-iron feline. Its outline was enlarged
by projecting its shadow onto a piece of paper using an ordinary flashlight. The shadow was
traced then transferred to sturdier material to make the pattern for cutting the steel cats.
HOWARD WOODWARD
(woodward@aws.org) is associate editor
of the Welding Journal.
The whimsical garden bench featuring a black cat theme (Fig. 1) was
built by Rufino Caniz, a Guatemalan, as a welding project during his
studies as a visiting professor at Illinois Central College.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2012 94
long tail. The whiskers are silicone held
on with a dab of silicone caulk.
Ockerhausen stated, The best way
to design a bench is to just sit on a bench.
If it is comfortable, measure it and make
yours similar to that one. Most of the
bench seats are about 17 to 18 in. off the
ground, and they can be straight or at just
a slight tilt. The back rest is always at a lit-
tle angle for comfort.
The first steps are to decide on an ani-
mal design, how big to make it, and how
to transfer that design into a piece of steel
heavy enough to support a persons
weight.
We used
3
8-in. steel, Ockerhausen
said, and since we did not have a big
sheet of it, we welded a couple of pieces
together to make a piece large enough to
work with. We just cut the metal, welded
it together, then ground it smooth. That
can keep your cost down.
As you can see, on the backside of the
bench we used angle irons to support the
seat and the back rest Fig. 2. Since we
used redwood salvaged from an old wood-
en pallet, we had to add the extra metal
supports to make the bench strong enough
to hold a person. If you use 2 4 treated
lumber, the wood bolted to the bench
pieces should be strong enough to support
the bench and the people sitting on it.
Note that a metal plate is welded
between the cats feet to distribute the
weight and keep the bench stable on soft
ground. Anything that spreads out the
weight, Ockerhausen said, will work
just fine. On other benches, we used 3-in.-
diameter metal circles to spread the
weight.
For the (animal) design you can use
anything you like. Be creative and have
fun with it. If you can draw, you can just
trace out the full-sized design.
For the cat bench, I used a small cast
iron cat as the model. I mounted large
pieces of white paper on a wall, then used
a flashlight to cast a shadow of the model
onto the paper. Once the shadow size was
as big as I thought it needed to be, I
traced the shadow onto the paper. Then,
I cut that design out and copied it onto a
heavier material to use as the pattern for
making future cats from steel.
Ockerhausen noted, you do have to be
a little creative to turn a design into
something practical. That is the fun part.
If it does not work out just right the first
time, grind off the weld and make the
adjustments. That is a good thing about
welding.
Caniz and Ockerhausen left for
Guatemala in early January to start their
project. They built a solar-powered coffee
bean drying system constructed from
empty soda cans (Fig. 3), a passive solar
water heater, and a wall constructed from
plastic soda bottles filled with sand for the
insulating bricks. They used solar light
tubes under the tin roof to provide light
during the day.
Ockerhausen noted this is a continu-
ing project that needs additional support.
He seeks donations to help fund a waste-
oil burner for drying coffee and to devel-
op a more efficient method to pump lake
water uphill. Also, they are seeking a
donor to provide an engine-driven gener-
ator to provide electricity during power
outages.
Ockerhausens broad plan is to even-
tually develop a market in his area for the
Guatemalan coffee. Illinois Central
College is hopeful this project may pro-
vide a study-abroad program offering stu-
dents an opportunity to travel to this area
of Guatemala to learn while working on
creative projects.
His mind still toying with new ideas for
benches, Ockerhausen mused, I was just
thinking of a giraffe design, or maybe for
Florida I could try to build a sailfish
bench.
WELDING PROJECT
Fig. 2 Rear view of the bench showing
the angle iron supports and carriage bolts.
Fig. 3 Ockerhausen sprays black paint on his soda-can-based solar
heating system to enhance its efficiency. The heater is part of a coffee bean
drying system he designed and recently installed in Guatemala.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
LEARNING TRACK
MARCH 2012 96
Welding instructor Mike Pelegrino is
pleased with the success of the welder ap-
prentice classes at Pipe Fitters Training
Center Local Union 597 in Mokena, Ill., a
village just southwest of Chicago.
The Training Facility
The training facility, opened in May
2005, is big and the number of training
staff is impressive. The 198,000-sq-ft facil-
itys welding lab features 116 welding
booths, two computer rooms with 20
workstations in each, two coupon-cutting
machines using oxyfuel cuts and machine
bevels, an overhead crane, a lecture hall
Students at Pipe Fitters 597 benefit from experienced instructors, many with
CWI credentials, small class sizes, and well-equipped training facilities
(woodward@aws.org) is associate editor
of the Welding Journal.
Front row, from left, are Pipe Fitters 597
welding instructors Mike Galfano, Peter
Larou, Rich Lopez, Bill Enright, Marc
Randulich, Dave Hintz, Mike Pelegrino,
Rick Hobson, Glen Burch, and Tyler
Johnson. Not pictured is instructor
Mark Duewerth. Standing are the
Tuesdays class of 1st-, 2nd-, and 4th-
year building trades apprentices, who
total about 90 welders each day.
Pipe Fitters Local Offers Comprehensive
Training Options
BY HOWARD WOODWARD
THE AMERICAN WELDER
97 WELDING JOURNAL
fitted with wireless laptops, advanced
audio/visual capabilities, and seating for
250.
The Training Schedules
Training work is performed both in-
doors and outdoors to simulate actual on-
the-job working conditions. At one time,
there may be as many as 800 apprentices
studying pipe fitter courses. The classes
are also offered five nights a week, from 5
to 8 p.m., to accommodate apprentices
and journeypersons.
The Welding Staff
Pelegrino said, We have approxi-
mately 30 part-time welding instructors
during the evening classes. They work in
the field for contractors during the day,
then come here to teach for another three
hours.
The daytime teaching staff are all pipe
fitters who continue to receive extensive
training on a yearly basis to update their
skills.
The daytime staff (see lead photo) in-
cludes Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
and Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Mike Pelegrino, an apprentice welding in-
structor for SMAW, GTAW, GMAW,
FCAW; Mike Galfano, apprentice basic
pipe fitting, OSHA regulations, and rig-
ging instructor; CWI Peter Larou, down-
hill pipe welding instructor; Rich Lopez,
Journeyperson welding instructor for
SMAW, GTAW, GMAW, and FCAW; CWI
and CWE Bill Enright, apprentice draft-
ing, history and heritage, and CWI prep
instructor for Journeypersons; CWI Marc
Randulich, apprentice welding instructor
for SMAW, GTAW, GMAW, FCAW; CWI
and CWE Dave Hintz, welding coordina-
tor and certification apprentices and Jour-
neymen; CWI Rick Hobson, apprentice
welding instructor for SMAW, GTAW,
GMAW, FCAW; CWI Glen Burch, hybrid
welding instructor; CWI Tyler Johnson,
downhill pipe welding instructor; and
Mark Duewerth, apprentice math and lay-
out instructor.
A big feature, Pelegrino said, is
while welding class sizes vary, in most
cases there is a 14:1 student-instructor
ratio, giving each student adequate per-
sonal instruction. He is particularly
pleased that four of his second-year weld-
ing students participated in the 2011
FABTECH Professional Welding Contest
in Chicago and earned the first-, fourth-,
fifth-, and twelfth-place honors.
Attendance Requirements
Unlike most welding training facilities,
the Pipe Fitters apprentice program is es-
sentially a scholarship, with zero cost to
the apprentice. The fees are funded by the
membership of the Local Union. How-
ever, students must continually demon-
strate learning skills and the ability to pass
the stringent ASME Section IX code re-
quirements or they may be dropped from
further studies.
Our welding course is set up or bro-
ken down into years, Pelegrino said.
For example, the first-year (six
months) apprentices learn horizontal T-
joint multipass welding of
3
8-in. equal leg
(2F), per visual requirements of ASME
Section IX, and vertical T-joint multipass
welding of
3
8-in. equal leg (3F), per visual
requirements of ASME Section IX. The
second six (6) months provides training on
welding 6-in. Schedule 80 pipe in the 1G
position, per visual requirements of
ASME Section IX and requires passing of
radiographic inspection.
Apprentices practice on welding large-diameter pipe.
CWI Mike Pelegrino inspects a students weld
LEARNING TRACK
THE AMERICAN WELDER
MARCH 2012 98
Once the apprentice passes the re-
quired tests set forth by Local 597, Pele-
grino said, they may proceed to the
GTAW process. Please note that the ap-
prentice can proceed at a faster pace and
have his requirements met prior to his or
her indenture dates.
The GTAW process, introduced in the
third year, is taught on 4- and also 2-in.
pipe with variations as needed. This
process follows the same progression with
each position being taught. Once the ap-
prentice tests again on carbon-steel pipe
in the 6G position on 2-in. Schedule 80
(the UA 15), then they will move onto
using stainless steel filler metals. The pro-
cedure continues for each type of different
filler metals and then an X-ray test for
qualifying them.
The fourth-year apprentices study ad-
vanced SMA, GTA, and GMA/FCA weld-
ing processes.
The facility also offers apprentice
training in the building trades including an
industrial rigging certification course.
Visit the Unions Web site, or call or
write for more information.
Pipe Fitters Training Center
Local Union 597
10850 W. 187th St.
Mokena, IL 60448
Phone: (708) 326-9240
FAX: (708) 326-9241
E-mail: training@pftf597.org
www.pftf597.org
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THE AMERICAN WELDER
FACT SHEET
In shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW), the orientation of the elec-
trode in relation to the workpiece and the
weld groove controls the direction and lo-
cation of the arc and is an important fac-
tor in weld quality. Improper positioning
of the electrode can result in slag entrap-
ment, porosity, and weld undercut.
Proper orientation in the joint depends
on the type and size of electrode, welding
position, and joint geometry. A skilled
welder automatically evaluates these fac-
tors when deciding the orientation to be
used for a specific joint. The positioning
of the electrode relative to the joint and
the workpiece is described by the travel
angle and work angle.
The term travel angle denotes the
angle (less than 90 deg) between the elec-
trode axis and a line perpendicular to the
weld axis, in a plane determined by the
electrode axis and weld axis. The term
work angle denotes the angle (less than 90
deg) between a line perpendicular to the
major workpiece surface and a plane de-
termined by the electrode axis and the
weld axis.
When the electrode is pointed in the
direction of welding, the technique is
termed forehand welding. The travel
angle is then known as the push angle.
When the electrode is pointed in the op-
posite direction to that of welding, the
technique is termed backhand welding.
The travel angle in backhand welding is
called the drag angle. These angles are
shown in Fig. 1.
Correct placement of the electrode
helps to achieve control of the weld pool, at-
tain the desired penetration, and ensure
complete fusion to the base plate. Typical
electrode orientation and welding tech-
nique for groove and fillet welds for use on
carbon steel with carbon steel electrodes
are listed in Table 1. These values may be
different for other electrodes and materials.
A large travel angle may cause a con-
vex, poorly shaped bead with inadequate
penetration, whereas a small travel angle
may cause slag entrapment. A large work
angle can cause undercutting, while a
small work angle can result in incomplete
fusion.
SMAW Electrode Orientation
Table 1 Typical Shielded Metal Arc Electrode Positioning and Welding Techniques for Carbon Steel Electrodes
Joint Type Welding Position Work Angle (deg) Travel Angle (deg) Welding Techniques
Groove Flat 90 510
(a)
Backhand
Groove Horizontal 80 100 510 Backhand
Groove Uphill 90 510 Forehand
Groove Overhead 90 510 Backhand
Fillet Horizontal 45 510
(a)
Backhand
Fillet Uphill 3555 510 Forehand
Fillet Overhead 3045 510 Backhand
(a) Travel angle may be 10 to 30 deg for electrodes with heavy iron powder coverings.
MARCH 2012 100
Fig. 1 Orientation of the electrode.
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MARCH 2012 104
if the company would assist with its current welding program.
Dale Gilbertson, a weld training supervisor, coordinated the ef-
fort with school administrators.
Caterpillar representatives then spent the summer working
with administrators to identify needs, provided students with a
manufacturing process introduction, and guided facility tours at
its South Milwaukee campus. The company also assisted devel-
oping curriculum to the schools welding instructors and put them
through the Caterpillar 101 welding course. In addition, employ-
ees Willy Love and Jose Ramirez provide on-site instruction, vis-
iting the classroom once a week, and will continue to do so until
the end of each semester.
Along with Lincoln Electric, the company supplied welding
consumables, personal protective equipment, and steel to sup-
port the weld program. Currently, 40 participants are enrolled.
Industry Notes
First Coast Technical College has established an evening weld-
ing program on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays. Located
in Palatkas Industrial BargePort facility, Florida, the colleges
classroom/lab features 35 stations. Classes are set to begin
March 19 and several prerequisites apply, so early application
is encouraged. For more details, e-mail angie.lord@fctc.edu.
MassDevelopment issued a $4 million tax-exempt bond, pur-
chased by TD Bank, on behalf of Bomco, Inc., Gloucester,
Mass., a producer of sheet metal fabrications for jet engines
and turbines. Proceeds will be used for equipment and to build
an 18,000-sq-ft manufacturing facility on its current property.
Praxair Distribution, Inc., Danbury, Conn., executed an agree-
ment to acquire Texas Welders Supply Co., the largest inde-
pendent gas and welding products distributor in the greater
Houston area with 130 employees.
Spoon River College, Illinois, is bringing back its welding pro-
gram in the spring 2012 semester. The six-credit welding oper-
ator certificate is comprised of three courses engineering
graphics, introduction to welding, and gas metal arc welding.
MICOR Industries, Inc., Decatur, Ala., obtained its qualifi-
cations and certifications to weld per ASME Section IX, on
6AL-4V (Grade 5) titanium.
Stork Materials Technology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, a
materials and product qualification testing provider, officially
changed its name to Element Materials Technology.
The R&D team at Solar Atmospheres developed a new hot
zone design concept to reduce vacuum furnace power losses.
To test the design, it is rebuilding a mid-size production vac-
uum furnace hot zone in its headquarters, Souderton, Pa.
Blackland Group added to its aerospace component manufac-
turing platform, Kessington Holdings, LP, acquiring Prikos &
Becker Tool Co., Skokie, Ill., a specializer in intricate assem-
blies requiring metal fabrications.
Werts Welding & Tank Service, Inc., opened a new branch in
Billings, Mont., to serve its western and northwestern user base
by reducing tank trailer parts and equipment delivery times.
The umbrella trade association for the Robotic Industries As-
sociation, AIA, and the Motion Control Association changed
its name from the Automation Technologies Council to the As-
sociation for Advancing Automation (A3).
Northwest Pipe Co. plans to expand its Saginaw, Tex., manu-
facturing facility to serve the areas needs of anticipated large
water projects, including a mill expansion that will increase the
diameter and thickness ranges of spiral welded steel pipe.
Holston Gases, Knoxville, Tenn., completed acquiring Cum-
berland Welding Supply Co., Somerset, Ky. Operations will
now be consolidated with Holstons operation in Somerset.
Red-D-Arc Welderentals has partnered with Key Plant Au-
tomation Ltd., Liverpool, UK, to be its exclusive global dis-
tributor of Key Plant weld-positioning/automation products.
Noble Gas Solutions, Albany, N.Y., donated $5000 to the Rens-
selaer Boys & Girls Club. In a recent Times Union article, it
was noted the club is in dire straits, and shuttering its doors
would put more than 120 children out on the street every day.
The hope of the program established at Pulaski High School,
assisted with training services and supplies from Caterpillar and
Lincoln, is to decrease the skills gap many businesses experience.
continued from page 11
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
Call for Papers
17th JOM/IIW Intl Conf. and Expo
on the Joining of Materials
May 58, 2013, Helsingr, Denmark
Papers are sought on all aspects of developments in
joining and material technology.
Topics of most interest include recent developments
in welding, soldering, and brazing. Advances in materi-
als, metallurgy, and weldability. Mathematical modeling
and simulation. Process monitoring, sensors, and con-
trol. Structural integrity and inspection. Applications
with relevance to industry needs, automotive, oil, gas,
and power generation. Weld quality structural proper-
ties, and environmental considerations. Education,
training, and qualification and certification of welding
personnel. Each paper will be peer reviewed for techni-
cal accuracy.
The deadline for submitting the title and a short
abstract is Nov. 2, 2012; notification regarding author
guidelines for the preparation of the full paper will be
sent by Dec. 31, 2012; the deadline for receipt of the full
paper is Feb. 27, 2013.
For registration form and further information, e-mail
Osama Al-Erhayem at jom_aws@post10.tele.dk.
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MARCH 2012 106
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CAREER
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NSERC/TransCanada
Industrial Research Chair in
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The Dept. of Mechanical and Mechatronics
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invites applications for the NSERC/
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Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
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AWS Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
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Divers Academy International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
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Electron Beam Technologies, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
www.electronbeam.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(815) 935-2211
FABTECH 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
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Fischer Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
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Fronius Perfect Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
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INDEX
Introduction
Because of their good combination of
high strength and low-temperature tough-
ness, high-strength low-alloy steels
(HSLA) are widely used in naval ship-
building and will continue to be the prin-
cipal structural materials in the future.
HSLA steels have very low-carbon content
(usually less than 0.1 wt-%) and less than
5 wt-% total alloying additions, including
Mo, Nb, Ti, V, Mn, Cu, Cr, Ni, and others.
Based on low-carbon content and a fine-
grained microstructure, HSLA steels have
better, or at least comparable, weldability
(resistance to hydrogen-induced cracking)
compared to mild steels but have a much
higher strength and toughness (Refs. 1, 2).
The thermomechanical-controlled pro-
cessing (TMCP) technique is utilized to
strengthen these steels through the devel-
opment of very fine grain size in the range
of 5 to 10 m (Refs. 3, 4). In addition,
these steels contain various carbides, ni-
trides, and/or carbonitrides that are finely
dispersed in the microstructure. These
precipitates act to impede the dislocation
motion and thereby provide a secondary
hardening effect (Refs. 5, 6).
From a weldability standpoint, one ad-
vantage of HSLA steels over older genera-
tion naval steels is that preheat can be either
entirely avoided, or only low-temperature
preheat is required. However, welding does
alter the carefully designed microstructure
of HSLA steels as a result of heat-affected
zone (HAZ) thermal cycles that exceed the
transformation temperature (Refs. 79).
The microconstituents commonly observed
in the weld metal and HAZ of HSLA steels
were summarized by Liu (Ref. 10). It has
been reported that precipitates could either
coarsen or dissolve in the steel matrix during
the heating cycle, which can lead to exces-
sive austenite grain growth in the HAZ due
to the absence of the pinning effect of pre-
cipitates on austenite grain boundaries
(Refs. 11, 12). The coarse grain size de-
creases the nucleation sites for high-tem-
perature transformation products such as
ferrite and pearlite, tending to suppress
their formation. If the cooling rate is suffi-
ciently high, martensite will form in the
HAZ, which can potentially make the HAZ
susceptible to hydrogen-induced cracking
(Refs. 1315). This is particularly a problem
in the coarse grain heat-affected zone
(CGHAZ), where grain growth is most pro-
nounced at peak temperatures above
1200C. An understanding of the continu-
ous cooling transformation behavior of the
CGHAZ of HSLA steel weldments and the
construction of corresponding CCT dia-
grams is necessary in order to optimize
welding parameters to avoid the formation
of deleterious microstructures such as hard
martensite (Ref. 16). For the purpose of
comparison, a CCT diagram for the
CGHAZ of HY-100 has also been con-
structed.
This paper describes the continuous
cooling transformation behavior of the
CGHAZ of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and
HY-100 steels. The microstructure re-
sulting from austenite decomposition at
different cooling rates is characterized,
and corresponding CCT diagrams are
constructed.
Experimental Procedure
The chemical compositions of the
HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-100 steels
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, MARCH 2012
Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Continuous Cooling Transformation
Behavior in the CGHAZ of Naval Steels
Continuous cooling transformation diagrams have been constructed for the
coarse-grain heat-affected zone of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-100 steels
BY X. YUE, J. C. LIPPOLD, B. T. ALEXANDROV, AND S. S. BABU
KEYWORDS
Continuous Cooling
Transformation
Microstructure
CGHAZ
HSLA-65
HSLA-100
HY-100
X. YUE (yuexinosu@gmail.com),, J. C. LIP-
POLD, B. T. ALEXANDROV, and S. S. BABU
are with the Welding Engineering Program, The
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.
ABSTRACT
Continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams were developed for the simu-
lated coarse-grain heat-affected zone (CGHAZ) of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-
100 naval steels. Samples were heated to a peak temperature of 1300C in the Gleeble
and then cooled over a range of cooling rates representative of actual practice. The
M
s
, M
f
, A
C3
, and A
C1
temperatures were determined using dilatometric analysis for
construction of the CCT diagrams. Grain coarsening was observed in the simulated
CGHAZ for all three steels and was most pronounced in HY-100. Dissolution of pre-
cipitates (carbides) in the austenite at the high simulation temperature was responsi-
ble for excessive austenite grain coarsening, with HSLA-65 exhibiting the smallest prior
austenite grain size. Depending on the cooling rate, martensite, bainite, ferrite, and
pearlite can form in the CGHAZ microstructure for HSLA-65. For HSLA-100 and
HY-100, only martensite and bainite were observed over the range of cooling rates
that were simulated. It can be concluded that HY-100 has the highest hardenability
while HSLA-65 has the lowest from the constructed CCT diagrams. Using these dia-
grams, it is possible to identify cooling rates that can avoid the formation of high hard-
ness martensite in CGHAZ in order to ensure resistance to hydrogen-induced cracking.
This is particularly a concern for HY-100 because of its higher carbon content and
hardenability relative to HSLA-65 and HSLA-100, and thereby has the potential for
forming much higher hardness martensite in the CGHAZ.
67-s WELDING JOURNAL
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used in this investigation are provided in
Table 1. The base metal microstructures of
the three steels are shown in Fig. 1AC. It
can be seen that the HSLA-65 microstruc-
ture consists of fine equiaxed ferrite grains
with a grain size in the range of 46 m.
HSLA-100 exhibits a quenched and tem-
pered martensite and/or bainite mi-
crostructure. The precipitates in HSLA-65
and HSLA-100 consist of carbides and/or
carbonitrides containing Nb or V, and ad-
ditional carbides precipitating during the
tempering process and/or the -copper
phase for HSLA-100 (Refs. 2, 4, 6, 16, 17).
Similar to HSLA-100, the HY-100 steel
microstructure is also quenched and tem-
pered martensite with carbides that form
during tempering.
Samples for CGHAZ simulation using
the Gleeble 3800 were machined from
the three steel plates. The samples were
6.5 mm in diameter by 100 mm long. A
Type K control thermocouple was welded
at the midsection of the test sample. A
dilatometer was used for measuring the di-
ametric dilation change of these samples.
All testing was done in a partial vacuum of
approximately 10
3
torr. The samples were
heated to a peak temperature of 1300C
(simulating the CGHAZ temperature) at
a linear rate of 200C/s and held at peak
temperature for one second. A peak tem-
perature of 1300C was selected because it
is representative of the CGHAZ in all
three steels and avoids the possibility of
sample melting at higher peak tempera-
tures. For the cooling portion, twelve cool-
ing rates were employed for each steel to
simulate a wide range of welding condi-
tions representative of actual practice. The
different cooling rates were obtained by
selecting copper or stainless steel jaw sets,
and adjusting the free span (spacing be-
tween jaws). The cooling rate is defined by
MARCH 2012, VOL. 88 68-s
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Fig. 1 Optical micrographs of the three naval steels. A HSLA-65; B
HSLA-100; C HY-100. 2% Nital etch.
Table 1 Chemical Compositions of Naval Steels
Element (wt-%) HSLA-65 HSLA-100 HY-100
C 0.074 0.051 0.18
Mn 1.35 0.90 0.28
Si 0.24 0.25 0.21
P 0.011 0.008 0.008
S 0.006 0.002 0.002
Cu 0.25 1.17 0.15
Ni 0.34 1.58 2.32
Cr 0.14 0.60 1.37
Mo 0.06 0.37 0.26
V 0.058 <0.01 <0.01
Nb 0.018 0.017 <0.01
Ti 0.012 <0.01 <0.01
Fig. 2 Determination of A
C3
, A
C1
, M
s
, and M
f
(at maximum cooling
rate) from dilatation curve.
A
C
B
20 m 20 m
20 m
the value t
8/5
, which is the cooling time
from 800 to 500C. In this investigation,
the t
8/5
was in the range of a few seconds
to around 100 s, as shown in Table 2. The
CCT diagrams are thereby constructed
using the dilatometry data obtained at dif-
ferent t
8/5
values. The method has been
specified in the paper by Eldis (Ref. 18).
Metallographic analysis was conducted
on samples taken at the midsection (hot
zone) of the dilatometry specimens close
to the location where the thermocouple
was attached. Samples were polished and
etched with 2% nital and examined using
both optical and scanning electron mi-
croscopy. For TEM analysis, thin slices
were cut using a low-speed diamond saw,
and then they were mechanically ground
to a thickness of about 80 m. The 3-mm-
diameter discs were punched and elec-
trolytically thinned using a twin jet pol-
isher in a solution of 33% nitric acid and
67% methanol at 10C. The TEM foils
were evaluated in a Philips CM200 TEM
operated at 200 kV.
The prior austenite grain size was
measured in accordance with ASTM E
112-96. Vickers hardness measurements
were conducted on the as-polished sam-
ples using a 1-kg load, in accordance with
ASTM E 384-10.
Results and Discussion
Prior austenite grain size plays an im-
portant role in the continuous cooling
transformation behavior of HSLA and HY
steels. Excessive austenite grain coarsen-
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Fig. 3 Vickers hardness profile as a function of t
8/5
for three naval steels. A HSLA-65; B HSLA-100; C HY-100.
Fig. 4 Optical micrographs of CGHAZ of HSLA-65 at different cooling rates. A t
8/5
= 5.2 s; B t
8/5
= 8.3 s; C t
8/5
= 21.1 s; D t
8/5
= 41.8 s; E
t
8/5
= 57.2 s; F t
8/5
= 84.2 s; 2% Nital etch.
Table 2 t
8/5
and Corresponding Average Cooling Rates for Three Naval Steels
HSLA-65 HSLA-100 HY-100
t
8/5
Avg Cooling t
8/5
Avg Cooling t
8/5
Avg Cooling
(s) Rate (C/s) (s) Rate (C/s) (s) Rate (C/s)
3.0 100 2.4 125 3.6 83.3
3.5 85.7 3.6 83.3 4.3 69.8
5.2 57.7 8.2 36.6 5.7 52.6
8.3 36.1 13.4 22.4 10.6 28.3
10.5 28.6 15.5 19.4 14.1 21.3
21.1 14.2 17.7 16.9 19.1 15.7
27.2 11.0 37.8 7.9 21.2 14.2
36.4 8.2 41.4 7.2 43.5 6.9
41.8 7.2 51.4 5.8 66.4 4.5
57.2 5.2 60.9 4.9 74.1 4.0
75.6 4.0 86.8 3.5 106.6 2.8
84.2 3.6 106.3 2.8 113.4 2.6
A
A
C
C
D
E F
B
B
20 m
20 m
20 m 20 m
20 m 20 m
ing in the CGHAZ during welding is gen-
erally detrimental to HAZ mechanical
properties. For the purpose of comparison
of the austenite grain coarsening tendency
of the three steels, the prior austenite
grain size was measured at the maximum
cooling rate for each test steel, in which
circumstance the austenite coarsening
during cooling before the start of trans-
formation was most restricted and an ac-
curate comparison among steels was
ensured. The ASTM grain size number
(and average grain diameter) for the sim-
ulated CGHAZ of HSLA-65, HSLA-100,
and HY-100 were determined to be 7.5 (27
m), 5.8 (50 m), and 4.5 (75 m), re-
spectively. All the steels exhibited an es-
sentially equiaxed grain structure.
The A
C1
and A
C3
temperatures on
heating were determined by identifying
the deviation points from the dilation
curve, as shown in Fig. 2. Since the heating
process was identical for all twelve simu-
lated thermal cycles, the average value of
A
C1
and A
C3
and the standard deviation
are calculated and provided in Table 3.
The Vickers hardness values as a func-
tion of t
8/5
for the three steels are shown in
Fig. 3AC. Generally speaking, for all three
steels, at the minimum t
8/5
(or highest cool-
ing rate), the Vickers hardness of simulated
CGHAZ reaches the maximum value based
on the carbon content of the steel. At a t
8/5
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Fig. 5 SEM and TEM micrographs for simulated CGHAZ of HSLA-65. A t
8/5
= 3 s; B t
8/5
= 21.1 s; C t
8/5
= 84.2 s; D HSLA-65 base metal
microstructure; E t
8/5
= 84.2 s (bright-field TEM); F HSLA-65 base metal microstructure (bright-field TEM).
A
C D
E F
B
of 3.6 s, HY-100 exhibits the highest hard-
ness at approximately 450 HV, while HSLA-
65 and HSLA-100 are in the range from 350
to 360 HV. With increasing t
8/5
(slower cool-
ing rate), the Vickers hardness value de-
creases as a result of different types of
austenite decomposition products at differ-
ent cooling rates. The formation of pre-
dominantly martensite at high cooling rates
leads to higher hardness, relative to bainite
and ferrite which form at lower cooling
rates. The Vickers hardness results can then
be used in combination with metallographic
analysis to determine the austenite decom-
position products.
Microstructure Characterization of
HSLA-65
Optical micrographs of the simulated
CGHAZ of HSLA-65 at different cooling
rates are shown in Fig. 4AF. In combina-
tion with SEM and TEM micrographs (as
shown in Fig. 5AF) and Vickers hardness
results (Fig. 3A), austenite decomposition
products at different cooling rates can be
determined. Note that not all the optical,
SEM or TEM microstructures at all the
cooling rates are presented here, only
some typical ones are used to illustrate
variation in the transformation products as
a function of cooling rate.
At the minimum t
8/5
of 3 s, martensite
forms in the CGHAZ, as shown in the SEM
micrograph in Fig. 5A. This is a typical lath
martensite microstructure, in which prior
austenite grain boundaries and lath marten-
site packet boundaries are discernable. The
possibility of formation of other phases,
other than low-carbon lath martensite, can
be excluded since the transformation mi-
crostructure exhibits a hardness of 360 HV,
while at the same time the carbon content
is only 0.074 wt-%. The combined effect of
fast cooling rate and coarsening of prior
austenite grains promotes the formation of
martensite instead of ferrite and pearlite,
which form based on a diffusion-controlled
transformation mechanism. The martensite
start (M
s
) and finish temperature (M
f
) were
determined to be 486 and 282C, respec-
tively. It should be noted that the transfor-
mation is not necessarily complete at the M
f
temperature, but based on the absence of
any apparent austenite in the microstruc-
ture, it is surmised that martensite is the
predominant transformation product.
By increasing t
8/5
to 5.2 s, ferrite and
needle-like bainite appear in the transfor-
mation microstructure as shown in Fig.
4A. It is generally agreed that bainitic mi-
crostructures can be divided into upper
and lower bainite, the main difference be-
tween them is that for the lower bainite,
the carbides precipitate preferentially
within bainite laths, while for upper bai-
nite, carbides precipitate along the bainite
lath boundaries (Ref. 19). However, it
should be noted that upper and lower bai-
nite are not differentiated in the present
study; both of them are generally catego-
rized as bainite, which exhibits a needle-
like lath morphology, as shown at higher
magnification in the SEM in Fig. 5B.
It is shown in Fig. 4B and C that at t
8/5
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Table 3 Important Parameters Determined for Naval Steels
Prior Austenite A
C1
A
C3
M
s
b
M
f
b
CGHAZ
b
Base
Grain Size (C) (C) (C) (C) Max Metal CE
c
(m)
a
Hardness Hardness
(HV)
b
(HV)
HSLA-65 273.8 7706.4 8655.2 486 282 360 201 0.43
HSLA-100 503.6 7654.8 8506.7 466 278 353 284 0.62
HY-100 755.8 7656.0 8204.3 406 221 454 283 0.75
(a) PAGS for peak temperature of 1300C with hold time of 1 s.
(b) M
s
, M
f
, CGHAZ Max hardness determined at minimum t
8/5
(3.0, 2.4, 3.6 s for HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-100, respectively).
(c) CE
IIW
= C +(Mn+Si)/6+(Cr+Mo+V)/5+(Ni+Cu)/15.
20 m
20 m 20 m
20 m 20 m
20 m
Fig. 6 Optical micrographs of CGHAZ of HSLA-100 at different cooling rates. A t
8/5
= 2.4 s; B
t
8/5
= 8.2 s; C t
8/5
= 37.8 s; D t
8/5
= 60.9 s; E t
8/5
= 86.8 s; F t
8/5
= 106.3 s. 2% Nital etch.
A
C D
E F
B
of 8.3 and 21.1 s, a small amount of ferrite
forms along the prior austenite grain
boundaries. Long needle-like bainite
grows throughout the prior austenite grain
resulting in an aspect ratio greater than
10:1. The dark-etching phase observed be-
tween bainite should be martensite. When
t
8/5
is 41.8 s, as shown in Fig. 4D, the mi-
crostructure is still a mixture of ferrite, bai-
nite, and martensite. However, the
fraction of ferrite increases while marten-
site decreases in comparison with Fig. 4B,
C. This is the reason why the hardness
continues to decrease as t
8/5
increases.
When t
8/5
is 57.2 and 84.2 s, as shown in
Fig. 4E, F, small dark pearlite islands form
adjacent to the equiaxed ferrite grains. Be-
cause the equiaxed ferrite constitutes the
majority of the transformation microstruc-
ture, the Vickers hardness values are 230
and 228 HV for these cooling times, which
are only slightly higher than the base mate-
rial hardness of 201 HV. The ferritic mi-
crostructure with much lower hardness and
smaller grain size is less susceptible to hy-
drogen-induced cracking compared with the
martensitic microstructure forming at fast
cooling rates (Ref. 20).
The transformation microstructure at
the minimum cooling rate is further inves-
tigated as shown in Fig. 5C. The ferrite
grain boundaries can be clearly observed,
and no obvious precipitates appear along
the grain boundaries or within the ferrite
grains. However, in the base metal mi-
crostructure shown in the SEM micro-
graph in Fig. 5D, various precipitates can
be clearly identified along the ferrite grain
boundaries as well as much smaller pre-
cipitates within the grains. Two bright-field
TEM images at higher magnification are
also provided as shown in Fig. 5E, F. It can
be seen in Fig. 5F that clusters of precipi-
tates exist in the HSLA-65 base metal be-
fore thermal cycle simulation, but they
disappear after the thermal cycle as shown
in Fig. 5E. It is therefore concluded that
the precipitates in HSLA-65 dissolve dur-
ing the high-temperature exposure (T
peak
= 1300C) of the CGHAZ thermal cycle,
and even at the minimum cooling rate, sig-
nificant reprecipitation during cooling still
does not occur. This explains why the prior
austenite grain size increases fivefold rel-
ative to the base metal grain size. As the
precipitates dissolve on heating to high
temperature, no grain boundary pinning is
possible and austenite grain coarsening
occurs. Although the carefully designed
HSLA-65 base metal microstructure of
fine grain size and dispersed precipitates
is absent in the CGHAZ, a transformation
microstructure developed at minimum
cooling rates can produce lower hardness
levels approaching that of the base metal.
Microstructure Characterization of
HSLA-100
Optical micrographs of the simulated
CGHAZ of HSLA-100 at different cool-
ing rates are shown in Fig. 6AF. At the
minimum t
8/5
of 2.4 s, a peak Vickers hard-
ness value of 353 HV is achieved. In com-
bination with the microstructure shown in
Fig. 6A, it can be concluded that the high-
cooling rate transformation product is
martensite. Because HSLA-100 has a low-
carbon content (0.051 wt-%), the marten-
site formed should be low-carbon lath
martensite, whose morphology can be ob-
served in Fig. 7A. By increasing t
8/5
to 8.2
s, light-colored bainite appears in the mi-
crostructure, which nucleates from the
prior austenite grain boundaries and
grows into the grain interior. Some of the
needle-like bainite has a large aspect ratio
and can grow across the entire prior
austenite grain as was seen in HSLA-65.
The dark-etching phase between the bai-
nite laths is martensite.
By increasing t
8/5
up to 106.3 s, as
shown in Fig. 6CF, no obvious ferrite or
pearlite can be observed (as also shown in
Fig. 7B), and the microstructure is still a
mixture of bainite and martensite. With
decreasing cooling rate, the fraction of
bainite increases and martensite de-
creases. The microstructure change results
in a gradual decrease in the Vickers hard-
ness as the cooling rate decreases as shown
in Fig. 3B; that is, if the fraction of bainite
in the microstructure increases, then the
hardness decreases. At the minimum cool-
ing rate, bainite dominates the mi-
crostructure as shown in Fig. 6F, and the
minimum hardness value of 270 HV is ob-
tained, which is less than the hardness (284
HV) of the tempered martensite base
metal microstructure.
Microstructure Characterization of HY-100
The optical micrographs of the simu-
lated CGHAZ of HY-100 at different
cooling rates are shown in Fig. 8. As shown
in Fig. 8 AC, the microstructure clearly
exhibits a martensitic morphology. While
in Fig. 8D, light-colored bainite appears,
and with increasing t
8/5
, the fraction of bai-
nite increases and martensite decreases as
shown in Fig. 8E, F. This can be confirmed
by the Vickers hardness data in Fig. 3C.
The maximum hardness value of 454 HV
is achieved at the minimum t
8/5
of 3.6 s. In
the t
8/5
range from 3.6 to 21.2 s, a hardness
plateau appears indicating that transfor-
mation to martensite is complete at these
cooling rates. At higher cooling times, the
hardness abruptly drops as bainite begins
to replace martensite in the microstruc-
ture, as shown in Fig. 8D for t
8/5
of 43.5 s.
Comparison of the Three Steels
For all three steels, complete transfor-
mation to martensite occurs in the simu-
lated CGHAZ at the minimum t
8/5
of ~3 s.
The M
s
and M
f
temperatures have been de-
termined at this cooling time as previously
shown in Table 3. Based on the experimen-
MARCH 2012, VOL.91 72-s
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Fig. 7 SEM micrographs for simulated CGHAZ of HSLA-100. A t
8/5
= 2.4 s; B t
8/5
= 60.9 s.
A
B
tal results, CCT diagrams for the CGHAZ
of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-100 have
been constructed as shown in Fig. 9.
It is generally agreed that the composi-
tion and processing route determine the
microstructure and properties of steel. For
HSLA-65 and HSLA-100, the very fine
base metal microstructure is achieved by
the utilization of the thermomechanical-
controlled processing (TMCP) technique.
The basic principle of TMCP is to refine
and/or deform the austenite grains in a
carefully controlled rolling process,
whereby austenite recrystallization and
grain growth are inhibited by stable pre-
cipitates such as Nb-rich carbides and/or
carbonitrides that remain undissolved at
the rolling temperature. The refined
austenite then transforms to the desired
microstructure with very fine grain size.
This well-developed base metal mi-
crostructure is completely destroyed in the
CGHAZ by transformation to austenite
and complete dissolution of the carbides
(Fig. 5 CF). Therefore, the pinning effect
of precipitates on austenite grain bound-
aries is absent (Refs. 21, 22) and results in
prior austenite grain size of 27 and 50 m
for HSLA-65 and HSLA-100, respectively.
For HY-100, which is a quenched and
tempered steel with no grain boundary
pinning precipitates involved, even coarser
prior austenite grains (75 m) are ob-
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Fig. 8 Optical micrographs of CGHAZ of HY-100 at different cooling rates. A t
8/5
= 3.6 s; B t
8/5
= 10.6 s; C t
8/5
= 21.2 s; D t
8/5
= 43.5 s; E t
8/5
= 74.1 s; F t
8/5
= 113.4 s. 2% Nital etch.
A
C D
E F
B
served in the simulated CGHAZ mi-
crostructure. The coarse prior austenite
grains provide fewer nucleation sites for
ferrite on the grain boundaries compared
with fine grains and, therefore, tend to
more readily promote the formation of
martensite.
In comparison to HSLA-65 and HSLA-
100, the CGHAZ of HY-100 has much
coarser prior austenite grain size and
higher hardness (~450 HV). The differ-
ence in martensite hardness among these
steels (Table 3) is directly attributable to
the difference in carbon content. As for
the M
s
temperature, HY-100 exhibits the
lowest and HSLA-65 the highest, as a di-
rect influence of the level of alloying addi-
tions and the related carbon equivalent
values (Table 3).
From the CCT diagrams for the simu-
lated CGHAZ microstructure, transfor-
mation products including ferrite, pearlite,
bainite, and martensite can form in
HSLA-65 while only bainite and marten-
site form in HSLA-100 and HY-100. The
difference in carbon equivalent is also re-
flected in the three CCT diagrams. The
approximate critical t
8/5
to form marten-
site is 3.5 s, 3.6 s, and 21.2 s for HSLA-65,
HSLA-100, and HY-100, respectively. Al-
though the carbon content of the three
steels is relatively low and lath martensite
is the predominant CGHAZ microstruc-
tural constituent at these cooling rates, it is
generally advisable to avoid the formation
of full martensite microstructures with
high hardness in CGHAZ in order to in-
sure HIC resistance.
The widely accepted AWS D1.1 stan-
dard (Ref. 23) is referred here in order to
show the different requirements for pre-
heat and interpass temperatures when
welding these steels as to insure resistance
to hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC). As
shown in Fig. 10, HSLA-65 and HSLA-100
are classified in Zone I due to their low
carbon content and carbon equivalent,
which means that HIC is unlikely when
welding the two steels, but may occur with
high hydrogen levels or high restraint.
HY-100 is classified in Zone III, which
means that the hydrogen control method
should be used to determine preheat. In
this analysis, one assumes the situation of
welding the three naval steels in real prac-
tice with a hydrogen level of H2 (medium
hydrogen, 510 mL/100 g) and medium re-
straint as encountered in fillet or groove
joints, and the thickness of all the three
steel plates to be welded is the same at
12.7 mm (0.5 in.). This combination of H2
hydrogen content and medium restraint
level is representative of many commonly
encountered situations. Based on the
AWS D1.1 standard, the preheat and in-
terpass temperature of 145C should be
used when welding HY-100 as to insure
HIC resistance. While for HSLA-65 and
HSLA-100, preheat can be avoided at the
same situation (if welding at ambient tem-
perature of 20C).
Note that when welding these steels in
actual shipyard conditions, all the factors,
such as welding consumables and welding
process used, must be taken into account
when determining the preheat and inter-
pass temperatures. In practice, the Navy
recommends no preheat or interpass tem-
perature control for HSLA-65, although
some preheat may be used in some situa-
tions to remove moisture. For HSLA-100,
MARCH 2012, VOL.91 74-s
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Fig. 9 CCT diagrams for the CGHAZ of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-
100. A HSLA-65; B HSLA-100; C HY-100.
Fig. 10 Zone classification of steels for HIC cracking susceptibility ac-
cording to AWS D1.1/D1.1M:2010 (Ref. 23).
A
C
B
a preheat of 15C (60F) and a maximum
interpass of 149C (300F) is recom-
mended, while for HY-100 a minimum
preheat of 52C (125F) and maximum in-
terpass of 149C (300F) is commonly
used. These recommendations are for
plate thicknesses less than 25.4 mm (1-in.).
Thicker sections would require higher pre-
heat temperatures because of the higher
restrain levels. Note that the preheat re-
quirement for HY-100, based on AWS
D1.1, is conservative requiring a much
higher minimum preheat than what is ac-
tually used in practice.
Based on the results presented here, in
actual practice where resistance to HIC is
the primary concern, welding parameters
can be selected such that the effective t
8/5
for each steel is greater than its critical
value in order to avoid full martensite for-
mation. However, it should be noted that
formation of ferrite and/or bainite in
CGHAZ may lead to a strength decrease.
Therefore, there is a trade-off between
HIC resistance and weld HAZ strength.
This is particularly important for HY-100,
which has the highest hardenability and
achieves the highest hardness in CGHAZ.
More stringent welding conditions (higher
preheat temperatures) should be applied
when welding HY-100 in comparison with
welding HSLA-100 and HSLA-65, be-
cause of the higher carbon and alloy con-
tent in HY-100, and the likely formation
of martensite with higher hardness (~ 450
HV) over a wide range of cooling rates, as
well as larger prior austenite grain size in
the CGHAZ of HY-100. Based on the
more stringent needs regarding preheat,
the advantage of the HSLA series steels
over the HY series has been clearly
demonstrated.
Conclusions
1. The prior austenite grain size of the
simulated CGHAZ (1300C peak temper-
ature) of HSLA-65, HSLA-100, and HY-
100 was determined to be 27, 50, and 75
m, respectively.
2. The M
s
temperatures of HSLA-65,
HSLA-100, and HY-100 were determined
to be 486, 466, and 406C, respectively.
3. The austenite decomposition prod-
ucts are strongly dependent on the cooling
time (t
8/5
). For HSLA-65, at high cooling
rates (t
8/5
<3.5 s), martensite forms in the
CGHAZ microstructure. At intermediate
cooling rates (5.2 s <t
8/5
<41.8 s), the
CGHAZ microstructure is a mixture of
ferrite, bainite, and martensite. At slow
cooling rates (57.2 s <t
8/5
), equiaxed fer-
rite constitute the majority of CGHAZ mi-
crostructure of HSLA-65.
4. Only martensite and bainite are ob-
served in CGHAZ of HSLA-100 and HY-
100. Bainite begins to form when t
8/5
>8.2 s
for HSLA-100 and t
8/5
>43.5 s for HY-100.
5. The peak martensite hardness value
obtained in the simulated CGHAZ of HY-
100 (454 HV) is much higher than that of
HSLA-65 (360 HV) and HSLA-100 (353
HV), which is primarily a function of the
higher carbon content in HY-100 (0.18 wt-
%) relative to HSLA-65 (0.074 wt-%) and
HSLA-100 (0.051 wt-%).
6. Based on the CCT diagrams devel-
oped for these steels, the hardenability of
HY-100 is the highest while HSLA-65 is
the lowest.
7. More stringent welding conditions
(higher preheat temperature) should be
applied when welding HY-100 in compar-
ison with welding HSLA-100 and HSLA-
65. This is because of higher carbon
content and alloy addition in HY-100, pos-
sible formation of higher hardness
martensite, and larger prior austenite
grain size in the CGHAZ of HY-100.
8. In actual practice, where high-hy-
drogen and high-restraint levels are en-
countered and resistance to HIC is the
primary concern, beside the application of
preheat, the actual t
8/5
is recommended to
be greater than the critical value to avoid
martensite formation. For HSLA-65, it is
advisable to obtain an equiaxed ferrite mi-
crostructure forming at slow cooling rates.
While for HSLA-100 and HY-100, it is ad-
visable to control the cooling rate to de-
crease the fraction of martensite in the
microstructure and thus decrease the
CGHAZ hardness.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge
the financial support of the Office of
Naval Research, Award No.
N000140811000. The grant officers are Dr.
Julie Christodoulou and Dr. William
Mullins. The authors also would like to
thank Johnnie DeLoach, Matthew Sin-
field, and Jeffrey Farren with the Naval
Surface Warfare Center Carderock Divi-
sion, West Bethesda, Md., for providing
the steels used in this study and for valu-
able discussions regarding the weldability
of these steels.
References
1. Nemat-Nasser, S., and Guo, W. G. 2005.
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Introduction
Friction stir welding (FSW) consists of
the following three process parameters:
plunge depth/force, travel velocity, and
spindle speed. Dependencies between the
process parameters and response vari-
ables, including plunge force, plow force,
weld torque, and temperature, have been
reported (Refs. 19). Although tempera-
ture cannot be directly controlled, the re-
sulting forces and torque are strongly af-
fected by the short- and long-range weld
zone temperatures. For a constant spindle
speed, the torque would be expected to in-
crease as the travel velocity is increased
because the long-range weld zone temper-
ature is decreased.
Several studies have shown a correla-
tion between the increased travel velocity
and increased plow force (Refs. 1, 3, 8),
suggesting the tool is encountering mate-
rial with higher flow stresses due to
shorter times at elevated temperatures.
Increases in peak temperature measure-
ments have also been correlated with in-
creased travel velocity (Ref. 9), presum-
ably for the same reason. While increased
spindle speeds have the largest reported
effect on the FSW tool temperature (Refs.
1, 6), it has no reported effect on the plow
force (Ref. 3).
Although various studies (Refs. 19)
have targeted the relationships between
process parameters and weld tool geome-
try with response variables, little success
has been achieved toward predicting or
extrapolating process parameters, espe-
cially on the basis of temperature. A heat
index relationship, the pseudo heat index
(PHI) reported in the literature (Ref. 10),
attempts to correlate the heat input dur-
ing FSW with weld process parameters.
However, as Equation 1 (Ref. 10) shows,
it only considers the process parameters of
() for spindle speed and (V) for travel ve-
locity. Without including the power gener-
ated during the weld, the weld tool geom-
etry, and the thermal properties of the
FSW tooling, the PHI relationship cannot
accurately predict or be used to extrapo-
late FSW process parameters based on
temperature.
Improving the accuracy of FSW model
predictions and process scalability re-
quires incorporating the influence from
both the process parameters and tooling.
As such, this study considers the develop-
ment of a one-dimensional heat transfer
model that includes the geometry of the
weld tool, the thermal properties of the
workpiece and tooling, and the process pa-
rameters. This model is then used as the
basis for development of an alternative
heat indexing equation for FSW.
In the present study, two FSW tools,
whose dimensions are summarized in
Table 1, were used to produce friction stir
welded panels. A cylindrical pin was used
on both tools, one with a smooth surface
and the other with a threaded surface.
Both FSW tools used a smooth, 7-deg con-
cave shoulder and all of the friction stir
welds were made using a 2.5-deg tilt angle.
Bead-on-plate (BOP) friction stir
welds were made along the rolling direc-
tion and center width of 150 mm wide
610 mm long 6.4 mm thick AA2219-T87
plates. The horizontal weld tool (HWT) at
the National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministrations Marshall Space Flight Cen-
ter (NASA-MSFC) was used to produce
the friction stir welds. During the weld,
continuous recordings were made of the z-
axis (plunge) force, x-axis (plow) force,
weld torque, spindle speed, travel velocity,
and x-axis position. The weld torque was
PHI
10000
(1)
2
=

V
Developing an Alternative Heat Indexing
Equation for FSW
An alternative heat indexing equation is proposed that considers the
heat generation terms and thermal dissipation
BY J. A. QUERIN AND J. A. SCHNEIDER
KEYWORDS
Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Stir Zone (SZ)
Heat Indexing Equation
Thermal Dissipation
Alternative Heat Indexing
Heat Generation
J. A. QUERIN (joseph.a.querin@boeing.com)
is a welding, materials, and processes engineer,
Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Huntsville,
Ala. J. A. SCHNEIDER is a professor, Depart-
ment of Mechanical Engineering, Mississippi
State University, Mississippi State, Miss.
ABSTRACT
In friction stir welding (FSW), a nonconsumable, rotating weld tool is used to im-
part large shear deformations under a simultaneous compressive stress state to pro-
duce a solid-state weld joint between the former faying surfaces. The process results
in a refinement of the microstructure in the stir zone (SZ) in response to the heat and
plastic deformation. The peak temperature in the weldment is balanced between gen-
eration via frictional and deformational heating, and thermal dissipation. Heat index
equations published in the literature do not consider the effect of thermal dissipation.
The thermal dissipation is dependent on the travel velocity, weld tool geometry, and
thermal properties of the workpiece and process tooling that includes the tool, spin-
dle, and backing anvil. Maintaining a constant temperature is important in ensuring
the production of high-quality welds over a range of weld schedules. This study pro-
poses an alternative heat indexing (AHI) equation that considers not only the heat gen-
eration terms but also the thermal dissipation to ensure a constant peak temperature
when modifying or extrapolating weld schedules.
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91
measured with a load cell connected to the
spindle with a known arm length, thus
recording the actual moment that occurs
about the spindle as a result of the reac-
tion between the FSW tool and workpiece.
To evaluate the accuracy of the PHI re-
lationship and consider the interaction of
process parameters and tooling, initial
process parameters were based on pub-
lished values for FSW 6.4-mm-thick plates
of AA2219-T87 (Refs. 8, 11). Table 2 sum-
marizes the test matrix used in this study,
which was designed using a constant PHI
to consider the range of validity (Ref. 10).
From reported studies (Refs. 8, 11), a PHI
of 0.09 has been correlated with defect-
free friction stir welds in AA2219-T87 over
a range of travel velocities from 76 to 203
mm/min. For PHIs greater than 0.12, the
friction stir welds were reported to show
void-type defects. In this study, the travel
velocity was calculated for a given spindle
speed using a PHI of 0.09. The spindle
speed and z-axis force were selected based
on initial baseline friction stir welds to de-
termine processing parameters to produce
defect-free welds. Differences in z-axis
force are attributed to differences in the
shoulder diameter.
One-Dimensional Heat Transfer
Model
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the heat
source and sinks considered in the develop-
ment of an alternative heat indexing equa-
tion. The model consists of a power gener-
ation term that incorporates the geometry
of the FSW tool and process parameters,
heat loss terms for conduction within the
weldment and through the backing anvil
and spindle, and convection required to
continuously heat newly incorporated ma-
terial within the stir zone (SZ). The convec-
tive heat loss is dependent on the cross-sec-
tional area of the surface defining the SZ
and travel velocity. The surface that denotes
the separation of the SZ from the base ma-
terial (BM) is referred to as the shear sur-
face as illustrated in Fig. 2.
In this study, the temperature (T)
refers to the shear surface temperature,
and the temperature (T
0
) refers to a fixed
ambient temperature at a distance from
the source. For a cylindrical pin, the heat
source is approximated as a cylinder, as
shown in Fig. 3. In the development of this
model, it is assumed that the heat source
represents the shear surface and the shear
surface is isothermal.
The heat loss terms for the model are
derived from Fouriers Law in one dimen-
sion, which is expressed in Equation 2
(Ref. 12). In the expression (Q
n
) is the rate
of heat transfer, (k) is the thermal con-
ductivity of the material, (A) is the area
through which heat flows, and dT/dn is the
temperature gradient with respect to dis-
tance in the direction normal to A.
Power Generation
The rate at which work is performed is
termed power. In FSW, power is required
to rotate the weld tool in the workpiece
and traverse along the weld joint. Power
for a rotating object is calculated by mul-
tiplying the torque and the angular veloc-
ity, while the power for traversing longitu-
dinally along the weld joint is calculated by
multiplying the force acting in that direc-
tion by the velocity in that direction. Re-
ported total weld power calculations for
welds that did not contain defects con-
cluded that the contributions from the
tool rotating were in excess of 98% (Ref.
13). Therefore, in this study, the weld
power was approximated off of the weld
torque and spindle speed.
An assumption of the steady-state op-
eration of the FSW process is made in
which the contact conditions between
the workpiece and FSW tool are as-
sumed to be sticking. This is based on ex-
perimental evidence that the FSW
tool/workpiece contact conditions are
dominated by the sticking contact condi-
tion (Ref. 14). The weld torque (M) can
be calculated analytically by Equation 3.
Other researchers have used similar ex-
pressions to calculate the weld torque
and power (Refs. 1416). In Equation 3,
() is the flow stress of the material along
the shear surface and (r) is the distance
from the tool center to the shear surface.
The radius (r) is a function of its place-
ment along the z-axis. If the boundary of
the shear surface is not known, i.e. radius
as a function of the z-axis, then the FSW
tool profile can be used for an approxi-
mation. This torque multiplied by the
spindle speed gives an analytical expres-
sion for calculating the weld power. For
a cylindrical pin FSW tool where the
shear surface is estimated as that of the
Q kA
dT
dn
n
= (2)
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R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of a transverse view of the heat source
and sinks associated with FSW. Note the heat flow paths are represented by
the arrows.
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of a cylindrical pin FSW tool and the
shear surface separating the stir zone (SZ) from the rest of the weld.
Table 1 Dimensions of the Weld Tools
Smooth Threaded
Pin (mm) Pin (mm)
Shoulder Diameter 15.5 19.1
Pin Diameter 8.9 7.9
Pin Length 4.3 4.3
Fig. 3 Two-dimensional representation of the
idealized heat source for the cylindrical pin weld
tools.
FSW tool profile, Equation 3 is multi-
plied by the spindle speed and solved
yielding Equation 4, an expression for
the weld power (Q
g
). In Equation 4, (R
s
)
is the radius of the tool shoulder, (R) is
the radius of the pin, (H) is the length of
the pin, () is the spindle speed, and ()
is the flow stress of the material along the
shear surface.
Heat Loss Terms
As illustrated in Fig. 1, the heat losses
assumed include conduction losses to the
workpiece, anvil, and spindle, in addition
to a convective heat loss to the workpiece.
Each is briefly described in this section.
For a cylindrical heat source, the con-
ductive losses to the workpiece (Q
w
) are
approximated as a radial flow of heat
from the cylindrical heat source at radius
(R) to a fixed temperature (T
0
) at radius
(R
0
). The expression for this heat loss is
given in Equation 5 where (k
w
) is the
thermal conductivity of the workpiece
and (T) is the shear surface temperature.
Conduction losses to the anvil (Q
a
) are
approximated as a spherically radial flow
of heat from under the bottom of the pin
into a thick block of material as given by
Equation 6. The radius of the bottom of
the pin (R
a
) is assumed equal to (R) for the
cylindrical source. In Equation 6, (k
a
) is
the thermal conductivity of the anvil.
M r dz
dr
dz
=

[
\
|

)
j
(2 ) 1+
2
(3)
2
2
1
3
3
3
Q R
R
R
H
R
g
s
=
[
\
|
|
)
j
j
+
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
((4)
Q
w
T T k H
R
R
w
=
( )
0
0
2
ln
(5)
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91 78-s

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Fig. 4 Longitudinal exit hole macrographs. A Smooth pin FSW tool at 0.023 mm/rev; B smooth pin FSW tool at 0.34 mm/rev; C threaded pin FSW
tool at 0.23 mm/rev; and D threaded pin FSW tool at 0.34 mm/rev.
Fig. 5 Weld power vs. welding velocity using different advances per rev-
olution calculated for the smooth pin FSW tool.
Fig. 6 Specific weld energy vs. welding velocity using different advances
per revolution calculated for the smooth pin FSW tool.
Table 2 Test Matrix for FSW AA2219-T87
Spindle Speed Travel Velocity Forge Force (kN) Weld Pitch Tilt Angle
(rev/min) (mm/min) Smooth Threaded Surface (mm/rev) (deg)
Surface Pin 5/16-24 UNF Pin
200 46 17.8 24.5 0.23 2.5
300 102 17.8 24.5 0.34 2.5
400 180 17.8 24.5 0.45 2.5
500 282 17.8 24.5 0.56 2.5
A
C
B
D
The conduction loss to the spindle (Q
s
)
is approximated as a linear flow of heat in
a rod. Heat travels from the shear surface
temperature (T) at the shoulder through a
length of rod (L
sp
) to a fixed ambient tem-
perature (T
0
). The expression for the heat
loss to the spindle is given in Equation 7.
Where (k
sp
) and (R
sp
) refer to the effective
spindle thermal conductivity and radius,
respectively.
As the tool advances during the weld,
cooler material enters the front of the weld
while hotter material is deposited in the
wake of the weld. This gives rise to convec-
tive heat loss. The convective heat loss is de-
pendent on the power required to heat
material passing through the cross section
of the shear surface from ambient to that of
the shear surface. As with the case of power
generation, the cross section of the pin pro-
file may be substituted to make an approxi-
mation if the shear surface profile is not
known. The expression for the convective
heat loss (Q
v
) considering a cylindrical pro-
file is given in Equation 8. Where (2RH) de-
scribes the cross-sectional area, (V) refers to
the travel velocity, and (c) refers to the vol-
umetric heat capacity of the workpiece ma-
terial.
Theoretical Estimation of the Peak
Temperature
It is assumed that FSW is a steady-state
process, there is no storage of energy, and
the shear surface is isothermal. Addition-
ally, it is assumed all of the mechanical
power is converted into thermal energy,
and efficiency factors for the loss terms are
neglected. With the present assumptions,
the conservation of energy is given by
Equation 9.
(7)
2
0
Q
k R T T
L
s
sp sp
sp
=
( )
(6)
0
Q R k T T
a a a
= 2 ( )
2 (8)
0
Q RHV c T T
v
= ( )
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R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 8 Model results vs. experimental observations for the weld torque re-
quired while using the smooth surface FSW tool.
Fig. 10 Model results vs. experimental observations for the weld torque
required while using the threaded surface FSW tool.
Fig. 7 Model results vs. experimental observations for the weld power ob-
tained while using the smooth surface FSW tool.
Fig. 9 Model results vs. experimental observations for the weld power re-
quired while using the threaded surface FSW tool.
Table 3 Percent Difference Between the Model and Experimental Weld Power and Weld
Torque
Smooth Surface Threaded Surface
FSW Tool FSW Tool
Weld Pitch Power Torque Power Torque
(mm/rev) Difference Difference Difference Difference
(%) (%) (%) (%)
0.23 0.1 0.1 7.3 7.3
0.34 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.4
0.45 10.9 10.9 9.1 9.1
0.56 18.4 18.4 21.9 21.9
In addition to the relationships between
the processing parameters and heat loss
terms, the shear stress as a function of
temperature needs to be defined. A linear
approximation, Equation 10, is used that
captures thermal softening with increasing
temperature with a lower bound of zero
flow stress at the melting temperature. In
Equation 10, (m
) is the change in shear

stress with respect to temperature in the
near melting regime, (T
m
) is the melting
temperature of the workpiece, and (T) is
the shear surface temperature.
Figure 4 shows macrographs of the lon-
gitudinal exit hole verifying significant
shoulder contact was maintained at condi-
tions of 0.23 and 0.34 mm/rev. Thus, the
value of (m
) was found from the torque

values measured at these conditions. Since
it was assumed that there was no loss of
shoulder contact and sticking contact con-
ditions were experienced for these welds,
any reduction in the shear surface was
deemed negligible.
After applying the energy balance of
Equation 9 and the relationship outlined
in Equation 10, a theoretical expression
for the shear surface temperature can be
found. Equation 11 is the expression for
the shear surface temperature using the
cylindrical source expressions.
Discussion and Results
Based on the development of a one-
dimensional heat transfer model, the
shear surface temperature can be theoret-
ically calculated based on the process pa-
(9) Q Q Q Q Q
g w a s v
= + + +

= m T T
m
( ) (10)
T
k H
R
R
Rk
k R
L
RH
m
w
a
sp sp
sp
+
+
+ +
2
ln
2
2
0
2
VV c
m R
R
R
H
R
s
2
3
3
1
3
T
00
T = ________________________________
2
k H
R
R
Rk
k R
L
RHV c
w
a
sp sp
sp
ln
2
2
0
2
+
+ +
____________________________
2m R
R
R
s
3
1
3
3
H
R
+1
(11)
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91 80-s
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Fig. 11 Smooth surface FSW tool. A 0.23 mm/rev; B 0.34 mm/rev; C 0.45 mm/rev; and D 0.56 mm/rev, showing a loss of shoulder contact at the
higher weld pitches.
Fig. 12 Threaded surface FSW tool. A 0.23 mm/rev; B 0.34 mm/rev; C 0.45 mm/rev; and D 0.56 mm/rev, showing a loss of shoulder contact at
the higher weld pitches.
A
A
C
C
B
B
D
D
rameters, geometry of the FSW tool, and
thermal properties of the workpiece and
tooling. Utilizing the geometry of the
smooth surface FSW tool described in
Table 1 and workpiece material properties
for AA2219-T87, the shear surface tem-
perature is calculated using Equation 11
for a range of travel velocities at different
weld pitches.
Because direct measurements of the
shear surface temperature were not ob-
tained during this study, only the weld
power can be compared. Thus, from the
calculated temperature, the weld power
can be determined from Equation 4 with t
he corresponding specific energy obtained
by dividing the weld power by the travel
velocity.
Figures 5 and 6 show the weld power vs.
the travel velocity and the specific weld en-
ergy vs. the travel velocity, respectively, for
different weld pitches. In Fig. 5, as the
travel velocity is increased, the weld power
also increases. These results can be ex-
plained by a conceptual heat model (Ref.
9) in which increased travel velocity brings
material with a higher flow stress into the
shear surface, thereby increasing the weld
torque and, hence, power. These results
and trends are in agreement with other
published trends (Ref. 17).
Figures 7 and 8 compare the weld
power and weld torque, respectively, for
the calculated vs. experimental values
using the smooth surface FSW tool. Simi-
larly, Figs. 9 and 10 are the same type of
graphs for the threaded surface FSW tool.
At the lower weld pitches, there is good
agreement. The one-dimensional heat
transfer model predicts increasing weld
power with increasing weld pitch. Since
the weld pitch is based on the ratio of
travel velocity to spindle speed, this corre-
lates with increased travel velocity. Other
studies have shown a similar correlation
between increases in travel velocity and in-
creases in weld power (Ref. 17). The
torque calculations predict a decrease
with increased spindle speed, regardless of
travel velocity, similar to other published
results (Ref. 9, 18).
The percent differences between the
model and experimental weld power and
weld torque are shown in Table 3. Equa-
tion 12 was used to calculate the percent
difference with good agreement exhibited
at the lower weld pitches.
To evaluate the changes in accuracy of
model predictions between the lower and
higher values of weld pitch, macrographs
were made of all longitudinal views of the
exit hole as shown in Figs. 11 and 12. At
the higher weld pitches of 0.45 and 0.56
mm/rev, a loss of shoulder contact with the
workpiece is observed for both the smooth
and threaded surface FSW tools. If the
FSW tool experiences a loss of shoulder
contact, then the shearing surface de-
creases and less power is required to ro-
tate the FSW tool. Repeating the model
calculations and using a reduced effective
shoulder radius equal to the pin radius re-
sults in better agreement at the higher
weld pitches as summarized in Table 4.
Alternative Heat Index
While the PHI has been used to con-
ceptualize the heat input in a FSW, this
study demonstrates its inaccuracy at main-
taining a constant heat input over a range
of process parameters. The constant PHI
value used in this study to guide the selec-
tion of a range of processing parameters
resulted in differences observed in the
weld power. This is understandable as the
PHI does not capture the effects of differ-
ent weld tools, nor does it consider inter-
actions with the backing anvil and spindle.
To resolve this discrepancy, an AHI is
proposed. Starting from the energy balance
given in Equation 9, the appropriate ex-
pressions for the cylindrical FSW tool and
associated heat losses are applied, and an
AHI equation is formed. The utility of this
equation is in its ability to predict the com-
plementary process parameter, when one of
them is varied, to maintain a constant tem-
perature in the shear surface. It also pro-
vides the opportunity to predict process pa-
rameters to maintain a similar temperature
when changing FSW tooling, e.g., anvil,
spindle, etc. The expression for the AHI
equation using the cylindrical terms is given
in Equation 13, where (TT
0
) is the tem-
perature rise in the shear surface, and () is
the flow stress of the material in the shear
surface. When determining process param-
eter changes while maintaining a constant
temperature rise, the shear flow shear stress
() will be constant. When using the expres-
sion for an AHI the temperature rise di-
vided by the shear flow stress becomes a
constant value, that is the AHI.
Equation 13 can be further simplified
to isolate the process parameters of spin-
dle speed () and travel velocity (V). In
doing so, the expression ends up with two
terms, one of which largely encompasses
attributes of the FSW tool related to
power generation. The other term largely
encompasses the attributes related to the
heat loss terms. This equivalent expres-
sion is shown in Equation 14.
Conclusions
The initial process parameters were se-
lected based on a constant PHI expression
%
model experiment
model
Diff
Value Value
Value
=

+VValue
experiment
2
(12)
[
\
|
|
|
)
j
j
j
AHI
T T
A
B C D EV
A R
R
R
s
=

=
+ + +
=
[
\
|
|
( )
0
3
where,
2
1
3
||
)
j
j
j
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
+
=
=
3
0
2
ln
H
R
B
k H
R
R
C Rk
w
a
2
DD
k R
L
E RH
sp sp
sp
c
=
=
2
2 (13)
AHI
T T
A
B V
A
R
H c
R
R
p
s
=

=
+
[
( )
0
2
,
=
1
3
(14)
where
\\
|
|
)
j
j
+
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
=
3
2
2
ln
H
R
B
R
c
k
R R
sp
p
w
sp
RR
R
k
HR
k
L RH
a
sp
sp
sp 0
2
2
[
\
|
|
)
j
j
+ +
[
\
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
)
j
j
jj
j
j
j
j
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Table 4 Percent Difference Between the Calculated and Experimental Weld Power and Weld
Torque When the Shoulder Radius Is Reduced to the Pin Radius at 0.45 and 0.56 mm/rev
Smooth Surface Threaded Surface
FSW Tool FSW Tool
Weld Pitch Power Torque Power Torque
(mm/rev) Difference Difference Difference Difference
(%) (%) (%) (%)
0.23 0.1 0.1 7.3 7.3
0.34 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.4
0.45 1.8 1.8 6.4 6.5
0.56 10.6 10.6 8.5 8.6
taken from FSW literature (Ref. 10).
However, for each corresponding tool
used in this study, variations were seen in
the process parameter window that re-
sulted in defect-free welds and in their
weld properties. Using a one-dimensional
heat transfer model, a method is proposed
for calculating process parameters that
takes into account the specific tool design.
Certain assumptions were made in
the formulation of the model that impact
the model behavior and need to be taken
into consideration when using the theory
to explain the process of FSW. The
model is based on the sticking condition
and the presence of a constant shear sur-
face area. If a significant loss of shear
surface area occurs, there will inevitably
be a deviation from the model calcula-
tions and experimental observations.
Thus, this model can be reversely applied
to determine if there is a loss of shear
area, which might indicate slipping and
warrant inspection of the weld.
This theory is used to determine the
shear surface temperature. If upper and
lower bounds for this temperature are
chosen, the model could conceivably be
used to determine the processing parame-
ters that will produce shear surface tem-
peratures in that region. However, in the
present form, the model cannot predict
the required temperature. That will be de-
pendent on the metallurgical properties of
the material being welded.
In a simplified form, the model can be
used to develop an alternative heat index-
ing equation. This equation should allow
for more accurate scaling of process pa-
rameters as it takes into consideration the
effects of the FSW tool geometry and
other tooling. In the simplified forms, the
equations can be used to determine the
corresponding process parameter, () or
(V), when one is changed to maintain a
constant shear surface temperature.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to extend their
sincerest gratitude to the National Aero-
nautics and Space Administrations Mar-
shall Space Flight Center and the EM30
welding group for their assistance and use
of their friction stir welding equipment.
References
1. Record, J. H., et al. 2007. A look at the
statistical identification of critical process pa-
rameters in friction stir welding. Welding Re-
search: 97-s to 103-s.
2. Nunes, A. C., McClure, J., and Avila, R.
2005. The plunge phase of friction stir welding.
Proc. 7th International Conference on Trends in
Welding Research. Eds. S. David et al., pp.
241245. ASM Intl.
3. Johnson, R. 2000. Forces in friction stir
welding of aluminum alloys Further studies.
TWI 7417.01/00/1076.3. Cambridge, UK, TWI.
4. Johnson, R., and Horrex, N. L. 2000. Pre-
liminary examination of forces generated dur-
ing the friction stir welding process. TWI
7417.01/99/1023.03. Cambridge, UK, TWI.
5. McClure, J. C. 2005. A study of forces
during friction stir welding. NASA Summer
Faculty Research Opportunities. Huntsville,
Ala., NASA-MSFC.
6. Chimbli, S. K., Medlin, D. J., and Arbe-
gast, W. J. 2007. Minimizing lack of consolida-
tion defects in friction stir welds. Proc. 136th
TMS Annual Meeting Friction Stir Welding & Pro-
cessing IV Symposia. Eds. R. S. Mishra et al., pp.
135142. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7. Stahl, A. L., and Sorensen, C. D. 2005. Ex-
perimental measurements of load distributions
on friction stir weld pin tools. Proc. 134th TMS
Annual Meeting Friction Stir Welding & Process-
ing lll Symposia. Eds. R. S. Mishra et al., pp.
179190. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
8. Reynolds, A. P., and Tang, W. 2001. Alloy,
tool geometry, and process parameter effects
on friction stir weld energies and resultant FSW
joint properties. Proc. 130th TMS Annual Meet-
ing Friction Stir Welding & Processing Symposia.
Eds. K. V. Jata et al., pp. 1523. TMS.
9. Colligan, K. J. 2007. Relationships be-
tween process variables related to heat genera-
tion in friction stir welding of aluminum. Proc.
136th TMS Annual Meeting Friction Stir Welding
& Processing IV Symposia. Eds. R. S. Mishra et
al., pp. 3954. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
10. Kandukuri, S. et. al. 2007. Development
of design curves for tensile strength and fatigue
characteristics of 7075-T73 aluminum FSW butt
joints. Proc. 136th TMS Annual Meeting Friction
Stir Welding & Processing IV Symposia. Eds. R. S.
Mishra et al., pp. 2938. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
11. Schneider, J. A. 2006. Toward under-
standing the material flow path variations in fric-
tion stir weld (FSW) processes. NASA-MSFC
Cooperative Agreement NNM04AA14A.
Huntsville, Ala., NASA-MSFC.
12. Incropera, F. P., and Dewitt, D. P. 2002.
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. p. 53,
New York, N.Y.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
13. Querin, J. A. 2010. Deconvoluting the
link between weld tool geometry and process
parameters. PhD dissertation. Mississippi
State, Miss., Mississippi State University.
14. Schmidt, H., Hattel, J., and Wert, J. 2004.
An analytical model for the heat generation in
friction stir welding. Modelling and Simulation in
Materials Science and Engineering 12: 143157.
15. Nunes, A. C. 2001. Wiping metal trans-
fer in friction stir welding. Proc. 130th TMS An-
nual Meeting Automotive Alloys and Joining Alu-
minum Symposia. Eds. S. K. Das, J. G.
Kaufman, and T. J. Lienert, pp. 235248. TMS.
16. Nunes, A. C. 2006. Metal flow in friction
stir welding. Proc. Materials Science and Tech-
nology 2006 Conference Friction Stir Welding II
Symposia. pp. 107118. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
17. Mishra, R., and Mahoney, M. 2007. Fric-
tion Stir Welding and Processing. p. 60, Materials
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18. Colligan, K. J., and Mishra, R. S. 2008.
A conceptual model for the process vari-
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327331.
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91 82-s
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Introduction
Supermartensitic stainless steels
(SMSS) have been developed in the last
years as attractive technical alternatives to
high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels
mainly in applications related to the oil
and gas industry (Refs. 1, 2). Welding of
these materials plays a crucial role in fab-
ricated components, influencing their
toughness, weldability, and resistance to
sulfide stress cracking. Supermartensitic
stainless steels were developed based on
classic martensitic stainless steels
(1114% Cr), reducing C content to en-
hance weldability and corrosion resistance
and adding Ni to promote a free-ferrite
structure and Mo (Refs. 3, 4), which also
improves corrosion resistance (Refs. 5, 6).
Depending on chemical composition
and welding procedure, the microstructure
of SMSS deposits obtained in the as-
welded condition is mainly composed of
martensite with variable fractions of
austenite (up to 30%) and ferrite (up to
10%), with different morphologies (Ref. 7).
Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) is
usually necessary to adjust weldment
properties, based on microstructural evo-
lution. In the as-welded condition, it is
common to obtain high hardness and low
toughness, due to the presence of untem-
pered martensite (Refs. 6, 8). In practice,
PWHTs used involve single or double tem-
pering treatments, promoting martensite
tempering and formation of retained
austenite, which results in lower hardness
and higher toughness values (Refs. 4, 9).
Nevertheless, these PWHTs are a consid-
erable cost and time-consuming step in
pipe welding, then in new SMSS, chemical
composition has been modified to avoid
PWHT or to minimize it to shorter times,
less than half an hour (Ref. 10).
For welding these materials, the gas
metal arc welding (GMAW) process using
SMSS metal cored wires has been recog-
nized as a suitable technological option,
and its use has recently been improved
(Ref. 4). This type of consumable presents
several advantages such as low slag gener-
ation and high deposition rate (Ref. 11).
Shielding gases employed for welding this
type of material usually are inert mixes
(Ar-He) or Ar-rich mixtures (Ar-CO
2
, Ar-
CO
2
-O
2
) with a very low amount of active
gases (less than 5%) (Ref. 12). The type of
shielding gas can affect the chemical com-
position of the weld metal, principally O,
N, and C contents (Ref. 13).
There have been many efforts to de-
velop tougher SMSS deposits. Control of
chemical composition, particularly reduc-
ing C, O, N, and S contents or addition of
Ni, has proved to be successful (Ref. 10).
Besides, it is well known that the content
of low toughness phases like untempered
martensite or ferrite affects the final value
of toughness, as well as an increased frac-
tion of retained austenite improves it (Ref.
3). The role of precipitation reactions is
not yet completely understood.
Different PWHTs lead to microstruc-
tural modifications producing different
combinations of phases present in SMSS
weld deposits (tempered and untempered
martensite, austenite, carbides, etc.), with
each microstructural pattern affecting
toughness in a specific way.
Improving Supermartensitic Stainless Steel
Weld Metal Toughness
Eliminating ferrite, maximizing austenite, and softening martensite through PWHT
markedly improved toughness with respect to the as-welded condition
BY S. ZAPPA, H. G. SVOBODA, N. M. RAMINI DE RISSONE, E. S. SURIAN, AND L. A. DE VEDIA
KEYWORDS
Supermartensitic Stainless Steel
Welding Procedure
Postweld Heat Treatment
Toughness
S. ZAPPA (zappasebastian@hotmail.com) is
with Research Secretariat, Faculty of Engineering,
University of Lomas de Zamora, Buenos Aires,
Argentina. H. G. SVOBODA is with Materials
and Structures Laboratory, Faculty of Engineer-
ing, Intecin, University of Buenos Aires, CON-
ICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina. N. M. RAMINI
DE RISSONE is with Deytema, Regional Faculty
of San Nicols, National Technological Univer-
sity, San Nicols, Argentina. E. S. SURIAN is
with Research Secretariat, Faculty of Engineering,
University of Lomas de Zamora, Buenos Aires,
and Deytema, Regional Faculty of San Nicols,
National Technological University, San Nicols,
Argentina. L. A. DE VEDIA is with Institute
Sabato National University of San Martn
Atomic Energy Commission, San Martn, Buenos
Aires, Argentina.
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ABSTRACT
Welding of supermartensitic stainless steel plays a crucial role in fabricated com-
ponents, influencing their toughness, weldability, and resistance to sulphide stress
cracking. Postweld heat treatment adjusts the final properties of the weldments, bear-
ing on microstructural evolution. The objective of this work was to maximize all-weld-
metal toughness by microstructural modifications achieved by means of postweld heat
treatments (PWHTs). Two all-weld-metal test coupons were prepared according to
standard ANSI/AWS A5.22-95, using a 1.2-mm-diameter tubular metal-cored wire
under Ar-5%He and Ar-18%CO
2
gas shielding mixtures in the flat position, with a
nominal heat input of 1.6 kJ mm
-1
. Single tempering, solution annealing, solution an-
nealing plus single tempering, and solution annealing plus double tempering treat-
ments were carried out at different times and temperatures. All-weld-metal chemical
composition analysis, metallurgical characterization, hardness and tensile property
measurements, and Charpy V tests were carried out. It was found that eliminating fer-
rite, maximizing austenite, and softening martensite through PWHT, improved tough-
ness up to almost three times with respect to the as-welded condition, for both shield-
ing gases used. When welding under Ar-18%CO
2
shielding gas, the following was
detected: a) higher all-weld-metal contents of C, O, and N and slightly lower contents
of Mn, Si, Cr, Ni, Mo, Cu; this fact produced slightly lower ferrite and austenite con-
tents in the as-welded condition and b) lower toughness and ductility, and higher
strength and hardness, regarding the samples welded under Ar-5%He mixture.
The objective of this work was to sys-
tematically study the effect of different mi-
crostructural patterns of all-weld-metal
(AWM) SMSS on toughness in order to
improve this property. Additionally, the
effect of interstitial elements content on
toughness was evaluated, giving consider-
ation to the shielding gas used.
Welding
Two AWM test coupons were welded ac-
cording to standard ANSI/AWS A5.22-95
(Ref. 14) using a metal cored tubular wire
of 1.2 mm diameter, obtaining a SMSS weld
deposit using the GMAW process with two
different shielding gases. The welding pa-
rameters are presented in Table 1.
The welding position was flat; preheat-
ing and interpass temperatures were 100C.
The shielding gas flow rate was 18 L/min
and the stickout 20 mm. A power source
with pulsed arc of 120 Hz was employed.
Both welded coupons were evaluated by ra-
diographic testing according to ANSI B31.3
standard (Ref. 15).
Chemical Composition
To analyze the effect
of shielding gas, trans-
verse cross sections for
chemical analysis were
extracted from each
coupon. AWM chemi-
cal compositions were
determined by means
of spectrometric meas-
urements except C, N,
O, and S contents that
were analyzed via
LECO.
Postweld Heat Treatments
To induce different microstructural
conditions, samples of each coupon were
submitted to the different heat treatments
shown in Table 2 with the corresponding
sample identification.
As shown in Table 2, different PWHTs
consisting of a) single tempering (650); b)
solution annealing (1000); c) solution an-
nealing plus single tempering (1000 + 650);
and d) solution annealing plus double tem-
pering (1000 + 650 + 600) were conducted
maintaining as reference the as-welded con-
dition. The PWHT parameters were se-
lected according to previous information
(Refs. 3, 8, 16) with the purpose of soften-
ing the martensite matrix, minimizing the
ferrite content, and maximizing the austen-
ite content, in order to improve AWM
toughness. The overall objective was to
allow the analysis and understanding of the
influence of each phase present.
Single and double tempering treat-
ments soften martensite (Ref. 17) and
modify the austenite content, depending
on treatment temperature and time (Refs.
8, 18). Solution annealing between 950
and 1050C allows the dissolution of both
ferrite and austenite (Ref. 18).
Microstructural Characterization
Microstructural characterization was
done using light (LM), scanning electron
(SEM) microscopy, and X-ray diffraction
(XRD). Ferrite contents were measured
following standard ASTM E562-99 (Ref.
19) by quantitative metallography and
austenite contents by means of the direct
peak comparison method, based on XRD
patterns (Ref. 20). Dilatometric analysis
has been made for AHaw and ACaw sam-
ples, to achieve a better understanding of
phase transformations that take place dur-
ing PWHT. Transformation temperatures
A
C1
, A
C3
, and M
S
were determined with a
heating/cooling rate of 10C/min.
Mechanical Properties
Vickers 1 kg microhardness (H
V1
)
measurements as well as Charpy V-notch
(CVN) tests (Ref. 21) at 20C were carried
out for all conditions analyzed. Micro-
hardness values were the average of at
least five measurements. Charpy V-notch
values were the average of at least three
tested specimens. Transverse AWM ten-
sile specimens (Ref. 22) were obtained for
all conditions. All measurements were
conducted in the central zone, in corre-
spondence with the location of the notch
of Charpy V specimens. Figures 1 and 2
present dimensions and locations of sam-
ples for different tests (Refs. 21, 22).
Results and Discussion
Chemical Composition
Table 3 shows the AWM chemical com-
position results. The values are expressed
in weight percent (wt-%), except for N and
O, which are in parts per million (ppm).
Samples welded under Ar-CO
2
shield-
ing showed higher contents of C, N, and O,
as well as lower contents of Mn, Si, Cr, Ni,
Mo, and Cu, than those welded under Ar-
He mixture.
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Fig. 3 Macrography of AHaw sample.
Fig. 1 Transverse cross section for chemical analysis, microstructural char-
acterization, and microhardness determination. (Dimensions in mm.)
Table 1 Welding Parameters
Identification Shielding Gas Tension Current Welding Speed Heat Input
(V) (A) (mm s-1) (kJ mm-1)
AH Ar-5%He 29 298 5.0 1.73
AC Ar-18%CO
2
30 301 5.5 1.64
Fig. 2 Tension test and Charpy V location.
Variations observed in the metallic ele-
ment contents were related to oxidation
processes in the arc due to a higher oxida-
tion potential of the shielding gas (Ref. 23).
Higher contents of interstitial elements
could be related to higher partial pressures
of O and C in the arc atmosphere due to de-
composition of CO
2
(Ref. 24).
To obtain good mechanical properties,
these steels must have very low C content
(0.010%) and high values of Ni (6.5%) and
Mo (2.5%) (Ref. 25), together with very
low levels of detrimental elements like N,
O, and S (Refs. 7, 26), because they
strongly affect hardness and toughness
(Refs. 3, 26).
The variations observed in chemical
composition could affect properties of the
weld deposits. As mentioned before, C
content in coupon AC (0.022%) was
higher than the nominal value of 0.010%
(Refs. 26, 27) reported by the consumable
manufacturer; this could have led to
higher hardness and lower toughness val-
ues compared to coupon AH. Coupon AC
presented unexpected significantly higher
O and N contents with respect to coupon
AH. It has been reported that O values
higher than 300 ppm, as well as a high N
content, produce a strong detrimental ef-
fect on toughness (Refs. 5, 7).
It was expected that mechanical prop-
erties, metallurgical aspects, and transfor-
mation temperatures could also be af-
fected by the observed Cr, Ni, Mo, Mn,
and Cu variations. For these steels, re-
tained austenite contents between 2 and
30% have been reported (Refs. 5, 7, 8). Ni,
Cu, and Mn are known as austenite stabi-
lizers; therefore, a higher content of these
elements could increase retained austen-
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Fig. 4 LM columnar zone microstructure of the following samples: A AHaw; B ACaw.
Fig. 5 LM microstructures of samples welded under Ar-He shielding: A AH650; B AH1000; C
AH1000 + 650; D AH1000 + 650 + 600.
A
A
B
B
C D
Table 2 Identification of Samples and PWHT Parameters
Identification PWHT Temperatures Time
(C) (min)
AHaw None None
AH650 650 15
AH1000 1000 60
AH1000 + 650 1000 + 650 60 + 15
AH1000 + 650 + 600 1000 + 650 + 600 60 + 15 + 15
ACaw None None
AC650 650 15
AC1000 1000 60
AC1000 + 650 1000+650 60 + 15
AC1000 + 650 + 600 1000 + 650 + 600 60 + 15 + 15
Table 3 AWM Chemical Composition
Element AH AC
C 0.012 0.022
Mn 1.76 1.61
Si 0.44 0.40
Cr 12.1 11.9
Ni 6.27 5.98
Mo 2.69 2.57
Cu 0.49 0.43
V 0.09 0.09
Nb 0.01 0.01
S 0.013 0.014
P 0.015 0.015
O (ppm) 390 610
N (ppm) 50 260
ite percentages (Refs. 3, 8). Furthermore,
Cr and Mo stabilize ferrite and a higher
content of this phase is produced if these
elements are increased (Refs. 3, 8).
Microstructural Characterization
Radiographic testing was evaluated
with ANSI B31.3 (Ref. 15) resulting in a
low level of defects. Figure 3 shows the
AWM macrostructure obtained for sam-
ple AHaw.
Figure 4 shows the columnar zone mi-
crostructures for the AHaw and ACaw
samples. In both cases, martensite with
low fractions of ferrite was detected, as
was reported previously (Refs. 1, 3, 7, 8,
12). There was no observable effect of
shielding gas on the microstructure.
Two types of ferrite could be identified
based on their location and morphology.
Most common was ferrite with morphol-
ogy similar to that of the ferrite found in
duplex stainless steel weld metals. The
presence of this ferrite is a consequence of
incomplete ferrite-to-austenite transfor-
mation in weld metals solidifying as ferrite
and was most common for more highly al-
loyed weld metals (Ref. 7). Another ferrite
morphology, similar to that seen in
austenitic stainless steel weld metals, was
found in the weld metals highest in Ni so-
lidifying as a mixture of ferrite and austen-
ite (Ref. 7). This ferrite was located in the
last solidifying interdendritic regions.
Figures 5 and 6 show microstructures
for different PWHT conditions of
coupons welded under Ar-He and Ar-
CO
2
, respectively.
There were no observable differences
between the LM microstructures of both
coupons for the different PWHTs. For
AH650 and AC650 the microstructure did
not change, showing a slight darkening as-
sociated with a precipitation phenomena.
Solution annealing produced ferrite solu-
bilization, and the microstructures that re-
sulted were completely martensitic. Solu-
tion annealing followed by single and
double tempering produced a severe dark-
ening in the microstructure associated
with carbide precipitation.
As mentioned previously, retained
austenite is reported for these steels in the
as-welded condition (Ref. 7). This phase
was not observable by means of the mi-
croscopy techniques used in this work (Refs.
7, 8), but was detectable using the XRD
technique. The XRD patterns obtained for
different PWHT conditions, showing the
martensite/ferrite and austenite peaks, are
presented in Figs. 7, 8.
It can be seen for both as-welded sam-
ples that there was a fraction of retained
austenite that diminished with the single
tempering treatment and vanished after
solution annealing. The single and double
tempering treatments after solution an-
nealing increased the retained austenite
content, as was to be expected (Ref. 28).
Table 4 shows the results of ferrite and
austenite content quantification for the
analyzed conditions. Coupon AHaw
showed higher contents of both ferrite and
austenite than coupon ACaw.
To relate the as-welded samples ferrite
and austenite contents to the chemical
composition, the expressions of Cr and Ni
equivalents developed by Karlsson et al.
(Refs. 29, 30) for SMSS were employed in
this work. Table 5 shows the results of Cr
and Ni equivalents for both welding con-
ditions. There were no significant varia-
tions in the calculated values. However,
microstructure showed martensite and
ferrite for the ACaw condition and
martensite, ferrite and austenite for the
AHaw condition, related to a higher Cr
equivalent in this last sample Fig. 9.
This fact could explain the slightly higher
austenite and ferrite contents measured
for condition AHaw as compared to
ACaw.
It was previously reported that ferrite
deteriorates toughness and austenite im-
proves this property (Ref. 31). Indeed,
toughness is improved by a low-carbon
soft martensite (Ref. 31). In this sense,
PWHT, which minimizes ferrite, maxi-
mizes austenite, and softens martensite,
could provide the best results (Ref. 31).
Martensite tempering is produced dur-
ing PWHT of these steels. In general, this
allows martensite softening, associated
with incoherent carbide precipitation, to
reach the maximum softening with the
precipitation of M
23
C
6
carbides at tem-
peratures over 500C (Ref. 32). In Ni-free
alloys, PWHTs are performed at tempera-
tures over 700C to obtain a high reaction
rate and maximum softening. Neverthe-
less, the presence of Ni reduces the criti-
cal temperature (A
C1
). This temperature
depends on chemical composition and
heating rate, but with high Ni content it
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A
C
B
Fig. 6 LM microstructures of samples welded under Ar-CO
2
: A AC650; B AC1000; C AC1000
+ 650; D AC1000 + 650 + 600.
D
Table 4 Ferrite and Austenite Contents
Sample Ferrite (%) Austenite (%)
AHaw 10 20
AH650 10 15
AH1000 0 0
AH1000 + 650 0 12
AH1000 + 650 + 600 0 21
ACaw 6 18
AC650 6 7
AC1000 0 0
AC1000 + 650 0 18
AC1000 + 650 + 600 0 19
Table 5 Cr and Ni Equivalents
Condition Cr eq Ni eq
AHaw 25.5 29.8
ACaw 24.6 29.5
Table 6 Transformation Temperatures
Condition A
C1
A
C3
M
s
(C) (C) (C)
AHaw 580 640 130
ACaw 640 710 125
could be as low as 500550C (Ref. 32). At
this temperature, the carbides formation
kinetics is very slow and under these con-
ditions, it is normal that PWHT produces
austenite for alloys 13Cr-4Ni (Ref. 32)
with a different chemical composition
from that of the austenite retained during
welding (Refs. 32, 33). Austenite formed
during PWHT will be rich in Ni, C, and
Mn. The degree of enrichment will deter-
mine the stability of the austenite formed.
If the PWHT is performed at tempera-
tures slightly over A
C1
, enriched austenite
will be stable at ambient temperature. If
the PWHT temperature is sufficiently
higher than A
C1
, the austenite formed will
transform to untempered martensite dur-
ing cooling (Ref. 32).
In Table 6, results of transformation
temperature (A
C1
, A
C3
, and M
S
) determi-
nations for each coupon, using a heating
rate of 10C/min, can be seen. Critical
temperatures (A
C1
and A
C3
) of the speci-
men ACaw were higher than those of spec-
imen AHaw. It is known that these tem-
peratures are heavily controlled by the
chemical composition, then the changes
observed could be explained in terms of
the higher alloy content of coupon AHaw
that produced a decrease in the transfor-
mation temperatures (Ref. 7).
In both cases, single tempering slightly
reduced the austenite content, through par-
tial transformation of austenite to marten-
site. Lippold and Alexandrov (Ref. 17)
showed that variations of 20 to 300C/min
in heating rate produced an increase in A
C1
of more than 100C. A tempering heat rate
of 300C/min was used in this work. There-
fore, an increased A
C1
could be expected
when tempering at 650C, resulting in a sub-
critical temperature treatment. In this con-
dition, a decrease in austenite content could
be achieved.
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Fig. 7 XRD patterns for samples welded under Ar-CO
2
protection, with dif-
ferent PWHTs.
Fig. 9 AHaw and ACaw sample locations in Karlsson et al. (Ref. 7) consti-
tution diagram for SMSS (M: martensite; A: austenite; F: ferrite).
Fig. 8 XRD patterns for samples welded under Ar-He protection, with dif-
ferent PWHTs.
Fig. 10 Relationship between microhardness and tensile and yield strengths.
Table 7 Tensile Test Results
Sample
UTS
(a)
0.2
(b)
(c)
H
(d)
(MPa) (MPa) (%) (H
V1
)
AHaw 1048 838 15.7 324
AH650 941 790 17.0 322
AH1000 986 770 20.0 318
AH1000+650 954 698 27.5 305
AH1000+650+600 941 712 29.4 293
ACaw 1107 885 12.5 348
AC650 990 821 13.0 338
AC1000 1008 756 16.8 338
AC1000 + 650 982 745 17.3 313
AC1000 + 650 + 600 963 707 18.8 304
(a)
UTS
: ultimate tensile strength
(b)
0.2
: yield strength
(c) : elongation
(d) H: hardness
Solution annealing treatment was ef-
fective to dissolve both ferrite and re-
tained austenite; it also produced a de-
crease in segregation with the matrix
enrichment of the elements before being
segregated (Ref. 33). The mentioned en-
richment of the matrix could have gener-
ated a diminution of the A
C1
with what the
first tempering temperature after SA
could have been inside the intercritical
temperature zone. This fact could justify
the apparition of retained austenite. Fi-
nally, the posterior treatment at 600C
(samples AH1000 + 650 + 600 and
AC1000 + 650 + 600) generated a mi-
crostructure composed of tempered
martensite and a higher proportion of
austenite, without ferrite.
The mechanism by which the austenite
content was enhanced with a double tem-
pering could be explained by means of the
thermal instabilities of austenite particles
during cooling of the first tempering, ac-
cording to a previous report (Ref. 3). Sta-
bility of austenite is associated with both
chemical and structural factors related to a
high dislocation density in the substructure.
In the first tempering at 650C (after SA),
the austenite content formed during heat-
ing was increased and partially transformed
to fresh martensite during cooling. At this
temperature, thermal activation could have
been enough to promote recovery mecha-
nisms that allowed annihilation of disloca-
tions, reducing the dislocation density into
the austenite particles, transforming them
into martensite during cooling from 650C.
After SA + 650 treatments, the microstruc-
ture was composed by tempering marten-
site, fresh martensite, and retained austen-
ite. During the second tempering at 600C
(SA + 650 + 600), new austenite preferen-
tially nucleated at the higher interfacial area
recently created, and therefore, a higher
amount of austenite particles were formed.
It is assumed that this austenite was formed
by a shear mechanism and had a high dislo-
cation density, which did not suffer alter-
ations at this temperature. Indeed, untem-
pered martensite was tempered, resulting in
a soft martensite matrix with uniform dis-
tributed austenite particles (Ref. 34).
Mechanical Properties
Table 7 presents hardness and tensile
test results of all samples. These values were
consistent with those reported previously
for these types of materials (Refs. 8, 27).
Higher values of hardness were detected for
samples welded with CO
2
in the shielding
gas. This effect could be related to higher
contents of C and N in this sample, which
produced a hardness increase (Ref. 3). With
regard to PWHT, softening was observed in
heat-treated samples. This could be related
to the tempering of martensite and, in the
case of sample AH, to a higher amount of
austenite (Refs. 3, 35, 36). Yield and tensile
strengths were slightly higher for the speci-
mens welded under Ar-CO
2
, probably asso-
ciated with their higher carbon content. Fig-
ure 10 shows an approximately linear
relationship between both yield and tensile
strength values and hardness determina-
tions.
Ductility was lower for specimen AC
compared to sample AH. This fact could be
related to the AC samples higher values of
C, N, and O, which limit ductility. Postweld
heat treatment produced a reduction in
strength values with a marginal improve-
ment in ductility, as expected (Refs. 8, 18).
Figure 11 presents the relationship between
elongation and hardness, which showed
that an increment in hardness produced a
decrease in ductility. For the same hardness
values, ductility in the AH samples was
higher than in the AC ones. This could be
related to the higher content of interstitial
elements in these samples.
Table 8 presents the results obtained
from Charpy V impact tests. Higher tough-
ness was associated with lower hardness, as
expected (Ref. 37). Shielding gas used dur-
ing welding affected SMSS AWM tough-
ness. With the Ar-CO
2
mixture, values of
absorbed energy were lower for all the con-
ditions studied. This fact could be associ-
ated with the higher contents of C, N, and
O of samples welded under Ar-CO
2
, as
mentioned previously (Refs. 26, 38).
All the PWHTs improved toughness in
both cases. Single tempering without SA
enhanced the absorbed energy, almost du-
plicating the obtained values for both con-
ditions, although the austenite fraction
was reduced and there were no changes in
ferrite content. This indicates that
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Fig. 11 Relationship between elongation and hardness. Fig. 12 Absorbed energy at 20C (J) vs. Vickers microhardness (HV1).
Table 8 Vickers Hardness and Absorbed Energy in Charpy V Impact Test
Sample H
(a)
AE 20C
(b)
(H
v1
) (J)
AHaw 324 33
AH650 322 55
AH1000 318 59
AH1000 + 650 305 75
AH1000 + 650+ 600 293 83
ACaw 348 24
AC650 338 50
AC1000 338 32
AC1000 + 650 313 67
AH1000 + 650 + 600 304 75
(a) H: Vickers hardness
(b) E: absorbed energy in Charpy V-notch impact test at 20C
martensite softening was the controlling
factor in this case.
Solution annealing also improved
toughness for both conditions. This fact
could show the effect of ferrite on this
property. Some degree of martensite soft-
ening could also have occurred. For
coupons welded under the Ar-He mixture,
this effect was more important, consistent
with the higher content of ferrite in the
AW condition.
With single and double tempering after
solution annealing, toughness was im-
proved again; in this case 250 and 310%
regarding the AHaw and the ACaw condi-
tions, respectively. This could be associ-
ated with the softening of martensite, the
absence of ferrite, and the finely dispersed
austenite particles formed during these
treatments (Ref. 39). These fine austenite
precipitates promoted ductile fracture,
enhancing the plastic work for fracture
(Ref. 18). It was also reported (Ref. 39)
that during fracture propagation in the
Charpy V test, a mechanical transforma-
tion of austenite particles by localized
transformation-induced plasticity mecha-
nisms is generated, increasing the ab-
sorbed energy. Figure 12 presents the ab-
sorbed energy in Charpy V test vs. Vickers
hardness. For both conditions, AH and
AC, it was observed that as hardness in-
creased, toughness decreased. However, a
displacement of the AC curve to the right
was observed. This effect could be related
to the AC samples higher O content,
which produced a decrease in toughness
according to what was previously reported
for this type of material (Refs. 5, 30).
Regarding the fracture mode, it is
worth mentioning that all specimens
tested at room temperature displayed
100% of fibrous fracture with typical dim-
ples and without cleavage. Figure 13A is
representative of the fracture surfaces
seen, this one from the AC650 sample.
This typical dimple appearance showed a
ductile-dimple fracture associated with a
high microvoid density. This may be at-
tributed to the existence of a large number
of internal interfaces due to both non-
metallic inclusions and austenite and/or
transformed austenite particles, which
may act as void nucleation sites, according
to previous reports for similar materials
(Ref. 28). Figure 13B shows typical dim-
ples with austenite and/or transformed
austenite small particles (Ref. 28).
Conclusions
Eliminating ferrite, maximizing
austenite, and softening martensite in
SMSS weld metal improved toughness up
to almost three times with respect to the
AW condition, for both shielding gases
used. The mechanisms that explained this
toughness improvement were discussed.
When Ar-18%CO
2
shielding gas was
employed instead of Ar-5%He shielding
gas, higher contents of C, O, and N and
slightly lower contents of Mn, Si, Cr, Ni,
Mo, and Cu were detected. This variation
in chemical composition produced slightly
lower ferrite and austenite contents in the
as-welded condition. Lower toughness
and ductility, and higher strength and
hardness were obtained when this shield-
ing gas mixture was employed.
Further studies are necessary to as-
sociate the heating rate during the PWHT,
the critical temperatures of transforma-
tion, and PWHT temperatures with the
stability of austenite.
The present work contributes to the
better comprehension of the mechanisms
involved in the toughness control of SMSS
deposits, considering the effects of mi-
crostructure and some aspects of the weld-
ing procedure.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their grati-
tude to ESAB-Sweden for the donation of
the consumable and for LECO chemical
analysis; Conarco-ESAB-Argentina for
performing chemical analysis; Air Liquide
Argentina for donating gases for welding;
Latin American Welding Foundation, Ar-
gentina, for facilities for welding and me-
chanical testing; Scanning Electron Mi-
croscopy Laboratory of INTI-Mecnica,
Argentina, for facilities for SEM analysis;
and APUEMFI, Argentina and ANPCyT,
Argentina, for financial support.
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31. Bilmes, P. D., Llorente, C. L., and Ipia, J.
P. 2000. Toughness and microstructure of
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32. Gooch, T. G., Woollin, P., and Haynes, A.
G. 1999. Welding metallurgy of low carbon 13%
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Stainless Steels. Springer-Verlag Wien, New York.
34. Bilmes, P. D., Llorente, C. L., and Solari,
M. 2000. Role of the retained austenite on the
mechanical properties of 13Cr-4NiMo weld
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Huamn, L., Gassa, L. M., and Gervasi, C. A.
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38. Bonnefois, B., Coudreuse, L., Toussaint,
P., and Dufrane, J. J. 2002. Development in
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39. Bilmes, P. D., Llorente, C., and Solari,
M. 1999. Effect of post weld heat treatment on
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Introduction
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is one
of the most widely used industrial welding
methods, preferred for its high productiv-
ity. A continuous and consumable wire
electrode is fed through a welding gun,
making it well suited to semiautomatic or
automatic welding applications. The wire
electrode plays the roles of heat source
and liquid filler metal. The manner in
which the liquid metal transfers from the
electrode to the weld pool is referred to as
metal transfer mode. It is the most impor-
tant feature of GMAW and plays a signif-
icant role in determining the welding
process stability and weld quality (Ref. 1).
There are three basic metal transfer
modes: short-circuiting, globular, and spray
(Ref. 2). These metal transfer modes show
different arc stabilities, weld formation,
spatter levels, and so on. Short-
circuiting transfer encompasses the lowest
range of welding currents and voltages. The
arc length is relatively short, and the droplet
cannot transfer until it touches the weld
pool. The small, fast-freezing weld pool pro-
duced by the short-circuiting transfer and its
associated low heat input are suitable for
joining thin materials. When the welding
currents and voltages are slightly higher
than that used in short-circuiting transfer,
globular transfer can be achieved. The drop
size is greater than the diameter of the weld-
ing wire, and the detachment is mainly con-
trolled by gravity. When the welding current
further increases to a higher level that is
above a critical value called the transition
current, transfer occurs in the form of rel-
atively small drops that are transferred at
the rate of hundreds per second. This trans-
fer mode is spray transfer.
The spray transfer mode can be further
classified into drop spray and streaming
spray, based on the droplet size. The diam-
eter of the drop is equal or slightly larger
than the welding wire in drop spray, while it
is much smaller in streaming spray (Ref. 3).
Both spray transfer modes are stable. How-
ever, in the streaming spray, small drops at
a relatively high speed have a strong impact
on the weld pool. The resultant weld for-
mation is finger-shaped penetration, which
is associated with poor mechanical proper-
ties (Ref. 4). The drop spray is generally
characterized by uniform drop size, regular
detachment, directional droplet transfer,
and insignificant spatter, so it is a preferred
process (Ref. 5). However, the current
range for drop spray transfer is relatively
narrow less than 10 A (Ref. 6). Small
variables of the welding condition can bring
a normal current variation larger than the
narrow current range, so it is hard to main-
tain the drop spray process. On the other
hand, globular transfer is associated with in-
stable arc, spatter, and unacceptable weld
appearance. This is mainly brought by the
large drop size and low transfer frequency.
Suppose that an auxiliary force can be ap-
plied on the droplet, the drop size will be
minimized and the metal transfer frequency
will be increased. As a result, the globular
transfer will be a more stable and continu-
ous process, similar to the drop spray
process.
In an effort to solve the above problem,
application of an auxiliary force on the
droplet has been achieved in a number of
ways. The pulsed GMAW method uses
pulsed current. A peak current higher
than the transition current is used to pro-
duce a powerful electromagnetic force to
detach the droplet (Refs. 79). The peak
current value and duration time can be
modulated to control the electromagnetic
force. The average current for spray trans-
fer decreases, but the transition current is
unchanged. A reliable feedback signal is
necessary to control the peak current and
duration time because of the narrow range
of transition current (Refs. 1012). By
monitoring excited droplet oscillation, the
downward momentum of the droplet has
been employed to enhance droplet de-
tachment in the pulsed GMAW process.
The peak current can be lower than the
transition current, and accidental detach-
ment is prevented (Ref. 13). Then the os-
cillation process of the droplet is improved
by modified current waveforms. The metal
transfer rate is further improved, and the
control system is simplified (Ref. 14). The
double-electrode GMAW (DE-GMAW)
process adds a gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) torch to the GMAW system, and
the bypass arc produces an extra electro-
magnetic force to detach the droplet (Ref.
15). Then the DE-GMAW has been fur-
ther modified into dual-bypass GMAW by
adding two bypass tungsten electrodes
(Ref. 16). As a result, two extra electro-
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Ultrasonic Wave Assisted GMAW
A novel method adds ultrasonic wave to provide an additional force
to detach the droplet
BY Y. Y. FAN, C. L. YANG, S. B. LIN, C. L. FAN, AND W. G. LIU
KEYWORDS
Gas Metal Arc Welding
Metal Transfer
Ultrasonic Wave
Ultrasonic Radiation Force
Y. Y. FAN, C. L. YANG, S. B. LIN
(sblin@hit.edu.cn), C. L. FAN, and W. G. LIU
are with the State Key Laboratory of Advanced
Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute of Tech-
nology, Harbin, China.
ABSTRACT
A novel modification to conventional gas metal arc welding (GMAW) was de-
veloped by applying ultrasonic wave to the welding process, referred to as U-
GMAW. One of the effects was ultrasonic radiation force. The principle of the
proposed method is to apply the ultrasonic radiation force to droplets as an extra
detaching force. To prove the feasibility of this idea, comparative experiments were
conducted to uncover the basic characteristics of the metal transfer process. It was
found that droplets in conventional GMAW were approximately spherical, while
deformation of the droplets was observed in U-GMAW. More specifically, the
droplet was elongated and its size was reduced. As a result, the metal transfer fre-
quency increased in all experimental conditions. Analytical results show that an ad-
ditional force was brought into the metal transfer process. The additional force was
ultrasonic radiation force and its value was on the order of 10
3
N.
magnetic forces are produced. Recently, a
new process has been developed at the
University of Kentucky by adding a laser
beam to the droplet (Ref. 17). The laser
recoil pressure produces an auxiliary force
to detach the droplet. The metal transfer
mode changes from short circuiting to
spray after the laser is applied. It provides
a new way to decouple the detaching force
from the current.
Question: Can another kind of force
with little relation to
the current and heat
be found as a supple-
ment to the detaching
force?
On the other hand,
the ultrasonic wave is a
kind of mechanical vi-
bration with a fre-
quency equal or above
20 kHz. It has the ad-
vantages of excellent
directivity and high-
energy density, leading
to several interesting
ultrasonic effects. One
of the effects is ultra-
sonic radiation force.
It is the result of
acoustic radiation
pressure acting on the
obstacle in an acoustic
field. The ultrasonic
wave has been intro-
duced into the arc
welding process.
When the ultrasonic
wave was directly applied onto the work-
piece, it proved to be effective in grain re-
finement (Refs. 18, 19). When it was applied
on the welding arc in gas tungsten arc weld-
ing, arc constriction was observed and the
weld penetration depth increased (Ref. 20).
For now, applications of the ultrasonic wave
in the welding process are mainly devoted
to improve the weld quality, but the fact of
arc constriction indicates that the ultrasonic
wave can propagate and form an acoustic
radiation field in the arc welding environ-
ment. It satisfies the basic preconditions for
the acoustic radiation force.
In this paper, the authors propose the
idea of applying the ultrasonic radiation
force to detach the droplets. The ultrasonic
wave is introduced into the GMAW process,
which is referred to 25 ultrasonic wave as-
sisted GMAW (U-GMAW). The objective
of this study is to prove the concept and fea-
sibility of the U-GMAW method. However,
further optimization and research are nec-
essary for the drop detachment control
process and industrial applications.
Theoretical Foundation and
Principle
In a stationary acoustic field, the
acoustic radiation force acting on a sphere
can be expressed as (Ref. 21)
(1)
Where p
0
is the density of medium, A is
the velocity potential of the incident wave,
k is the wave number, R
s
is the radius of
sphere, and z is the vertical distance be-
tween the sphere and the reflector.
From Equation 1, it can be seen that
the acoustic radiation force is a static field.
The value and direction of the force are
not changed over time, but they vary with
the vertical distance from the sphere to the
reflector in the acoustic field. The distri-
F A kR kz
s
=
( ) ( )
5
6
2
0
2
3
sin
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Fig. 1 Acoustic radiation force distribution.
Fig .3 Schematic of U-GMAW.
Fig. 2 Water drops without ultrasonic wave (left) and with ultrasonic wave
(right).
Table 1 Experimental Parameters
Experimental Wire Feed Speed Welding Voltage in Welding Voltage in
Number (m/min) Conventional GMAW (V) Ultrasonic-Assisted GMAW (V)
1 3 27 31
2 3.5 27 31
3 4 27 32
4 4.5 27 32
5 5 27 32
6 5.5 27 33
7 6 28 33
8 6.5 28 33
bution cycle is half-wavelength in the
medium. The force distribution is shown
in Fig. 1. It can be seen that half of the
acoustic field is filled with downward
force. The principle of the U-GMAW
method is meant to use the downward
force as a supplement to the metal de-
tachment. To better understand this
process, a preliminary experiment was
taken to evaluate the effect of the force.
The detachment of the water drops was
similar to the metal transfer process. A
water tube with a diameter of 1.5 mm was
selected to conduct the simulation experi-
ment. The end of the tube was placed in
the area of the downward force, as the
zone A shown in Fig. 1. The ultrasonic
frequency was 20 kHz. The vibration am-
plitude of the ultrasonic radiator was 30
m, and the distance between the radiator
and the workpiece was 17 mm.
The water drop transfer process was
recorded by a CCD camera at 150 frames
per second. The images of the water drop
prior to the detachment are shown in Fig. 2.
The left one is of the conventional process
while the right one is with the application of
ultrasonic wave. It can be seen that the size
of the water drop is much smaller after the
ultrasonic wave is applied. The drop trans-
fer cycle time was only
1
10 of the conven-
tional process. Also, the shape of the water
drop was apparently different. It was elon-
gated in the axial direction of the water
tube, and a longer neck was observed be-
tween the water drop and the tube. The dif-
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Fig. 4 Experimental setup.
Fig. 5 Photographing method of the metal trans-
fer process.
Fig. 6 Metal transfer in conventional GMAW in Experiment 3. The interval between each image is 32 ms.
A
B
C D
E
F
G
H
ferences of the water drop detachments
could be explained by the ultrasonic radia-
tion force. In the acoustic field, the ultra-
sonic radiation force acted on the surface of
the water drop. The liquid drop started to
deform, and it elongated in the direction of
the radiation force. When the water drop
grew in size with time, the gravity of the
drop and the radiation force on the drop in-
creased with the size of the drop. The water
drop was detached when the sum of the
gravity and radiation force exceeded the
surface tension. The water drop transfer
process is the same as the droplet transfer
process to some degree. The preliminary ex-
perimental results were consistent with the
principle of the proposed method, and it
may help explain the phenomena in the
welding process. It should be mentioned
that the complicated arc welding environ-
ment would affect the mode of the acoustic
field, as well as the distribution of acoustic
radiation force, but the nature of the force
should not be changed.
The schematic of the U-GMAW is
shown in Fig. 3. The system is made up of
an ultrasonic power source, a welding power
source, and a hybrid welding gun. The main
body of the welding gun is based on the ul-
trasonic vibration system, which can be fur-
ther divided into the ultrasonic transducer
and ultrasonic horn. The ultrasonic trans-
ducer transforms electric energy into ultra-
sonic vibration, and then the vibration is
amplified by the ultrasonic horn. The ultra-
sonic wave radiates out from the ultrasonic
radiator. With the reflection by the work-
piece, an acoustic radiation field forms be-
tween the ultrasonic radiator and
workpiece. Meanwhile, the welding wire is
fed through the axial hole of the ultrasonic
vibration system, and there is no ultrasonic
vibration acting on the wire. The welding
process is carried out in the acoustic field.
In this way, the ultrasonic wave works on the
welding arc and droplet.
Experimental Setup and
Conditions
Experimental Setup
The experimental setup is shown in
Fig. 4. The welding gun was fixed, and the
workpiece moved at a constant speed. The
angle between the axis of the welding gun
and the workpiece was 90 deg.
A laser backlighted shadowgraphic
method (Ref. 22) was used to monitor the
metal transfer process, as shown in Fig. 5.
In this method, a laser beam of 808 nm
wavelength was used to provide back light.
The light blocked by the welding wire and
droplet would not reach the camera when
traveling through the welding space. A
band-pass filter centered at 808 nm wave-
length was installed in front of the camera
so that most of the laser light would be
transmitted and most of the arc light
would be excluded. As a result, the shadow
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Fig. 7 Metal transfer in U-GMAW in Experiment 3. The interval between each image is 13 ms.
A
B
C
D
E F
G
H
of the welding wire and droplet could be
imaged by the high-speed camera at a rate
of 3000 frames per second.
Ultrasonic Parameters
There were three main ultrasonic pa-
rameters in the experiment. The ultrasonic
frequency and the vibration amplitude are
mainly concerned with the state of the in-
cident wave, while the distance between
the radiator and the workpiece decides the
mode of the acoustic field. The ultrasonic
frequency and the maximum amplitude
are determined by the ultrasonic equip-
ment. In this study, the ultrasonic fre-
quency was 20 kHz. The power of the
ultrasonic equipment was 110 W, and the
corresponding vibration amplitude was 30
m. The distance between the radiator
and the workpiece was 30 mm, which
maintained a strong acoustic field on the
one hand, and eliminated the undesirable
impacts of the GMAW process, like high
temperature and spatter, on the other
hand. However, the efficiency of the ul-
trasonic wave is not a primary concern in
the preliminary study and the use of a
more advanced ultrasonic power source
and larger vibration amplitude should not
change the effectiveness of the experi-
mental results.
Welding Conditions
The welding parameters used as vari-
ables in this study were wire feed speed and
welding voltage, as shown in Table 1. Since
the droplet size and the droplet transfer fre-
quency are mainly determined by the weld-
ing current, the wire feed speed was varied
continuously with the U-GMAW and com-
parative conventional GMAW processes.
The welding voltages in U-GMAW experi-
ments were higher than those in conven-
tional GMAW experiments. In the
preliminary research, it was found that the
arc length decreased after the ultrasonic
wave was applied on (Ref. 23). So the weld-
ing voltages of U-GMAW were set higher
to get arcs long enough to maintain stable
globular transfer processes. A constant volt-
age (CV) power supply was used during ex-
periments, and the welding process was
performed under direct current electrode
positive (DCEP) conditions. The welding
wire was ER70S-6 of 1.2 mm diameter, and
the workpiece was mild steel. Pure argon
was used as shielding gas at a flow rate of 25
L/min. The contact tube to workpiece dis-
tance (CTWD) was 24 mm, and the dis-
tance between the nozzle and the workpiece
was 11 mm. Experiments were performed
as bead-on-plate at a welding speed of 300
mm/min.
Experimental Results and
Analysis
Metal Transfer Process
Comparative experiments have been
performed using the parameters shown in
Table 1. Figure 6 illustrates an image se-
quence of a complete metal transfer cycle
in conventional GMAW under experi-
mental condition No. 3, where the wire
feed speed is 4 m/min. The first image
shows the end of the last transfer cycle, at
the moment prior to the droplet detach-
ment, and the last image shows the droplet
prior to detachment in current transfer
cycle. The metal transfer process was ob-
viously in globular transfer mode. As can
be seen, all droplets during the transfer
cycle were approximately spherical. The
droplet size grew gradually, and the diam-
eters of the droplets prior to detachment
were about three times the diameter of the
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Fig. 8 Droplets under different wire feed speeds in conventional GMAW experiments(m/min). A
3; B 3.5; C 4; D 4.5; E 5; F 5.5; G 6; H 6.5(m/min).
A
B
C
D
E F
G
H
welding wire, as shown in Fig. 6A and H.
As a result, the metal transfer cycle lasted
a long time 226 ms. The average metal
transfer frequency of conventional
GMAW in Experiment 3 was about 4 Hz.
The average welding current and voltage
were 150 A and 26.7 V. The welding cur-
rent was much lower than the transition
current, so the metal transfer process ob-
served was consistent with the expected
metal transfer mode.
A metal transfer cycle for U-GMAW
under experimental condition No. 3 is
shown in Fig. 7. It should be mentioned
that all the images of the welding process
were recorded under the same photo-
graphing condition. A noticeable effect of
the ultrasonic wave on the welding process
was the change of arc. Although the weld-
ing voltage was higher, the arc length was
obviously shorter than that of the conven-
tional GMAW. The compressed arc was
brighter and part of the arc shape could be
recognized in Fig. 7, while the arc of con-
ventional GMAW was not bright enough
to be seen in Fig. 6. With the assistance of
the arc, the relative position of the droplet
and the workpiece could be recognized in
Fig. 7. Although the arc and the workpiece
could not be seen in the conventional
GMAW process, the spatial relationship
between the droplet and the workpiece in
Fig. 6 was the same as Fig. 7. The height of
droplet in the conventional GMAW
process could be measured by the distance
between the droplet and the welding noz-
zle. Meanwhile, the metal transfer process
was also different from that of the con-
ventional GMAW. The most characteristic
feature is the deformation of the droplet.
At first, the droplet size was small, and the
droplet shape was approximately spheri-
cal. When the droplet diameter exceeded
the wire diameter, the droplet started to
deform. It was elongated in the axial di-
rection of the welding wire while the di-
ameter of the droplet no longer increased,
as shown as differences between Fig. 7D
and E. The deforming process lasted to
the end of the transfer cycle. The resultant
droplet shape was approximately ellip-
soidal, as demonstrated in Fig. 7H. The
length of the droplet in the axial direction
of the welding wire was about two times
the diameter of the droplet. Also, the neck
between the welding wire and the droplet
was longer than that of the conventional
GMAW, compared between Fig. 6H and
Fig. 7H. Although the droplet size could
not be measured directly due to deforma-
tion, the droplet size in U-GMAW was ap-
parently smaller than that in conventional
GMAW. Since the wire feed speeds were
constant in both two processes, the de-
crease of the droplet size would result in a
decrease of metal transfer time and an in-
MARCH 2012, VOL. 91 96-s
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R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
A
B
C
D
E F
G
H
Fig. 9 Droplets under different wire feed speeds in U-GMAW experiments (m/min.) A 3; B 3.5;
C 4 ; D 4.5 ; E 5; F 5.5; G 6; H 6.5m/min.
crease of metal transfer frequency. In this
experiment condition, the cycle time was
reduced from 226 to 92 ms while the metal
transfer frequency increased from about 4
to about 10 Hz. The average welding cur-
rent and voltage were 154 A and 31.7 V.
The welding current was slightly higher
than that of conventional GMAW, but
such little difference was insufficient to
cause a difference in the metal transfer
process.
The above metal transfer processes
have shown that the U-GMAW method is
consistent with the proposed principle to
some degree. Although metal transfer was
still in the globular transfer mode, the de-
tails of the process were improved and a
more continuous droplet transfer process
was achieved.
A series of comparative results under
different wire feed speeds were the result
of the experimental conditions shown in
Table. 1. The shapes of droplets prior to
detachment in conventional GMAW and
U-GMAW experiments are shown in Figs.
8 and 9, respectively. As can be seen, the
droplet size decreased as the wire feed
speed grew, because of the increasing
welding current. This was observed in both
conventional GMAW and U-GMAW.
However, the differences are obvious. In
the conventional GMAW process, all
droplets were approximately spherical. In
the U-GMAW process, droplets with de-
formation were always observed. All
droplets were elongated in the axial direc-
tion of the welding wire and detached as
ellipsoids. Also, the droplet sizes were ap-
parently smaller than those of conven-
tional GMAW under the same wire feed
speed. At the wire feed speed of 6.5
m/min, the metal transfer mode changed
into streaming spray transfer while the
conventional GMAW process was still in
globular transfer mode, as shown in Figs.
8H and 9H. Further experiment of the
conventional GMAW
process was con-
ducted, and streaming
transfer mode was
achieved at a higher
wire feed speed of 7
m/min. No transition
phenomenon was ob-
served. It also proved
that the transition
current range was too
narrow to get a stable
drop spray transfer
process when shield-
ing with pure argon.
The transition current
in U-GMAW process
was about 210 A,
while it was about 220
A in conventional
GMAW process.
The metal transfer
frequencies during
the experimental
processes were meas-
ured, and average frequencies for each
welding condition were calculated. Figure
10 shows the differences for metal trans-
fer frequency between conventional
GMAW and U-GMAW. It should be
mentioned that the conditions of stream-
ing spray transfer mode were not con-
tained in Fig. 10, since its metal transfer
frequency was too high (above 200 Hz).
If the range of the Y axis was enlarged by
such a high frequency, it would be hard
to distinguish the details of the differ-
ences of metal transfer frequency in glob-
ular transfer. It can be found that the
metal transfer frequency increased with
the wire feed speed in both processes.
However, the increasing trend of U-
GMAW was faster than that of conven-
tional GMAW. At the wire feed speed of
3 m/min, the metal transfer frequency
changed from 2 to 3 Hz, while it in-
creased from 14 to 52 Hz at the wire feed
speed of 6 m/min. Such a high-frequency
metal transfer process was similar to the
drop spray transfer mode. Even at a
lower wire feed speed of 5 m/min, the U-
GMAW method could have a metal
transfer frequency above 20 Hz, which
can maintain a relatively stable and con-
tinuous welding process.
It was proved that the U-GMAW
method could improve the metal transfer
characteristics with a higher metal trans-
fer frequency, in comparison with the
conventional GMAW. As a result, the
welding process was more stable and con-
tinuous, which was consistent with the ex-
pected result of the proposed idea. The
preliminary explanation for changes in
metal transfer frequency could be attrib-
uted to the changes in droplet sizes, but
another question was raised: What had
led to the differences in droplet sizes?
W
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Fig. 10 Metal transfer frequency. Fig. 11 Forces acting on the droplet.
Fig. 12 Comparison of predicted and measured droplet gravity.
Analysis of Ultrasonic Effect
The metal transfer process is the result
of forces acting on the droplet. A droplet
detaches when the total detaching forces
exceed the total retaining forces. There
are two complementary theories for study-
ing the metal transfer mechanism (Refs.
24, 25). One is the static force balance the-
ory; the other is the pinch instability the-
ory. The former is appropriate for globular
transfer mode at relatively low currents,
while the latter is more suitable for spray
transfer mode at high currents. In this
paper, the static force balance theory was
chosen to explain the differences in
droplet size.
In conventional GMAW, four different
forces are usually considered: gravity
force, electromagnetic force, and plasma
drag force are detaching forces, while sur-
face tension force is a retaining force. The
gravity force can be expressed as
(2)
Where R
d
is the droplet radius,
d
is the
density of the droplet, and g is the gravita-
tional constant.
The electromagnetic force can be ex-
pressed as
(3)
Where
is the magnetic permittivity, I

is the welding current, r is the welding wire
radius, and is the half-angle subtended
by the arc root at the center of the droplet.
The plasma drag force can be expressed as
(4)
Where C
D
is the drag coefficient, A
p
is the
projected area on the plane perpendicular
to the fluid flow,
f
is the fluid density,
f
is the velocity of the gas.
The surface tension force acting as re-
taining force is given as
F
s
= 2r (5)
Where r is the welding wire radius, and
is the surface tension coefficient.
The balance of static forces is given by
F
g
+ F
em
+ F
d
= F
s
(6)
The droplet would not be detached until the
detaching forces exceed the retaining force.
From Equations 26, the gravity force can
be calculated, and the droplet size can be
predicted. Figure 11 shows the resulting
forces required to detach the droplet. As
can be seen, the surface tension force (F
s
)
and the plasma drag force (F
p
) are almost
constant. As the welding current increases,
the electromagnetic force increases. The
gravity force decreases as a result.
In order to tell the differences between
the conventional GMAW and U-GMAW,
the experimental results of droplet gravity
were compared with the predicted gravity
force, given in Fig. 12. In conventional
GMAW, the droplet sizes can be directly
measured in images of metal transfer
process and then the droplet gravity forces
can be calculated. However, the droplets
in U-GMAW were deformed and could
not be measured directly. The equivalent
droplet size was calculated by dividing the
melting rate of the electrode by the aver-
age metal transfer frequency, and then the
equivalent gravity force was calculated
using Equation 2.
As seen in Fig. 12, the theoretical results
agree well with the experimental results ob-
tained in the conventional GMAW process.
It proves that the static force balance theory
is suitable for globular transfer mode. For
the U-GMAW process, there were great dif-
ferences between the experimental results
and the predicted results. Because the ap-
plication of the ultrasonic wave could not
change the variables in the equations of
forces, it could be concluded that an addi-
tional force was brought in the metal trans-
fer process by the ultrasonic wave.
Furthermore, the difference in gravity
forces between two processes can be con-
sidered as the value of the additional force,
as shown in Fig. 12. In this case, the addi-
tional force was on the order of 10
3
N,
which can provide a force about
1
5 of the sur-
face tension force with a welding wire di-
ameter of 1.2 mm.
The nature of the additional force was
further discussed. On the one hand, the
water drop transfer process provided evi-
dence. The water drop was elongated in
the axial direction of the water tube, and
the water drop size was decreased in the
acoustic radiation force field. Similar phe-
nomena were observed in the metal trans-
fer process. On the other hand, the
changing tendency of the additional force
shown in Fig. 12 is consistent with the the-
oretical result of the acoustic radiation
force. As the welding current increased,
the droplet size decreased, which meant
that the surface area being acted on by the
acoustic pressure was decreased. As
shown in Equation 1, the decreased radius
of sphere (R
s
) would result in a decrease
of the value of the acoustic radiation force.
Hence, it can be concluded that the nature
of the additional force should be acoustic
radiation force. This result was in accord
with the idea of the proposed method. The
ultrasonic radiation force could be used as
a supplement to the detaching force in
metal transfer process.
Conclusions and Future Work
1) An experimental system has been es-
tablished and the feasibility of the U-
GMAW method was experimentally
demonstrated.
2) Deformation of the droplet was ob-
served during the metal transfer process.
The droplet was elongated in the axial di-
rection of the welding wire, and the
droplet size was decreased in comparison
with the conventional GMAW.
3) The metal transfer frequency was in-
creased compared with the conventional
GMAW process. At a wire feed speed of 6
m/min, the U-GMAW process could main-
tain a metal transfer frequency of 52 Hz,
while it was 14 Hz in the conventional
GMAW process.
4) The ultrasonic radiation force was
brought into the metal transfer process as
a supplement to the detaching force. The
value of the force was on the order of 10
3
N.
The experimental results were consis-
tent with the principle of the proposed
method. However, the decrease in the
transition current in U-GMAW was less
than the other control methods such as ac-
tive oscillation and laser enhanced
GMAW. Also, there are some theoretical
questions that need further research, such
as the changes of acoustic field in the com-
plicated welding environment, and so on.
In the future work, the effect of the ul-
trasonic parameters on the characteristics
of globular transfer will be evaluated, and
the ultrasonic effect on the weld quality
will be studied, especially on the mi-
crostructure and weld grain size. The ulti-
mate goal of this method is to control the
metal transfer process by applying pulsed
ultrasonic wave to conventional GMAW
or applying constant ultrasonic wave to
pulsed GMAW.
References
1. OBrien, R. L., ed. 1991. Welding Hand-
book. 8th ed., Vol. 2: American Welding Soci-
ety, Miami, Fla.
2. Lancaster, J. F. 1984. The Physics of Weld-
ing. Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K.
3. Iordachescu, D., and Quintino, L. 2008.
Steps toward a new classification of metal trans-
fer in gas metal arc welding. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 202(13): 391397.
F C A
d D p
f f
=
[
\
|
|
|
)
j
j
j

2
2
F
I
R
r
em
d
=

( )
0
2
2
4
1
1
4
1
1
2
1
1
n
sin
cos
cos
n
22
1+
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
cos
F R g
g d d
=
4
3
3

MARCH 2012, VOL. 91 98-s
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4. Essers, W. G., and Walter, R. 1981. Heat
transfer and penetration mechanisms with
GMA and plasma-GMA welding. Welding Jour-
nal 60(2): 37-s to 42-s.
5. Ueguri, S., Hara, K., and Komura, H.
1985. Study of metal transfer in pulsed GMA
welding. Welding Journal 64(8): 242-s to 250-s.
6. Lesnewich, A. 1958. Control of melting
rate and metal transfer. Welding Journal 37(9):
418-s to 425-s.
7. Essers, W. G., and Van Gompel, M. R. M.
1984. Arc control with pulsed GMA welding.
Welding Journal 63(6): 26-s to 32-s.
8. Kim, Y. S., and Eager, T. W. 1993. Metal
transfer in pulsed current gas metal arc weld-
ing. Welding Journal 72(7): 279-s to 287-s.
9. Allum, C. J. 1985. Welding technology
data: pulsed MIG welding. Welding and Metal
Fabrication 53(1): 2430.
10. Wang, Q. L., and Li, P. J. 1997. Arc light
sensing of droplet transfer and its analysis in
pulsed GMAW process. Welding Journal 76(11):
458-s to 469-s.
11. Adam, G., and Siewert, T. A. 1990. Sens-
ing of GMAW droplet transfer modes using ER
100s-1 electrode. Welding Journal 69(3): 103-s to
108-s.
12. Johnson, J. A., Carlson, N. M., Smartt,
H. B., and Clark, D. E. 1991. Process control of
GMAW: sensing of metal transfer mode. Weld-
ing Journal 70(4): 91-s to 99-s.
13. Zhang, Y. M., Liguo., E, and Kovacevic,
R. 1998. Active metal transfer control by mon-
itoring excited droplet oscillation. Welding Jour-
nal 77(9): 388-s to 395-s.
14. Zhang, Y. M., and Li, P. J. 2001. Modi-
fied active control of metal transfer and pulsed
GMAW of titanium. Welding Journal 80(2): 54-
s to 61-s.
15. Li, K. H., Chen, J. S., and Zhang, Y. M.
2007. Double-electrode GMAW process and
control. Welding Journal 86(8): 231-s to 237-s.
16. Shi, Y., Liu, X., Zhang, Y., and Johnson,
M. 2008. Analysis of metal transfer and corre-
lated influences in dual-pass GMAW of alu-
minum. Welding Journal 87(9): 229-s to 236-s.
17. Huang, Y., and Zhang, Y. M. 2010.
Laser-enhanced GMAW. Welding Journal 89(9):
181-s to 188-s.
18. Cui, Y., Xu, C. L., and Han, Q. 2006. Ef-
fect of ultrasonic vibration on unmixed zone
formation. Scripta Materialia 55(11): 975978.
19. Dai, W. L. 2003. Effects of high-intensity
ultrasonic-wave emission on the weldability of
aluminum alloy 7075-T6. Materials Letters 57:
24472454.
20. Sun, Q. J., Lin, S. B., Yang, C. L., and
Zhao, G. Q. 2009. Penetration increase of AISI
304 using ultrasonic assisted tungsten inert gas
welding. Science and Technology of Welding and
Joining 14(8): 765767.
21. King, L. V. 1934. On the acoustic radia-
tion pressure on spheres. Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical
and Physical 147(11): 212240.
22. Allemand, C. D., Schoeder, R., Ries, D.
E., and Eager, T. W. 1985. A method of filming
metal transfer in welding arcs. Welding Journal
64(1): 4547.
23. Fan, Y. Y., Fan, C. L., Yang, C. L., Liu,
W. G., and Lin, S. B. 2010. Development and
preliminary study on the ultrasonic assisted
GMAW method. China Welding 19(4): 15.
24. Kim, Y. S., and Eager, T. W. 1993. Analy-
sis of metal transfer process in gas metal arc
welding. Welding Journal 72(6): 269-s to 278-s.
25. Rhee, S., and Kannatey-Asibu, E. 1991.
Analysis of arc pressure effect on metal transfer
in gas-metal arc welding. Journal of Applied
Physics 70(9): 50685075.
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