Biology Textbook

1
Concepts of Biology for the

University of Georgia
By: OpenStax College
Based on: Concepts of Biology <http://cnx.org/content/col11487/1.8>.
Online: <http://cnx.org/content/col11520/1.5>
This selection and arrangement of content as a collection is copyrighted by Rice University.
It is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License: http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/3.0/
Collection structure revised: 2013/08/09
For copyright and attribution information for the modules contained in this collection, see the
"Attributions" section at the end of the collection.
This content is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11520/1.5
Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 1. The Cellular Foundation of Life
Chapter 1: Chemistry of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 The Building Blocks of Molecules . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Biological Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 2: Cell Structure and Function . . . . . . . . .
2.1 How Cells Are Studied . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells . . .
2.3 Eukaryotic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 The Cell Membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Passive Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Active Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 3: How Cells Obtain Energy . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Energy and Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Glycolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation .
3.4 Fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Connections to Other Metabolic Pathways . . . .
Chapter 4: Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 Overview of Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis
4.3 The Calvin Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 2. Cell Division and Genetics
Chapter 5: Reproduction at the Cellular Level . . . . . .
5.1 The Genome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 The Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Cancer and the Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Prokaryotic Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 6: The Cellular Basis of Inheritance . . . . . . .
6.1 Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Errors in Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 7: Patterns of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1 Mendels Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Laws of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Extensions of the Laws of Inheritance . . . . . .
Unit 3. Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
Chapter 8: Molecular Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1 The Structure of DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 DNA Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 How Genes Are Regulated . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 9: Biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1 Cloning and Genetic Engineering . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Biotechnology in Medicine and Agriculture . . . .
9.3 Genomics and Proteomics . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit 4. Evolution and the Diversity of Life
Chapter 10: Evolution and Its Processes . . . . . . . .
10.1 Discovering How Populations Change . . . . . .
10.2 Mechanisms of Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Evidence of Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 Speciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 Common Misconceptions about Evolution . . . .
Unit 5. Animal Structure and Function
Chapter 11: The Immune System and Disease . . . . . .
11.1 Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Innate Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Adaptive Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Disruptions in the Immune System . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5
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Unit 6. Ecology
Chapter 12: Population and Community Ecology
12.1 Population Demographics and Dynamics
12.2 Population Growth and Regulation . . .
12.3 The Human Population . . . . . . . . .
12.4 Community Ecology . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 13: Ecosystems and the Biosphere . . .
13.1 Energy Flow through Ecosystems . . . .
13.2 Biogeochemical Cycles . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Terrestrial Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Aquatic and Marine Biomes . . . . . . .
A Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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PREFACE
PREFACE
Welcome to Concepts of Biology, an OpenStax College resource. This textbook has been created with
several goals in mind: accessibility, customization, and student engagementall while encouraging
students toward high levels of academic scholarship. Instructors and students alike will find that this
textbook offers a strong introduction to biology in an accessible format.
About OpenStax College

OpenStax College is a non-profit organization committed to improving student access to quality learning
materials. Our free textbooks are developed and peer-reviewed by educators to ensure they are readable,
accurate, and meet the scope and sequence requirements of todays college courses. Unlike traditional
textbooks, OpenStax College resources live online and are owned by the community of educators
using them. Through our partnerships with companies and foundations committed to reducing costs
for students, OpenStax College is working to improve access to higher education for all. OpenStax
College is an initiative of Rice University and is made possible through the generous support of several
philanthropic foundations.
About OpenStax College's Resources

OpenStax College resources provide quality academic instruction. Three key features set our materials
apart from others: they can be customized by instructors for each class, they are a living resource that
grows online through contributions from science educators, and they are available free or for minimal
cost.
Customization
OpenStax College learning resources are designed to be customized for each course. Our textbooks
provide a solid foundation on which instructors can build, and our resources are conceived and written
with flexibility in mind. Instructors can select the sections most relevant to their curricula and create
a textbook that speaks directly to the needs of their classes and student body. Teachers are encouraged
to expand on existing examples by adding unique context via geographically localized applications and
topical connections.
Concepts of Biology can be easily customized using our online platform. Simply select the content
most relevant to your syllabus and create a textbook that speaks directly to the needs of your class.
Concepts of Biology is organized as a collection of sections that can be rearranged, modified, and
enhanced through localized examples or to incorporate a specific theme of your course. This
customization feature will help bring biology to life for your students and will ensure that your textbook
truly reflects the goals of your course.
Curation
To broaden access and encourage community curation, Concepts of Biology is open source licensed
under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license. The scientific community is invited to submit
examples, emerging research, and other feedback to enhance and strengthen the material and keep
it current and relevant for todays students. Submit your suggestions to info@openstaxcollege.org,
and check in on edition status, alternate versions, errata, and news on the StaxDash at
http://openstaxcollege.org.
Cost
Our textbooks are available for free online, and in low-cost print and e-book editions.
About Concepts of Biology

Concepts of Biology is designed for the single-semester introduction to biology course for non-science
majors, which for many students is their only college-level science course. As such, this course
represents an important opportunity for students to develop the necessary knowledge, tools, and skills
to make informed decisions as they continue with their lives. Rather than being mired down with facts
and vocabulary, the typical non-science major student needs information presented in a way that is easy
PREFACE
to read and understand. Even more importantly, the content should be meaningful. Students do much
better when they understand why biology is relevant to their everyday lives. For these reasons, Concepts
of Biology is grounded on an evolutionary basis and includes exciting features that highlight careers in
the biological sciences and everyday applications of the concepts at hand. We also strive to show the
interconnectedness of topics within this extremely broad discipline. In order to meet the needs of todays
instructors and students, we maintain the overall organization and coverage found in most syllabi for this
course. A strength of Concepts of Biology is that instructors can customize the book, adapting it to the
approach that works best in their classroom. Concepts of Biology also includes an innovative art program
that incorporates critical thinking and clicker questions to help students understandand applykey
concepts.
Coverage and Scope

Our Concepts of Biology textbook adheres to the scope and sequence of most one-semester nonmajors courses nationwide. We also strive to make biology, as a discipline, interesting and accessible to
students. In addition to a comprehensive coverage of core concepts and foundational research, we have
incorporated features that draw learners into the discipline in meaningful ways. Our scope of content
was developed after surveying over a hundred biology professors and listening to their coverage needs.
We provide a thorough treatment of biologys fundamental concepts with a scope that is manageable for
instructors and students alike.
Unit 1: The Cellular Foundation of Life. Our opening unit introduces students to the sciences,
including the process of science and the underlying concepts from the physical sciences that provide
a framework within which learners comprehend biological processes. Additionally, students will
gain solid understanding of the structures, functions, and processes of the most basic unit of life:
the cell.
Unit 2: Cell Division and Genetics. Our genetics unit takes learners from the foundations of
cellular reproduction to the experiments that revealed the basis of genetics and laws of inheritance.
Unit 3: Molecular Biology and Biotechnology. Students will learn the intricacies of DNA, protein
synthesis, and gene regulation and current applications of biotechnology and genomics.
Unit 4: Evolution and the Diversity of Life. The core concepts of evolution are discussed in
this unit with examples illustrating evolutionary processes. Additionally, the evolutionary basis of
biology reappears throughout the textbook in general discussion and is reinforced through special
call-out features highlighting specific evolution-based topics. The diversity of life is explored with
detailed study of various organisms and discussion of emerging phylogenetic relationships between
and among bacteria, protist kingdoms, fungi, plants, and animals.
Unit 5: Animal Structure and Function. An introduction to the form and function of the animal
body is followed by chapters on the immune system and animal development. This unit touches
on the biology of all organisms while maintaining an engaging focus on human anatomy and
physiology that helps students connect to the topics.
Unit 6: Ecology. Ecological concepts are broadly covered in this unit, with features highlighting
localized, real-world issues of conservation and biodiversity.
Pedagogical Foundation and Features

Because of the impact science has on students and society, an important goal of science education is to
achieve a scientifically literate population that consistently makes informed decisions. Scientific literacy
transcends a basic understanding of scientific principles and processes to include the ability to make
sense of the myriad instances where people encounter science in day-to-day life. Thus, a scientifically
literate person is one who uses science content knowledge to make informed decisions, either personally
or socially, about topics or issues that have a connection with science. Concepts of Biology is grounded
on a solid scientific base and designed to promote scientific literacy. Throughout the text, you will find
features that engage the students in scientific inquiry by taking selected topics a step further.
Evolution in Action features uphold the importance of evolution to all biological study through
discussions like Global Decline of Coral Reefs and The Red Queen Hypothesis.
Career in Action features present information on a variety of careers in the biological sciences,
introducing students to the educational requirements and day-to-day work life of a variety of
professions, such as forensic scientists, registered dietitians, and biogeographers.
Biology in Action features tie biological concepts to emerging issues and discuss science in terms
of everyday life. Topics include Invasive Species and Photosynthesis at the Grocery Store.
PREFACE
Art and Animations that Engage

Our art program takes a straightforward approach designed to help students learn the concepts of biology
through simple, effective illustrations, photos, and micrographs. Concepts of Biology also incorporates
links to relevant animations and interactive exercises that help bring biology to life for students.
Art Connection features call out core figures in each chapter for student attention. Questions about
key figures, including clicker questions that can be used in the classroom, engage students critical
thinking and analytical abilities to ensure their genuine understanding of the concept at hand.
Concepts in Action features direct students to online interactive exercises and animations to add a
fuller context and examples to core content.
About Our Team

Concepts of Biology would not be possible if not for the tremendous contributions of the authors and
community reviewing team
Senior Contributors
Samantha Fowler Clayton State University
Rebecca Roush
Sandhills Community College
James Wise
Hampton University
Faculty Contributors and Reviewers

Mark Belk
Brigham Young University
Lisa Boggs
Southwestern Oklahoma State University
Sherryl Broverman Duke University

David Byres
Florida State College at Jacksonville
Aaron Cassill
The University of Texas at San Antonio
Karen Champ
College of Central Florida
Sue Chaplin
University of St. Thomas
Diane Day
Clayton State University
Jean DeSaix
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
David Hunnicutt
St. Norbert College
Barbara Kuehner
Hawaii Community College
Brenda Leady
University of Toledo
Bernie Marcus
Genesee Community College
Flora Mhlanga
Lipscomb University
Madeline Mignone Dominican College

Elizabeth Nash
Long Beach City College
Mark Newton
San Jose City College
Diana Oliveras
University of Colorado Boulder
Ann Paterson
Williams Baptist College
Joel Piperberg
Millersville University
Nick Reeves
Mt. San Jacinto College
Ann Reisenauer
San Jose State University
Lynn Rumfelt
Gordon College
Michael Rutledge
Middle Tennessee State University
Edward Saiff
Ramapo College of New Jersey
PREFACE
Brian Shmaefsky
Kingwood College
Gary Shultz
Marshall University
Donald Slish
SUNY Plattsburgh
Anh-Hue Tu
Georgia Southwestern State University
Elena Zoubina
Bridgewater State University
Learning Resources
Wiley Plus for Biology-Fall 2013 Pilot
WileyPLUS provides an engaging online environment for effective teaching and learning.
WileyPLUS builds students confidence because it takes the guesswork out of studying by providing a
clear roadmap; what to do, how to do it, and if they did it right. With WileyPLUS, students take more
initiative. Therefore, the course has a greater impact on their learning experience. Adaptive tools provide
students with a personal, adaptive learning experience so they can build their proficiency on topics and
use their study time most effectively. Please let us know if you would like to participate in a Fall 2013
Pilot.
Concepts of Biology Powerpoint Slides (faculty only)
The PowerPoint slides are based on the extensive illustrations from College Physics. They can be
edited, incorporated into lecture notes, and you are free to share with anyone in the community. This is
a restricted item requiring faculty registration. NOTE: This file is very large and may take some time to
download.
SimBio (Laboratory)
SimBios interactive modules (virtual labs and interactive tutorials and chapters) provide engaging,
discovery-based learning tools that complement many of the chapters of Concepts of Biology. SimBio
is best known for their EcoBeaker and EvoBeaker suites of simulated ecology and evolution
laboratories that guide students through the discovery of important concepts via a mix of structured
and open-ended experimentation on simulated systems. In response to popular demand, SimBio has
begun applying the same powerful approaches to topics in cell biology, genetics, and neurobiology. All
of SimBios modules include instant-feedback questions that enhance student comprehension and autograded questions that facilitate implementation.
CHAPTER 1 | CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1 | CHEMISTRY OF
LIFE
Figure 1.1 Foods such as bread, fruit, and cheese are rich sources of biological macromolecules.
(credit: modification of work by Bengt Nyman)
Chapter Outline
1.1: The Building Blocks of Molecules
1.2: Water
1.3: Biological Molecules
Introduction
The elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus are the key building blocks
of the chemicals found in living things. They form the carbohydrates, nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids
(all of which will be defined later in this chapter) that are the fundamental molecular components of all
organisms. In this chapter, we will discuss these important building blocks and learn how the unique
properties of the atoms of different elements affect their interactions with other atoms to form the
molecules of life.
Food provides an organism with nutrientsthe matter it needs to survive. Many of these critical
nutrients come in the form of biological macromolecules, or large molecules necessary for life. These
macromolecules are built from different combinations of smaller organic molecules. What specific types
of biological macromolecules do living things require? How are these molecules formed? What functions
do they serve? In this chapter, we will explore these questions.
10
1.1 | The Building Blocks of Molecules

By the end of this section, you will be able to:
Describe matter and elements
Describe the interrelationship between protons, neutrons, and electrons, and the ways in which
electrons can be donated or shared between atoms
At its most fundamental level, life is made up of matter. Matter occupies space and has mass. All
matter is composed of elements, substances that cannot be broken down or transformed chemically into
other substances. Each element is made of atoms, each with a constant number of protons and unique
properties. A total of 118 elements have been defined; however, only 92 occur naturally, and fewer than
30 are found in living cells. The remaining 26 elements are unstable and, therefore, do not exist for very
long or are theoretical and have yet to be detected.
Each element is designated by its chemical symbol (such as H, N, O, C, and Na), and possesses
unique properties. These unique properties allow elements to combine and to bond with each other in
specific ways.
Atoms
An atom is the smallest component of an element that retains all of the chemical properties of that
element. For example, one hydrogen atom has all of the properties of the element hydrogen, such as
it exists as a gas at room temperature, and it bonds with oxygen to create a water molecule. Hydrogen
atoms cannot be broken down into anything smaller while still retaining the properties of hydrogen. If
a hydrogen atom were broken down into subatomic particles, it would no longer have the properties of
hydrogen.
At the most basic level, all organisms are made of a combination of elements. They contain atoms
that combine together to form molecules. In multicellular organisms, such as animals, molecules can
interact to form cells that combine to form tissues, which make up organs. These combinations continue
until entire multicellular organisms are formed.
All atoms contain protons, electrons, and neutrons (Figure 1.2). The only exception is hydrogen
(H), which is made of one proton and one electron. A proton is a positively charged particle that resides
in the nucleus (the core of the atom) of an atom and has a mass of 1 and a charge of +1. An electron is a
negatively charged particle that travels in the space around the nucleus. In other words, it resides outside
of the nucleus. It has a negligible mass and has a charge of 1.
Figure 1.2 Atoms are made up of protons and neutrons located within the nucleus, and electrons
surrounding the nucleus.
Neutrons, like protons, reside in the nucleus of an atom. They have a mass of 1 and no charge. The
positive (protons) and negative (electrons) charges balance each other in a neutral atom, which has a net
zero charge.
Because protons and neutrons each have a mass of 1, the mass of an atom is equal to the number of
protons and neutrons of that atom. The number of electrons does not factor into the overall mass, because
their mass is so small.
As stated earlier, each element has its own unique properties. Each contains a different number of
protons and neutrons, giving it its own atomic number and mass number. The atomic number of an
element is equal to the number of protons that element contains. The mass number is the number of
protons plus the number of neutrons of that element. Therefore, it is possible to determine the number of
neutrons by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number.
These numbers provide information about the elements and how they will react when combined.
Different elements have different melting and boiling points, and are in different states (liquid, solid,
or gas) at room temperature. They also combine in different ways. Some form specific types of bonds,
whereas others do not. How they combine is based on the number of electrons present. Because of these
characteristics, the elements are arranged into the periodic table of elements, a chart of the elements that
includes the atomic number and relative atomic mass of each element. The periodic table also provides
key information about the properties of elements (Figure 1.2)often indicated by color-coding. The
arrangement of the table also shows how the electrons in each element are organized and provides
important details about how atoms will react with each other to form molecules.
Isotopes are different forms of the same element that have the same number of protons, but a
different number of neutrons. Some elements, such as carbon, potassium, and uranium, have naturally
occurring isotopes. Carbon-12, the most common isotope of carbon, contains six protons and six
neutrons. Therefore, it has a mass number of 12 (six protons and six neutrons) and an atomic number of
6 (which makes it carbon). Carbon-14 contains six protons and eight neutrons. Therefore, it has a mass
number of 14 (six protons and eight neutrons) and an atomic number of 6, meaning it is still the element
carbon. These two alternate forms of carbon are isotopes. Some isotopes are unstable and will lose
protons, other subatomic particles, or energy to form more stable elements. These are called radioactive
isotopes or radioisotopes.
Figure 1.3 Arranged in columns and rows based on the characteristics of the elements, the
periodic table provides key information about the elements and how they might interact with
each other to form molecules. Most periodic tables provide a key or legend to the information
they contain.
How many neutrons do (K) potassium-39 and potassium-40 have, respectively?
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Carbon Dating
Carbon-14 (14C) is a naturally occurring radioisotope that is created in the atmosphere
by cosmic rays. This is a continuous process, so more 14C is always being created. As a
living organism develops, the relative level of 14C in its body is equal to the concentration
of 14C in the atmosphere. When an organism dies, it is no longer ingesting 14C, so the
ratio will decline. 14C decays to 14N by a process called beta decay; it gives off energy in
this slow process.
After approximately 5,730 years, only one-half of the starting concentration of 14C will
have been converted to 14N. The time it takes for half of the original concentration of an
isotope to decay to its more stable form is called its half-life. Because the half-life of 14C
is long, it is used to age formerly living objects, such as fossils. Using the ratio of the 14C
concentration found in an object to the amount of 14C detected in the atmosphere, the
amount of the isotope that has not yet decayed can be determined. Based on this amount,
the age of the fossil can be calculated to about 50,000 years (Figure 1.4). Isotopes with
longer half-lives, such as potassium-40, are used to calculate the ages of older fossils.
Through the use of carbon dating, scientists can reconstruct the ecology and biogeography
of organisms living within the past 50,000 years.
Figure 1.4 The age of remains that contain carbon and are less than about 50,000 years old,
such as this pygmy mammoth, can be determined using carbon dating. (credit: Bill Faulkner/
NPS)
To learn more about atoms and isotopes, and how you can tell one isotope from another, visit this site
(http://openstaxcollege.org/l/isotopes) and run the simulation.
Chemical Bonds
How elements interact with one another depends on how their electrons are arranged and how many
openings for electrons exist at the outermost region where electrons are present in an atom. Electrons
exist at energy levels that form shells around the nucleus. The closest shell can hold up to two electrons.
The closest shell to the nucleus is always filled first, before any other shell can be filled. Hydrogen has
one electron; therefore, it has only one spot occupied within the lowest shell. Helium has two electrons;
therefore, it can completely fill the lowest shell with its two electrons. If you look at the periodic table,
you will see that hydrogen and helium are the only two elements in the first row. This is because they
only have electrons in their first shell. Hydrogen and helium are the only two elements that have the
lowest shell and no other shells.
The second and third energy levels can hold up to eight electrons. The eight electrons are arranged
in four pairs and one position in each pair is filled with an electron before any pairs are completed.
Looking at the periodic table again (Figure 1.3), you will notice that there are seven rows. These
rows correspond to the number of shells that the elements within that row have. The elements within a
particular row have increasing numbers of electrons as the columns proceed from left to right. Although
each element has the same number of shells, not all of the shells are completely filled with electrons. If
you look at the second row of the periodic table, you will find lithium (Li), beryllium (Be), boron (B),
carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), fluorine (F), and neon (Ne). These all have electrons that occupy
only the first and second shells. Lithium has only one electron in its outermost shell, beryllium has two
electrons, boron has three, and so on, until the entire shell is filled with eight electrons, as is the case
with neon.
Not all elements have enough electrons to fill their outermost shells, but an atom is at its most stable
when all of the electron positions in the outermost shell are filled. Because of these vacancies in the
outermost shells, we see the formation of chemical bonds, or interactions between two or more of the
same or different elements that result in the formation of molecules. To achieve greater stability, atoms
will tend to completely fill their outer shells and will bond with other elements to accomplish this goal by
sharing electrons, accepting electrons from another atom, or donating electrons to another atom. Because
the outermost shells of the elements with low atomic numbers (up to calcium, with atomic number 20)
can hold eight electrons, this is referred to as the octet rule. An element can donate, accept, or share
electrons with other elements to fill its outer shell and satisfy the octet rule.
When an atom does not contain equal numbers of protons and electrons, it is called an ion. Because
the number of electrons does not equal the number of protons, each ion has a net charge. Positive ions
are formed by losing electrons and are called cations. Negative ions are formed by gaining electrons and
are called anions. Elemental anionic names are changed to end in -ide.
For example, sodium only has one electron in its outermost shell. It takes less energy for sodium to
donate that one electron than it does to accept seven more electrons to fill the outer shell. If sodium loses
an electron, it now has 11 protons and only 10 electrons, leaving it with an overall charge of +1. It is now
called a sodium ion.
The chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outer shell. Again, it is more energy-efficient for
chlorine to gain one electron than to lose seven. Therefore, it tends to gain an electron to create an ion
with 17 protons and 18 electrons, giving it a net negative (1) charge. It is now called a chloride ion. This
movement of electrons from one element to another is referred to as electron transfer. As Figure 1.5
illustrates, a sodium atom (Na) only has one electron in its outermost shell, whereas a chlorine atom (Cl)
has seven electrons in its outermost shell. A sodium atom will donate its one electron to empty its shell,
and a chlorine atom will accept that electron to fill its shell, becoming chloride. Both ions now satisfy
the octet rule and have complete outermost shells. Because the number of electrons is no longer equal to
the number of protons, each is now an ion and has a +1 (sodium) or 1 (chloride) charge.
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Figure 1.5 Elements tend to fill their outermost shells with electrons. To do this, they can either
donate or accept electrons from other elements.
Ionic Bonds
There are four types of bonds or interactions: ionic, covalent, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals
interactions. Ionic and covalent bonds are strong interactions that require a larger energy input to break
apart. When an element donates an electron from its outer shell, as in the sodium atom example above, a
positive ion is formed. The element accepting the electron is now negatively charged. Because positive
and negative charges attract, these ions stay together and form an ionic bond, or a bond between ions.
The elements bond together with the electron from one element staying predominantly with the other
element. When Na+ and Cl ions combine to produce NaCl, an electron from a sodium atom stays with
the other seven from the chlorine atom, and the sodium and chloride ions attract each other in a lattice of
ions with a net zero charge.
Covalent Bonds
Another type of strong chemical bond between two or more atoms is a covalent bond. These bonds
form when an electron is shared between two elements and are the strongest and most common form
of chemical bond in living organisms. Covalent bonds form between the elements that make up the
biological molecules in our cells. Unlike ionic bonds, covalent bonds do not dissociate in water.
The hydrogen and oxygen atoms that combine to form water molecules are bound together by
covalent bonds. The electron from the hydrogen atom divides its time between the outer shell of the
hydrogen atom and the incomplete outer shell of the oxygen atom. To completely fill the outer shell of
an oxygen atom, two electrons from two hydrogen atoms are needed, hence the subscript 2 in H2O.
The electrons are shared between the atoms, dividing their time between them to fill the outer shell of
each. This sharing is a lower energy state for all of the atoms involved than if they existed without their
outer shells filled.
There are two types of covalent bonds: polar and nonpolar. Nonpolar covalent bonds form between
two atoms of the same element or between different elements that share the electrons equally. For
example, an oxygen atom can bond with another oxygen atom to fill their outer shells. This association
is nonpolar because the electrons will be equally distributed between each oxygen atom. Two covalent
bonds form between the two oxygen atoms because oxygen requires two shared electrons to fill its
outermost shell. Nitrogen atoms will form three covalent bonds (also called triple covalent) between two
atoms of nitrogen because each nitrogen atom needs three electrons to fill its outermost shell. Another
example of a nonpolar covalent bond is found in the methane (CH4) molecule. The carbon atom has four
electrons in its outermost shell and needs four more to fill it. It gets these four from four hydrogen atoms,
each atom providing one. These elements all share the electrons equally, creating four nonpolar covalent
bonds (Figure 1.6).
In a polar covalent bond, the electrons shared by the atoms spend more time closer to one nucleus
than to the other nucleus. Because of the unequal distribution of electrons between the different nuclei,
a slightly positive (+) or slightly negative () charge develops. The covalent bonds between hydrogen
and oxygen atoms in water are polar covalent bonds. The shared electrons spend more time near the
oxygen nucleus, giving it a small negative charge, than they spend near the hydrogen nuclei, giving these
molecules a small positive charge.
Figure 1.6 The water molecule (left) depicts a polar bond with a slightly positive charge on the
hydrogen atoms and a slightly negative charge on the oxygen. Examples of nonpolar bonds include
methane (middle) and oxygen (right).
Hydrogen Bonds
Ionic and covalent bonds are strong bonds that require considerable energy to break. However, not all
bonds between elements are ionic or covalent bonds. Weaker bonds can also form. These are attractions
that occur between positive and negative charges that do not require much energy to break. Two weak
bonds that occur frequently are hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions. These bonds give rise to
the unique properties of water and the unique structures of DNA and proteins.
When polar covalent bonds containing a hydrogen atom form, the hydrogen atom in that bond has
a slightly positive charge. This is because the shared electron is pulled more strongly toward the other
element and away from the hydrogen nucleus. Because the hydrogen atom is slightly positive (+), it will
be attracted to neighboring negative partial charges (). When this happens, a weak interaction occurs
between the + charge of the hydrogen atom of one molecule and the charge of the other molecule.
This interaction is called a hydrogen bond. This type of bond is common; for example, the liquid nature
of water is caused by the hydrogen bonds between water molecules (Figure 1.7). Hydrogen bonds give
water the unique properties that sustain life. If it were not for hydrogen bonding, water would be a gas
rather than a liquid at room temperature.
Figure 1.7 Hydrogen bonds form between slightly positive (+) and slightly negative () charges of
polar covalent molecules, such as water.
Hydrogen bonds can form between different molecules and they do not always have to include a
water molecule. Hydrogen atoms in polar bonds within any molecule can form bonds with other adjacent
molecules. For example, hydrogen bonds hold together two long strands of DNA to give the DNA
molecule its characteristic double-stranded structure. Hydrogen bonds are also responsible for some of
the three-dimensional structure of proteins.
van der Waals Interactions
Like hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions are weak attractions or interactions between
molecules. They occur between polar, covalently bound, atoms in different molecules. Some of these
weak attractions are caused by temporary partial charges formed when electrons move around a nucleus.
These weak interactions between molecules are important in biological systems.
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Radiography Technician
Have you or anyone you know ever had a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan,
a mammogram, or an X-ray? These tests produce images of your soft tissues and organs
(as with an MRI or mammogram) or your bones (as happens in an X-ray) by using either
radiowaves or special isotopes (radiolabeled or fluorescently labeled) that are ingested or
injected into the body. These tests provide data for disease diagnoses by creating images
of your organs or skeletal system.
MRI imaging works by subjecting hydrogen nuclei, which are abundant in the water in
soft tissues, to fluctuating magnetic fields, which cause them to emit their own magnetic
field. This signal is then read by sensors in the machine and interpreted by a computer to
form a detailed image.
Some radiography technologists and technicians specialize in computed tomography,
MRI, and mammography. They produce films or images of the body that help medical
professionals examine and diagnose. Radiologists work directly with patients, explaining
machinery, preparing them for exams, and ensuring that their body or body parts are
positioned correctly to produce the needed images. Physicians or radiologists then analyze
the test results.
Radiography technicians can work in hospitals, doctors offices, or specialized
imaging centers. Training to become a radiography technician happens at hospitals,
colleges, and universities that offer certificates, associates degrees, or bachelors degrees
in radiography.
1.2 | Water
Describe the properties of water that are critical to maintaining life
Do you ever wonder why scientists spend time looking for water on other planets? It is because water is
essential to life; even minute traces of it on another planet can indicate that life could or did exist on that
planet. Water is one of the more abundant molecules in living cells and the one most critical to life as we
know it. Approximately 70 percent of your body is made up of water. Without it, life simply would not
exist.
Water Is Polar
The hydrogen and oxygen atoms within water molecules form polar covalent bonds. The shared electrons
spend more time associated with the oxygen atom than they do with hydrogen atoms. There is no overall
charge to a water molecule, but there is a slight positive charge on each hydrogen atom and a slight
negative charge on the oxygen atom. Because of these charges, the slightly positive hydrogen atoms
repel each other and form the unique shape seen in Figure 1.8. Each water molecule attracts other water
molecules because of the positive and negative charges in the different parts of the molecule. Water also
attracts other polar molecules (such as sugars), forming hydrogen bonds. When a substance readily forms
hydrogen bonds with water, it can dissolve in water and is referred to as hydrophilic (water-loving).
Hydrogen bonds are not readily formed with nonpolar substances like oils and fats (Figure 1.8). These
nonpolar compounds are hydrophobic (water-fearing) and will not dissolve in water.
Figure 1.8 As this macroscopic image of oil and water show, oil is a nonpolar compound and, hence,
will not dissolve in water. Oil and water do not mix. (credit: Gautam Dogra)
Water Stabilizes Temperature

The hydrogen bonds in water allow it to absorb and release heat energy more slowly than many other
substances. Temperature is a measure of the motion (kinetic energy) of molecules. As the motion
increases, energy is higher and thus temperature is higher. Water absorbs a great deal of energy before
its temperature rises. Increased energy disrupts the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. Because
these bonds can be created and disrupted rapidly, water absorbs an increase in energy and temperature
changes only minimally. This means that water moderates temperature changes within organisms and
in their environments. As energy input continues, the balance between hydrogen-bond formation and
destruction swings toward the destruction side. More bonds are broken than are formed. This process
results in the release of individual water molecules at the surface of the liquid (such as a body of water,
the leaves of a plant, or the skin of an organism) in a process called evaporation. Evaporation of sweat,
which is 90 percent water, allows for cooling of an organism, because breaking hydrogen bonds requires
an input of energy and takes heat away from the body.
Conversely, as molecular motion decreases and temperatures drop, less energy is present to break
the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. These bonds remain intact and begin to form a rigid,
lattice-like structure (e.g., ice) (Figure 1.9a). When frozen, ice is less dense than liquid water (the
molecules are farther apart). This means that ice floats on the surface of a body of water (Figure 1.9b).
In lakes, ponds, and oceans, ice will form on the surface of the water, creating an insulating barrier to
protect the animal and plant life beneath from freezing in the water. If this did not happen, plants and
animals living in water would freeze in a block of ice and could not move freely, making life in cold
temperatures difficult or impossible.
Figure 1.9 (a) The lattice structure of ice makes it less dense than the freely flowing molecules of
liquid water. Ice's lower density enables it to (b) float on water. (credit a: modification of work by Jane
Whitney; credit b: modification of work by Carlos Ponte)
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Click here (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/ice_lattice) to see a 3-D animation of the structure of an ice

[1]
lattice. (credit: image created by Jane Whitney using Visual Molecular Dynamics (VMD) software )
Water Is an Excellent Solvent

Because water is polar, with slight positive and negative charges, ionic compounds and polar molecules
can readily dissolve in it. Water is, therefore, what is referred to as a solventa substance capable of
dissolving another substance. The charged particles will form hydrogen bonds with a surrounding layer
of water molecules. This is referred to as a sphere of hydration and serves to keep the particles separated
or dispersed in the water. In the case of table salt (NaCl) mixed in water (Figure 1.10), the sodium and
chloride ions separate, or dissociate, in the water, and spheres of hydration are formed around the ions.
A positively charged sodium ion is surrounded by the partially negative charges of oxygen atoms in
water molecules. A negatively charged chloride ion is surrounded by the partially positive charges of
hydrogen atoms in water molecules. These spheres of hydration are also referred to as hydration shells.
The polarity of the water molecule makes it an effective solvent and is important in its many roles in
living systems.
Figure 1.10 When table salt (NaCl) is mixed in water, spheres of hydration form around the ions.
Water Is Cohesive
Have you ever filled up a glass of water to the very top and then slowly added a few more drops? Before
it overflows, the water actually forms a dome-like shape above the rim of the glass. This water can stay
above the glass because of the property of cohesion. In cohesion, water molecules are attracted to each
other (because of hydrogen bonding), keeping the molecules together at the liquid-air (gas) interface,
although there is no more room in the glass. Cohesion gives rise to surface tension, the capacity of
a substance to withstand rupture when placed under tension or stress. When you drop a small scrap
of paper onto a droplet of water, the paper floats on top of the water droplet, although the object is
1. Humphrey, W., Dalke, A. and Schulten, K., "VMDVisual Molecular Dynamics", J. Molec. Graphics, 1996, vol. 14, pp. 33-38.
http://www.ks.uiuc.edu/Research/vmd/
denser (heavier) than the water. This occurs because of the surface tension that is created by the water
molecules. Cohesion and surface tension keep the water molecules intact and the item floating on the
top. It is even possible to float a steel needle on top of a glass of water if you place it gently, without
breaking the surface tension (Figure 1.11).
Figure 1.11 The weight of a needle on top of water pulls the surface tension downward; at the same
time, the surface tension of the water is pulling it up, suspending the needle on the surface of the
water and keeping it from sinking. Notice the indentation in the water around the needle. (credit:
Cory Zanker)
These cohesive forces are also related to the waters property of adhesion, or the attraction between
water molecules and other molecules. This is observed when water climbs up a straw placed in a glass
of water. You will notice that the water appears to be higher on the sides of the straw than in the middle.
This is because the water molecules are attracted to the straw and therefore adhere to it.
Cohesive and adhesive forces are important for sustaining life. For example, because of these
forces, water can flow up from the roots to the tops of plants to feed the plant.
To learn more about water, visit the U.S. Geological Survey Water Science for Schools: All About
Water! website. (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/about_water)
Buffers, pH, Acids, and Bases

The pH of a solution is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. You have probably used litmus paper,
paper that has been treated with a natural water-soluble dye so it can be used as a pH indicator, to test
how much acid or base (alkalinity) exists in a solution. You might have even used some to make sure the
water in an outdoor swimming pool is properly treated. In both cases, this pH test measures the amount
of hydrogen ions that exists in a given solution. High concentrations of hydrogen ions yield a low pH,
whereas low levels of hydrogen ions result in a high pH. The overall concentration of hydrogen ions
is inversely related to its pH and can be measured on the pH scale (Figure 1.12). Therefore, the more
hydrogen ions present, the lower the pH; conversely, the fewer hydrogen ions, the higher the pH.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A change of one unit on the pH scale represents a change in
the concentration of hydrogen ions by a factor of 10, a change in two units represents a change in the
concentration of hydrogen ions by a factor of 100. Thus, small changes in pH represent large changes in
the concentrations of hydrogen ions. Pure water is neutral. It is neither acidic nor basic, and has a pH of
7.0. Anything below 7.0 (ranging from 0.0 to 6.9) is acidic, and anything above 7.0 (from 7.1 to 14.0)
is alkaline. The blood in your veins is slightly alkaline (pH = 7.4). The environment in your stomach is
highly acidic (pH = 1 to 2). Orange juice is mildly acidic (pH = approximately 3.5), whereas baking soda
is basic (pH = 9.0).
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Figure 1.12 The pH scale measures the amount of hydrogen ions (H+) in a substance. (credit:
modification of work by Edward Stevens)
Acids are substances that provide hydrogen ions (H+) and lower pH, whereas bases provide
hydroxide ions (OH) and raise pH. The stronger the acid, the more readily it donates H+. For example,
hydrochloric acid and lemon juice are very acidic and readily give up H+ when added to water.
Conversely, bases are those substances that readily donate OH. The OH ions combine with H+ to
produce water, which raises a substances pH. Sodium hydroxide and many household cleaners are very
alkaline and give up OH rapidly when placed in water, thereby raising the pH.
Most cells in our bodies operate within a very narrow window of the pH scale, typically ranging
only from 7.2 to 7.6. If the pH of the body is outside of this range, the respiratory system malfunctions, as
do other organs in the body. Cells no longer function properly, and proteins will break down. Deviation
outside of the pH range can induce coma or even cause death.
So how is it that we can ingest or inhale acidic or basic substances and not die? Buffers are the
key. Buffers readily absorb excess H+ or OH, keeping the pH of the body carefully maintained in
the aforementioned narrow range. Carbon dioxide is part of a prominent buffer system in the human
body; it keeps the pH within the proper range. This buffer system involves carbonic acid (H2CO3) and
bicarbonate (HCO3) anion. If too much H+ enters the body, bicarbonate will combine with the H+ to
create carbonic acid and limit the decrease in pH. Likewise, if too much OH is introduced into the
system, carbonic acid will combine with it to create bicarbonate and limit the increase in pH. While
carbonic acid is an important product in this reaction, its presence is fleeting because the carbonic acid is
released from the body as carbon dioxide gas each time we breathe. Without this buffer system, the pH
in our bodies would fluctuate too much and we would fail to survive.
1.3 | Biological Molecules

Describe the ways in which carbon is critical to life
Explain the impact of slight changes in amino acids on organisms
Describe the four major types of biological molecules
Understand the functions of the four major types of molecules
The large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules are called biological
macromolecules. There are four major classes of biological macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids), and each is an important component of the cell and performs a wide array of
functions. Combined, these molecules make up the majority of a cells mass. Biological macromolecules
are organic, meaning that they contain carbon. In addition, they may contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur, and additional minor elements.
Carbon
It is often said that life is carbon-based. This means that carbon atoms, bonded to other carbon
atoms or other elements, form the fundamental components of many, if not most, of the molecules
found uniquely in living things. Other elements play important roles in biological molecules, but carbon
certainly qualifies as the foundation element for molecules in living things. It is the bonding properties
of carbon atoms that are responsible for its important role.
Carbon Bonding
Carbon contains four electrons in its outer shell. Therefore, it can form four covalent bonds with other
atoms or molecules. The simplest organic carbon molecule is methane (CH4), in which four hydrogen
atoms bind to a carbon atom (Figure 1.13).
Figure 1.13 Carbon can form four covalent bonds to create an organic molecule. The simplest
carbon molecule is methane (CH4), depicted here.
However, structures that are more complex are made using carbon. Any of the hydrogen atoms
could be replaced with another carbon atom covalently bonded to the first carbon atom. In this way,
long and branching chains of carbon compounds can be made (Figure 1.14a). The carbon atoms may
bond with atoms of other elements, such as nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus (Figure 1.14b). The
molecules may also form rings, which themselves can link with other rings (Figure 1.14c). This diversity
of molecular forms accounts for the diversity of functions of the biological macromolecules and is based
to a large degree on the ability of carbon to form multiple bonds with itself and other atoms.
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Figure 1.14 These examples show three molecules (found in living organisms) that contain carbon
atoms bonded in various ways to other carbon atoms and the atoms of other elements. (a) This
molecule of stearic acid has a long chain of carbon atoms. (b) Glycine, a component of proteins,
contains carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. (c) Glucose, a sugar, has a ring of carbon
atoms and one oxygen atom.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are macromolecules with which most consumers are somewhat familiar. To lose weight,
some individuals adhere to low-carb diets. Athletes, in contrast, often carb-load before important
competitions to ensure that they have sufficient energy to compete at a high level. Carbohydrates are, in
fact, an essential part of our diet; grains, fruits, and vegetables are all natural sources of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates provide energy to the body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar. Carbohydrates
also have other important functions in humans, animals, and plants.
Carbohydrates can be represented by the formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms
in the molecule. In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate
molecules. Carbohydrates are classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides (mono- = one; sacchar- = sweet) are simple sugars, the most common of
which is glucose. In monosaccharides, the number of carbon atoms usually ranges from three to six.
Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix -ose. Depending on the number of carbon atoms in the
sugar, they may be known as trioses (three carbon atoms), pentoses (five carbon atoms), and hexoses (six
carbon atoms).
Monosaccharides may exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions, they
are usually found in the ring form.
The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6. In most living species, glucose is an important
source of energy. During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose, and that energy is used to
help make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water by
the process of photosynthesis, and the glucose, in turn, is used for the energy requirements of the plant.
The excess synthesized glucose is often stored as starch that is broken down by other organisms that feed
on plants.
Galactose (part of lactose, or milk sugar) and fructose (found in fruit) are other common
monosaccharides. Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same chemical formula
(C6H12O6), they differ structurally and chemically (and are known as isomers) because of differing
arrangements of atoms in the carbon chain (Figure 1.15).
Figure 1.15 Glucose, galactose, and fructose are isomeric monosaccharides, meaning that they
have the same chemical formula but slightly different structures.
Disaccharides (di- = two) form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction (a
reaction in which the removal of a water molecule occurs). During this process, the hydroxyl group
(OH) of one monosaccharide combines with a hydrogen atom of another monosaccharide, releasing a
molecule of water (H2O) and forming a covalent bond between atoms in the two sugar molecules.
Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Lactose is a disaccharide consisting
of the monomers glucose and galactose. It is found naturally in milk. Maltose, or malt sugar, is a
disaccharide formed from a dehydration reaction between two glucose molecules. The most common
disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar, which is composed of the monomers glucose and fructose.
A long chain of monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds is known as a polysaccharide (poly= many). The chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of
monosaccharides. Polysaccharides may be very large molecules. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin
are examples of polysaccharides.
Starch is the stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of amylose and amylopectin (both
polymers of glucose). Plants are able to synthesize glucose, and the excess glucose is stored as starch in
different plant parts, including roots and seeds. The starch that is consumed by animals is broken down
into smaller molecules, such as glucose. The cells can then absorb the glucose.
Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates, and is made up of
monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched molecule
usually stored in liver and muscle cells. Whenever glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down to
release glucose.
Cellulose is one of the most abundant natural biopolymers. The cell walls of plants are mostly made
of cellulose, which provides structural support to the cell. Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in nature.
Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers that are linked by bonds between particular carbon atoms in
the glucose molecule.
Every other glucose monomer in cellulose is flipped over and packed tightly as extended long
chains. This gives cellulose its rigidity and high tensile strengthwhich is so important to plant cells.
Cellulose passing through our digestive system is called dietary fiber. While the glucose-glucose bonds
in cellulose cannot be broken down by human digestive enzymes, herbivores such as cows, buffalos,
and horses are able to digest grass that is rich in cellulose and use it as a food source. In these animals,
certain species of bacteria reside in the rumen (part of the digestive system of herbivores) and secrete the
enzyme cellulase. The appendix also contains bacteria that break down cellulose, giving it an important
role in the digestive systems of ruminants. Cellulases can break down cellulose into glucose monomers
that can be used as an energy source by the animal.
Carbohydrates serve other functions in different animals. Arthropods, such as insects, spiders, and
crabs, have an outer skeleton, called the exoskeleton, which protects their internal body parts. This
exoskeleton is made of the biological macromolecule chitin, which is a nitrogenous carbohydrate. It is
made of repeating units of a modified sugar containing nitrogen.
Thus, through differences in molecular structure, carbohydrates are able to serve the very different
functions of energy storage (starch and glycogen) and structural support and protection (cellulose and
chitin) (Figure 1.16).
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24
Figure 1.16 Although their structures and functions differ, all polysaccharide carbohydrates are
made up of monosaccharides and have the chemical formula (CH2O)n.
Registered Dietitian
Obesity is a worldwide health concern, and many diseases, such as diabetes and
heart disease, are becoming more prevalent because of obesity. This is one of the reasons
why registered dietitians are increasingly sought after for advice. Registered dietitians help
plan food and nutrition programs for individuals in various settings. They often work with
patients in health-care facilities, designing nutrition plans to prevent and treat diseases.
For example, dietitians may teach a patient with diabetes how to manage blood-sugar
levels by eating the correct types and amounts of carbohydrates. Dietitians may also work
in nursing homes, schools, and private practices.
To become a registered dietitian, one needs to earn at least a bachelors degree in
dietetics, nutrition, food technology, or a related field. In addition, registered dietitians must
complete a supervised internship program and pass a national exam. Those who pursue
careers in dietetics take courses in nutrition, chemistry, biochemistry, biology, microbiology,
and human physiology. Dietitians must become experts in the chemistry and functions of
food (proteins, carbohydrates, and fats).
Lipids
Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are united by a common feature. Lipids are
hydrophobic (water-fearing), or insoluble in water, because they are nonpolar molecules. This is
because they are hydrocarbons that include only nonpolar carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds.
Lipids perform many different functions in a cell. Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of
lipids called fats. Lipids also provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals (Figure
1.17). For example, they help keep aquatic birds and mammals dry because of their water-repelling
nature. Lipids are also the building blocks of many hormones and are an important constituent of the
plasma membrane. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
Figure 1.17 Hydrophobic lipids in the fur of aquatic mammals, such as this river otter, protect them
from the elements. (credit: Ken Bosma)
A fat molecule, such as a triglyceride, consists of two main componentsglycerol and fatty acids.
Glycerol is an organic compound with three carbon atoms, five hydrogen atoms, and three hydroxyl
(OH) groups. Fatty acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which an acidic carboxyl group is
attached, hence the name fatty acid. The number of carbons in the fatty acid may range from 4 to 36;
most common are those containing 1218 carbons. In a fat molecule, a fatty acid is attached to each of
the three oxygen atoms in the OH groups of the glycerol molecule with a covalent bond (Figure 1.18).
Figure 1.18 Lipids include fats, such as triglycerides, which are made up of fatty acids and glycerol,
phospholipids, and steroids.
During this covalent bond formation, three water molecules are released. The three fatty acids in
the fat may be similar or dissimilar. These fats are also called triglycerides because they have three
fatty acids. Some fatty acids have common names that specify their origin. For example, palmitic acid, a
saturated fatty acid, is derived from the palm tree. Arachidic acid is derived from Arachis hypogaea, the
scientific name for peanuts.
Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. In a fatty acid chain, if there are only single bonds
between neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, the fatty acid is saturated. Saturated fatty acids
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26
are saturated with hydrogen; in other words, the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon
skeleton is maximized.
When the hydrocarbon chain contains a double bond, the fatty acid is an unsaturated fatty acid.
Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are called oils. If there is one double bond
in the molecule, then it is known as a monounsaturated fat (e.g., olive oil), and if there is more than one
double bond, then it is known as a polyunsaturated fat (e.g., canola oil).
Saturated fats tend to get packed tightly and are solid at room temperature. Animal fats with stearic
acid and palmitic acid contained in meat, and the fat with butyric acid contained in butter, are examples
of saturated fats. Mammals store fats in specialized cells called adipocytes, where globules of fat occupy
most of the cell. In plants, fat or oil is stored in seeds and is used as a source of energy during embryonic
development.
Unsaturated fats or oils are usually of plant origin and contain unsaturated fatty acids. The double
bond causes a bend or a kink that prevents the fatty acids from packing tightly, keeping them liquid
at room temperature. Olive oil, corn oil, canola oil, and cod liver oil are examples of unsaturated fats.
Unsaturated fats help to improve blood cholesterol levels, whereas saturated fats contribute to plaque
formation in the arteries, which increases the risk of a heart attack.
In the food industry, oils are artificially hydrogenated to make them semi-solid, leading to less
spoilage and increased shelf life. Simply speaking, hydrogen gas is bubbled through oils to solidify
them. During this hydrogenation process, double bonds of the cis-conformation in the hydrocarbon chain
may be converted to double bonds in the trans-conformation. This forms a trans-fat from a cis-fat. The
orientation of the double bonds affects the chemical properties of the fat (Figure 1.19).
Figure 1.19 During the hydrogenation process, the orientation around the double bonds is changed,
making a trans-fat from a cis-fat. This changes the chemical properties of the molecule.
Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and shortening are examples of artificially hydrogenated
trans-fats. Recent studies have shown that an increase in trans-fats in the human diet may lead to an
increase in levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or bad cholesterol, which, in turn, may lead to
plaque deposition in the arteries, resulting in heart disease. Many fast food restaurants have recently
eliminated the use of trans-fats, and U.S. food labels are now required to list their trans-fat content.
Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that are required but not synthesized by the human body.
Consequently, they must be supplemented through the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids fall into this category
and are one of only two known essential fatty acids for humans (the other being omega-6 fatty acids).
They are a type of polyunsaturated fat and are called omega-3 fatty acids because the third carbon from
the end of the fatty acid participates in a double bond.
Salmon, trout, and tuna are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids are important
in brain function and normal growth and development. They may also prevent heart disease and reduce
the risk of cancer.
Like carbohydrates, fats have received a lot of bad publicity. It is true that eating an excess of fried
foods and other fatty foods leads to weight gain. However, fats do have important functions. Fats serve
as long-term energy storage. They also provide insulation for the body. Therefore, healthy unsaturated
fats in moderate amounts should be consumed on a regular basis.
Phospholipids are the major constituent of the plasma membrane. Like fats, they are composed
of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or similar backbone. Instead of three fatty acids attached,
however, there are two fatty acids and the third carbon of the glycerol backbone is bound to a phosphate
group. The phosphate group is modified by the addition of an alcohol.
A phospholipid has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. The fatty acid chains are
hydrophobic and exclude themselves from water, whereas the phosphate is hydrophilic and interacts with
water.
Cells are surrounded by a membrane, which has a bilayer of phospholipids. The fatty acids of
phospholipids face inside, away from water, whereas the phosphate group can face either the outside
environment or the inside of the cell, which are both aqueous.
Steroids and Waxes
Unlike the phospholipids and fats discussed earlier, steroids have a ring structure. Although they do not
resemble other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also hydrophobic. All steroids have
four, linked carbon rings and several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail.
Cholesterol is a steroid. Cholesterol is mainly synthesized in the liver and is the precursor of
many steroid hormones, such as testosterone and estradiol. It is also the precursor of vitamins E and
K. Cholesterol is the precursor of bile salts, which help in the breakdown of fats and their subsequent
absorption by cells. Although cholesterol is often spoken of in negative terms, it is necessary for the
proper functioning of the body. It is a key component of the plasma membranes of animal cells.
Waxes are made up of a hydrocarbon chain with an alcohol (OH) group and a fatty acid. Examples
of animal waxes include beeswax and lanolin. Plants also have waxes, such as the coating on their leaves,
that helps prevent them from drying out.
For an additional perspective on lipids, explore Biomolecules: The Lipids through this interactive
animation (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/lipids) .
Proteins
Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the most diverse
range of functions of all macromolecules. Proteins may be structural, regulatory, contractile, or
protective; they may serve in transport, storage, or membranes; or they may be toxins or enzymes. Each
cell in a living system may contain thousands of different proteins, each with a unique function. Their
structures, like their functions, vary greatly. They are all, however, polymers of amino acids, arranged in
a linear sequence.
The functions of proteins are very diverse because there are 20 different chemically distinct amino
acids that form long chains, and the amino acids can be in any order. For example, proteins can function
as enzymes or hormones. Enzymes, which are produced by living cells, are catalysts in biochemical
reactions (like digestion) and are usually proteins. Each enzyme is specific for the substrate (a reactant
that binds to an enzyme) upon which it acts. Enzymes can function to break molecular bonds, to
rearrange bonds, or to form new bonds. An example of an enzyme is salivary amylase, which breaks
down amylose, a component of starch.
Hormones are chemical signaling molecules, usually proteins or steroids, secreted by an endocrine
gland or group of endocrine cells that act to control or regulate specific physiological processes,
including growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction. For example, insulin is a protein
hormone that maintains blood glucose levels.
Proteins have different shapes and molecular weights; some proteins are globular in shape whereas
others are fibrous in nature. For example, hemoglobin is a globular protein, but collagen, found in our
skin, is a fibrous protein. Protein shape is critical to its function. Changes in temperature, pH, and
exposure to chemicals may lead to permanent changes in the shape of the protein, leading to a loss of
function or denaturation (to be discussed in more detail later). All proteins are made up of different
arrangements of the same 20 kinds of amino acids.
Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins. Each amino acid has the same fundamental
structure, which consists of a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group
(COOH), and a hydrogen atom. Every amino acid also has another variable atom or group of atoms
bonded to the central carbon atom known as the R group. The R group is the only difference in structure
between the 20 amino acids; otherwise, the amino acids are identical (Figure 1.20).
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Figure 1.20 Amino acids are made up of a central carbon bonded to an amino group (NH2), a
carboxyl group (COOH), and a hydrogen atom. The central carbons fourth bond varies among the
different amino acids, as seen in these examples of alanine, valine, lysine, and aspartic acid.
The chemical nature of the R group determines the chemical nature of the amino acid within its
protein (that is, whether it is acidic, basic, polar, or nonpolar).
The sequence and number of amino acids ultimately determine a proteins shape, size, and function.
Each amino acid is attached to another amino acid by a covalent bond, known as a peptide bond, which
is formed by a dehydration reaction. The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of a
second amino acid combine, releasing a water molecule. The resulting bond is the peptide bond.
The products formed by such a linkage are called polypeptides. While the terms polypeptide and
protein are sometimes used interchangeably, a polypeptide is technically a polymer of amino acids,
whereas the term protein is used for a polypeptide or polypeptides that have combined together, have a
distinct shape, and have a unique function.
The Evolutionary Significance of Cytochrome c

Cytochrome c is an important component of the molecular machinery that harvests
energy from glucose. Because this proteins role in producing cellular energy is crucial,
it has changed very little over millions of years. Protein sequencing has shown that
there is a considerable amount of sequence similarity among cytochrome c molecules of
different species; evolutionary relationships can be assessed by measuring the similarities
or differences among various species protein sequences.
For example, scientists have determined that human cytochrome c contains 104
amino acids. For each cytochrome c molecule that has been sequenced to date from
different organisms, 37 of these amino acids appear in the same position in each
cytochrome c. This indicates that all of these organisms are descended from a common
ancestor. On comparing the human and chimpanzee protein sequences, no sequence
difference was found. When human and rhesus monkey sequences were compared, a
single difference was found in one amino acid. In contrast, human-to-yeast comparisons
show a difference in 44 amino acids, suggesting that humans and chimpanzees have
a more recent common ancestor than humans and the rhesus monkey, or humans and
yeast.
Protein Structure
As discussed earlier, the shape of a protein is critical to its function. To understand how the protein
gets its final shape or conformation, we need to understand the four levels of protein structure: primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary (Figure 1.21).
The unique sequence and number of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is its primary structure. The
unique sequence for every protein is ultimately determined by the gene that encodes the protein. Any
change in the gene sequence may lead to a different amino acid being added to the polypeptide chain,
causing a change in protein structure and function. In sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin chain has a
single amino acid substitution, causing a change in both the structure and function of the protein. What
is most remarkable to consider is that a hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha chains and two
beta chains that each consist of about 150 amino acids. The molecule, therefore, has about 600 amino
acids. The structural difference between a normal hemoglobin molecule and a sickle cell moleculethat
dramatically decreases life expectancyis a single amino acid of the 600.
Because of this change of one amino acid in the chain, the normally biconcave, or disc-shaped, red
blood cells assume a crescent or sickle shape, which clogs arteries. This can lead to a myriad of serious
health problems, such as breathlessness, dizziness, headaches, and abdominal pain for those who have
this disease.
Folding patterns resulting from interactions between the non-R group portions of amino acids give
rise to the secondary structure of the protein. The most common are the alpha ()-helix and beta ()pleated sheet structures. Both structures are held in shape by hydrogen bonds. In the alpha helix, the
bonds form between every fourth amino acid and cause a twist in the amino acid chain.
In the -pleated sheet, the pleats are formed by hydrogen bonding between atoms on the backbone
of the polypeptide chain. The R groups are attached to the carbons, and extend above and below the folds
of the pleat. The pleated segments align parallel to each other, and hydrogen bonds form between the
same pairs of atoms on each of the aligned amino acids. The -helix and -pleated sheet structures are
found in many globular and fibrous proteins.
The unique three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide is known as its tertiary structure. This
structure is caused by chemical interactions between various amino acids and regions of the polypeptide.
Primarily, the interactions among R groups create the complex three-dimensional tertiary structure of
a protein. There may be ionic bonds formed between R groups on different amino acids, or hydrogen
bonding beyond that involved in the secondary structure. When protein folding takes place, the
hydrophobic R groups of nonpolar amino acids lay in the interior of the protein, whereas the hydrophilic
R groups lay on the outside. The former types of interactions are also known as hydrophobic interactions.
In nature, some proteins are formed from several polypeptides, also known as subunits, and the
interaction of these subunits forms the quaternary structure. Weak interactions between the subunits help
to stabilize the overall structure. For example, hemoglobin is a combination of four polypeptide subunits.
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Figure 1.21 The four levels of protein structure can be observed in these illustrations. (credit:
modification of work by National Human Genome Research Institute)
Each protein has its own unique sequence and shape held together by chemical interactions. If the
protein is subject to changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to chemicals, the protein structure may
change, losing its shape in what is known as denaturation as discussed earlier. Denaturation is often
reversible because the primary structure is preserved if the denaturing agent is removed, allowing the
protein to resume its function. Sometimes denaturation is irreversible, leading to a loss of function. One
example of protein denaturation can be seen when an egg is fried or boiled. The albumin protein in the
liquid egg white is denatured when placed in a hot pan, changing from a clear substance to an opaque
white substance. Not all proteins are denatured at high temperatures; for instance, bacteria that survive
in hot springs have proteins that are adapted to function at those temperatures.
For an additional perspective on proteins, explore Biomolecules: The Proteins through this
interactive animation (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/proteins) .
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are key macromolecules in the continuity of life. They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell
and carry instructions for the functioning of the cell.
The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA). DNA is the genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to
multicellular mammals.
The other type of nucleic acid, RNA, is mostly involved in protein synthesis. The DNA molecules
never leave the nucleus, but instead use an RNA intermediary to communicate with the rest of the cell.
Other types of RNA are also involved in protein synthesis and its regulation.
DNA and RNA are made up of monomers known as nucleotides. The nucleotides combine with
each other to form a polynucleotide, DNA or RNA. Each nucleotide is made up of three components: a
nitrogenous base, a pentose (five-carbon) sugar, and a phosphate group (Figure 1.22). Each nitrogenous
base in a nucleotide is attached to a sugar molecule, which is attached to a phosphate group.
Figure 1.22 A nucleotide is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar,
and a phosphate group.
DNA Double-Helical Structure

DNA has a double-helical structure (Figure 1.23). It is composed of two strands, or polymers, of
nucleotides. The strands are formed with bonds between phosphate and sugar groups of adjacent
nucleotides. The strands are bonded to each other at their bases with hydrogen bonds, and the strands coil
about each other along their length, hence the double helix description, which means a double spiral.
Figure 1.23 The double-helix model shows DNA as two parallel strands of intertwining molecules.
(credit: Jerome Walker, Dennis Myts)
The alternating sugar and phosphate groups lie on the outside of each strand, forming the backbone
of the DNA. The nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior, like the steps of a staircase, and these
bases pair; the pairs are bound to each other by hydrogen bonds. The bases pair in such a way that the
distance between the backbones of the two strands is the same all along the molecule.
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KEY TERMS
trans-fat a form of unsaturated fat with the hydrogen atoms neighboring the double bond across
from each other rather than on the same side of the double bond
acid a substance that donates hydrogen ions and therefore lowers pH
adhesion the attraction between water molecules and molecules of a different substance
amino acid a monomer of a protein
anion a negative ion formed by gaining electrons
atomic number the number of protons in an atom
base a substance that absorbs hydrogen ions and therefore raises pH
buffer a solution that resists a change in pH by absorbing or releasing hydrogen or hydroxide ions
carbohydrate a biological macromolecule in which the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is
1:2:1; carbohydrates serve as energy sources and structural support in cells
cation a positive ion formed by losing electrons
cellulose a polysaccharide that makes up the cell walls of plants and provides structural support to
the cell
chemical bond an interaction between two or more of the same or different elements that results in
the formation of molecules
chitin a type of carbohydrate that forms the outer skeleton of arthropods, such as insects and
crustaceans, and the cell walls of fungi
cohesion the intermolecular forces between water molecules caused by the polar nature of water;
creates surface tension
covalent bond a type of strong bond between two or more of the same or different elements; forms
when electrons are shared between elements
denaturation the loss of shape in a protein as a result of changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to
chemicals
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) a double-stranded polymer of nucleotides that carries the
hereditary information of the cell
disaccharide two sugar monomers that are linked together by a peptide bond
electron transfer the movement of electrons from one element to another
electron a negatively charged particle that resides outside of the nucleus in the electron orbital; lacks
functional mass and has a charge of 1
element one of 118 unique substances that cannot be broken down into smaller substances and retain
the characteristic of that substance; each element has a specified number of protons and unique
properties
enzyme a catalyst in a biochemical reaction that is usually a complex or conjugated protein
evaporation the release of water molecules from liquid water to form water vapor
fat
a lipid molecule composed of three fatty acids and a glycerol (triglyceride) that typically exists
in a solid form at room temperature
glycogen a storage carbohydrate in animals
hormone a chemical signaling molecule, usually a protein or steroid, secreted by an endocrine gland
or group of endocrine cells; acts to control or regulate specific physiological processes
hydrogen bond a weak bond between partially positively charged hydrogen atoms and partially
negatively charged elements or molecules
hydrophilic describes a substance that dissolves in water; water-loving
hydrophobic describes a substance that does not dissolve in water; water-fearing
ionic bond a chemical bond that forms between ions of opposite charges
ion an atom or compound that does not contain equal numbers of protons and electrons, and
therefore has a net charge
isotope one or more forms of an element that have different numbers of neutrons
lipids a class of macromolecules that are nonpolar and insoluble in water
litmus paper filter paper that has been treated with a natural water-soluble dye so it can be used as a
pH indicator
macromolecule a large molecule, often formed by polymerization of smaller monomers
mass number the number of protons plus neutrons in an atom
matter anything that has mass and occupies space
monosaccharide a single unit or monomer of carbohydrates
neutron a particle with no charge that resides in the nucleus of an atom; has a mass of 1
nonpolar covalent bond a type of covalent bond that forms between atoms when electrons are
shared equally between atoms, resulting in no regions with partial charges as in polar covalent
bonds
nucleic acid a biological macromolecule that carries the genetic information of a cell and carries
instructions for the functioning of the cell
nucleotide a monomer of nucleic acids; contains a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base
nucleus (chemistry) the dense center of an atom made up of protons and (except in the case of a
hydrogen atom) neutrons
octet rule states that the outermost shell of an element with a low atomic number can hold eight
electrons
oil
an unsaturated fat that is a liquid at room temperature
pH scale a scale ranging from 0 to 14 that measures the approximate concentration of hydrogen ions
of a substance
periodic table of elements an organizational chart of elements, indicating the atomic number and
mass number of each element; also provides key information about the properties of elements
phospholipid a major constituent of the membranes of cells; composed of two fatty acids and a
phosphate group attached to the glycerol backbone
polar covalent bond a type of covalent bond in which electrons are pulled toward one atom and
away from another, resulting in slightly positive and slightly negative charged regions of the
molecule
polypeptide a long chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
polysaccharide a long chain of monosaccharides; may be branched or unbranched
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protein a biological macromolecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids

proton a positively charged particle that resides in the nucleus of an atom; has a mass of 1 and a
charge of +1
radioactive isotope an isotope that spontaneously emits particles or energy to form a more stable
element
ribonucleic acid (RNA) a single-stranded polymer of nucleotides that is involved in protein
synthesis
saturated fatty acid a long-chain hydrocarbon with single covalent bonds in the carbon chain; the
number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized
solvent a substance capable of dissolving another substance
starch a storage carbohydrate in plants
steroid a type of lipid composed of four fused hydrocarbon rings
surface tension the cohesive force at the surface of a body of liquid that prevents the molecules
from separating
temperature a measure of molecular motion
triglyceride a fat molecule; consists of three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule
unsaturated fatty acid a long-chain hydrocarbon that has one or more than one double bonds in
the hydrocarbon chain
van der Waals interaction a weak attraction or interaction between molecules caused by slightly
positively charged or slightly negatively charged atoms
CHAPTER SUMMARY
1.1 The Building Blocks of Molecules
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It is made up of atoms of different elements. All of
the 92 elements that occur naturally have unique qualities that allow them to combine in various ways
to create compounds or molecules. Atoms, which consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons, are the
smallest units of an element that retain all of the properties of that element. Electrons can be donated or
shared between atoms to create bonds, including ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds, as well as van
der Waals interactions.
1.2 Water
Water has many properties that are critical to maintaining life. It is polar, allowing for the formation of
hydrogen bonds, which allow ions and other polar molecules to dissolve in water. Therefore, water is an
excellent solvent. The hydrogen bonds between water molecules give water the ability to hold heat
better than many other substances. As the temperature rises, the hydrogen bonds between water
continually break and reform, allowing for the overall temperature to remain stable, although increased
energy is added to the system. Waters cohesive forces allow for the property of surface tension. All of
these unique properties of water are important in the chemistry of living organisms.
The pH of a solution is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. A solution
with a high number of hydrogen ions is acidic and has a low pH value. A solution with a high number
of hydroxide ions is basic and has a high pH value. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with a pH of 7
being neutral. Buffers are solutions that moderate pH changes when an acid or base is added to the
buffer system. Buffers are important in biological systems because of their ability to maintain constant
pH conditions.
1.3 Biological Molecules

Living things are carbon-based because carbon plays such a prominent role in the chemistry of living
things. The four covalent bonding positions of the carbon atom can give rise to a wide diversity of
compounds with many functions, accounting for the importance of carbon in living things.
Carbohydrates are a group of macromolecules that are a vital energy source for the cell, provide
structural support to many organisms, and can be found on the surface of the cell as receptors or for cell
recognition. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides,
depending on the number of monomers in the molecule.
Lipids are a class of macromolecules that are nonpolar and hydrophobic in nature. Major types
include fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Fats and oils are a stored form of energy and
can include triglycerides. Fats and oils are usually made up of fatty acids and glycerol.
Proteins are a class of macromolecules that can perform a diverse range of functions for the cell.
They help in metabolism by providing structural support and by acting as enzymes, carriers or as
hormones. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids. Proteins are organized at four levels:
primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Protein shape and function are intricately linked; any
change in shape caused by changes in temperature, pH, or chemical exposure may lead to protein
denaturation and a loss of function.
Nucleic acids are molecules made up of repeating units of nucleotides that direct cellular activities
such as cell division and protein synthesis. Each nucleotide is made up of a pentose sugar, a nitrogenous
base, and a phosphate group. There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA.
ART CONNECTION QUESTIONS

1. Figure 1.3 How many neutrons do (K)
potassium-39 and potassium-40 have,
respectively?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
2. Magnesium has an atomic number of 12.
Which of the following statements is true of a
neutral magnesium atom?
a. It has 12 protons, 12 electrons, and 12
neutrons.
b. It has 12 protons, 12 electrons, and six
neutrons.
c. It has six protons, six electrons, and no
neutrons.
d. It has six protons, six electrons, and six
neutrons.
3. Which type of bond represents a weak chemical
bond?
a. hydrogen bond
b. ionic bond
c. covalent bond
d. polar covalent bond
4. An isotope of sodium (Na) has a mass number
of 22. How many neutrons does it have?
a.
b.
c.
d.
11
12
22
44
5. Which of the following statements is not true?

a.
b.
c.
d.
Water is polar.
Water stabilizes temperature.
Water is essential for life.
Water is the most abundant atom in
Earths atmosphere.
6. Using a pH meter, you find the pH of an

unknown solution to be 8.0. How would you
describe this solution?
a.
b.
c.
d.
weakly acidic
strongly acidic
weakly basic
strongly basic
7. The pH of lemon juice is about 2.0 tomato

juice;s pH is about 4.0. Approximately how much
of an increase in hydrogen ion concentration is
there between tomato juice and lemon juice?
a.
b.
c.
d.
2 times
10 times
100 times
1000 times
8. An example of a monosaccharide is ________.

a.
b.
c.
d.
fructose
glucose
galactose
all of the above
9. Cellulose and starch are examples of ________.

a.
b.
c.
d.
monosaccharides
disaccharides
lipids
polysaccharides
10. Phospholipids are important components of

__________.
a. the plasma membrane of cells
b. the ring structure of steroids
c. the waxy covering on leaves
d. the double bond in hydrocarbon chains
11. The monomers that make up proteins are
called _________.
a. nucleotides
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36
b. disaccharides
c. amino acids
d. chaperones
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

12. Why are hydrogen bonds and van der Waals
interactions necessary for cells?
15. Explain at least three functions that lipids

serve in plants and/or animals.
13. Why can some insects walk on water?
16. Explain what happens if even one amino acid

is substituted for another in a polypeptide chain.
Provide a specific example.
14. Explain why water is an excellent solvent.
CHAPTER 2 | CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
2 | CELL STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION
Figure 2.1 (a) Nasal sinus cells (viewed with a light microscope), (b) onion cells (viewed with a
light microscope), and (c) Vibrio tasmaniensis bacterial cells (viewed using a scanning electron
microscope) are from very different organism, yet all share certain characteristics of basic cell
structure. (credit a: modification of work by Ed Uthman, MD; credit b: modification of work by
Umberto Salvagnin; credit c: modification of work by Anthony D'Onofrio; scale-bar data from Matt
Russell)
Chapter Outline
2.1: How Cells Are Studied
2.2: Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
2.3: Eukaryotic Cells
2.4: The Cell Membrane
2.5: Passive Transport
2.6: Active Transport
Introduction
Close your eyes and picture a brick wall. What is the basic building block of that wall? It is a single brick,
of course. Like a brick wall, your body is composed of basic building blocks, and the building blocks of
your body are cells.
Your body has many kinds of cells, each specialized for a specific purpose. Just as a home is made
from a variety of building materials, the human body is constructed from many cell types. For example,
epithelial cells protect the surface of the body and cover the organs and body cavities within. Bone cells
help to support and protect the body. Cells of the immune system fight invading bacteria. Additionally,
red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body. Each of these cell types plays a vital role during
the growth, development, and day-to-day maintenance of the body. In spite of their enormous variety,
however, all cells share certain fundamental characteristics.
2.1 | How Cells Are Studied

Describe the roles of cells in organisms
Compare and contrast light microscopy and electron microscopy
Summarize the cell theory
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A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. A living thing, like you, is called an organism. Thus, cells are
the basic building blocks of all organisms.
In multicellular organisms, several cells of one particular kind interconnect with each other and
performed shared functions to form tissues (for example, muscle tissue, connective tissue, and nervous
tissue), several tissues combine to form an organ (for example, stomach, heart, or brain), and several
organs make up an organ system (such as the digestive system, circulatory system, or nervous system).
Several systems functioning together form an organism (such as an elephant, for example).
There are many types of cells, and all are grouped into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and
eukaryotic. Animal cells, plant cells, fungal cells, and protist cells are classified as eukaryotic, whereas
bacteria and archaea cells are classified as prokaryotic. Before discussing the criteria for determining
whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic, let us first examine how biologists study cells.
Microscopy
Cells vary in size. With few exceptions, individual cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye, so
scientists use microscopes to study them. A microscope is an instrument that magnifies an object. Most
images of cells are taken with a microscope and are called micrographs.
Light Microscopes
To give you a sense of the size of a cell, a typical human red blood cell is about eight millionths of a
meter or eight micrometers (abbreviated as m) in diameter; the head of a pin is about two thousandths
of a meter (millimeters, or mm) in diameter. That means that approximately 250 red blood cells could fit
on the head of a pin.
The optics of the lenses of a light microscope changes the orientation of the image. A specimen that
is right-side up and facing right on the microscope slide will appear upside-down and facing left when
viewed through a microscope, and vice versa. Similarly, if the slide is moved left while looking through
the microscope, it will appear to move right, and if moved down, it will seem to move up. This occurs
because microscopes use two sets of lenses to magnify the image. Due to the manner in which light
travels through the lenses, this system of lenses produces an inverted image (binoculars and a dissecting
microscope work in a similar manner, but include an additional magnification system that makes the final
image appear to be upright).
Most student microscopes are classified as light microscopes (Figure 2.2a). Visible light both
passes through and is bent by the lens system to enable the user to see the specimen. Light microscopes
are advantageous for viewing living organisms, but since individual cells are generally transparent,
their components are not distinguishable unless they are colored with special stains. Staining, however,
usually kills the cells.
Light microscopes commonly used in the undergraduate college laboratory magnify up to
approximately 400 times. Two parameters that are important in microscopy are magnification and
resolving power. Magnification is the degree of enlargement of an object. Resolving power is the ability
of a microscope to allow the eye to distinguish two adjacent structures as separate; the higher the
resolution, the closer those two objects can be, and the better the clarity and detail of the image. When
oil immersion lenses are used, magnification is usually increased to 1,000 times for the study of smaller
cells, like most prokaryotic cells. Because light entering a specimen from below is focused onto the eye
of an observer, the specimen can be viewed using light microscopy. For this reason, for light to pass
through a specimen, the sample must be thin or translucent.
For another perspective on cell size, try the HowBig (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/cell_sizes2)

interactive.
A second type of microscope used in laboratories is the dissecting microscope (Figure 2.2b).
These microscopes have a lower magnification (20 to 80 times the object size) than light microscopes
and can provide a three-dimensional view of the specimen. Thick objects can be examined with many
components in focus at the same time. These microscopes are designed to give a magnified and clear
view of tissue structure as well as the anatomy of the whole organism. Like light microscopes, most
modern dissecting microscopes are also binocular, meaning that they have two separate lens systems, one
for each eye. The lens systems are separated by a certain distance, and therefore provide a sense of depth
in the view of their subject to make manipulations by hand easier. Dissecting microscopes also have
optics that correct the image so that it appears as if being seen by the naked eye and not as an inverted
image. The light illuminating a sample under a dissecting microscope typically comes from above the
sample, but may also be directed from below.
Figure 2.2 (a) Most light microscopes used in a college biology lab can magnify cells up to
approximately 400 times. (b) Dissecting microscopes have a lower magnification than light
microscopes and are used to examine larger objects, such as tissues.
Electron Microscopes
In contrast to light microscopes, electron microscopes use a beam of electrons instead of a beam of light.
Not only does this allow for higher magnification and, thus, more detail (Figure 2.3), it also provides
higher resolving power. Preparation of a specimen for viewing under an electron microscope will kill
it; therefore, live cells cannot be viewed using this type of microscopy. In addition, the electron beam
moves best in a vacuum, making it impossible to view living materials.
In a scanning electron microscope, a beam of electrons moves back and forth across a cells surface,
rendering the details of cell surface characteristics by reflection. Cells and other structures are usually
coated with a metal like gold. In a transmission electron microscope, the electron beam is transmitted
through the cell and provides details of a cells internal structures. As you might imagine, electron
microscopes are significantly more bulky and expensive than are light microscopes.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.3 (a) Salmonella bacteria are viewed with a light microscope. (b) This scanning electron
micrograph shows Salmonella bacteria (in red) invading human cells. (credit a: modification of work
by CDC, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Charles N. Farmer; credit b: modification of work by
Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
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Cytotechnologist
Have you ever heard of a medical test called a Pap smear (Figure 2.4)? In this test,
a doctor takes a small sample of cells from the uterine cervix of a patient and sends it to a
medical lab where a cytotechnologist stains the cells and examines them for any changes
that could indicate cervical cancer or a microbial infection.
Cytotechnologists (cyto- = cell) are professionals who study cells through microscopic
examinations and other laboratory tests. They are trained to determine which cellular
changes are within normal limits or are abnormal. Their focus is not limited to cervical cells;
they study cellular specimens that come from all organs. When they notice abnormalities,
they consult a pathologist, who is a medical doctor who can make a clinical diagnosis.
Cytotechnologists play vital roles in saving peoples lives. When abnormalities are
discovered early, a patients treatment can begin sooner, which usually increases the
chances of successful treatment.
Figure 2.4 These uterine cervix cells, viewed through a light microscope, were obtained from
a Pap smear. Normal cells are on the left. The cells on the right are infected with human
papillomavirus. (credit: modification of work by Ed Uthman; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Cell Theory
The microscopes we use today are far more complex than those used in the 1600s by Antony van
Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch shopkeeper who had great skill in crafting lenses. Despite the limitations of
his now-ancient lenses, van Leeuwenhoek observed the movements of protists (a type of single-celled
organism) and sperm, which he collectively termed animalcules.
In a 1665 publication called Micrographia, experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined the term
cell (from the Latin cella, meaning small room) for the box-like structures he observed when
viewing cork tissue through a lens. In the 1670s, van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa.
Later advances in lenses and microscope construction enabled other scientists to see different
components inside cells.
By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann were studying
tissues and proposed the unified cell theory, which states that all living things are composed of one or
more cells, that the cell is the basic unit of life, and that all new cells arise from existing cells. These
principles still stand today.
2.2 | Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

Cells
Name examples of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
Compare and contrast prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells
Describe the relative sizes of different kinds of cells
Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The predominantly single-celled
organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes (pro- = before; -karyon- =
nucleus). Animal cells, plant cells, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes (eu- = true).
Components of Prokaryotic Cells

All cells share four common components: 1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the
cells interior from its surrounding environment; 2) cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like region within
the cell in which other cellular components are found; 3) DNA, the genetic material of the cell; and
4) ribosomes, particles that synthesize proteins. However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in
several ways.
A prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any
other membrane-bound organelle. We will shortly come to see that this is significantly different in
eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is found in the central part of the cell: a darkened region called the
nucleoid (Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5 This figure shows the generalized structure of a prokaryotic cell.
Unlike Archaea and eukaryotes, bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, comprised of
sugars and amino acids, and many have a polysaccharide capsule (Figure 2.5). The cell wall acts as an
extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The capsule enables
the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella
are used for locomotion. Pili are used to exchange genetic material during a type of reproduction called
conjugation. Fimbriae are protein appendages used by bacteria to attach to other cells.
Eukaryotic Cells
In nature, the relationship between form and function is apparent at all levels, including the level of the
cell, and this will become clear as we explore eukaryotic cells. The principle form follows function is
found in many contexts. For example, birds and fish have streamlined bodies that allow them to move
quickly through the medium in which they live, be it air or water. It means that, in general, one can
deduce the function of a structure by looking at its form, because the two are matched.
A eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound
compartments or sacs, called organelles, which have specialized functions. The word eukaryotic means
true kernel or true nucleus, alluding to the presence of the membrane-bound nucleus in these cells.
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The word organelle means little organ, and, as already mentioned, organelles have specialized
cellular functions, just as the organs of your body have specialized functions.
Cell Size
At 0.15.0 m in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells, which have
diameters ranging from 10100 m (Figure 2.6). The small size of prokaryotes allows ions and organic
molecules that enter them to quickly spread to other parts of the cell. Similarly, any wastes produced
within a prokaryotic cell can quickly move out. However, larger eukaryotic cells have evolved different
structural adaptations to enhance cellular transport. Indeed, the large size of these cells would not be
possible without these adaptations. In general, cell size is limited because volume increases much more
quickly than does cell surface area. As a cell becomes larger, it becomes more and more difficult for the
cell to acquire sufficient materials to support the processes inside the cell, because the relative size of the
surface area through which materials must be transported declines.
Figure 2.6 This figure shows the relative sizes of different kinds of cells and cellular components. An
adult human is shown for comparison.
2.3 | Eukaryotic Cells

Describe the structure of eukaryotic plant and animal cells
State the role of the plasma membrane
Summarize the functions of the major cell organelles
Describe the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
At this point, it should be clear that eukaryotic cells have a more complex structure than do prokaryotic
cells. Organelles allow for various functions to occur in the cell at the same time. Before discussing the
functions of organelles within a eukaryotic cell, let us first examine two important components of the
cell: the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.7 This figure shows (a) a typical animal cell and (b) a typical plant cell.
What structures does a plant cell have that an animal cell does not have? What
structures does an animal cell have that a plant cell does not have?
The Plasma Membrane

Like prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane (Figure 2.8) made up of a phospholipid
bilayer with embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding
environment. A phospholipid is a lipid molecule composed of two fatty acid chains and a phosphate
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group. The plasma membrane regulates the passage of some substances, such as organic molecules, ions,
and water, preventing the passage of some to maintain internal conditions, while actively bringing in or
removing others. Other compounds move passively across the membrane.
Figure 2.8 The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. There are
other components, such as cholesterol and carbohydrates, which can be found in the membrane in
addition to phospholipids and protein.
The plasma membranes of cells that specialize in absorption are folded into fingerlike projections
called microvilli (singular = microvillus). This folding increases the surface area of the plasma
membrane. Such cells are typically found lining the small intestine, the organ that absorbs nutrients from
digested food. This is an excellent example of form matching the function of a structure.
People with celiac disease have an immune response to gluten, which is a protein found in wheat,
barley, and rye. The immune response damages microvilli, and thus, afflicted individuals cannot absorb
nutrients. This leads to malnutrition, cramping, and diarrhea. Patients suffering from celiac disease must
follow a gluten-free diet.
The Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm comprises the contents of a cell between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope
(a structure to be discussed shortly). It is made up of organelles suspended in the gel-like cytosol, the
cytoskeleton, and various chemicals (Figure 2.7). Even though the cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent
water, it has a semi-solid consistency, which comes from the proteins within it. However, proteins are not
the only organic molecules found in the cytoplasm. Glucose and other simple sugars, polysaccharides,
amino acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids, and derivatives of glycerol are found there too. Ions of sodium,
potassium, calcium, and many other elements are also dissolved in the cytoplasm. Many metabolic
reactions, including protein synthesis, take place in the cytoplasm.
The Cytoskeleton
If you were to remove all the organelles from a cell, would the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm be
the only components left? No. Within the cytoplasm, there would still be ions and organic molecules,
plus a network of protein fibers that helps to maintain the shape of the cell, secures certain organelles
in specific positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and enables unicellular
organisms to move independently. Collectively, this network of protein fibers is known as the
cytoskeleton. There are three types of fibers within the cytoskeleton: microfilaments, also known as
actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules (Figure 2.9).
Figure 2.9 Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules compose a cells cytoskeleton.
Microfilaments are the thinnest of the cytoskeletal fibers and function in moving cellular
components, for example, during cell division. They also maintain the structure of microvilli, the
extensive folding of the plasma membrane found in cells dedicated to absorption. These components
are also common in muscle cells and are responsible for muscle cell contraction. Intermediate filaments
are of intermediate diameter and have structural functions, such as maintaining the shape of the cell
and anchoring organelles. Keratin, the compound that strengthens hair and nails, forms one type of
intermediate filament. Microtubules are the thickest of the cytoskeletal fibers. These are hollow tubes
that can dissolve and reform quickly. Microtubules guide organelle movement and are the structures that
pull chromosomes to their poles during cell division. They are also the structural components of flagella
and cilia. In cilia and flagella, the microtubules are organized as a circle of nine double microtubules on
the outside and two microtubules in the center.
The centrosome is a region near the nucleus of animal cells that functions as a microtubuleorganizing center. It contains a pair of centrioles, two structures that lie perpendicular to each other. Each
centriole is a cylinder of nine triplets of microtubules.
The centrosome replicates itself before a cell divides, and the centrioles play a role in pulling
the duplicated chromosomes to opposite ends of the dividing cell. However, the exact function of the
centrioles in cell division is not clear, since cells that have the centrioles removed can still divide, and
plant cells, which lack centrioles, are capable of cell division.
Flagella and Cilia
Flagella (singular = flagellum) are long, hair-like structures that extend from the plasma membrane and
are used to move an entire cell, (for example, sperm, Euglena). When present, the cell has just one
flagellum or a few flagella. When cilia (singular = cilium) are present, however, they are many in number
and extend along the entire surface of the plasma membrane. They are short, hair-like structures that
are used to move entire cells (such as paramecium) or move substances along the outer surface of the
cell (for example, the cilia of cells lining the Fallopian tubes that move the ovum toward the uterus, or
cilia lining the cells of the respiratory tract that move particulate matter toward the throat that mucus has
trapped).
The Endomembrane System

The endomembrane system (endo = within) is a group of membranes and organelles (Figure 2.13)
in eukaryotic cells that work together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. It includes
the nuclear envelope, lysosomes, and vesicles, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which
we will cover shortly. Although not technically within the cell, the plasma membrane is included in the
endomembrane system because, as you will see, it interacts with the other endomembranous organelles.
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The Nucleus
Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell (Figure 2.7). The nucleus (plural =
nuclei) houses the cells DNA in the form of chromatin and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and
proteins. Let us look at it in more detail (Figure 2.10).
Figure 2.10 The outermost boundary of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope. Notice that the
nuclear envelope consists of two phospholipid bilayers (membranes)an outer membrane and an
inner membranein contrast to the plasma membrane (Figure 2.8), which consists of only one
phospholipid bilayer. (credit: modification of work by NIGMS, NIH)
The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the
nucleus (Figure 2.10). Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are phospholipid
bilayers.
The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the passage of ions, molecules, and RNA
between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
To understand chromatin, it is helpful to first consider chromosomes. Chromosomes are structures
within the nucleus that are made up of DNA, the hereditary material, and proteins. This combination of
DNA and proteins is called chromatin. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures. Every species
has a specific number of chromosomes in the nucleus of its body cells. For example, in humans, the
chromosome number is 46, whereas in fruit flies, the chromosome number is eight.
Chromosomes are only visible and distinguishable from one another when the cell is getting ready
to divide. When the cell is in the growth and maintenance phases of its life cycle, the chromosomes
resemble an unwound, jumbled bunch of threads, which is the chromatin.
We already know that the nucleus directs the synthesis of ribosomes, but how does it do this? Some
chromosomes have sections of DNA that encode ribosomal RNA. A darkly staining area within the
nucleus, called the nucleolus (plural = nucleoli), aggregates the ribosomal RNA with associated proteins
to assemble the ribosomal subunits that are then transported through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (Figure 2.13) is a series of interconnected membranous tubules
that collectively modify proteins and synthesize lipids. However, these two functions are performed
in separate areas of the endoplasmic reticulum: the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, respectively.
The hollow portion of the ER tubules is called the lumen or cisternal space. The membrane of the
ER, which is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins, is continuous with the nuclear envelope.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is so named because the ribosomes attached to its
cytoplasmic surface give it a studded appearance when viewed through an electron microscope.
The ribosomes synthesize proteins while attached to the ER, resulting in transfer of their newly
synthesized proteins into the lumen of the RER where they undergo modifications such as folding or
addition of sugars. The RER also makes phospholipids for cell membranes.
If the phospholipids or modified proteins are not destined to stay in the RER, they will be packaged
within vesicles and transported from the RER by budding from the membrane (Figure 2.13). Since the
RER is engaged in modifying proteins that will be secreted from the cell, it is abundant in cells that
secrete proteins, such as the liver.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is continuous with the RER but has few or no
ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface (see Figure 2.7). The SERs functions include synthesis of
carbohydrates, lipids (including phospholipids), and steroid hormones; detoxification of medications and
poisons; alcohol metabolism; and storage of calcium ions.
The Golgi Apparatus

We have already mentioned that vesicles can bud from the ER, but where do the vesicles go? Before
reaching their final destination, the lipids or proteins within the transport vesicles need to be sorted,
packaged, and tagged so that they wind up in the right place. The sorting, tagging, packaging, and
distribution of lipids and proteins take place in the Golgi apparatus (also called the Golgi body), a series
of flattened membranous sacs (Figure 2.11).
Figure 2.11 The Golgi apparatus in this transmission electron micrograph of a white blood cell is
visible as a stack of semicircular flattened rings in the lower portion of this image. Several vesicles
can be seen near the Golgi apparatus. (credit: modification of work by Louisa Howard; scale-bar
data from Matt Russell)
The Golgi apparatus has a receiving face near the endoplasmic reticulum and a releasing face on the
side away from the ER, toward the cell membrane. The transport vesicles that form from the ER travel
to the receiving face, fuse with it, and empty their contents into the lumen of the Golgi apparatus. As
the proteins and lipids travel through the Golgi, they undergo further modifications. The most frequent
modification is the addition of short chains of sugar molecules. The newly modified proteins and lipids
are then tagged with small molecular groups so that they are routed to their proper destinations.
Finally, the modified and tagged proteins are packaged into vesicles that bud from the opposite face
of the Golgi. While some of these vesicles, transport vesicles, deposit their contents into other parts of
the cell where they will be used, others, secretory vesicles, fuse with the plasma membrane and release
their contents outside the cell.
The amount of Golgi in different cell types again illustrates that form follows function within cells.
Cells that engage in a great deal of secretory activity (such as cells of the salivary glands that secrete
digestive enzymes or cells of the immune system that secrete antibodies) have an abundant number of
Golgi.
In plant cells, the Golgi has an additional role of synthesizing polysaccharides, some of which are
incorporated into the cell wall and some of which are used in other parts of the cell.
Lysosomes
In animal cells, the lysosomes are the cells garbage disposal. Digestive enzymes within the lysosomes
aid the breakdown of proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-out organelles. In
single-celled eukaryotes, lysosomes are important for digestion of the food they ingest and the recycling
of organelles. These enzymes are active at a much lower pH (more acidic) than those located in the
cytoplasm. Many reactions that take place in the cytoplasm could not occur at a low pH, thus the
advantage of compartmentalizing the eukaryotic cell into organelles is apparent.
Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to destroy disease-causing organisms that might enter
the cell. A good example of this occurs in a group of white blood cells called macrophages, which
are part of your bodys immune system. In a process known as phagocytosis, a section of the plasma
membrane of the macrophage invaginates (folds in) and engulfs a pathogen. The invaginated section,
with the pathogen inside, then pinches itself off from the plasma membrane and becomes a vesicle. The
vesicle fuses with a lysosome. The lysosomes hydrolytic enzymes then destroy the pathogen (Figure
2.12).
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Figure 2.12 A macrophage has phagocytized a potentially pathogenic bacterium into a vesicle,
which then fuses with a lysosome within the cell so that the pathogen can be destroyed. Other
organelles are present in the cell, but for simplicity, are not shown.
Vesicles and Vacuoles

Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport. Vacuoles are
somewhat larger than vesicles, and the membrane of a vacuole does not fuse with the membranes of
other cellular components. Vesicles can fuse with other membranes within the cell system. Additionally,
enzymes within plant vacuoles can break down macromolecules.
Figure 2.13 The endomembrane system works to modify, package, and transport lipids and
proteins. (credit: modification of work by Magnus Manske)
Why does the cis face of the Golgi not face the plasma membrane?
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. When viewed through an electron
microscope, free ribosomes appear as either clusters or single tiny dots floating freely in the cytoplasm.
Ribosomes may be attached to either the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane or the cytoplasmic
side of the endoplasmic reticulum (Figure 2.7). Electron microscopy has shown that ribosomes consist
of large and small subunits. Ribosomes are enzyme complexes that are responsible for protein synthesis.
Because protein synthesis is essential for all cells, ribosomes are found in practically every cell,
although they are smaller in prokaryotic cells. They are particularly abundant in immature red blood cells
for the synthesis of hemoglobin, which functions in the transport of oxygen throughout the body.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion) are often called the powerhouses or energy factories of
a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cells main energycarrying molecule. The formation of ATP from the breakdown of glucose is known as cellular
respiration. Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles (Figure 2.14) that have their
own ribosomes and DNA. Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins. The
inner layer has folds called cristae, which increase the surface area of the inner membrane. The area
surrounded by the folds is called the mitochondrial matrix. The cristae and the matrix have different roles
in cellular respiration.
In keeping with our theme of form following function, it is important to point out that muscle cells
have a very high concentration of mitochondria because muscle cells need a lot of energy to contract.
Figure 2.14 This transmission electron micrograph shows a mitochondrion as viewed with an
electron microscope. Notice the inner and outer membranes, the cristae, and the mitochondrial
matrix. (credit: modification of work by Matthew Britton; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes. They carry out oxidation
reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids. They also detoxify many poisons that may enter
the body. Alcohol is detoxified by peroxisomes in liver cells. A byproduct of these oxidation reactions
is hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, which is contained within the peroxisomes to prevent the chemical from
causing damage to cellular components outside of the organelle. Hydrogen peroxide is safely broken
down by peroxisomal enzymes into water and oxygen.
Animal Cells versus Plant Cells

Despite their fundamental similarities, there are some striking differences between animal and plant
cells (see Table 2.1). Animal cells have centrioles, centrosomes (discussed under the cytoskeleton), and
lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, plasmodesmata, and
plastids used for storage, and a large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.
The Cell Wall
In Figure 2.7b, the diagram of a plant cell, you see a structure external to the plasma membrane called
the cell wall. The cell wall is a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives
shape to the cell. Fungal and protist cells also have cell walls.
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While the chief component of prokaryotic cell walls is peptidoglycan, the major organic molecule
in the plant cell wall is cellulose, a polysaccharide made up of long, straight chains of glucose units.
When nutritional information refers to dietary fiber, it is referring to the cellulose content of food.
Chloroplasts
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also have their own DNA and ribosomes. Chloroplasts function in
photosynthesis and can be found in eukaryotic cells such as plants and algae. In photosynthesis, carbon
dioxide, water, and light energy are used to make glucose and oxygen. This is the major difference
between plants and animals: Plants (autotrophs) are able to make their own food, like glucose, whereas
animals (heterotrophs) must rely on other organisms for their organic compounds or food source.
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, but within the space enclosed by
a chloroplasts inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked, fluid-filled membrane sacs called
thylakoids (Figure 2.15). Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural = grana). The fluid enclosed
by the inner membrane and surrounding the grana is called the stroma.
Figure 2.15 This simplified diagram of a chloroplast shows the outer membrane, inner membrane,
thylakoids, grana, and stroma.
The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures the energy of sunlight
for photosynthesis. Like plant cells, photosynthetic protists also have chloroplasts. Some bacteria also
perform photosynthesis, but they do not have chloroplasts. Their photosynthetic pigments are located in
the thylakoid membrane within the cell itself.
Endosymbiosis
We have mentioned that both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA and
ribosomes. Have you wondered why? Strong evidence points to endosymbiosis as the
explanation.
Symbiosis is a relationship in which organisms from two separate species live in close
association and typically exhibit specific adaptations to each other. Endosymbiosis (endo-=
within) is a relationship in which one organism lives inside the other. Endosymbiotic
relationships abound in nature. Microbes that produce vitamin K live inside the human gut.
This relationship is beneficial for us because we are unable to synthesize vitamin K. It is
also beneficial for the microbes because they are protected from other organisms and are
provided a stable habitat and abundant food by living within the large intestine.
Scientists have long noticed that bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts are similar
in size. We also know that mitochondria and chloroplasts have DNA and ribosomes,
just as bacteria do. Scientists believe that host cells and bacteria formed a mutually
beneficial endosymbiotic relationship when the host cells ingested aerobic bacteria and
cyanobacteria but did not destroy them. Through evolution, these ingested bacteria
became more specialized in their functions, with the aerobic bacteria becoming
mitochondria and the photosynthetic bacteria becoming chloroplasts.
The Central Vacuole

Previously, we mentioned vacuoles as essential components of plant cells. If you look at Figure 2.7, you
will see that plant cells each have a large, central vacuole that occupies most of the cell. The central
vacuole plays a key role in regulating the cells concentration of water in changing environmental
conditions. In plant cells, the liquid inside the central vacuole provides turgor pressure, which is the
outward pressure caused by the fluid inside the cell. Have you ever noticed that if you forget to water a
plant for a few days, it wilts? That is because as the water concentration in the soil becomes lower than
the water concentration in the plant, water moves out of the central vacuoles and cytoplasm and into the
soil. As the central vacuole shrinks, it leaves the cell wall unsupported. This loss of support to the cell
walls of a plant results in the wilted appearance. Additionally, this fluid can deter herbivory since the
bitter taste of the wastes it contains discourages consumption by insects and animals. The central vacuole
also functions to store proteins in developing seed cells.
Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells

Most animal cells release materials into the extracellular space. The primary components of these
materials are glycoproteins and the protein collagen. Collectively, these materials are called the
extracellular matrix (Figure 2.16). Not only does the extracellular matrix hold the cells together to
form a tissue, but it also allows the cells within the tissue to communicate with each other.
Figure 2.16 The extracellular matrix consists of a network of substances secreted by cells.
Blood clotting provides an example of the role of the extracellular matrix in cell communication.
When the cells lining a blood vessel are damaged, they display a protein receptor called tissue factor.
When tissue factor binds with another factor in the extracellular matrix, it causes platelets to adhere to
the wall of the damaged blood vessel, stimulates adjacent smooth muscle cells in the blood vessel to
contract (thus constricting the blood vessel), and initiates a series of steps that stimulate the platelets to
produce clotting factors.
Intercellular Junctions
Cells can also communicate with each other by direct contact, referred to as intercellular junctions.
There are some differences in the ways that plant and animal cells do this. Plasmodesmata (singular
= plasmodesma) are junctions between plant cells, whereas animal cell contacts include tight and gap
junctions, and desmosomes.
In general, long stretches of the plasma membranes of neighboring plant cells cannot touch one
another because they are separated by the cell walls surrounding each cell. Plasmodesmata are numerous
channels that pass between the cell walls of adjacent plant cells, connecting their cytoplasm and enabling
signal molecules and nutrients to be transported from cell to cell (Figure 2.17a).
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Figure 2.17 There are four kinds of connections between cells. (a) A plasmodesma is a channel
between the cell walls of two adjacent plant cells. (b) Tight junctions join adjacent animal cells. (c)
Desmosomes join two animal cells together. (d) Gap junctions act as channels between animal cells.
(credit b, c, d: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal)
A tight junction is a watertight seal between two adjacent animal cells (Figure 2.17b). Proteins
hold the cells tightly against each other. This tight adhesion prevents materials from leaking between the
cells. Tight junctions are typically found in the epithelial tissue that lines internal organs and cavities,
and composes most of the skin. For example, the tight junctions of the epithelial cells lining the urinary
bladder prevent urine from leaking into the extracellular space.
Also found only in animal cells are desmosomes, which act like spot welds between adjacent
epithelial cells (Figure 2.17c). They keep cells together in a sheet-like formation in organs and tissues
that stretch, like the skin, heart, and muscles.
Gap junctions in animal cells are like plasmodesmata in plant cells in that they are channels
between adjacent cells that allow for the transport of ions, nutrients, and other substances that enable
cells to communicate (Figure 2.17d). Structurally, however, gap junctions and plasmodesmata differ.
Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells and Their

Functions
Cell
Component
Plasma
membrane
Function
Present in
Prokaryotes?
Separates cell from

external environment;
controls passage of organic
Yes
molecules, ions, water,
oxygen, and wastes into
and out of the cell
Table 2.1
Present
in
Animal
Cells?
Yes
Present
in Plant
Cells?
Yes

Functions
Cell
Component
Function
Present in
Prokaryotes?
Present
in
Animal
Cells?
Present
in Plant
Cells?
Cytoplasm
Provides structure to cell;

site of many metabolic
Yes
reactions; medium in which
organelles are found
Yes
Yes
Nucleoid
Location of DNA
Yes
No
No
Nucleus
Cell organelle that houses

DNA and directs synthesis
of ribosomes and proteins
No
Yes
Yes
Ribosomes
Protein synthesis
Yes
Yes
Yes
Mitochondria
ATP production/cellular
respiration
No
Yes
Yes
Peroxisomes
Oxidizes and breaks down

fatty acids and amino acids, No
and detoxifies poisons
Yes
Yes
Vesicles and
vacuoles
Storage and transport;

digestive function in plant
cells
No
Yes
Yes
Centrosome
Unspecified role in cell

division in animal cells;
source of microtubules in
animal cells
No
Yes
No
Lysosomes
Digestion of
macromolecules; recycling
of worn-out organelles
No
Yes
No
Cell wall
Protection, structural
support and maintenance
of cell shape
Yes, primarily
peptidoglycan in
bacteria but not
Archaea
No
Yes,
primarily
cellulose
Chloroplasts
Photosynthesis
No
No
Yes
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Modifies proteins and

synthesizes lipids
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Modifies, sorts, tags,

Golgi apparatus packages, and distributes
lipids and proteins
Cytoskeleton
Table 2.1
Maintains cells shape,

secures organelles in
specific positions, allows
cytoplasm and vesicles to
move within the cell, and
enables unicellular
organisms to move
independently
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Functions
Cell
Component
Present in
Prokaryotes?
Function
Present
in
Animal
Cells?
Present
in Plant
Cells?
Flagella
Cellular locomotion
Some
Some
No, except
for some
plant
sperm.
Cilia
Cellular locomotion,
movement of particles
along extracellular surface
of plasma membrane, and
filtration
No
Some
No
Table 2.1
This table provides the components of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and their respective
functions.
2.4 | The Cell Membrane

Understand the fluid mosaic model of membranes
Describe the functions of phospholipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in membranes
A cells plasma membrane defines the boundary of the cell and determines the nature of its contact with
the environment. Cells exclude some substances, take in others, and excrete still others, all in controlled
quantities. Plasma membranes enclose the borders of cells, but rather than being a static bag, they are
dynamic and constantly in flux. The plasma membrane must be sufficiently flexible to allow certain cells,
such as red blood cells and white blood cells, to change shape as they pass through narrow capillaries.
These are the more obvious functions of a plasma membrane. In addition, the surface of the plasma
membrane carries markers that allow cells to recognize one another, which is vital as tissues and organs
form during early development, and which later plays a role in the self versus non-self distinction of
the immune response.
The plasma membrane also carries receptors, which are attachment sites for specific substances that
interact with the cell. Each receptor is structured to bind with a specific substance. For example, surface
receptors of the membrane create changes in the interior, such as changes in enzymes of metabolic
pathways. These metabolic pathways might be vital for providing the cell with energy, making specific
substances for the cell, or breaking down cellular waste or toxins for disposal. Receptors on the plasma
membranes exterior surface interact with hormones or neurotransmitters, and allow their messages to
be transmitted into the cell. Some recognition sites are used by viruses as attachment points. Although
they are highly specific, pathogens like viruses may evolve to exploit receptors to gain entry to a cell by
mimicking the specific substance that the receptor is meant to bind. This specificity helps to explain why
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or any of the five types of hepatitis viruses invade only specific
cells.
Fluid Mosaic Model

In 1972, S. J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson proposed a new model of the plasma membrane that,
compared to earlier understanding, better explained both microscopic observations and the function of
the plasma membrane. This was called the fluid mosaic model. The model has evolved somewhat
over time, but still best accounts for the structure and functions of the plasma membrane as we
now understand them. The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a
mosaic of componentsincluding phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydratesin which the
components are able to flow and change position, while maintaining the basic integrity of the membrane.
Both phospholipid molecules and embedded proteins are able to diffuse rapidly and laterally in the
membrane. The fluidity of the plasma membrane is necessary for the activities of certain enzymes
and transport molecules within the membrane. Plasma membranes range from 510 nm thick. As a
comparison, human red blood cells, visible via light microscopy, are approximately 8 m thick, or
approximately 1,000 times thicker than a plasma membrane. (Figure 2.18)
Figure 2.18 The fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane structure describes the plasma
membrane as a fluid combination of phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
The plasma membrane is made up primarily of a bilayer of phospholipids with embedded proteins,
carbohydrates, glycolipids, and glycoproteins, and, in animal cells, cholesterol. The amount of
cholesterol in animal plasma membranes regulates the fluidity of the membrane and changes based on the
temperature of the cells environment. In other words, cholesterol acts as antifreeze in the cell membrane
and is more abundant in animals that live in cold climates.
The main fabric of the membrane is composed of two layers of phospholipid molecules, and the
polar ends of these molecules (which look like a collection of balls in an artists rendition of the model)
(Figure 2.18) are in contact with aqueous fluid both inside and outside the cell. Thus, both surfaces of the
plasma membrane are hydrophilic. In contrast, the interior of the membrane, between its two surfaces, is
a hydrophobic or nonpolar region because of the fatty acid tails. This region has no attraction for water
or other polar molecules.
Proteins make up the second major chemical component of plasma membranes. Integral proteins
are embedded in the plasma membrane and may span all or part of the membrane. Integral proteins may
serve as channels or pumps to move materials into or out of the cell. Peripheral proteins are found on
the exterior or interior surfaces of membranes, attached either to integral proteins or to phospholipid
molecules. Both integral and peripheral proteins may serve as enzymes, as structural attachments for the
fibers of the cytoskeleton, or as part of the cells recognition sites.
Carbohydrates are the third major component of plasma membranes. They are always found on the
exterior surface of cells and are bound either to proteins (forming glycoproteins) or to lipids (forming
glycolipids). These carbohydrate chains may consist of 260 monosaccharide units and may be either
straight or branched. Along with peripheral proteins, carbohydrates form specialized sites on the cell
surface that allow cells to recognize each other.
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How Viruses Infect Specific Organs

Specific glycoprotein molecules exposed on the surface of the cell membranes of host
cells are exploited by many viruses to infect specific organs. For example, HIV is able to
penetrate the plasma membranes of specific kinds of white blood cells called T-helper cells
and monocytes, as well as some cells of the central nervous system. The hepatitis virus
attacks only liver cells.
These viruses are able to invade these cells, because the cells have binding sites on
their surfaces that the viruses have exploited with equally specific glycoproteins in their
coats. (Figure 2.19). The cell is tricked by the mimicry of the virus coat molecules, and the
virus is able to enter the cell. Other recognition sites on the viruss surface interact with the
human immune system, prompting the body to produce antibodies. Antibodies are made
in response to the antigens (or proteins associated with invasive pathogens). These same
sites serve as places for antibodies to attach, and either destroy or inhibit the activity of the
virus. Unfortunately, these sites on HIV are encoded by genes that change quickly, making
the production of an effective vaccine against the virus very difficult. The virus population
within an infected individual quickly evolves through mutation into different populations, or
variants, distinguished by differences in these recognition sites. This rapid change of viral
surface markers decreases the effectiveness of the persons immune system in attacking
the virus, because the antibodies will not recognize the new variations of the surface
patterns.
Figure 2.19 HIV docks at and binds to the CD4 receptor, a glycoprotein on the surface of T
cells, before entering, or infecting, the cell. (credit: modification of work by US National Institutes
of Health/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases)
2.5 | Passive Transport

Explain why and how passive transport occurs
Understand the processes of osmosis and diffusion
Define tonicity and describe its relevance to passive transport
Plasma membranes must allow certain substances to enter and leave a cell, while preventing harmful
material from entering and essential material from leaving. In other words, plasma membranes are
selectively permeablethey allow some substances through but not others. If they were to lose this
selectivity, the cell would no longer be able to sustain itself, and it would be destroyed. Some cells
require larger amounts of specific substances than do other cells; they must have a way of obtaining these
materials from the extracellular fluids. This may happen passively, as certain materials move back and
forth, or the cell may have special mechanisms that ensure transport. Most cells expend most of their
energy, in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to create and maintain an uneven distribution of
ions on the opposite sides of their membranes. The structure of the plasma membrane contributes to these
functions, but it also presents some problems.
The most direct forms of membrane transport are passive. Passive transport is a naturally
occurring phenomenon and does not require the cell to expend energy to accomplish the movement.
In passive transport, substances move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration in a process called diffusion. A physical space in which there is a different concentration
of a single substance is said to have a concentration gradient.
Selective Permeability
Plasma membranes are asymmetric, meaning that despite the mirror image formed by the phospholipids,
the interior of the membrane is not identical to the exterior of the membrane. Integral proteins that
act as channels or pumps work in one direction. Carbohydrates, attached to lipids or proteins, are also
found on the exterior surface of the plasma membrane. These carbohydrate complexes help the cell bind
substances that the cell needs in the extracellular fluid. This adds considerably to the selective nature of
plasma membranes.
Recall that plasma membranes have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. This characteristic helps
the movement of certain materials through the membrane and hinders the movement of others. Lipidsoluble material can easily slip through the hydrophobic lipid core of the membrane. Substances such as
the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K readily pass through the plasma membranes in the digestive tract
and other tissues. Fat-soluble drugs also gain easy entry into cells and are readily transported into the
bodys tissues and organs. Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide have no charge and pass through by
simple diffusion.
Polar substances, with the exception of water, present problems for the membrane. While some
polar molecules connect easily with the outside of a cell, they cannot readily pass through the lipid core
of the plasma membrane. Additionally, whereas small ions could easily slip through the spaces in the
mosaic of the membrane, their charge prevents them from doing so. Ions such as sodium, potassium,
calcium, and chloride must have a special means of penetrating plasma membranes. Simple sugars and
amino acids also need help with transport across plasma membranes.
Diffusion
Diffusion is a passive process of transport. A single substance tends to move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration until the concentration is equal across the space. You are
familiar with diffusion of substances through the air. For example, think about someone opening a bottle
of perfume in a room filled with people. The perfume is at its highest concentration in the bottle and is at
its lowest at the edges of the room. The perfume vapor will diffuse, or spread away, from the bottle, and
gradually, more and more people will smell the perfume as it spreads. Materials move within the cells
cytosol by diffusion, and certain materials move through the plasma membrane by diffusion (Figure
2.20). Diffusion expends no energy. Rather the different concentrations of materials in different areas
are a form of potential energy, and diffusion is the dissipation of that potential energy as materials move
down their concentration gradients, from high to low.
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Figure 2.20 Diffusion through a permeable membrane follows the concentration gradient of a
substance, moving the substance from an area of high concentration to one of low concentration.
(credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
Each separate substance in a medium, such as the extracellular fluid, has its own concentration
gradient, independent of the concentration gradients of other materials. Additionally, each substance will
diffuse according to that gradient.
Several factors affect the rate of diffusion.
Extent of the concentration gradient: The greater the difference in concentration, the more rapid
the diffusion. The closer the distribution of the material gets to equilibrium, the slower the rate of
diffusion becomes.
Mass of the molecules diffusing: More massive molecules move more slowly, because it is more
difficult for them to move between the molecules of the substance they are moving through;
therefore, they diffuse more slowly.
Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the energy and therefore the movement of the
molecules, increasing the rate of diffusion.
Solvent density: As the density of the solvent increases, the rate of diffusion decreases. The
molecules slow down because they have a more difficult time getting through the denser medium.
For an animation of the diffusion process in action, view this short video (http://openstaxcollege.org/
l/passive_trnsprt) on cell membrane transport.
Facilitated transport
In facilitated transport, also called facilitated diffusion, material moves across the plasma membrane
with the assistance of transmembrane proteins down a concentration gradient (from high to low
concentration) without the expenditure of cellular energy. However, the substances that undergo
facilitated transport would otherwise not diffuse easily or quickly across the plasma membrane. The
solution to moving polar substances and other substances across the plasma membrane rests in the
proteins that span its surface. The material being transported is first attached to protein or glycoprotein
receptors on the exterior surface of the plasma membrane. This allows the material that is needed by
the cell to be removed from the extracellular fluid. The substances are then passed to specific integral
proteins that facilitate their passage, because they form channels or pores that allow certain substances
to pass through the membrane. The integral proteins involved in facilitated transport are collectively
referred to as transport proteins, and they function as either channels for the material or carriers.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane according to the concentration
gradient of water across the membrane. Whereas diffusion transports material across membranes and
within cells, osmosis transports only water across a membrane and the membrane limits the diffusion
of solutes in the water. Osmosis is a special case of diffusion. Water, like other substances, moves from
an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. Imagine a beaker with a semipermeable
membrane, separating the two sides or halves (Figure 2.21). On both sides of the membrane, the water
level is the same, but there are different concentrations on each side of a dissolved substance, or solute,
that cannot cross the membrane. If the volume of the water is the same, but the concentrations of solute
are different, then there are also different concentrations of water, the solvent, on either side of the
membrane.
Figure 2.21 In osmosis, water always moves from an area of higher concentration (of water) to
one of lower concentration (of water). In this system, the solute cannot pass through the selectively
permeable membrane.
A principle of diffusion is that the molecules move around and will spread evenly throughout the
medium if they can. However, only the material capable of getting through the membrane will diffuse
through it. In this example, the solute cannot diffuse through the membrane, but the water can. Water has
a concentration gradient in this system. Therefore, water will diffuse down its concentration gradient,
crossing the membrane to the side where it is less concentrated. This diffusion of water through the
membraneosmosiswill continue until the concentration gradient of water goes to zero. Osmosis
proceeds constantly in living systems.
Watch this video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/passive_trnsprt) that illustrates diffusion in hot

versus cold solutions.
Tonicity
Tonicity describes the amount of solute in a solution. The measure of the tonicity of a solution,
or the total amount of solutes dissolved in a specific amount of solution, is called its osmolarity.
Three termshypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonicare used to relate the osmolarity of a cell to the
osmolarity of the extracellular fluid that contains the cells. In a hypotonic solution, such as tap water, the
extracellular fluid has a lower concentration of solutes than the fluid inside the cell, and water enters the
cell. (In living systems, the point of reference is always the cytoplasm, so the prefix hypo- means that the
extracellular fluid has a lower concentration of solutes, or a lower osmolarity, than the cell cytoplasm.)
It also means that the extracellular fluid has a higher concentration of water than does the cell. In this
situation, water will follow its concentration gradient and enter the cell. This may cause an animal cell
to burst, or lyse.
In a hypertonic solution (the prefix hyper- refers to the extracellular fluid having a higher
concentration of solutes than the cells cytoplasm), the fluid contains less water than the cell does, such
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as seawater. Because the cell has a lower concentration of solutes, the water will leave the cell. In effect,
the solute is drawing the water out of the cell. This may cause an animal cell to shrivel, or crenate.
In an isotonic solution, the extracellular fluid has the same osmolarity as the cell. If the
concentration of solutes of the cell matches that of the extracellular fluid, there will be no net movement
of water into or out of the cell. Blood cells in hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic solutions take on
characteristic appearances (Figure 2.22).
Figure 2.22 Osmotic pressure changes the shape of red blood cells in hypertonic, isotonic, and
hypotonic solutions. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
A doctor injects a patient with what the doctor thinks is isotonic saline solution. The
patient dies, and autopsy reveals that many red blood cells have been destroyed. Do you
think the solution the doctor injected was really isotonic?
Some organisms, such as plants, fungi, bacteria, and some protists, have cell walls that surround the
plasma membrane and prevent cell lysis. The plasma membrane can only expand to the limit of the cell
wall, so the cell will not lyse. In fact, the cytoplasm in plants is always slightly hypertonic compared to
the cellular environment, and water will always enter a cell if water is available. This influx of water
produces turgor pressure, which stiffens the cell walls of the plant (Figure 2.23). In nonwoody plants,
turgor pressure supports the plant. If the plant cells become hypertonic, as occurs in drought or if a plant
is not watered adequately, water will leave the cell. Plants lose turgor pressure in this condition and wilt.
Figure 2.23 The turgor pressure within a plant cell depends on the tonicity of the solution that it is
bathed in. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
2.6 | Active Transport

Understand how electrochemical gradients affect ions
Describe endocytosis, including phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis
Understand the process of exocytosis
Active transport mechanisms require the use of the cells energy, usually in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). If a substance must move into the cell against its concentration gradient, that is, if the
concentration of the substance inside the cell must be greater than its concentration in the extracellular
fluid, the cell must use energy to move the substance. Some active transport mechanisms move smallmolecular weight material, such as ions, through the membrane.
In addition to moving small ions and molecules through the membrane, cells also need to remove
and take in larger molecules and particles. Some cells are even capable of engulfing entire unicellular
microorganisms. You might have correctly hypothesized that the uptake and release of large particles by
the cell requires energy. A large particle, however, cannot pass through the membrane, even with energy
supplied by the cell.
Electrochemical Gradient
We have discussed simple concentration gradientsdifferential concentrations of a substance across
a space or a membranebut in living systems, gradients are more complex. Because cells contain
proteins, most of which are negatively charged, and because ions move into and out of cells, there is an
electrical gradient, a difference of charge, across the plasma membrane. The interior of living cells is
electrically negative with respect to the extracellular fluid in which they are bathed; at the same time,
cells have higher concentrations of potassium (K+) and lower concentrations of sodium (Na+) than does
the extracellular fluid. Thus, in a living cell, the concentration gradient and electrical gradient of Na+
promotes diffusion of the ion into the cell, and the electrical gradient of Na+ (a positive ion) tends to
drive it inward to the negatively charged interior. The situation is more complex, however, for other
elements such as potassium. The electrical gradient of K+ promotes diffusion of the ion into the cell, but
the concentration gradient of K+ promotes diffusion out of the cell (Figure 2.24). The combined gradient
that affects an ion is called its electrochemical gradient, and it is especially important to muscle and
nerve cells.
Figure 2.24 Electrochemical gradients arise from the combined effects of concentration gradients
and electrical gradients. (credit: modification of work by Synaptitude/Wikimedia Commons)
Moving Against a Gradient

To move substances against a concentration or an electrochemical gradient, the cell must use energy.
This energy is harvested from ATP that is generated through cellular metabolism. Active transport
mechanisms, collectively called pumps or carrier proteins, work against electrochemical gradients. With
the exception of ions, small substances constantly pass through plasma membranes. Active transport
maintains concentrations of ions and other substances needed by living cells in the face of these passive
changes. Much of a cells supply of metabolic energy may be spent maintaining these processes. Because
active transport mechanisms depend on cellular metabolism for energy, they are sensitive to many
metabolic poisons that interfere with the supply of ATP.
Two mechanisms exist for the transport of small-molecular weight material and macromolecules.
Primary active transport moves ions across a membrane and creates a difference in charge across that
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membrane. The primary active transport system uses ATP to move a substance, such as an ion, into the
cell, and often at the same time, a second substance is moved out of the cell. The sodium-potassium
pump, an important pump in animal cells, expends energy to move potassium ions into the cell and
a different number of sodium ions out of the cell (Figure 2.25). The action of this pump results in a
concentration and charge difference across the membrane.
Figure 2.25 The sodium-potassium pump move potassium and sodium ions across the plasma
membrane. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
Secondary active transport describes the movement of material using the energy of the
electrochemical gradient established by primary active transport. Using the energy of the electrochemical
gradient created by the primary active transport system, other substances such as amino acids and
glucose can be brought into the cell through membrane channels. ATP itself is formed through secondary
active transport using a hydrogen ion gradient in the mitochondrion.
Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a type of active transport that moves particles, such as large molecules, parts of cells,
and even whole cells, into a cell. There are different variations of endocytosis, but all share a common
characteristic: The plasma membrane of the cell invaginates, forming a pocket around the target particle.
The pocket pinches off, resulting in the particle being contained in a newly created vacuole that is formed
from the plasma membrane.
Figure 2.26 Three variations of endocytosis are shown. (a) In one form of endocytosis,
phagocytosis, the cell membrane surrounds the particle and pinches off to form an intracellular
vacuole. (b) In another type of endocytosis, pinocytosis, the cell membrane surrounds a small
volume of fluid and pinches off, forming a vesicle. (c) In receptor-mediated endocytosis, uptake of
substances by the cell is targeted to a single type of substance that binds at the receptor on the
external cell membrane. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
Phagocytosis is the process by which large particles, such as cells, are taken in by a cell. For
example, when microorganisms invade the human body, a type of white blood cell called a neutrophil
removes the invader through this process, surrounding and engulfing the microorganism, which is then
destroyed by the neutrophil (Figure 2.26).
A variation of endocytosis is called pinocytosis. This literally means cell drinking and was named
at a time when the assumption was that the cell was purposefully taking in extracellular fluid. In reality,
this process takes in solutes that the cell needs from the extracellular fluid (Figure 2.26).
A targeted variation of endocytosis employs binding proteins in the plasma membrane that are
specific for certain substances (Figure 2.26). The particles bind to the proteins and the plasma membrane
invaginates, bringing the substance and the proteins into the cell. If passage across the membrane of
the target of receptor-mediated endocytosis is ineffective, it will not be removed from the tissue fluids
or blood. Instead, it will stay in those fluids and increase in concentration. Some human diseases are
caused by a failure of receptor-mediated endocytosis. For example, the form of cholesterol termed lowdensity lipoprotein or LDL (also referred to as bad cholesterol) is removed from the blood by receptormediated endocytosis. In the human genetic disease familial hypercholesterolemia, the LDL receptors
are defective or missing entirely. People with this condition have life-threatening levels of cholesterol in
their blood, because their cells cannot clear the chemical from their blood.
See receptor-mediated endocytosis in action and click on different parts for a focused animation
(http://openstaxcollege.org/l/endocytosis2) to learn more.
Exocytosis
In contrast to these methods of moving material into a cell is the process of exocytosis. Exocytosis is the
opposite of the processes discussed above in that its purpose is to expel material from the cell into the
extracellular fluid. A particle enveloped in membrane fuses with the interior of the plasma membrane.
This fusion opens the membranous envelope to the exterior of the cell, and the particle is expelled into
the extracellular space (Figure 2.27).
Figure 2.27 In exocytosis, a vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane, binds, and releases its
contents to the outside of the cell. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
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KEY TERMS
active transport the method of transporting material that requires energy
cell wall a rigid cell covering made of cellulose in plants, peptidoglycan in bacteria, nonpeptidoglycan compounds in Archaea, and chitin in fungi that protects the cell, provides
structural support, and gives shape to the cell
central vacuole a large plant cell organelle that acts as a storage compartment, water reservoir, and
site of macromolecule degradation
chloroplast a plant cell organelle that carries out photosynthesis
cilium (plural: cilia) a short, hair-like structure that extends from the plasma membrane in large
numbers and is used to move an entire cell or move substances along the outer surface of the
cell
concentration gradient an area of high concentration across from an area of low concentration
cytoplasm the entire region between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope, consisting of
organelles suspended in the gel-like cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and various chemicals
cytoskeleton the network of protein fibers that collectively maintains the shape of the cell, secures
some organelles in specific positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and
enables unicellular organisms to move
cytosol the gel-like material of the cytoplasm in which cell structures are suspended
desmosome a linkage between adjacent epithelial cells that forms when cadherins in the plasma
membrane attach to intermediate filaments
diffusion a passive process of transport of low-molecular weight material down its concentration
gradient
electrochemical gradient a gradient produced by the combined forces of the electrical gradient
and the chemical gradient
endocytosis a type of active transport that moves substances, including fluids and particles, into a
cell
endomembrane system the group of organelles and membranes in eukaryotic cells that work
together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) a series of interconnected membranous structures within eukaryotic
cells that collectively modify proteins and synthesize lipids
eukaryotic cell a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and several other membrane-bound
compartments or sacs
exocytosis a process of passing material out of a cell
extracellular matrix the material, primarily collagen, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans, secreted
from animal cells that holds cells together as a tissue, allows cells to communicate with each
other, and provides mechanical protection and anchoring for cells in the tissue
facilitated transport a process by which material moves down a concentration gradient (from high
to low concentration) using integral membrane proteins
flagellum (plural: flagella) the long, hair-like structure that extends from the plasma membrane and
is used to move the cell
fluid mosaic model a model of the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components,
including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and glycolipids, resulting in a fluid rather than
static character
Golgi apparatus a eukaryotic organelle made up of a series of stacked membranes that sorts, tags,
and packages lipids and proteins for distribution
gap junction a channel between two adjacent animal cells that allows ions, nutrients, and other lowmolecular weight substances to pass between the cells, enabling the cells to communicate
hypertonic describes a solution in which extracellular fluid has higher osmolarity than the fluid
inside the cell
hypotonic describes a solution in which extracellular fluid has lower osmolarity than the fluid inside
the cell
isotonic describes a solution in which the extracellular fluid has the same osmolarity as the fluid
inside the cell
lysosome an organelle in an animal cell that functions as the cells digestive component; it breaks
down proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-out organelles
microscope the instrument that magnifies an object
mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) the cellular organelles responsible for carrying out cellular
respiration, resulting in the production of ATP, the cells main energy-carrying molecule
nuclear envelope the double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the
nucleus
nucleolus the darkly staining body within the nucleus that is responsible for assembling ribosomal
subunits
nucleus the cell organelle that houses the cells DNA and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and
proteins
organelle a membrane-bound compartment or sac within a cell
osmolarity the total amount of substances dissolved in a specific amount of solution
osmosis the transport of water through a semipermeable membrane from an area of high water
concentration to an area of low water concentration across a membrane
passive transport a method of transporting material that does not require energy
peroxisome a small, round organelle that contains hydrogen peroxide, oxidizes fatty acids and
amino acids, and detoxifies many poisons
phagocytosis a process that takes macromolecules that the cell needs from the extracellular fluid; a
variation of endocytosis
pinocytosis a process that takes solutes that the cell needs from the extracellular fluid; a variation of
endocytosis
plasma membrane a phospholipid bilayer with embedded (integral) or attached (peripheral)
proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding environment
plasmodesma (plural: plasmodesmata) a channel that passes between the cell walls of adjacent
plant cells, connects their cytoplasm, and allows materials to be transported from cell to cell
prokaryotic cell a unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus or any other membrane-bound
organelle
receptor-mediated endocytosis a variant of endocytosis that involves the use of specific binding
proteins in the plasma membrane for specific molecules or particles
ribosome a cellular organelle that carries out protein synthesis
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) the region of the endoplasmic reticulum that is studded
with ribosomes and engages in protein modification
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selectively permeable the characteristic of a membrane that allows some substances through but
not others
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) the region of the endoplasmic reticulum that has few or
no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface and synthesizes carbohydrates, lipids, and steroid
hormones; detoxifies chemicals like pesticides, preservatives, medications, and environmental
pollutants, and stores calcium ions
solute a substance dissolved in another to form a solution
tight junction a firm seal between two adjacent animal cells created by protein adherence
tonicity the amount of solute in a solution.
unified cell theory the biological concept that states that all organisms are composed of one or
more cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and new cells arise from existing cells
vacuole a membrane-bound sac, somewhat larger than a vesicle, that functions in cellular storage
and transport
vesicle a small, membrane-bound sac that functions in cellular storage and transport; its membrane
is capable of fusing with the plasma membrane and the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum
and Golgi apparatus
CHAPTER SUMMARY
2.1 How Cells Are Studied
A cell is the smallest unit of life. Most cells are so small that they cannot be viewed with the naked eye.
Therefore, scientists must use microscopes to study cells. Electron microscopes provide higher
magnification, higher resolution, and more detail than light microscopes. The unified cell theory states
that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and new cells
arise from existing cells.
2.2 Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes are predominantly single-celled organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea. All
prokaryotes have plasma membranes, cytoplasm, ribosomes, a cell wall, DNA, and lack membranebound organelles. Many also have polysaccharide capsules. Prokaryotic cells range in diameter from
0.15.0 m.
Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes, but a
eukaryotic cell is typically larger than a prokaryotic cell, has a true nucleus (meaning its DNA is
surrounded by a membrane), and has other membrane-bound organelles that allow for
compartmentalization of functions. Eukaryotic cells tend to be 10 to 100 times the size of prokaryotic
cells.
2.3 Eukaryotic Cells

Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes, but a
eukaryotic cell is typically larger than a prokaryotic cell, has a true nucleus (meaning its DNA is
surrounded by a membrane), and has other membrane-bound organelles that allow for
compartmentalization of functions. The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with
proteins. The nucleolus within the nucleus is the site for ribosome assembly. Ribosomes are found in
the cytoplasm or are attached to the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane or endoplasmic
reticulum. They perform protein synthesis. Mitochondria perform cellular respiration and produce ATP.
Peroxisomes break down fatty acids, amino acids, and some toxins. Vesicles and vacuoles are storage
and transport compartments. In plant cells, vacuoles also help break down macromolecules.
Animal cells also have a centrosome and lysosomes. The centrosome has two bodies, the
centrioles, with an unknown role in cell division. Lysosomes are the digestive organelles of animal
cells.
Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a central vacuole. The plant cell wall, whose primary
component is cellulose, protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell.
Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts. The central vacuole expands, enlarging the cell without the
need to produce more cytoplasm.
The endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, as well as the plasma membrane. These cellular components work
together to modify, package, tag, and transport membrane lipids and proteins.
The cytoskeleton has three different types of protein elements. Microfilaments provide rigidity and
shape to the cell, and facilitate cellular movements. Intermediate filaments bear tension and anchor the
nucleus and other organelles in place. Microtubules help the cell resist compression, serve as tracks for
motor proteins that move vesicles through the cell, and pull replicated chromosomes to opposite ends of
a dividing cell. They are also the structural elements of centrioles, flagella, and cilia.
Animal cells communicate through their extracellular matrices and are connected to each other by
tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. Plant cells are connected and communicate with each
other by plasmodesmata.
2.4 The Cell Membrane

The modern understanding of the plasma membrane is referred to as the fluid mosaic model. The
plasma membrane is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids, with their hydrophobic, fatty acid tails in
contact with each other. The landscape of the membrane is studded with proteins, some of which span
the membrane. Some of these proteins serve to transport materials into or out of the cell. Carbohydrates
are attached to some of the proteins and lipids on the outward-facing surface of the membrane. These
form complexes that function to identify the cell to other cells. The fluid nature of the membrane owes
itself to the configuration of the fatty acid tails, the presence of cholesterol embedded in the membrane
(in animal cells), and the mosaic nature of the proteins and protein-carbohydrate complexes, which are
not firmly fixed in place. Plasma membranes enclose the borders of cells, but rather than being a static
bag, they are dynamic and constantly in flux.
2.5 Passive Transport

The passive forms of transport, diffusion and osmosis, move material of small molecular weight.
Substances diffuse from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration, and this process
continues until the substance is evenly distributed in a system. In solutions of more than one substance,
each type of molecule diffuses according to its own concentration gradient. Many factors can affect the
rate of diffusion, including concentration gradient, the sizes of the particles that are diffusing, and the
temperature of the system.
In living systems, diffusion of substances into and out of cells is mediated by the plasma
membrane. Some materials diffuse readily through the membrane, but others are hindered, and their
passage is only made possible by protein channels and carriers. The chemistry of living things occurs in
aqueous solutions, and balancing the concentrations of those solutions is an ongoing problem. In living
systems, diffusion of some substances would be slow or difficult without membrane proteins.
2.6 Active Transport

The combined gradient that affects an ion includes its concentration gradient and its electrical gradient.
Living cells need certain substances in concentrations greater than they exist in the extracellular space.
Moving substances up their electrochemical gradients requires energy from the cell. Active transport
uses energy stored in ATP to fuel the transport. Active transport of small molecular-size material uses
integral proteins in the cell membrane to move the materialthese proteins are analogous to pumps.
Some pumps, which carry out primary active transport, couple directly with ATP to drive their action.
In secondary transport, energy from primary transport can be used to move another substance into the
cell and up its concentration gradient.
Endocytosis methods require the direct use of ATP to fuel the transport of large particles such as
macromolecules; parts of cells or whole cells can be engulfed by other cells in a process called
phagocytosis. In phagocytosis, a portion of the membrane invaginates and flows around the particle,
eventually pinching off and leaving the particle wholly enclosed by an envelope of plasma membrane.
Vacuoles are broken down by the cell, with the particles used as food or dispatched in some other way.
Pinocytosis is a similar process on a smaller scale. The cell expels waste and other particles through the
reverse process, exocytosis. Wastes are moved outside the cell, pushing a membranous vesicle to the
plasma membrane, allowing the vesicle to fuse with the membrane and incorporating itself into the
membrane structure, releasing its contents to the exterior of the cell.
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1. Figure 2.7 What structures does a plant cell

have that an animal cell does not have? What
structures does an animal cell have that a plant
cell does not have?
2. Figure 2.13 Why does the cis face of the Golgi
not face the plasma membrane?
3. Figure 2.22 A doctor injects a patient with

what he thinks is isotonic saline solution. The
patient dies, and autopsy reveals that many red
blood cells have been destroyed. Do you think the
solution the doctor injected was really isotonic?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
4. When viewing a specimen through a light
microscope, scientists use _________ to
distinguish the individual components of cells.
a.
b.
c.
d.
a beam of electrons
radioactive isotopes
special stains
high temperatures
5. The ___________ is the basic unit of life.

a.
b.
c.
d.
organism
cell
tissue
organ
6. Which of these do all prokaryotes and

eukaryotes share?
a. nuclear envelope
b. cell walls
c. organelles
d. plasma membrane
7. A typical prokaryotic cell
__________________ compared to a eukaryotic
cell.
a. is smaller in size by a factor of 100
b. is similar in size
c. is smaller in size by a factor of one
million
d. is larger in size by a factor of 10
8. Which of the following is found both in
eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?
a. nucleus
b. mitochondrion
c. vacuole
d. ribosome
9. Which of the following is not a component of
the endomembrane system?
a. mitochondrion
b. Golgi apparatus
c. endoplasmic reticulum
d. lysosome
10. Which plasma membrane component can be
either found on its surface or embedded in the
membrane structure?
a. protein
b. cholesterol
c. carbohydrate
d. phospholipid
11. The tails of the phospholipids of the plasma
membrane are composed of _____ and are
_______?
a. phosphate groups; hydrophobic
b. fatty acid groups; hydrophilic
c. phosphate groups; hydrophilic
d. fatty acid groups; hydrophobic
12. Water moves via osmosis _________.
a. throughout the cytoplasm
b. from an area with a high concentration
of other solutes to a lower one
c. from an area with a low concentration of
solutes to an area with a higher one
d. from an area with a low concentration of
water to one of higher concentration
13. The principal force driving movement in
diffusion is __________.
a. temperature
b. particle size
c. concentration gradient
d. membrane surface area
14. Active transport must function continuously
because __________.
a. plasma membranes wear out
b. cells must be in constant motion
c. facilitated transport opposes active
transport
d. diffusion is constantly moving the
solutes in the other direction

15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
light, transmission, and scanning electron
microscopes?
17. In the context of cell biology, what do we

mean by form follows function? What are at least
two examples of this concept?
16. Describe the structures that are characteristic

of a prokaryote cell.
18. Why is it advantageous for the cell membrane

to be fluid in nature?
19. Why does osmosis occur?
20. Where does the cell get energy for active

transport processes?
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CHAPTER 3 | HOW CELLS OBTAIN ENERGY
3 | HOW CELLS
OBTAIN ENERGY
Figure 3.1 A hummingbird needs energy to maintain prolonged flight. The bird obtains its energy
from taking in food and transforming the energy contained in food molecules into forms of energy
to power its flight through a series of biochemical reactions. (credit: modification of work by Cory
Zanker)
Chapter Outline
3.1: Energy and Metabolism
3.2: Glycolysis
3.3: Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation
3.4: Fermentation
3.5: Connections to Other Metabolic Pathways
Introduction
Virtually every task performed by living organisms requires energy. Energy is needed to perform heavy
labor and exercise, but humans also use energy while thinking, and even during sleep. In fact, the
living cells of every organism constantly use energy. Nutrients and other molecules are imported into
the cell, metabolized (broken down) and possibly synthesized into new molecules, modified if needed,
transported around the cell, and possibly distributed to the entire organism. For example, the large
proteins that make up muscles are built from smaller molecules imported from dietary amino acids.
Complex carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars that the cell uses for energy. Just as energy
is required to both build and demolish a building, energy is required for the synthesis and breakdown
of molecules as well as the transport of molecules into and out of cells. In addition, processes such
as ingesting and breaking down pathogenic bacteria and viruses, exporting wastes and toxins, and
movement of the cell require energy. From where, and in what form, does this energy come? How do
living cells obtain energy, and how do they use it? This chapter will discuss different forms of energy
and the physical laws that govern energy transfer. This chapter will also describe how cells use energy
and replenish it, and how chemical reactions in the cell are performed with great efficiency.
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3.1 | Energy and Metabolism

Explain what metabolic pathways are
State the first and second laws of thermodynamics
Explain the difference between kinetic and potential energy
Describe endergonic and exergonic reactions
Discuss how enzymes function as molecular catalysts
Scientists use the term bioenergetics to describe the concept of energy flow (Figure 3.2) through
living systems, such as cells. Cellular processes such as the building and breaking down of complex
molecules occur through stepwise chemical reactions. Some of these chemical reactions are spontaneous
and release energy, whereas others require energy to proceed. Just as living things must continually
consume food to replenish their energy supplies, cells must continually produce more energy to replenish
that used by the many energy-requiring chemical reactions that constantly take place. Together, all of
the chemical reactions that take place inside cells, including those that consume or generate energy, are
referred to as the cells metabolism.
Figure 3.2 Ultimately, most life forms get their energy from the sun. Plants use photosynthesis to
capture sunlight, and herbivores eat the plants to obtain energy. Carnivores eat the herbivores, and
eventual decomposition of plant and animal material contributes to the nutrient pool.
Metabolic Pathways
Consider the metabolism of sugar. This is a classic example of one of the many cellular processes that use
and produce energy. Living things consume sugars as a major energy source, because sugar molecules
have a great deal of energy stored within their bonds. For the most part, photosynthesizing organisms
like plants produce these sugars. During photosynthesis, plants use energy (originally from sunlight) to
convert carbon dioxide gas (CO2) into sugar molecules (like glucose: C6H12O6). They consume carbon
dioxide and produce oxygen as a waste product. This reaction is summarized as:
6CO 2 + 6H 2 O-->C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2
Because this process involves synthesizing an energy-storing molecule, it requires energy input to
proceed. During the light reactions of photosynthesis, energy is provided by a molecule called adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), which is the primary energy currency of all cells. Just as the dollar is used as
currency to buy goods, cells use molecules of ATP as energy currency to perform immediate work. In
contrast, energy-storage molecules such as glucose are consumed only to be broken down to use their
energy. The reaction that harvests the energy of a sugar molecule in cells requiring oxygen to survive
can be summarized by the reverse reaction to photosynthesis. In this reaction, oxygen is consumed and
carbon dioxide is released as a waste product. The reaction is summarized as:
C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2-->6H 2 O + 6CO 2
Both of these reactions involve many steps.

The processes of making and breaking down sugar molecules illustrate two examples of metabolic
pathways. A metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions that takes a starting molecule and
modifies it, step-by-step, through a series of metabolic intermediates, eventually yielding a final product.
In the example of sugar metabolism, the first metabolic pathway synthesized sugar from smaller
molecules, and the other pathway broke sugar down into smaller molecules. These two opposite
processesthe first requiring energy and the second producing energyare referred to as anabolic
pathways (building polymers) and catabolic pathways (breaking down polymers into their monomers),
respectively. Consequently, metabolism is composed of synthesis (anabolism) and degradation
(catabolism) (Figure 3.3).
It is important to know that the chemical reactions of metabolic pathways do not take place on their
own. Each reaction step is facilitated, or catalyzed, by a protein called an enzyme. Enzymes are important
for catalyzing all types of biological reactionsthose that require energy as well as those that release
energy.
Figure 3.3 Catabolic pathways are those that generate energy by breaking down larger molecules.
Anabolic pathways are those that require energy to synthesize larger molecules. Both types of
pathways are required for maintaining the cells energy balance.
Energy
Thermodynamics refers to the study of energy and energy transfer involving physical matter. The matter
relevant to a particular case of energy transfer is called a system, and everything outside of that matter is
called the surroundings. For instance, when heating a pot of water on the stove, the system includes the
stove, the pot, and the water. Energy is transferred within the system (between the stove, pot, and water).
There are two types of systems: open and closed. In an open system, energy can be exchanged with its
surroundings. The stovetop system is open because heat can be lost to the air. A closed system cannot
exchange energy with its surroundings.
Biological organisms are open systems. Energy is exchanged between them and their surroundings
as they use energy from the sun to perform photosynthesis or consume energy-storing molecules and
release energy to the environment by doing work and releasing heat. Like all things in the physical world,
energy is subject to physical laws. The laws of thermodynamics govern the transfer of energy in and
among all systems in the universe.
In general, energy is defined as the ability to do work, or to create some kind of change. Energy
exists in different forms. For example, electrical energy, light energy, and heat energy are all different
types of energy. To appreciate the way energy flows into and out of biological systems, it is important to
understand two of the physical laws that govern energy.
Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that the total amount of energy in the universe is constant and
conserved. In other words, there has always been, and always will be, exactly the same amount of energy
in the universe. Energy exists in many different forms. According to the first law of thermodynamics,
energy may be transferred from place to place or transformed into different forms, but it cannot be
created or destroyed. The transfers and transformations of energy take place around us all the time. Light
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bulbs transform electrical energy into light and heat energy. Gas stoves transform chemical energy from
natural gas into heat energy. Plants perform one of the most biologically useful energy transformations
on earth: that of converting the energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored within organic molecules
(Figure 3.2). Some examples of energy transformations are shown in Figure 3.4.
The challenge for all living organisms is to obtain energy from their surroundings in forms that
they can transfer or transform into usable energy to do work. Living cells have evolved to meet this
challenge. Chemical energy stored within organic molecules such as sugars and fats is transferred and
transformed through a series of cellular chemical reactions into energy within molecules of ATP. Energy
in ATP molecules is easily accessible to do work. Examples of the types of work that cells need to do
include building complex molecules, transporting materials, powering the motion of cilia or flagella, and
contracting muscle fibers to create movement.
Figure 3.4 Shown are some examples of energy transferred and transformed from one system to
another and from one form to another. The food we consume provides our cells with the energy
required to carry out bodily functions, just as light energy provides plants with the means to create
the chemical energy they need. (credit "ice cream": modification of work by D. Sharon Pruitt; credit
"kids": modification of work by Max from Providence; credit "leaf": modification of work by Cory
Zanker)
A living cells primary tasks of obtaining, transforming, and using energy to do work may seem
simple. However, the second law of thermodynamics explains why these tasks are harder than they
appear. All energy transfers and transformations are never completely efficient. In every energy transfer,
some amount of energy is lost in a form that is unusable. In most cases, this form is heat energy.
Thermodynamically, heat energy is defined as the energy transferred from one system to another that
is not work. For example, when a light bulb is turned on, some of the energy being converted from
electrical energy into light energy is lost as heat energy. Likewise, some energy is lost as heat energy
during cellular metabolic reactions.
An important concept in physical systems is that of order and disorder. The more energy that is
lost by a system to its surroundings, the less ordered and more random the system is. Scientists refer to
the measure of randomness or disorder within a system as entropy. High entropy means high disorder
and low energy. Molecules and chemical reactions have varying entropy as well. For example, entropy
increases as molecules at a high concentration in one place diffuse and spread out. The second law of
thermodynamics says that energy will always be lost as heat in energy transfers or transformations.
Living things are highly ordered, requiring constant energy input to be maintained in a state of low
entropy.
Potential and Kinetic Energy

When an object is in motion, there is energy associated with that object. Think of a wrecking ball. Even
a slow-moving wrecking ball can do a great deal of damage to other objects. Energy associated with
objects in motion is called kinetic energy (Figure 3.5). A speeding bullet, a walking person, and the
rapid movement of molecules in the air (which produces heat) all have kinetic energy.
Now what if that same motionless wrecking ball is lifted two stories above ground with a crane?
If the suspended wrecking ball is unmoving, is there energy associated with it? The answer is yes. The
energy that was required to lift the wrecking ball did not disappear, but is now stored in the wrecking
ball by virtue of its position and the force of gravity acting on it. This type of energy is called potential
energy (Figure 3.5). If the ball were to fall, the potential energy would be transformed into kinetic
energy until all of the potential energy was exhausted when the ball rested on the ground. Wrecking balls
also swing like a pendulum; through the swing, there is a constant change of potential energy (highest at
the top of the swing) to kinetic energy (highest at the bottom of the swing). Other examples of potential
energy include the energy of water held behind a dam or a person about to skydive out of an airplane.
Figure 3.5 Still water has potential energy; moving water, such as in a waterfall or a rapidly flowing
river, has kinetic energy. (credit "dam": modification of work by "Pascal"/Flickr; credit "waterfall":
modification of work by Frank Gualtieri)
Potential energy is not only associated with the location of matter, but also with the structure of
matter. Even a spring on the ground has potential energy if it is compressed; so does a rubber band
that is pulled taut. On a molecular level, the bonds that hold the atoms of molecules together exist in a
particular structure that has potential energy. Remember that anabolic cellular pathways require energy to
synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones and catabolic pathways release energy when complex
molecules are broken down. The fact that energy can be released by the breakdown of certain chemical
bonds implies that those bonds have potential energy. In fact, there is potential energy stored within the
bonds of all the food molecules we eat, which is eventually harnessed for use. This is because these
bonds can release energy when broken. The type of potential energy that exists within chemical bonds,
and is released when those bonds are broken, is called chemical energy. Chemical energy is responsible
for providing living cells with energy from food. The release of energy occurs when the molecular bonds
within food molecules are broken.
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Visit the site (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/simple_pendulu2) and select Pendulum from the Work
and Energy menu to see the shifting kinetic and potential energy of a pendulum in motion.
Free and Activation Energy

After learning that chemical reactions release energy when energy-storing bonds are broken, an
important next question is the following: How is the energy associated with these chemical reactions
quantified and expressed? How can the energy released from one reaction be compared to that of another
reaction? A measurement of free energy is used to quantify these energy transfers. Recall that according
to the second law of thermodynamics, all energy transfers involve the loss of some amount of energy in
an unusable form such as heat. Free energy specifically refers to the energy associated with a chemical
reaction that is available after the losses are accounted for. In other words, free energy is usable energy,
or energy that is available to do work.
If energy is released during a chemical reaction, then the change in free energy, signified as G
(delta G) will be a negative number. A negative change in free energy also means that the products of
the reaction have less free energy than the reactants, because they release some free energy during the
reaction. Reactions that have a negative change in free energy and consequently release free energy are
called exergonic reactions. Think: exergonic means energy is exiting the system. These reactions are
also referred to as spontaneous reactions, and their products have less stored energy than the reactants.
An important distinction must be drawn between the term spontaneous and the idea of a chemical
reaction occurring immediately. Contrary to the everyday use of the term, a spontaneous reaction is not
one that suddenly or quickly occurs. The rusting of iron is an example of a spontaneous reaction that
occurs slowly, little by little, over time.
If a chemical reaction absorbs energy rather than releases energy on balance, then the G for that
reaction will be a positive value. In this case, the products have more free energy than the reactants. Thus,
the products of these reactions can be thought of as energy-storing molecules. These chemical reactions
are called endergonic reactions and they are non-spontaneous. An endergonic reaction will not take
place on its own without the addition of free energy.
Figure 3.6 Shown are some examples of endergonic processes (ones that require energy)
and exergonic processes (ones that release energy). (credit a: modification of work by Natalie
Maynor; credit b: modification of work by USDA; credit c: modification of work by Cory Zanker;
credit d: modification of work by Harry Malsch)
Look at each of the processes shown and decide if it is endergonic or exergonic.

There is another important concept that must be considered regarding endergonic and exergonic
reactions. Exergonic reactions require a small amount of energy input to get going, before they can
proceed with their energy-releasing steps. These reactions have a net release of energy, but still require
some energy input in the beginning. This small amount of energy input necessary for all chemical
reactions to occur is called the activation energy.
Watch an animation (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/energy_reactio2) of the move from free energy to

transition state of the reaction.
Enzymes
A substance that helps a chemical reaction to occur is called a catalyst, and the molecules that catalyze
biochemical reactions are called enzymes. Most enzymes are proteins and perform the critical task of
lowering the activation energies of chemical reactions inside the cell. Most of the reactions critical to a
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living cell happen too slowly at normal temperatures to be of any use to the cell. Without enzymes to
speed up these reactions, life could not persist. Enzymes do this by binding to the reactant molecules and
holding them in such a way as to make the chemical bond-breaking and -forming processes take place
more easily. It is important to remember that enzymes do not change whether a reaction is exergonic
(spontaneous) or endergonic. This is because they do not change the free energy of the reactants or
products. They only reduce the activation energy required for the reaction to go forward (Figure 3.7).
In addition, an enzyme itself is unchanged by the reaction it catalyzes. Once one reaction has been
catalyzed, the enzyme is able to participate in other reactions.
Figure 3.7 Enzymes lower the activation energy of the reaction but do not change the free energy
of the reaction.
The chemical reactants to which an enzyme binds are called the enzymes substrates. There may
be one or more substrates, depending on the particular chemical reaction. In some reactions, a single
reactant substrate is broken down into multiple products. In others, two substrates may come together
to create one larger molecule. Two reactants might also enter a reaction and both become modified,
but they leave the reaction as two products. The location within the enzyme where the substrate binds
is called the enzymes active site. The active site is where the action happens. Since enzymes are
proteins, there is a unique combination of amino acid side chains within the active site. Each side chain
is characterized by different properties. They can be large or small, weakly acidic or basic, hydrophilic or
hydrophobic, positively or negatively charged, or neutral. The unique combination of side chains creates
a very specific chemical environment within the active site. This specific environment is suited to bind
to one specific chemical substrate (or substrates).
Active sites are subject to influences of the local environment. Increasing the environmental
temperature generally increases reaction rates, enzyme-catalyzed or otherwise. However, temperatures
outside of an optimal range reduce the rate at which an enzyme catalyzes a reaction. Hot temperatures
will eventually cause enzymes to denature, an irreversible change in the three-dimensional shape and
therefore the function of the enzyme. Enzymes are also suited to function best within a certain pH
and salt concentration range, and, as with temperature, extreme pH, and salt concentrations can cause
enzymes to denature.
For many years, scientists thought that enzyme-substrate binding took place in a simple lock
and key fashion. This model asserted that the enzyme and substrate fit together perfectly in one
instantaneous step. However, current research supports a model called induced fit (Figure 3.8). The
induced-fit model expands on the lock-and-key model by describing a more dynamic binding between
enzyme and substrate. As the enzyme and substrate come together, their interaction causes a mild shift
in the enzymes structure that forms an ideal binding arrangement between enzyme and substrate.
View an animation (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/hexokinase2) of induced fit.

When an enzyme binds its substrate, an enzyme-substrate complex is formed. This complex lowers
the activation energy of the reaction and promotes its rapid progression in one of multiple possible ways.
On a basic level, enzymes promote chemical reactions that involve more than one substrate by bringing
the substrates together in an optimal orientation for reaction. Another way in which enzymes promote the
reaction of their substrates is by creating an optimal environment within the active site for the reaction
to occur. The chemical properties that emerge from the particular arrangement of amino acid R groups
within an active site create the perfect environment for an enzymes specific substrates to react.
The enzyme-substrate complex can also lower activation energy by compromising the bond
structure so that it is easier to break. Finally, enzymes can also lower activation energies by taking part
in the chemical reaction itself. In these cases, it is important to remember that the enzyme will always
return to its original state by the completion of the reaction. One of the hallmark properties of enzymes
is that they remain ultimately unchanged by the reactions they catalyze. After an enzyme has catalyzed a
reaction, it releases its product(s) and can catalyze a new reaction.
Figure 3.8 The induced-fit model is an adjustment to the lock-and-key model and explains how
enzymes and substrates undergo dynamic modifications during the transition state to increase the
affinity of the substrate for the active site.
It would seem ideal to have a scenario in which all of an organism's enzymes existed in abundant
supply and functioned optimally under all cellular conditions, in all cells, at all times. However, a variety
of mechanisms ensures that this does not happen. Cellular needs and conditions constantly vary from
cell to cell, and change within individual cells over time. The required enzymes of stomach cells differ
from those of fat storage cells, skin cells, blood cells, and nerve cells. Furthermore, a digestive organ
cell works much harder to process and break down nutrients during the time that closely follows a meal
compared with many hours after a meal. As these cellular demands and conditions vary, so must the
amounts and functionality of different enzymes.
Since the rates of biochemical reactions are controlled by activation energy, and enzymes lower
and determine activation energies for chemical reactions, the relative amounts and functioning of the
variety of enzymes within a cell ultimately determine which reactions will proceed and at what rates.
This determination is tightly controlled in cells. In certain cellular environments, enzyme activity is
partly controlled by environmental factors like pH, temperature, salt concentration, and, in some cases,
cofactors or coenzymes.
Enzymes can also be regulated in ways that either promote or reduce enzyme activity. There are
many kinds of molecules that inhibit or promote enzyme function, and various mechanisms by which
they do so. In some cases of enzyme inhibition, an inhibitor molecule is similar enough to a substrate
that it can bind to the active site and simply block the substrate from binding. When this happens, the
enzyme is inhibited through competitive inhibition, because an inhibitor molecule competes with the
substrate for binding to the active site.
On the other hand, in noncompetitive inhibition, an inhibitor molecule binds to the enzyme in a
location other than the active site, called an allosteric site, but still manages to block substrate binding
to the active site. Some inhibitor molecules bind to enzymes in a location where their binding induces
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a conformational change that reduces the affinity of the enzyme for its substrate. This type of inhibition
is called allosteric inhibition (Figure 3.9). Most allosterically regulated enzymes are made up of more
than one polypeptide, meaning that they have more than one protein subunit. When an allosteric inhibitor
binds to a region on an enzyme, all active sites on the protein subunits are changed slightly such that they
bind their substrates with less efficiency. There are allosteric activators as well as inhibitors. Allosteric
activators bind to locations on an enzyme away from the active site, inducing a conformational change
that increases the affinity of the enzymes active site(s) for its substrate(s) (Figure 3.9).
Figure 3.9 Allosteric inhibition works by indirectly inducing a conformational change to the active
site such that the substrate no longer fits. In contrast, in allosteric activation, the activator molecule
modifies the shape of the active site to allow a better fit of the substrate.
Pharmaceutical Drug Developer
Figure 3.10 Have you ever wondered how pharmaceutical drugs are developed? (credit:
Deborah Austin)
Enzymes are key components of metabolic pathways. Understanding how enzymes

work and how they can be regulated are key principles behind the development of many of
the pharmaceutical drugs on the market today. Biologists working in this field collaborate
with other scientists to design drugs (Figure 3.10).
Consider statins for examplestatins is the name given to one class of drugs that
can reduce cholesterol levels. These compounds are inhibitors of the enzyme HMG-CoA
reductase, which is the enzyme that synthesizes cholesterol from lipids in the body. By
inhibiting this enzyme, the level of cholesterol synthesized in the body can be reduced.
Similarly, acetaminophen, popularly marketed under the brand name Tylenol, is an inhibitor
of the enzyme cyclooxygenase. While it is used to provide relief from fever and
inflammation (pain), its mechanism of action is still not completely understood.
How are drugs discovered? One of the biggest challenges in drug discovery is
identifying a drug target. A drug target is a molecule that is literally the target of the drug.
In the case of statins, HMG-CoA reductase is the drug target. Drug targets are identified
through painstaking research in the laboratory. Identifying the target alone is not enough;
scientists also need to know how the target acts inside the cell and which reactions go
awry in the case of disease. Once the target and the pathway are identified, then the actual
process of drug design begins. In this stage, chemists and biologists work together to
design and synthesize molecules that can block or activate a particular reaction. However,
this is only the beginning: If and when a drug prototype is successful in performing its
function, then it is subjected to many tests from in vitro experiments to clinical trials before
it can get approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to be on the market.
Many enzymes do not work optimally, or even at all, unless bound to other specific non-protein
helper molecules. They may bond either temporarily through ionic or hydrogen bonds, or permanently
through stronger covalent bonds. Binding to these molecules promotes optimal shape and function of
their respective enzymes. Two examples of these types of helper molecules are cofactors and coenzymes.
Cofactors are inorganic ions such as ions of iron and magnesium. Coenzymes are organic helper
molecules, those with a basic atomic structure made up of carbon and hydrogen. Like enzymes, these
molecules participate in reactions without being changed themselves and are ultimately recycled and
reused. Vitamins are the source of coenzymes. Some vitamins are the precursors of coenzymes and
others act directly as coenzymes. Vitamin C is a direct coenzyme for multiple enzymes that take part in
building the important connective tissue, collagen. Therefore, enzyme function is, in part, regulated by
the abundance of various cofactors and coenzymes, which may be supplied by an organisms diet or, in
some cases, produced by the organism.
Feedback Inhibition in Metabolic Pathways
Molecules can regulate enzyme function in many ways. The major question remains, however: What
are these molecules and where do they come from? Some are cofactors and coenzymes, as you have
learned. What other molecules in the cell provide enzymatic regulation such as allosteric modulation, and
competitive and non-competitive inhibition? Perhaps the most relevant sources of regulatory molecules,
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with respect to enzymatic cellular metabolism, are the products of the cellular metabolic reactions
themselves. In a most efficient and elegant way, cells have evolved to use the products of their own
reactions for feedback inhibition of enzyme activity. Feedback inhibition involves the use of a reaction
product to regulate its own further production (Figure 3.11). The cell responds to an abundance of the
products by slowing down production during anabolic or catabolic reactions. Such reaction products may
inhibit the enzymes that catalyzed their production through the mechanisms described above.
Figure 3.11 Metabolic pathways are a series of reactions catalyzed by multiple enzymes. Feedback
inhibition, where the end product of the pathway inhibits an upstream process, is an important
regulatory mechanism in cells.
The production of both amino acids and nucleotides is controlled through feedback inhibition.
Additionally, ATP is an allosteric regulator of some of the enzymes involved in the catabolic breakdown
of sugar, the process that creates ATP. In this way, when ATP is in abundant supply, the cell can prevent
the production of ATP. On the other hand, ADP serves as a positive allosteric regulator (an allosteric
activator) for some of the same enzymes that are inhibited by ATP. Thus, when relative levels of ADP
are high compared to ATP, the cell is triggered to produce more ATP through sugar catabolism.
3.2 | Glycolysis
Explain how ATP is used by the cell as an energy source
Describe the overall result in terms of molecules produced of the breakdown of glucose by
glycolysis
Even exergonic, energy-releasing reactions require a small amount of activation energy to proceed.
However, consider endergonic reactions, which require much more energy input because their products
have more free energy than their reactants. Within the cell, where does energy to power such reactions
come from? The answer lies with an energy-supplying molecule called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP.
ATP is a small, relatively simple molecule, but within its bonds contains the potential for a quick burst
of energy that can be harnessed to perform cellular work. This molecule can be thought of as the primary
energy currency of cells in the same way that money is the currency that people exchange for things they
need. ATP is used to power the majority of energy-requiring cellular reactions.
ATP in Living Systems

A living cell cannot store significant amounts of free energy. Excess free energy would result in an
increase of heat in the cell, which would denature enzymes and other proteins, and thus destroy the cell.
Rather, a cell must be able to store energy safely and release it for use only as needed. Living cells
accomplish this using ATP, which can be used to fill any energy need of the cell. How? It functions as a
rechargeable battery.
When ATP is broken down, usually by the removal of its terminal phosphate group, energy is
released. This energy is used to do work by the cell, usually by the binding of the released phosphate to
another molecule, thus activating it. For example, in the mechanical work of muscle contraction, ATP
supplies energy to move the contractile muscle proteins.
ATP Structure and Function
At the heart of ATP is a molecule of adenosine monophosphate (AMP), which is composed of an adenine
molecule bonded to both a ribose molecule and a single phosphate group (Figure 3.12). Ribose is a
five-carbon sugar found in RNA and AMP is one of the nucleotides in RNA. The addition of a second
phosphate group to this core molecule results in adenosine diphosphate (ADP); the addition of a third
phosphate group forms adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Figure 3.12 The structure of ATP shows the basic components of a two-ring adenine, five-carbon
ribose, and three phosphate groups.
The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule requires a high amount of energy and results in
a high-energy bond. Phosphate groups are negatively charged and thus repel one another when they are
arranged in series, as they are in ADP and ATP. This repulsion makes the ADP and ATP molecules
inherently unstable. The release of one or two phosphate groups from ATP, a process called hydrolysis,
releases energy.
Glycolysis
You have read that nearly all of the energy used by living things comes to them in the bonds of the sugar,
glucose. Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cell metabolism.
Many living organisms carry out glycolysis as part of their metabolism. Glycolysis takes place in the
cytoplasm of most prokaryotic and all eukaryotic cells.
Glycolysis begins with the six-carbon, ring-shaped structure of a single glucose molecule and ends
with two molecules of a three-carbon sugar called pyruvate. Glycolysis consists of two distinct phases. In
the first part of the glycolysis pathway, energy is used to make adjustments so that the six-carbon sugar
molecule can be split evenly into two three-carbon pyruvate molecules. In the second part of glycolysis,
ATP and nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NADH) are produced (Figure 3.13).
If the cell cannot catabolize the pyruvate molecules further, it will harvest only two ATP molecules
from one molecule of glucose. For example, mature mammalian red blood cells are only capable of
glycolysis, which is their sole source of ATP. If glycolysis is interrupted, these cells would eventually
die.
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Figure 3.13 In glycolysis, a glucose molecule is converted into two pyruvate molecules.
3.3 | Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative

Phosphorylation
Describe the location of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation in the cell
Describe the overall outcome of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation in terms of
the products of each
Describe the relationships of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation in
terms of their inputs and outputs.
The Citric Acid Cycle

In eukaryotic cells, the pyruvate molecules produced at the end of glycolysis are transported into
mitochondria, which are sites of cellular respiration. If oxygen is available, aerobic respiration will go
forward. In mitochondria, pyruvate will be transformed into a two-carbon acetyl group (by removing a
molecule of carbon dioxide) that will be picked up by a carrier compound called coenzyme A (CoA),
which is made from vitamin B5. The resulting compound is called acetyl CoA. (Figure 3.14). Acetyl
CoA can be used in a variety of ways by the cell, but its major function is to deliver the acetyl group
derived from pyruvate to the next pathway in glucose catabolism.
Figure 3.14 Pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA before entering the citric acid cycle.
Like the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, the citric acid cycle in eukaryotic cells takes place
in the matrix of the mitochondria. Unlike glycolysis, the citric acid cycle is a closed loop: The last part
of the pathway regenerates the compound used in the first step. The eight steps of the cycle are a series
of chemical reactions that produces two carbon dioxide molecules, one ATP molecule (or an equivalent),
and reduced forms (NADH and FADH2) of NAD+ and FAD+, important coenzymes in the cell. Part of
this is considered an aerobic pathway (oxygen-requiring) because the NADH and FADH2 produced must
transfer their electrons to the next pathway in the system, which will use oxygen. If oxygen is not present,
this transfer does not occur.
Two carbon atoms come into the citric acid cycle from each acetyl group. Two carbon dioxide
molecules are released on each turn of the cycle; however, these do not contain the same carbon atoms
contributed by the acetyl group on that turn of the pathway. The two acetyl-carbon atoms will eventually
be released on later turns of the cycle; in this way, all six carbon atoms from the original glucose
molecule will be eventually released as carbon dioxide. It takes two turns of the cycle to process the
equivalent of one glucose molecule. Each turn of the cycle forms three high-energy NADH molecules
and one high-energy FADH2 molecule. These high-energy carriers will connect with the last portion of
aerobic respiration to produce ATP molecules. One ATP (or an equivalent) is also made in each cycle.
Several of the intermediate compounds in the citric acid cycle can be used in synthesizing non-essential
amino acids; therefore, the cycle is both anabolic and catabolic.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
You have just read about two pathways in glucose catabolismglycolysis and the citric acid cyclethat
generate ATP. Most of the ATP generated during the aerobic catabolism of glucose, however, is not
generated directly from these pathways. Rather, it derives from a process that begins with passing
electrons through a series of chemical reactions to a final electron acceptor, oxygen. These reactions take
place in specialized protein complexes located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria of eukaryotic
organisms and on the inner part of the cell membrane of prokaryotic organisms. The energy of the
electrons is harvested and used to generate a electrochemical gradient across the inner mitochondrial
membrane. The potential energy of this gradient is used to generate ATP. The entirety of this process is
called oxidative phosphorylation.
The electron transport chain (Figure 3.15a) is the last component of aerobic respiration and is the
only part of metabolism that uses atmospheric oxygen. Oxygen continuously diffuses into plants for
this purpose. In animals, oxygen enters the body through the respiratory system. Electron transport is
a series of chemical reactions that resembles a bucket brigade in that electrons are passed rapidly from
one component to the next, to the endpoint of the chain where oxygen is the final electron acceptor
and water is produced. There are four complexes composed of proteins, labeled I through IV in Figure
3.15c, and the aggregation of these four complexes, together with associated mobile, accessory electron
carriers, is called the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain is present in multiple copies
in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes and in the plasma membrane of prokaryotes. In each
transfer of an electron through the electron transport chain, the electron loses energy, but with some
transfers, the energy is stored as potential energy by using it to pump hydrogen ions across the inner
mitochondrial membrane into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical gradient.
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Figure 3.15 (a) The electron transport chain is a set of molecules that supports a series of
oxidation-reduction reactions. (b) ATP synthase is a complex, molecular machine that uses
an H+ gradient to regenerate ATP from ADP. (c) Chemiosmosis relies on the potential energy
provided by the H+ gradient across the membrane.
Cyanide inhibits cytochrome c oxidase, a component of the electron transport chain.

If cyanide poisoning occurs, would you expect the pH of the intermembrane space to
increase or decrease? What affect would cyanide have on ATP synthesis?
Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed to protein complexes in the electron transport
chain. As they are passed from one complex to another (there are a total of four), the electrons lose
energy, and some of that energy is used to pump hydrogen ions from the mitochondrial matrix into the
intermembrane space. In the fourth protein complex, the electrons are accepted by oxygen, the terminal
acceptor. The oxygen with its extra electrons then combines with two hydrogen ions, further enhancing
the electrochemical gradient, to form water. If there were no oxygen present in the mitochondrion, the
electrons could not be removed from the system, and the entire electron transport chain would back
up and stop. The mitochondria would be unable to generate new ATP in this way, and the cell would
ultimately die from lack of energy. This is the reason we must breathe to draw in new oxygen.
In the electron transport chain, the free energy from the series of reactions just described is
used to pump hydrogen ions across the membrane. The uneven distribution of H+ ions across the
membrane establishes an electrochemical gradient, owing to the H+ ions positive charge and their higher
concentration on one side of the membrane.
Hydrogen ions diffuse through the inner membrane through an integral membrane protein called
ATP synthase (Figure 3.15b). This complex protein acts as a tiny generator, turned by the force of the
hydrogen ions diffusing through it, down their electrochemical gradient from the intermembrane space,
where there are many mutually repelling hydrogen ions to the matrix, where there are few. The turning
of the parts of this molecular machine regenerate ATP from ADP. This flow of hydrogen ions across the
membrane through ATP synthase is called chemiosmosis.
Chemiosmosis (Figure 3.15c) is used to generate 90 percent of the ATP made during aerobic
glucose catabolism. The result of the reactions is the production of ATP from the energy of the electrons
removed from hydrogen atoms. These atoms were originally part of a glucose molecule. At the end of the
electron transport system, the electrons are used to reduce an oxygen molecule to oxygen ions. The extra
electrons on the oxygen ions attract hydrogen ions (protons) from the surrounding medium, and water is
formed. The electron transport chain and the production of ATP through chemiosmosis are collectively
called oxidative phosphorylation.
ATP Yield
The number of ATP molecules generated from the catabolism of glucose varies. For example, the number
of hydrogen ions that the electron transport chain complexes can pump through the membrane varies
between species. Another source of variance stems from the shuttle of electrons across the mitochondrial
membrane. The NADH generated from glycolysis cannot easily enter mitochondria. Thus, electrons
are picked up on the inside of the mitochondria by either NAD+ or FAD+. Fewer ATP molecules are
generated when FAD+ acts as a carrier. NAD+ is used as the electron transporter in the liver and FAD+
in the brain, so ATP yield depends on the tissue being considered.
Another factor that affects the yield of ATP molecules generated from glucose is that intermediate
compounds in these pathways are used for other purposes. Glucose catabolism connects with the
pathways that build or break down all other biochemical compounds in cells, and the result is somewhat
messier than the ideal situations described thus far. For example, sugars other than glucose are fed into
the glycolytic pathway for energy extraction. Other molecules that would otherwise be used to harvest
energy in glycolysis or the citric acid cycle may be removed to form nucleic acids, amino acids, lipids,
or other compounds. Overall, in living systems, these pathways of glucose catabolism extract about 34
percent of the energy contained in glucose.
Mitochondrial Disease Physician

What happens when the critical reactions of cellular respiration do not proceed
correctly? Mitochondrial diseases are genetic disorders of metabolism. Mitochondrial
disorders can arise from mutations in nuclear or mitochondrial DNA, and they result in
the production of less energy than is normal in body cells. Symptoms of mitochondrial
diseases can include muscle weakness, lack of coordination, stroke-like episodes, and
loss of vision and hearing. Most affected people are diagnosed in childhood, although
there are some adult-onset diseases. Identifying and treating mitochondrial disorders is
a specialized medical field. The educational preparation for this profession requires a
college education, followed by medical school with a specialization in medical genetics.
Medical geneticists can be board certified by the American Board of Medical Genetics
and go on to become associated with professional organizations devoted to the study of
mitochondrial disease, such as the Mitochondrial Medicine Society and the Society for
Inherited Metabolic Disease.
3.4 | Fermentation
Discuss the fundamental difference between anaerobic cellular respiration and fermentation
Describe the type of fermentation that readily occurs in animal cells and the conditions that
initiate that fermentation
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In aerobic respiration, the final electron acceptor is an oxygen molecule, O2. If aerobic respiration
occurs, then ATP will be produced using the energy of the high-energy electrons carried by NADH or
FADH2 to the electron transport chain. If aerobic respiration does not occur, NADH must be reoxidized
to NAD+ for reuse as an electron carrier for glycolysis to continue. How is this done? Some living
systems use an organic molecule as the final electron acceptor. Processes that use an organic molecule
to regenerate NAD+ from NADH are collectively referred to as fermentation. In contrast, some living
systems use an inorganic molecule as a final electron acceptor; both methods are a type of anaerobic
cellular respiration. Anaerobic respiration enables organisms to convert energy for their use in the
absence of oxygen.
Lactic Acid Fermentation

The fermentation method used by animals and some bacteria like those in yogurt is lactic acid
fermentation (Figure 3.16). This occurs routinely in mammalian red blood cells and in skeletal muscle
that has insufficient oxygen supply to allow aerobic respiration to continue (that is, in muscles used
to the point of fatigue). In muscles, lactic acid produced by fermentation must be removed by the
blood circulation and brought to the liver for further metabolism. The chemical reaction of lactic acid
fermentation is the following:
Pyruvic acid + NADH lactic acid + NAD +
The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is lactate dehydrogenase. The reaction can proceed in either
direction, but the left-to-right reaction is inhibited by acidic conditions. This lactic acid build-up causes
muscle stiffness and fatigue. Once the lactic acid has been removed from the muscle and is circulated to
the liver, it can be converted back to pyruvic acid and further catabolized for energy.
Figure 3.16 Lactic acid fermentation is common in muscles that have become exhausted by
use.
Tremetol, a metabolic poison found in white snake root plant, prevents the metabolism
of lactate. When cows eat this plant, Tremetol is concentrated in the milk. Humans
who consume the milk become ill. Symptoms of this disease, which include vomiting,
abdominal pain, and tremors, become worse after exercise. Why do you think this is the
case?
Alcohol Fermentation
Another familiar fermentation process is alcohol fermentation (Figure 3.17), which produces ethanol, an
alcohol. The alcohol fermentation reaction is the following:
Figure 3.17 The reaction resulting in alcohol fermentation is shown.
In the first reaction, a carboxyl group is removed from pyruvic acid, releasing carbon dioxide as
a gas. The loss of carbon dioxide reduces the molecule by one carbon atom, making acetaldehyde.
The second reaction removes an electron from NADH, forming NAD+ and producing ethanol from the
acetaldehyde, which accepts the electron. The fermentation of pyruvic acid by yeast produces the ethanol
found in alcoholic beverages (Figure 3.18). If the carbon dioxide produced by the reaction is not vented
from the fermentation chamber, for example in beer and sparkling wines, it remains dissolved in the
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medium until the pressure is released. Ethanol above 12 percent is toxic to yeast, so natural levels of
alcohol in wine occur at a maximum of 12 percent.
Figure 3.18 Fermentation of grape juice to make wine produces CO2 as a byproduct. Fermentation
tanks have valves so that pressure inside the tanks can be released.
Anaerobic Cellular Respiration

Certain prokaryotes, including some species of bacteria and Archaea, use anaerobic respiration. For
example, the group of Archaea called methanogens reduces carbon dioxide to methane to oxidize
NADH. These microorganisms are found in soil and in the digestive tracts of ruminants, such as cows
and sheep. Similarly, sulfate-reducing bacteria and Archaea, most of which are anaerobic (Figure 3.19),
reduce sulfate to hydrogen sulfide to regenerate NAD+ from NADH.
Figure 3.19 The green color seen in these coastal waters is from an eruption of hydrogen sulfide.
Anaerobic, sulfate-reducing bacteria release hydrogen sulfide gas as they decompose algae in the
water. (credit: NASA image courtesy Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team at NASA
GSFC)
Visit this site (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/fermentation2) to see anaerobic cellular respiration in

action.
Other fermentation methods occur in bacteria. Many prokaryotes are facultatively anaerobic. This
means that they can switch between aerobic respiration and fermentation, depending on the availability
of oxygen. Certain prokaryotes, like Clostridia bacteria, are obligate anaerobes. Obligate anaerobes live
and grow in the absence of molecular oxygen. Oxygen is a poison to these microorganisms and kills them
upon exposure. It should be noted that all forms of fermentation, except lactic acid fermentation, produce
gas. The production of particular types of gas is used as an indicator of the fermentation of specific
carbohydrates, which plays a role in the laboratory identification of the bacteria. The various methods of
fermentation are used by different organisms to ensure an adequate supply of NAD+ for the sixth step in
glycolysis. Without these pathways, that step would not occur, and no ATP would be harvested from the
breakdown of glucose.
3.5 | Connections to Other Metabolic

Pathways
Discuss the way in which carbohydrate metabolic pathways, glycolysis, and the citric acid cycle
interrelate with protein and lipid metabolic pathways
Explain why metabolic pathways are not considered closed systems
You have learned about the catabolism of glucose, which provides energy to living cells. But living
things consume more than just glucose for food. How does a turkey sandwich, which contains protein,
provide energy to your cells? This happens because all of the catabolic pathways for carbohydrates,
proteins, and lipids eventually connect into glycolysis and the citric acid cycle pathways (Figure 3.20).
Metabolic pathways should be thought of as porousthat is, substances enter from other pathways, and
other substances leave for other pathways. These pathways are not closed systems. Many of the products
in a particular pathway are reactants in other pathways.
Connections of Other Sugars to Glucose Metabolism

Glycogen, a polymer of glucose, is a short-term energy storage molecule in animals. When there is
adequate ATP present, excess glucose is converted into glycogen for storage. Glycogen is made and
stored in the liver and muscle. Glycogen will be taken out of storage if blood sugar levels drop. The
presence of glycogen in muscle cells as a source of glucose allows ATP to be produced for a longer time
during exercise.
Sucrose is a disaccharide made from glucose and fructose bonded together. Sucrose is broken down
in the small intestine, and the glucose and fructose are absorbed separately. Fructose is one of the three
dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and galactose (which is part of milk sugar, the disaccharide
lactose), that are absorbed directly into the bloodstream during digestion. The catabolism of both fructose
and galactose produces the same number of ATP molecules as glucose.
Connections of Proteins to Glucose Metabolism

Proteins are broken down by a variety of enzymes in cells. Most of the time, amino acids are recycled
into new proteins. If there are excess amino acids, however, or if the body is in a state of famine,
some amino acids will be shunted into pathways of glucose catabolism. Each amino acid must have its
amino group removed prior to entry into these pathways. The amino group is converted into ammonia.
In mammals, the liver synthesizes urea from two ammonia molecules and a carbon dioxide molecule.
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Thus, urea is the principal waste product in mammals from the nitrogen originating in amino acids, and
it leaves the body in urine.
Connections of Lipids to Glucose Metabolism

The lipids that are connected to the glucose pathways are cholesterol and triglycerides. Cholesterol is a
lipid that contributes to cell membrane flexibility and is a precursor of steroid hormones. The synthesis
of cholesterol starts with acetyl CoA and proceeds in only one direction. The process cannot be reversed,
and ATP is not produced.
Triglycerides are a form of long-term energy storage in animals. Triglycerides store about twice as
much energy as carbohydrates. Triglycerides are made of glycerol and three fatty acids. Animals can
make most of the fatty acids they need. Triglycerides can be both made and broken down through parts
of the glucose catabolism pathways. Glycerol can be phosphorylated and proceeds through glycolysis.
Fatty acids are broken into two-carbon units that enter the citric acid cycle.
Figure 3.20 Glycogen from the liver and muscles, together with fats, can feed into the catabolic
pathways for carbohydrates.
Pathways of Photosynthesis and Cellular Metabolism

Photosynthesis and cellular metabolism consist of several very complex pathways.
It is generally thought that the first cells arose in an aqueous environmenta soup
of nutrients. If these cells reproduced successfully and their numbers climbed steadily,
it follows that the cells would begin to deplete the nutrients from the medium in which
they lived, as they shifted the nutrients into their own cells. This hypothetical situation
would have resulted in natural selection favoring those organisms that could exist by
using the nutrients that remained in their environment and by manipulating these nutrients
into materials that they could use to survive. Additionally, selection would favor those
organisms that could extract maximal value from the available nutrients.
An early form of photosynthesis developed that harnessed the suns energy using
compounds other than water as a source of hydrogen atoms, but this pathway did not
produce free oxygen. It is thought that glycolysis developed prior to this time and could
take advantage of simple sugars being produced, but these reactions were not able to
fully extract the energy stored in the carbohydrates. A later form of photosynthesis used
water as a source of hydrogen ions and generated free oxygen. Over time, the atmosphere
became oxygenated. Living things adapted to exploit this new atmosphere and allowed
respiration as we know it to evolve. When the full process of photosynthesis as we know
it developed and the atmosphere became oxygenated, cells were finally able to use the
oxygen expelled by photosynthesis to extract more energy from the sugar molecules using
the citric acid cycle.
KEY TERMS
ATP synthase a membrane-embedded protein complex that regenerates ATP from ADP with
energy from protons diffusing through it
ATP (also, adenosine triphosphate) the cells energy currency
acetyl CoA the combination of an acetyl group derived from pyruvic acid and coenzyme A which is
made from pantothenic acid (a B-group vitamin)
activation energy the amount of initial energy necessary for reactions to occur
active site a specific region on the enzyme where the substrate binds
allosteric inhibition the mechanism for inhibiting enzyme action in which a regulatory molecule
binds to a second site (not the active site) and initiates a conformation change in the active site,
preventing binding with the substrate
anabolic describes the pathway that requires a net energy input to synthesize complex molecules
from simpler ones
anaerobic cellular respiration the use of an electron acceptor other than oxygen to complete
metabolism using electron transport-based chemiosmosis
bioenergetics the concept of energy flow through living systems
catabolic describes the pathway in which complex molecules are broken down into simpler ones,
yielding energy as an additional product of the reaction
chemiosmosis the movement of hydrogen ions down their electrochemical gradient across a
membrane through ATP synthase to generate ATP
citric acid cycle a series of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions of central importance in all living
cells that harvests the energy in carbon-carbon bonds of sugar molecules to generate ATP; the
citric acid cycle is an aerobic metabolic pathway because it requires oxygen in later reactions to
proceed
competitive inhibition a general mechanism of enzyme activity regulation in which a molecule
other than the enzymes substrate is able to bind the active site and prevent the substrate itself
from binding, thus inhibiting the overall rate of reaction for the enzyme
electron transport chain a series of four large, multi-protein complexes embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane that accepts electrons from donor compounds and harvests energy
from a series of chemical reactions to generate a hydrogen ion gradient across the membrane
endergonic describes a chemical reaction that results in products that store more chemical potential
energy than the reactants
enzyme a molecule that catalyzes a biochemical reaction
exergonic describes a chemical reaction that results in products with less chemical potential energy
than the reactants, plus the release of free energy
feedback inhibition a mechanism of enzyme activity regulation in which the product of a reaction
or the final product of a series of sequential reactions inhibits an enzyme for an earlier step in the
reaction series
fermentation the steps that follow the partial oxidation of glucose via glycolysis to regenerate
NAD+; occurs in the absence of oxygen and uses an organic compound as the final electron
acceptor
glycolysis the process of breaking glucose into two three-carbon molecules with the production of
ATP and NADH
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heat energy the energy transferred from one system to another that is not work
kinetic energy the type of energy associated with objects in motion
metabolism all the chemical reactions that take place inside cells, including those that use energy
and those that release energy
noncompetitive inhibition a general mechanism of enzyme activity regulation in which a
regulatory molecule binds to a site other than the active site and prevents the active site from
binding the substrate; thus, the inhibitor molecule does not compete with the substrate for the
active site; allosteric inhibition is a form of noncompetitive inhibition
oxidative phosphorylation the production of ATP by the transfer of electrons down the electron
transport chain to create a proton gradient that is used by ATP synthase to add phosphate groups
to ADP molecules
potential energy the type of energy that refers to the potential to do work
substrate a molecule on which the enzyme acts
thermodynamics the science of the relationships between heat, energy, and work
CHAPTER SUMMARY
3.1 Energy and Metabolism
Cells perform the functions of life through various chemical reactions. A cells metabolism refers to the
combination of chemical reactions that take place within it. Catabolic reactions break down complex
chemicals into simpler ones and are associated with energy release. Anabolic processes build complex
molecules out of simpler ones and require energy.
In studying energy, the term system refers to the matter and environment involved in energy
transfers. Entropy is a measure of the disorder of a system. The physical laws that describe the transfer
of energy are the laws of thermodynamics. The first law states that the total amount of energy in the
universe is constant. The second law of thermodynamics states that every energy transfer involves some
loss of energy in an unusable form, such as heat energy. Energy comes in different forms: kinetic,
potential, and free. The change in free energy of a reaction can be negative (releases energy, exergonic)
or positive (consumes energy, endergonic). All reactions require an initial input of energy to proceed,
called the activation energy.
Enzymes are chemical catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering their activation
energy. Enzymes have an active site with a unique chemical environment that fits particular chemical
reactants for that enzyme, called substrates. Enzymes and substrates are thought to bind according to an
induced-fit model. Enzyme action is regulated to conserve resources and respond optimally to the
environment.
3.2 Glycolysis
ATP functions as the energy currency for cells. It allows cells to store energy briefly and transport it
within itself to support endergonic chemical reactions. The structure of ATP is that of an RNA
nucleotide with three phosphate groups attached. As ATP is used for energy, a phosphate group is
detached, and ADP is produced. Energy derived from glucose catabolism is used to recharge ADP into
ATP.
Glycolysis is the first pathway used in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy. Because it is
used by nearly all organisms on earth, it must have evolved early in the history of life. Glycolysis
consists of two parts: The first part prepares the six-carbon ring of glucose for separation into two threecarbon sugars. Energy from ATP is invested into the molecule during this step to energize the
separation. The second half of glycolysis extracts ATP and high-energy electrons from hydrogen atoms
and attaches them to NAD+. Two ATP molecules are invested in the first half and four ATP molecules
are formed during the second half. This produces a net gain of two ATP molecules per molecule of
glucose for the cell.
3.3 Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation

The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions that removes high-energy electrons and uses them
in the electron transport chain to generate ATP. One molecule of ATP (or an equivalent) is produced per
each turn of the cycle.
The electron transport chain is the portion of aerobic respiration that uses free oxygen as the final
electron acceptor for electrons removed from the intermediate compounds in glucose catabolism. The
electrons are passed through a series of chemical reactions, with a small amount of free energy used at
three points to transport hydrogen ions across the membrane. This contributes to the gradient used in
chemiosmosis. As the electrons are passed from NADH or FADH2 down the electron transport chain,
they lose energy. The products of the electron transport chain are water and ATP. A number of
intermediate compounds can be diverted into the anabolism of other biochemical molecules, such as
nucleic acids, non-essential amino acids, sugars, and lipids. These same molecules, except nucleic
acids, can serve as energy sources for the glucose pathway.
3.4 Fermentation
If NADH cannot be metabolized through aerobic respiration, another electron acceptor is used. Most
organisms will use some form of fermentation to accomplish the regeneration of NAD+, ensuring the
continuation of glycolysis. The regeneration of NAD+ in fermentation is not accompanied by ATP
production; therefore, the potential for NADH to produce ATP using an electron transport chain is not
utilized.
3.5 Connections to Other Metabolic Pathways

The breakdown and synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids connect with the pathways of
glucose catabolism. The carbohydrates that can also feed into glucose catabolism include galactose,
fructose, and glycogen. These connect with glycolysis. The amino acids from proteins connect with
glucose catabolism through pyruvate, acetyl CoA, and components of the citric acid cycle. Cholesterol
synthesis starts with acetyl CoA, and the components of triglycerides are picked up by acetyl CoA and
enter the citric acid cycle.

1. Figure 3.6 Look at each of the processes shown
and decide if it is endergonic or exergonic.
2. Figure 3.15 Cyanide inhibits cytochrome c
oxidase, a component of the electron transport
chain. If cyanide poisoning occurs, would you
expect the pH of the intermembrane space to
increase or decrease? What affect would cyanide
have on ATP synthesis?
3. Figure 3.16 Tremetol, a metabolic poison

found in white snake root plant, prevents the
metabolism of lactate. When cows eat this plant,
Tremetol is concentrated in the milk. Humans who
consume the milk become ill. Symptoms of this
disease, which include vomiting, abdominal pain,
and tremors, become worse after exercise. Why do
you think this is the case?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
4. Which of the following is not an example of an
energy transformation?
a. Heating up dinner in a microwave
b. Solar panels at work
c. Formation of static electricity
d. None of the above
5. Which of the following is not true about
enzymes?
a. They are consumed by the reactions
they catalyze.
b. They are usually made of amino acids.
c. They lower the activation energy of
chemical reactions.
d. Each one is specific to the particular
substrate(s) to which it binds.
6. Energy is stored long-term in the bonds of

_____ and used short-term to perform work from
a(n) _____ molecule.
a. ATP : glucose
b. an anabolic molecule : catabolic
molecule
c. glucose : ATP
d. a catabolic molecule : anabolic molecule
7. The energy currency used by cells is _____.
a.
b.
c.
d.
ATP
ADP
AMP
adenosine
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8. The glucose that enters the glycolysis pathway

is split into two molecules of _________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
ATP
phosphate
NADH
pyruvate
9. What do the electrons added to NAD+ do?

a. They become part of a fermentation
pathway.
b. They go to another pathway for ATP
production.
c. They energize the entry of the acetyl
group into the citric acid cycle.
d. They are converted into NADP.
10. Chemiosmosis involves
a. the movement of electrons across the
cell membrane
b. the movement of hydrogen atoms across
a mitochondrial membrane
c. the movement of hydrogen ions across a
mitochondrial membrane
d. the movement of glucose through the

cell membrane
11. Which of the following fermentation methods
can occur in animal skeletal muscles?
a. lactic acid fermentation
b. alcohol fermentation
c. mixed acid fermentation
d. propionic fermentation
12. The cholesterol synthesized by cells uses
which component of the glycolytic pathway as a
starting point?
a. glucose
b. acetyl CoA
c. pyruvate
d. carbon dioxide
13. Beta oxidation is ________.
a. the breakdown of sugars
b. the assembly of sugars
c. the breakdown of fatty acids
d. the removal of amino groups from
amino acids

14. Does physical exercise to increase muscle
mass involve anabolic and/or catabolic processes?
Give evidence for your answer.
15. Explain in your own terms the difference
between a spontaneous reaction and one that
occurs instantaneously, and what causes this
difference.
16. With regard to enzymes, why are vitamins and
minerals necessary for good health? Give
examples.
17. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
carry out some form of glycolysis. How does that
fact support or not support the assertion that
glycolysis is one of the oldest metabolic

pathways?
18. We inhale oxygen when we breathe and
exhale carbon dioxide. What is the oxygen used
for and where does the carbon dioxide come
from?
19. When muscle cells run out of oxygen, what
happens to the potential for energy extraction from
sugars and what pathways do the cell use?
20. Would you describe metabolic pathways as
inherently wasteful or inherently economical, and
why?
CHAPTER 4 | PHOTOSYNTHESIS
4 | PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Figure 4.1 This sage thrashers diet, like that of almost all organisms, depends on photosynthesis.
(credit: modification of work by Dave Menke, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
Chapter Outline
4.1: Overview of Photosynthesis
4.2: The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis
4.3: The Calvin Cycle
Introduction
No matter how complex or advanced a machine, such as the latest cellular phone, the device cannot
function without energy. Living things, similar to machines, have many complex components; they too
cannot do anything without energy, which is why humans and all other organisms must eat in some
form or another. That may be common knowledge, but how many people realize that every bite of every
meal ingested depends on the process of photosynthesis?
4.1 | Overview of Photosynthesis

Summarize the process of photosynthesis
Explain the relevance of photosynthesis to other living things
Identify the reactants and products of photosynthesis
Describe the main structures involved in photosynthesis
All living organisms on earth consist of one or more cells. Each cell runs on the chemical energy found
mainly in carbohydrate molecules (food), and the majority of these molecules are produced by one
process: photosynthesis. Through photosynthesis, certain organisms convert solar energy (sunlight) into
chemical energy, which is then used to build carbohydrate molecules. The energy used to hold these
molecules together is released when an organism breaks down food. Cells then use this energy to perform
work, such as cellular respiration.
The energy that is harnessed from photosynthesis enters the ecosystems of our planet continuously
and is transferred from one organism to another. Therefore, directly or indirectly, the process of
photosynthesis provides most of the energy required by living things on earth.
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Photosynthesis also results in the release of oxygen into the atmosphere. In short, to eat and breathe,
humans depend almost entirely on the organisms that carry out photosynthesis.
Click the following link (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/photosynthesis2) to learn more about

photosynthesis.
Solar Dependence and Food Production

Some organisms can carry out photosynthesis, whereas others cannot. An autotroph is an organism that
can produce its own food. The Greek roots of the word autotroph mean self (auto) feeder (troph).
Plants are the best-known autotrophs, but others exist, including certain types of bacteria and algae
(Figure 4.2). Oceanic algae contribute enormous quantities of food and oxygen to global food chains.
Plants are also photoautotrophs, a type of autotroph that uses sunlight and carbon from carbon dioxide
to synthesize chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates. All organisms carrying out photosynthesis
require sunlight.
Figure 4.2 (a) Plants, (b) algae, and (c) certain bacteria, called cyanobacteria, are photoautotrophs
that can carry out photosynthesis. Algae can grow over enormous areas in water, at times completely
covering the surface. (credit a: Steve Hillebrand, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; credit b:
"eutrophication&hypoxia"/Flickr; credit c: NASA; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Heterotrophs are organisms incapable of photosynthesis that must therefore obtain energy and
carbon from food by consuming other organisms. The Greek roots of the word heterotroph mean other
(hetero) feeder (troph), meaning that their food comes from other organisms. Even if the food organism
is another animal, this food traces its origins back to autotrophs and the process of photosynthesis.
Humans are heterotrophs, as are all animals. Heterotrophs depend on autotrophs, either directly or
indirectly. Deer and wolves are heterotrophs. A deer obtains energy by eating plants. A wolf eating a deer
obtains energy that originally came from the plants eaten by that deer. The energy in the plant came from
photosynthesis, and therefore it is the only autotroph in this example (Figure 4.3). Using this reasoning,
all food eaten by humans also links back to autotrophs that carry out photosynthesis.
Figure 4.3 The energy stored in carbohydrate molecules from photosynthesis passes through the
food chain. The predator that eats these deer is getting energy that originated in the photosynthetic
vegetation that the deer consumed. (credit: Steve VanRiper, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
Photosynthesis at the Grocery Store
Figure 4.4 Photosynthesis is the origin of the products that comprise the main elements of the
human diet. (credit: Associao Brasileira de Supermercados)
Major grocery stores in the United States are organized into departments, such as
dairy, meats, produce, bread, cereals, and so forth. Each aisle contains hundreds, if not
thousands, of different products for customers to buy and consume (Figure 4.4).
Although there is a large variety, each item links back to photosynthesis. Meats
and dairy products link to photosynthesis because the animals were fed plant-based
foods. The breads, cereals, and pastas come largely from grains, which are the seeds
of photosynthetic plants. What about desserts and drinks? All of these products contain
sugarthe basic carbohydrate molecule produced directly from photosynthesis. The
photosynthesis connection applies to every meal and every food a person consumes.
Main Structures and Summary of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis requires sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water as starting reactants (Figure 4.5). After
the process is complete, photosynthesis releases oxygen and produces carbohydrate molecules, most
commonly glucose. These sugar molecules contain the energy that living things need to survive.
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Figure 4.5 Photosynthesis uses solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water to release oxygen and to
produce energy-storing sugar molecules.
The complex reactions of photosynthesis can be summarized by the chemical equation shown in
Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6 The process of photosynthesis can be represented by an equation, wherein carbon
dioxide and water produce sugar and oxygen using energy from sunlight.
Although the equation looks simple, the many steps that take place during photosynthesis are
actually quite complex, as in the way that the reaction summarizing cellular respiration represented many
individual reactions. Before learning the details of how photoautotrophs turn sunlight into food, it is
important to become familiar with the physical structures involved.
In plants, photosynthesis takes place primarily in leaves, which consist of many layers of cells and
have differentiated top and bottom sides. The process of photosynthesis occurs not on the surface layers
of the leaf, but rather in a middle layer called the mesophyll (Figure 4.7). The gas exchange of carbon
dioxide and oxygen occurs through small, regulated openings called stomata.
In all autotrophic eukaryotes, photosynthesis takes place inside an organelle called a chloroplast. In
plants, chloroplast-containing cells exist in the mesophyll. Chloroplasts have a double (inner and outer)
membrane. Within the chloroplast is a third membrane that forms stacked, disc-shaped structures called
thylakoids. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are molecules of chlorophyll, a pigment (a molecule
that absorbs light) through which the entire process of photosynthesis begins. Chlorophyll is responsible
for the green color of plants. The thylakoid membrane encloses an internal space called the thylakoid
space. Other types of pigments exist that can carry out photosynthesis, but chlorophyll is by far the most
common. As shown in Figure 4.7, a stack of thylakoids is called granum, and the space surrounding the
granum is called stroma (not to be confused with stomata, the openings on the leaves).
Figure 4.7 Not all cells of a leaf carry out photosynthesis. Cells within the middle layer of a
leaf have chloroplasts, which contain the photosynthetic apparatus. (credit "leaf": modification
of work by Cory Zanker)
On a hot, dry day, plants close their stomata to conserve water. What impact will this
have on photosynthesis?
The Two Parts of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: the light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle. In the lightdependent reactions, which take place at the thylakoid membrane, chlorophyll absorbs energy from
sunlight and then converts it into chemical energy with the use of water. The light-dependent reactions
release oxygen from the hydrolysis of water as a byproduct. In the Calvin cycle, which takes place in
the stroma, the chemical energy derived from the light-dependent reactions drives both the capture of
carbon in carbon dioxide molecules and the subsequent assembly of sugar molecules. The two reactions
use carrier molecules to transport the energy from one to the other. The carriers that move energy from
the light-dependent reactions to the Calvin cycle reactions can be thought of as full because they bring
energy. After the energy is released, the empty energy carriers return to the light-dependent reactions
to obtain more energy.
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4.2 | The Light-Dependent Reactions of

Photosynthesis
Explain how plants absorb energy from sunlight
Describe how the wavelength of light affects its energy and color
Describe how and where photosynthesis takes place within a plant
How can light be used to make food? It is easy to think of light as something that exists and allows
living organisms, such as humans, to see, but light is a form of energy. Like all energy, light can travel,
change form, and be harnessed to do work. In the case of photosynthesis, light energy is transformed into
chemical energy, which autotrophs use to build carbohydrate molecules. However, autotrophs only use a
specific component of sunlight (Figure 4.8).
Figure 4.8 Autotrophs can capture light energy from the sun, converting it into chemical energy used
to build food molecules. (credit: modification of work by Gerry Atwell, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
Visit this site (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/light_reaction2) and click through the animation to view
the process of photosynthesis within a leaf.
What Is Light Energy?

The sun emits an enormous amount of electromagnetic radiation (solar energy). Humans can see only a
fraction of this energy, which is referred to as visible light. The manner in which solar energy travels
can be described and measured as waves. Scientists can determine the amount of energy of a wave by
measuring its wavelength, the distance between two consecutive, similar points in a series of waves,
such as from crest to crest or trough to trough (Figure 4.9).
Figure 4.9 The wavelength of a single wave is the distance between two consecutive points along
the wave.
Visible light constitutes only one of many types of electromagnetic radiation emitted from the sun.
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible wavelengths of radiation (Figure 4.10). Each
wavelength corresponds to a different amount of energy carried.
Figure 4.10 The sun emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation exists in
different wavelengths, each of which has its own characteristic energy. Visible light is one type of
energy emitted from the sun.
Each type of electromagnetic radiation has a characteristic range of wavelengths. The longer the
wavelength (or the more stretched out it appears), the less energy is carried. Short, tight waves carry the
most energy. This may seem illogical, but think of it in terms of a piece of moving rope. It takes little
effort by a person to move a rope in long, wide waves. To make a rope move in short, tight waves, a
person would need to apply significantly more energy.
The sun emits (Figure 4.10) a broad range of electromagnetic radiation, including X-rays and
ultraviolet (UV) rays. The higher-energy waves are dangerous to living things; for example, X-rays and
UV rays can be harmful to humans.
Absorption of Light
Light energy enters the process of photosynthesis when pigments absorb the light. In plants, pigment
molecules absorb only visible light for photosynthesis. The visible light seen by humans as white light
actually exists in a rainbow of colors. Certain objects, such as a prism or a drop of water, disperse white
light to reveal these colors to the human eye. The visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
is perceived by the human eye as a rainbow of colors, with violet and blue having shorter wavelengths
and, therefore, higher energy. At the other end of the spectrum toward red, the wavelengths are longer
and have lower energy.
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Understanding Pigments
Different kinds of pigments exist, and each absorbs only certain wavelengths (colors) of visible light.
Pigments reflect the color of the wavelengths that they cannot absorb.
All photosynthetic organisms contain a pigment called chlorophyll a, which humans see as the
common green color associated with plants. Chlorophyll a absorbs wavelengths from either end of the
visible spectrum (blue and red), but not from green. Because green is reflected, chlorophyll appears
green.
Other pigment types include chlorophyll b (which absorbs blue and red-orange light) and the
carotenoids. Each type of pigment can be identified by the specific pattern of wavelengths it absorbs
from visible light, which is its absorption spectrum.
Many photosynthetic organisms have a mixture of pigments; between them, the organism can
absorb energy from a wider range of visible-light wavelengths. Not all photosynthetic organisms have
full access to sunlight. Some organisms grow underwater where light intensity decreases with depth, and
certain wavelengths are absorbed by the water. Other organisms grow in competition for light. Plants on
the rainforest floor must be able to absorb any bit of light that comes through, because the taller trees
block most of the sunlight (Figure 4.11).
Figure 4.11 Plants that commonly grow in the shade benefit from having a variety of light-absorbing
pigments. Each pigment can absorb different wavelengths of light, which allows the plant to absorb
any light that passes through the taller trees. (credit: Jason Hollinger)
How Light-Dependent Reactions Work

The overall purpose of the light-dependent reactions is to convert light energy into chemical energy. This
chemical energy will be used by the Calvin cycle to fuel the assembly of sugar molecules.
The light-dependent reactions begin in a grouping of pigment molecules and proteins called
a photosystem. Photosystems exist in the membranes of thylakoids. A pigment molecule in the
photosystem absorbs one photon, a quantity or packet of light energy, at a time.
A photon of light energy travels until it reaches a molecule of chlorophyll. The photon causes an
electron in the chlorophyll to become excited. The energy given to the electron allows it to break free
from an atom of the chlorophyll molecule. Chlorophyll is therefore said to donate an electron (Figure
4.12).
To replace the electron in the chlorophyll, a molecule of water is split. This splitting releases an
electron and results in the formation of oxygen (O2) and hydrogen ions (H+) in the thylakoid space.
Technically, each breaking of a water molecule releases a pair of electrons, and therefore can replace two
donated electrons.
Figure 4.12 Light energy is absorbed by a chlorophyll molecule and is passed along a pathway to
other chlorophyll molecules. The energy culminates in a molecule of chlorophyll found in the reaction
center. The energy excites one of its electrons enough to leave the molecule and be transferred
to a nearby primary electron acceptor. A molecule of water splits to release an electron, which is
needed to replace the one donated. Oxygen and hydrogen ions are also formed from the splitting of
water.
The replacing of the electron enables chlorophyll to respond to another photon. The oxygen
molecules produced as byproducts find their way to the surrounding environment. The hydrogen ions
play critical roles in the remainder of the light-dependent reactions.
Keep in mind that the purpose of the light-dependent reactions is to convert solar energy into
chemical carriers that will be used in the Calvin cycle. In eukaryotes, two photosystems exist, the first is
called photosystem II, which is named for the order of its discovery rather than for the order of function.
After the photon hits, photosystem II transfers the free electron to the first in a series of proteins
inside the thylakoid membrane called the electron transport chain. As the electron passes along these
proteins, energy from the electron fuels membrane pumps that actively move hydrogen ions against
their concentration gradient from the stroma into the thylakoid space. This is quite analogous to the
process that occurs in the mitochondrion in which an electron transport chain pumps hydrogen ions
from the mitochondrial stroma across the inner membrane and into the intermembrane space, creating an
electrochemical gradient. After the energy is used, the electron is accepted by a pigment molecule in the
next photosystem, which is called photosystem I (Figure 4.13).
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Figure 4.13 From photosystem II, the excited electron travels along a series of proteins. This
electron transport system uses the energy from the electron to pump hydrogen ions into the interior
of the thylakoid. A pigment molecule in photosystem I accepts the electron.
Generating an Energy Carrier: ATP

In the light-dependent reactions, energy absorbed by sunlight is stored by two types of energy-carrier
molecules: ATP and NADPH. The energy that these molecules carry is stored in a bond that holds a
single atom to the molecule. For ATP, it is a phosphate atom, and for NADPH, it is a hydrogen atom.
Recall that NADH was a similar molecule that carried energy in the mitochondrion from the citric acid
cycle to the electron transport chain. When these molecules release energy into the Calvin cycle, they
each lose atoms to become the lower-energy molecules ADP and NADP+.
The buildup of hydrogen ions in the thylakoid space forms an electrochemical gradient because
of the difference in the concentration of protons (H+) and the difference in the charge across the
membrane that they create. This potential energy is harvested and stored as chemical energy in ATP
through chemiosmosis, the movement of hydrogen ions down their electrochemical gradient through the
transmembrane enzyme ATP synthase, just as in the mitochondrion.
The hydrogen ions are allowed to pass through the thylakoid membrane through an embedded
protein complex called ATP synthase. This same protein generated ATP from ADP in the mitochondrion.
The energy generated by the hydrogen ion stream allows ATP synthase to attach a third phosphate to
ADP, which forms a molecule of ATP in a process called photophosphorylation. The flow of hydrogen
ions through ATP synthase is called chemiosmosis, because the ions move from an area of high to low
concentration through a semi-permeable structure.
Generating Another Energy Carrier: NADPH

The remaining function of the light-dependent reaction is to generate the other energy-carrier molecule,
NADPH. As the electron from the electron transport chain arrives at photosystem I, it is re-energized
with another photon captured by chlorophyll. The energy from this electron drives the formation of
NADPH from NADP+ and a hydrogen ion (H+). Now that the solar energy is stored in energy carriers, it
can be used to make a sugar molecule.
4.3 | The Calvin Cycle

Describe the Calvin cycle
Define carbon fixation
Explain how photosynthesis works in the energy cycle of all living organisms
After the energy from the sun is converted and packaged into ATP and NADPH, the cell has the fuel
needed to build food in the form of carbohydrate molecules. The carbohydrate molecules made will
have a backbone of carbon atoms. Where does the carbon come from? The carbon atoms used to build
carbohydrate molecules comes from carbon dioxide, the gas that animals exhale with each breath. The
Calvin cycle is the term used for the reactions of photosynthesis that use the energy stored by the lightdependent reactions to form glucose and other carbohydrate molecules.
The Interworkings of the Calvin Cycle

In plants, carbon dioxide (CO2) enters the chloroplast through the stomata and diffuses into the stroma
of the chloroplastthe site of the Calvin cycle reactions where sugar is synthesized. The reactions are
named after the scientist who discovered them, and reference the fact that the reactions function as a
cycle. Others call it the Calvin-Benson cycle to include the name of another scientist involved in its
discovery (Figure 4.14).
Figure 4.14 Light-dependent reactions harness energy from the sun to produce ATP and NADPH.
These energy-carrying molecules travel into the stroma where the Calvin cycle reactions take place.
The Calvin cycle reactions (Figure 4.15) can be organized into three basic stages: fixation,
reduction, and regeneration. In the stroma, in addition to CO2, two other chemicals are present to initiate
the Calvin cycle: an enzyme abbreviated RuBisCO, and the molecule ribulose biphosphate (RuBP).
RuBP has five atoms of carbon and a phosphate group on each end.
RuBisCO catalyzes a reaction between CO2 and RuBP, which forms a six-carbon compound that
is immediately converted into two three-carbon compounds. This process is called carbon fixation,
because CO2 is fixed from its inorganic form into organic molecules.
ATP and NADPH use their stored energy to convert the three-carbon compound, 3-PGA, into
another three-carbon compound called G3P. This type of reaction is called a reduction reaction, because
it involves the gain of electrons. A reduction is the gain of an electron by an atom or molecule. The
molecules of ADP and NAD+, resulting from the reduction reaction, return to the light-dependent
reactions to be re-energized.
One of the G3P molecules leaves the Calvin cycle to contribute to the formation of the carbohydrate
molecule, which is commonly glucose (C6H12O6). Because the carbohydrate molecule has six carbon
atoms, it takes six turns of the Calvin cycle to make one carbohydrate molecule (one for each carbon
dioxide molecule fixed). The remaining G3P molecules regenerate RuBP, which enables the system to
prepare for the carbon-fixation step. ATP is also used in the regeneration of RuBP.
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Figure 4.15 The Calvin cycle has three stages. In stage 1, the enzyme RuBisCO incorporates
carbon dioxide into an organic molecule. In stage 2, the organic molecule is reduced. In stage 3,
RuBP, the molecule that starts the cycle, is regenerated so that the cycle can continue.
In summary, it takes six turns of the Calvin cycle to fix six carbon atoms from CO2. These six turns
require energy input from 12 ATP molecules and 12 NADPH molecules in the reduction step and 6 ATP
molecules in the regeneration step.
The following is a link (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/calvin_cycle2) to an animation of the Calvin

cycle. Click Stage 1, Stage 2, and then Stage 3 to see G3P and ATP regenerate to form RuBP.
Photosynthesis
The shared evolutionary history of all photosynthetic organisms is conspicuous, as the
basic process has changed little over eras of time. Even between the giant tropical leaves
in the rainforest and tiny cyanobacteria, the process and components of photosynthesis
that use water as an electron donor remain largely the same. Photosystems function
to absorb light and use electron transport chains to convert energy. The Calvin cycle
reactions assemble carbohydrate molecules with this energy.
However, as with all biochemical pathways, a variety of conditions leads to varied
adaptations that affect the basic pattern. Photosynthesis in dry-climate plants (Figure
4.16) has evolved with adaptations that conserve water. In the harsh dry heat, every drop
of water and precious energy must be used to survive. Two adaptations have evolved in
such plants. In one form, a more efficient use of CO2 allows plants to photosynthesize
even when CO2 is in short supply, as when the stomata are closed on hot days. The other
adaptation performs preliminary reactions of the Calvin cycle at night, because opening
the stomata at this time conserves water due to cooler temperatures. In addition, this
adaptation has allowed plants to carry out low levels of photosynthesis without opening
stomata at all, an extreme mechanism to face extremely dry periods.
Figure 4.16 Living in the harsh conditions of the desert has led plants like this cactus to evolve
variations in reactions outside the Calvin cycle. These variations increase efficiency and help
conserve water and energy. (credit: Piotr Wojtkowski)
Photosynthesis in Prokaryotes
The two parts of photosynthesisthe light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cyclehave been
described, as they take place in chloroplasts. However, prokaryotes, such as cyanobacteria, lack
membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotic photosynthetic autotrophic organisms have infoldings of the
plasma membrane for chlorophyll attachment and photosynthesis (Figure 4.17). It is here that organisms
like cyanobacteria can carry out photosynthesis.
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Figure 4.17 A photosynthetic prokaryote has infolded regions of the plasma membrane that function
like thylakoids. Although these are not contained in an organelle, such as a chloroplast, all of the
necessary components are present to carry out photosynthesis. (credit: scale-bar data from Matt
Russell)
The Energy Cycle

Living things access energy by breaking down carbohydrate molecules. However, if plants make
carbohydrate molecules, why would they need to break them down? Carbohydrates are storage
molecules for energy in all living things. Although energy can be stored in molecules like ATP,
carbohydrates are much more stable and efficient reservoirs for chemical energy. Photosynthetic
organisms also carry out the reactions of respiration to harvest the energy that they have stored in
carbohydrates, for example, plants have mitochondria in addition to chloroplasts.
You may have noticed that the overall reaction for photosynthesis:
6CO 2 + 6H 2 O C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2
is the reverse of the overall reaction for cellular respiration:
6O 2 + C 6 H 12 O 6 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O
Photosynthesis produces oxygen as a byproduct, and respiration produces carbon dioxide as a

byproduct.
In nature, there is no such thing as waste. Every single atom of matter is conserved, recycling
indefinitely. Substances change form or move from one type of molecule to another, but never disappear
(Figure 4.18).
CO2 is no more a form of waste produced by respiration than oxygen is a waste product of
photosynthesis. Both are byproducts of reactions and move on to other reactions. Photosynthesis absorbs
energy to build carbohydrates in chloroplasts, and aerobic cellular respiration releases energy by using
oxygen to break down carbohydrates in mitochondria. Both organelles use electron transport chains
to generate the energy necessary to drive the reactions, because metabolic processes require energy.
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration function in a biological cycle, allowing organisms to access lifesustaining energy that originates millions of miles away in a star.
Figure 4.18 In the carbon cycle, the reactions of photosynthesis and cellular respiration share
reciprocal reactants and products. (credit: modification of work by Stuart Bassil)
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KEY TERMS
absorption spectrum the specific pattern of absorption for a substance that absorbs
electromagnetic radiation
autotroph an organism capable of producing its own food
Calvin cycle the reactions of photosynthesis that use the energy stored by the light-dependent
reactions to form glucose and other carbohydrate molecules
carbon fixation the process of converting inorganic CO2 gas into organic compounds
chlorophyll a the form of chlorophyll that absorbs violet-blue and red light
chlorophyll b the form of chlorophyll that absorbs blue and red-orange light
chlorophyll the green pigment that captures the light energy that drives the reactions of
photosynthesis
chloroplast the organelle where photosynthesis takes place
electromagnetic spectrum the range of all possible frequencies of radiation
granum a stack of thylakoids located inside a chloroplast
heterotroph an organism that consumes other organisms for food
light-dependent reaction the first stage of photosynthesis where visible light is absorbed to form
two energy-carrying molecules (ATP and NADPH)
mesophyll the middle layer of cells in a leaf
photoautotroph an organism capable of synthesizing its own food molecules (storing energy),
using the energy of light
photon a distinct quantity or packet of light energy
photosystem a group of proteins, chlorophyll, and other pigments that are used in the lightdependent reactions of photosynthesis to absorb light energy and convert it into chemical energy
pigment a molecule that is capable of absorbing light energy
stoma the opening that regulates gas exchange and water regulation between leaves and the
environment; plural: stomata
stroma the fluid-filled space surrounding the grana inside a chloroplast where the Calvin cycle
reactions of photosynthesis takes place
thylakoid a disc-shaped membranous structure inside a chloroplast where the light-dependent
reactions of photosynthesis take place using chlorophyll embedded in the membranes
wavelength the distance between consecutive points of a wave
CHAPTER SUMMARY
4.1 Overview of Photosynthesis
The process of photosynthesis transformed life on earth. By harnessing energy from the sun,
photosynthesis allowed living things to access enormous amounts of energy. Because of photosynthesis,
living things gained access to sufficient energy, allowing them to evolve new structures and achieve the
biodiversity that is evident today.
Only certain organisms, called autotrophs, can perform photosynthesis; they require the presence
of chlorophyll, a specialized pigment that can absorb light and convert light energy into chemical
energy. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water to assemble carbohydrate molecules (usually
glucose) and releases oxygen into the air. Eukaryotic autotrophs, such as plants and algae, have
organelles called chloroplasts in which photosynthesis takes place.
4.2 The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis

In the first part of photosynthesis, the light-dependent reaction, pigment molecules absorb energy from
sunlight. The most common and abundant pigment is chlorophyll a. A photon strikes photosystem II to
initiate photosynthesis. Energy travels through the electron transport chain, which pumps hydrogen ions
into the thylakoid space. This forms an electrochemical gradient. The ions flow through ATP synthase
from the thylakoid space into the stroma in a process called chemiosmosis to form molecules of ATP,
which are used for the formation of sugar molecules in the second stage of photosynthesis. Photosystem
I absorbs a second photon, which results in the formation of an NADPH molecule, another energy
carrier for the Calvin cycle reactions.
4.3 The Calvin Cycle

Using the energy carriers formed in the first stage of photosynthesis, the Calvin cycle reactions fix CO 2
from the environment to build carbohydrate molecules. An enzyme, RuBisCO, catalyzes the fixation
reaction, by combining CO2 with RuBP. The resulting six-carbon compound is broken down into two
three-carbon compounds, and the energy in ATP and NADPH is used to convert these molecules into
G3P. One of the three-carbon molecules of G3P leaves the cycle to become a part of a carbohydrate
molecule. The remaining G3P molecules stay in the cycle to be formed back into RuBP, which is ready
to react with more CO2. Photosynthesis forms a balanced energy cycle with the process of cellular
respiration. Plants are capable of both photosynthesis and cellular respiration, since their cells contain
both chloroplasts and mitochondria.

1. Figure 4.7 On a hot, dry day, plants close their
stomata to conserve water. What impact will this
have on photosynthesis?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
2. What two products result from photosynthesis?
a.
b.
c.
d.
water and carbon dioxide

water and oxygen
glucose and oxygen
glucose and carbon dioxide
3. Which statement about thylakoids in

eukaryotes is not correct?
a. Thylakoids are assembled into stacks.
b. Thylakoids exist as a maze of folded
membranes.
c. The space surrounding thylakoids is
called stroma.
d. Thylakoids contain chlorophyll.
4. From where does a heterotroph directly obtain
its energy?
a. the sun
b. the sun and eating other organisms
c. eating other organisms
d. simple chemicals in the environment
5. What is the energy of a photon first used to do
in photosynthesis?
a. split a water molecule
b. energize an electron
c. produce ATP
d. synthesize glucose
6. Which molecule absorbs the energy of a photon

in photosynthesis?
a. ATP
b. glucose
c. chlorophyll
d. water
7. Plants produce oxygen when they
photosynthesize. Where does the oxygen come
from?
a. splitting water molecules
b. ATP synthesis
c. the electron transport chain
d. chlorophyll
8. Which color(s) of light does chlorophyll a
reflect?
a. red and blue
b. green
c. red
d. blue
9. Where in eukaryotic cells does the Calvin cycle
take place?
a. thylakoid membrane
b. thylakoid space
c. stroma
d. granum
10. Which statement correctly describes carbon
fixation?
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a. the conversion of CO2 to an organic

compound
b. the use of RUBISCO to form 3-PGA
c. the production of carbohydrate
molecules from G3P
d. the formation of RuBP from G3P
molecules
e. the use of ATP and NADPH to reduce
CO2
11. What is the molecule that leaves the Calvin

cycle to be converted into glucose?
a. ADP
b. G3P
c. RuBP
d. 3-PGA

12. What is the overall purpose of the light
reactions in photosynthesis?
13. Why are carnivores, such as lions, dependent
on photosynthesis to survive?
14. Describe the pathway of energy in lightdependent reactions.
15. Which part of the Calvin cycle would be

affected if a cell could not produce the enzyme
RuBisCO?
16. Explain the reciprocal nature of the net
chemical reactions for photosynthesis and
respiration.
CHAPTER 5 | REPRODUCTION AT THE CELLULAR LEVEL
5 | REPRODUCTION
AT THE CELLULAR
LEVEL
Figure 5.1 A sea urchin begins life as a single cell that (a) divides to form two cells, visible by
scanning electron microscopy. After four rounds of cell division, (b) there are 16 cells, as seen
in this SEM image. After many rounds of cell division, the individual develops into a complex,
multicellular organism, as seen in this (c) mature sea urchin. (credit a: modification of work by Evelyn
Spiegel, Louisa Howard; credit b: modification of work by Evelyn Spiegel, Louisa Howard; credit c:
modification of work by Marco Busdraghi; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Chapter Outline
5.1: The Genome
5.2: The Cell Cycle
5.3: Cancer and the Cell Cycle
5.4: Prokaryotic Cell Division
Introduction
The individual sexually reproducing organismincluding humansbegins life as a fertilized egg, or
zygote. Trillions of cell divisions subsequently occur in a controlled manner to produce a complex,
multicellular human. In other words, that original single cell was the ancestor of every other cell in the
body. Once a human individual is fully grown, cell reproduction is still necessary to repair or regenerate
tissues. For example, new blood and skin cells are constantly being produced. All multicellular
organisms use cell division for growth, and in most cases, the maintenance and repair of cells and tissues.
Single-celled organisms use cell division as their method of reproduction.
5.1 | The Genome

Describe the prokaryotic and eukaryotic genome
Distinguish between chromosomes, genes, and traits
The continuity of life from one cell to another has its foundation in the reproduction of cells by way of
the cell cycle. The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events in the life of a cell from the division of a
single parent cell to produce two new daughter cells, to the subsequent division of those daughter cells.
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The mechanisms involved in the cell cycle are highly conserved across eukaryotes. Organisms as diverse
as protists, plants, and animals employ similar steps.
Genomic DNA
Before discussing the steps a cell undertakes to replicate, a deeper understanding of the structure and
function of a cells genetic information is necessary. A cells complete complement of DNA is called
its genome. In prokaryotes, the genome is composed of a single, double-stranded DNA molecule in the
form of a loop or circle. The region in the cell containing this genetic material is called a nucleoid. Some
prokaryotes also have smaller loops of DNA called plasmids that are not essential for normal growth.
In eukaryotes, the genome comprises several double-stranded, linear DNA molecules (Figure
5.2) bound with proteins to form complexes called chromosomes. Each species of eukaryote has a
characteristic number of chromosomes in the nuclei of its cells. Human body cells (somatic cells) have
46 chromosomes. A somatic cell contains two matched sets of chromosomes, a configuration known as
diploid. The letter n is used to represent a single set of chromosomes; therefore a diploid organism is
designated 2n. Human cells that contain one set of 23 chromosomes are called gametes, or sex cells;
these eggs and sperm are designated n, or haploid.
Figure 5.2 There are 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes in a female human somatic cell.
These chromosomes are viewed within the nucleus (top), removed from a cell in mitosis (right),
and arranged according to length (left) in an arrangement called a karyotype. In this image, the
chromosomes were exposed to fluorescent stains to distinguish them. (credit: 718 Bot/Wikimedia
Commons, National Human Genome Research)
The matched pairs of chromosomes in a diploid organism are called homologous chromosomes.
Homologous chromosomes are the same length and have specific nucleotide segments called genes in
exactly the same location, or locus. Genes, the functional units of chromosomes, determine specific
characteristics by coding for specific proteins. Traits are the different forms of a characteristic. For
example, the shape of earlobes is a characteristic with traits of free or attached.
Each copy of the homologous pair of chromosomes originates from a different parent; therefore,
the copies of each of the genes themselves may not be identical. The variation of individuals within a
species is caused by the specific combination of the genes inherited from both parents. For example,
there are three possible gene sequences on the human chromosome that codes for blood type: sequence
A, sequence B, and sequence O. Because all diploid human cells have two copies of the chromosome
that determines blood type, the blood type (the trait) is determined by which two versions of the marker
gene are inherited. It is possible to have two copies of the same gene sequence, one on each homologous
chromosome (for example, AA, BB, or OO), or two different sequences, such as AB.
Minor variations in traits such as those for blood type, eye color, and height contribute to the natural
variation found within a species. The sex chromosomes, X and Y, are the single exception to the rule of
homologous chromosomes; other than a small amount of homology that is necessary to reliably produce
gametes, the genes found on the X and Y chromosomes are not the same.
5.2 | The Cell Cycle

Describe the three stages of interphase
Discuss the behavior of chromosomes during mitosis and how the cytoplasmic content divides
during cytokinesis
Define the quiescent G0 phase
Explain how the three internal control checkpoints occur at the end of G1, at the G2M
transition, and during metaphase
The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell division that produces two new
daughter cells. Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a series of precisely timed and carefully
regulated stages of growth, DNA replication, and division that produce two genetically identical cells.
The cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and the mitotic phase (Figure 5.3). During interphase,
the cell grows and DNA is replicated. During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic
contents are separated and the cell divides.
Figure 5.3 A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase,
G1 involves cell growth and protein synthesis, the S phase involves DNA replication and the
replication of the centrosome, and G2 involves further growth and protein synthesis. The mitotic
phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear division during which duplicated chromosomes are
segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis in a process
called cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells are formed.
Interphase
During interphase, the cell undergoes normal processes while also preparing for cell division. For a cell
to move from interphase to the mitotic phase, many internal and external conditions must be met. The
three stages of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.
G1 Phase
The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase, or first gap, because little change is visible. However,
during the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical level. The cell is accumulating the
building blocks of chromosomal DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating enough
energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each chromosome in the nucleus.
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S Phase
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-condensed chromatin configuration. In the
S phase (synthesis phase), DNA replication results in the formation of two identical copies of each
chromosomesister chromatidsthat are firmly attached at the centromere region. At this stage, each
chromosome is made of two sister chromatids and is a duplicated chromosome. The centrosome is
duplicated during the S phase. The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the apparatus
that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during mitosis. The centrosome consists of a pair of
rod-like centrioles at right angles to each other. Centrioles help organize cell division. Centrioles are not
present in the centrosomes of many eukaryotic species, such as plants and most fungi.
G2 Phase
In the G2 phase, or second gap, the cell replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes the proteins
necessary for chromosome manipulation. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is
dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic spindle. There may be additional cell growth during G2.
The final preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the cell is able to enter the first
stage of mitosis.
The Mitotic Phase

To make two daughter cells, the contents of the nucleus and the cytoplasm must be divided. The mitotic
phase is a multistep process during which the duplicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and moved
to opposite poles of the cell, and then the cell is divided into two new identical daughter cells. The first
portion of the mitotic phase, mitosis, is composed of five stages, which accomplish nuclear division.
The second portion of the mitotic phase, called cytokinesis, is the physical separation of the cytoplasmic
components into two daughter cells.
Mitosis
Mitosis is divided into a series of phasesprophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophasethat result in the division of the cell nucleus (Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4 Animal cell mitosis is divided into five stagesprophase, prometaphase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophasevisualized here by light microscopy with fluorescence.
Mitosis is usually accompanied by cytokinesis, shown here by a transmission electron
microscope. (credit "diagrams": modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal; credit "mitosis
micrographs": modification of work by Roy van Heesbeen; credit "cytokinesis micrograph":
modification of work by the Wadsworth Center, NY State Department of Health; donated to the
Wikimedia foundation; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Which of the following is the correct order of events in mitosis?

a. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore becomes attached
to the mitotic spindle. The nucleus re-forms and the cell divides. The sister chromatids
separate.
b. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The sister chromatids
separate. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The nucleus re-forms and
the cell divides.
c. The kinetochore becomes attached to metaphase plate. Sister chromatids line up
at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks down and the sister chromatids
separate. The nucleus re-forms and the cell divides.
d. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. Sister chromatids line up
at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks apart and the sister chromatids
separate. The nucleus re-forms and the cell divides.
During prophase, the first phase, several events must occur to provide access to the chromosomes
in the nucleus. The nuclear envelope starts to break into small vesicles, and the Golgi apparatus and
endoplasmic reticulum fragment and disperse to the periphery of the cell. The nucleolus disappears. The
centrosomes begin to move to opposite poles of the cell. The microtubules that form the basis of the
mitotic spindle extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as the microtubule fibers
lengthen. The sister chromatids begin to coil more tightly and become visible under a light microscope.
During prometaphase, many processes that were begun in prophase continue to advance and
culminate in the formation of a connection between the chromosomes and cytoskeleton. The remnants of
the nuclear envelope disappear. The mitotic spindle continues to develop as more microtubules assemble
and stretch across the length of the former nuclear area. Chromosomes become more condensed and
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visually discrete. Each sister chromatid attaches to spindle microtubules at the centromere via a protein
complex called the kinetochore.
During metaphase, all of the chromosomes are aligned in a plane called the metaphase plate, or
the equatorial plane, midway between the two poles of the cell. The sister chromatids are still tightly
attached to each other. At this time, the chromosomes are maximally condensed.
During anaphase, the sister chromatids at the equatorial plane are split apart at the centromere.
Each chromatid, now called a chromosome, is pulled rapidly toward the centrosome to which its
microtubule was attached. The cell becomes visibly elongated as the non-kinetochore microtubules slide
against each other at the metaphase plate where they overlap.
During telophase, all of the events that set up the duplicated chromosomes for mitosis during the
first three phases are reversed. The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and begin to decondense
(unravel). The mitotic spindles are broken down into monomers that will be used to assemble
cytoskeleton components for each daughter cell. Nuclear envelopes form around chromosomes.
This page of movies (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/divisn_newtcell) illustrates different aspects of

mitosis. Watch the movie entitled DIC microscopy of cell division in a newt lung cell and identify
the phases of mitosis.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is the second part of the mitotic phase during which cell division is completed by the
physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells. Although the stages of
mitosis are similar for most eukaryotes, the process of cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes that
have cell walls, such as plant cells.
In cells such as animal cells that lack cell walls, cytokinesis begins following the onset of anaphase.
A contractile ring composed of actin filaments forms just inside the plasma membrane at the former
metaphase plate. The actin filaments pull the equator of the cell inward, forming a fissure. This fissure,
or crack, is called the cleavage furrow. The furrow deepens as the actin ring contracts, and eventually
the membrane and cell are cleaved in two (Figure 5.5).
In plant cells, a cleavage furrow is not possible because of the rigid cell walls surrounding the
plasma membrane. A new cell wall must form between the daughter cells. During interphase, the Golgi
apparatus accumulates enzymes, structural proteins, and glucose molecules prior to breaking up into
vesicles and dispersing throughout the dividing cell. During telophase, these Golgi vesicles move on
microtubules to collect at the metaphase plate. There, the vesicles fuse from the center toward the cell
walls; this structure is called a cell plate. As more vesicles fuse, the cell plate enlarges until it merges
with the cell wall at the periphery of the cell. Enzymes use the glucose that has accumulated between
the membrane layers to build a new cell wall of cellulose. The Golgi membranes become the plasma
membrane on either side of the new cell wall (Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.5 In part (a), a cleavage furrow forms at the former metaphase plate in the animal cell. The
plasma membrane is drawn in by a ring of actin fibers contracting just inside the membrane. The
cleavage furrow deepens until the cells are pinched in two. In part (b), Golgi vesicles coalesce at the
former metaphase plate in a plant cell. The vesicles fuse and form the cell plate. The cell plate grows
from the center toward the cell walls. New cell walls are made from the vesicle contents.
G0 Phase
Not all cells adhere to the classic cell-cycle pattern in which a newly formed daughter cell immediately
enters interphase, closely followed by the mitotic phase. Cells in the G0 phase are not actively preparing
to divide. The cell is in a quiescent (inactive) stage, having exited the cell cycle. Some cells enter G0
temporarily until an external signal triggers the onset of G1. Other cells that never or rarely divide, such
as mature cardiac muscle and nerve cells, remain in G0 permanently (Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.6 Cells that are not actively preparing to divide enter an alternate phase called G0. In some
cases, this is a temporary condition until triggered to enter G1. In other cases, the cell will remain in
G0 permanently.
Control of the Cell Cycle

The length of the cell cycle is highly variable even within the cells of an individual organism. In humans,
the frequency of cell turnover ranges from a few hours in early embryonic development to an average
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of two to five days for epithelial cells, or to an entire human lifetime spent in G0 by specialized cells
such as cortical neurons or cardiac muscle cells. There is also variation in the time that a cell spends in
each phase of the cell cycle. When fast-dividing mammalian cells are grown in culture (outside the body
under optimal growing conditions), the length of the cycle is approximately 24 hours. In rapidly dividing
human cells with a 24-hour cell cycle, the G1 phase lasts approximately 11 hours. The timing of events
in the cell cycle is controlled by mechanisms that are both internal and external to the cell.
Regulation at Internal Checkpoints

It is essential that daughter cells be exact duplicates of the parent cell. Mistakes in the duplication
or distribution of the chromosomes lead to mutations that may be passed forward to every new cell
produced from the abnormal cell. To prevent a compromised cell from continuing to divide, there are
internal control mechanisms that operate at three main cell cycle checkpoints at which the cell cycle
can be stopped until conditions are favorable. These checkpoints occur near the end of G1, at the G2M
transition, and during metaphase (Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7 The cell cycle is controlled at three checkpoints. Integrity of the DNA is assessed at the
G1 checkpoint. Proper chromosome duplication is assessed at the G2 checkpoint. Attachment of
each kinetochore to a spindle fiber is assessed at the M checkpoint.
The G1 Checkpoint
The G1 checkpoint determines whether all conditions are favorable for cell division to proceed. The G1
checkpoint, also called the restriction point, is the point at which the cell irreversibly commits to the
cell-division process. In addition to adequate reserves and cell size, there is a check for damage to the
genomic DNA at the G1 checkpoint. A cell that does not meet all the requirements will not be released
into the S phase.
The G2 Checkpoint
The G2 checkpoint bars the entry to the mitotic phase if certain conditions are not met. As in the G1
checkpoint, cell size and protein reserves are assessed. However, the most important role of the G2
checkpoint is to ensure that all of the chromosomes have been replicated and that the replicated DNA is
not damaged.
The M Checkpoint
The M checkpoint occurs near the end of the metaphase stage of mitosis. The M checkpoint is also
known as the spindle checkpoint because it determines if all the sister chromatids are correctly attached
to the spindle microtubules. Because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an
irreversible step, the cycle will not proceed until the kinetochores of each pair of sister chromatids are
firmly anchored to spindle fibers arising from opposite poles of the cell.
Watch what occurs at the G1, G2, and M checkpoints by visiting this animation
(http://openstaxcollege.org/l/cell_checkpnts2) of the cell cycle.
5.3 | Cancer and the Cell Cycle

Explain how cancer is caused by uncontrolled cell division
Understand how proto-oncogenes are normal cell genes that, when mutated, become oncogenes
Describe how tumor suppressors function to stop the cell cycle until certain events are
completed
Explain how mutant tumor suppressors cause cancer
Cancer is a collective name for many different diseases caused by a common mechanism: uncontrolled
cell division. Despite the redundancy and overlapping levels of cell-cycle control, errors occur. One
of the critical processes monitored by the cell-cycle checkpoint surveillance mechanism is the proper
replication of DNA during the S phase. Even when all of the cell-cycle controls are fully functional, a
small percentage of replication errors (mutations) will be passed on to the daughter cells. If one of these
changes to the DNA nucleotide sequence occurs within a gene, a gene mutation results. All cancers begin
when a gene mutation gives rise to a faulty protein that participates in the process of cell reproduction.
The change in the cell that results from the malformed protein may be minor. Even minor mistakes,
however, may allow subsequent mistakes to occur more readily. Over and over, small, uncorrected errors
are passed from parent cell to daughter cells and accumulate as each generation of cells produces more
non-functional proteins from uncorrected DNA damage. Eventually, the pace of the cell cycle speeds up
as the effectiveness of the control and repair mechanisms decreases. Uncontrolled growth of the mutated
cells outpaces the growth of normal cells in the area, and a tumor can result.
Proto-oncogenes
The genes that code for the positive cell-cycle regulators are called proto-oncogenes. Proto-oncogenes
are normal genes that, when mutated, become oncogenesgenes that cause a cell to become cancerous.
Consider what might happen to the cell cycle in a cell with a recently acquired oncogene. In most
instances, the alteration of the DNA sequence will result in a less functional (or non-functional) protein.
The result is detrimental to the cell and will likely prevent the cell from completing the cell cycle;
however, the organism is not harmed because the mutation will not be carried forward. If a cell cannot
reproduce, the mutation is not propagated and the damage is minimal. Occasionally, however, a gene
mutation causes a change that increases the activity of a positive regulator. For example, a mutation that
allows Cdk, a protein involved in cell-cycle regulation, to be activated before it should be could push the
cell cycle past a checkpoint before all of the required conditions are met. If the resulting daughter cells
are too damaged to undertake further cell divisions, the mutation would not be propagated and no harm
comes to the organism. However, if the atypical daughter cells are able to divide further, the subsequent
generation of cells will likely accumulate even more mutations, some possibly in additional genes that
regulate the cell cycle.
The Cdk example is only one of many genes that are considered proto-oncogenes. In addition to the
cell-cycle regulatory proteins, any protein that influences the cycle can be altered in such a way as to
override cell-cycle checkpoints. Once a proto-oncogene has been altered such that there is an increase in
the rate of the cell cycle, it is then called an oncogene.
Tumor Suppressor Genes

Like proto-oncogenes, many of the negative cell-cycle regulatory proteins were discovered in cells that
had become cancerous. Tumor suppressor genes are genes that code for the negative regulator proteins,
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the type of regulator thatwhen activatedcan prevent the cell from undergoing uncontrolled division.
The collective function of the best-understood tumor suppressor gene proteins, retinoblastoma protein
(RB1), p53, and p21, is to put up a roadblock to cell-cycle progress until certain events are completed. A
cell that carries a mutated form of a negative regulator might not be able to halt the cell cycle if there is
a problem.
Mutated p53 genes have been identified in more than half of all human tumor cells. This discovery
is not surprising in light of the multiple roles that the p53 protein plays at the G1 checkpoint. The
p53 protein activates other genes whose products halt the cell cycle (allowing time for DNA repair),
activates genes whose products participate in DNA repair, or activates genes that initiate cell death when
DNA damage cannot be repaired. A damaged p53 gene can result in the cell behaving as if there are
no mutations (Figure 5.8). This allows cells to divide, propagating the mutation in daughter cells and
allowing the accumulation of new mutations. In addition, the damaged version of p53 found in cancer
cells cannot trigger cell death.
Figure 5.8 (a) The role of p53 is to monitor DNA. If damage is detected, p53 triggers repair
mechanisms. If repairs are unsuccessful, p53 signals apoptosis. (b) A cell with an abnormal p53
protein cannot repair damaged DNA and cannot signal apoptosis. Cells with abnormal p53 can
become cancerous. (credit: modification of work by Thierry Soussi)
Go to this website (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/cancer2) to watch an animation of how cancer

results from errors in the cell cycle.
5.4 | Prokaryotic Cell Division

Describe the process of binary fission in prokaryotes
Explain how FtsZ and tubulin proteins are examples of homology
Prokaryotes such as bacteria propagate by binary fission. For unicellular organisms, cell division is the
only method to produce new individuals. In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, the outcome of cell
reproduction is a pair of daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. In unicellular
organisms, daughter cells are individuals.
To achieve the outcome of identical daughter cells, some steps are essential. The genomic DNA
must be replicated and then allocated into the daughter cells; the cytoplasmic contents must also be
divided to give both new cells the machinery to sustain life. In bacterial cells, the genome consists
of a single, circular DNA chromosome; therefore, the process of cell division is simplified. Mitosis is
unnecessary because there is no nucleus or multiple chromosomes. This type of cell division is called
binary fission.
Binary Fission
The cell division process of prokaryotes, called binary fission, is a less complicated and much quicker
process than cell division in eukaryotes. Because of the speed of bacterial cell division, populations of
bacteria can grow very rapidly. The single, circular DNA chromosome of bacteria is not enclosed in a
nucleus, but instead occupies a specific location, the nucleoid, within the cell. As in eukaryotes, the DNA
of the nucleoid is associated with proteins that aid in packaging the molecule into a compact size. The
packing proteins of bacteria are, however, related to some of the proteins involved in the chromosome
compaction of eukaryotes.
The starting point of replication, the origin, is close to the binding site of the chromosome to the
plasma membrane (Figure 5.9). Replication of the DNA is bidirectionalmoving away from the origin
on both strands of the DNA loop simultaneously. As the new double strands are formed, each origin
point moves away from the cell-wall attachment toward opposite ends of the cell. As the cell elongates,
the growing membrane aids in the transport of the chromosomes. After the chromosomes have cleared
the midpoint of the elongated cell, cytoplasmic separation begins. A septum is formed between the
nucleoids from the periphery toward the center of the cell. When the new cell walls are in place, the
daughter cells separate.
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Figure 5.9 The binary fission of a bacterium is outlined in five steps. (credit: modification of work by
Mcstrother/Wikimedia Commons)
Mitotic Spindle Apparatus

The precise timing and formation of the mitotic spindle is critical to the success of
eukaryotic cell division. Prokaryotic cells, on the other hand, do not undergo mitosis and
therefore have no need for a mitotic spindle. However, the FtsZ protein that plays such
a vital role in prokaryotic cytokinesis is structurally and functionally very similar to tubulin,
the building block of the microtubules that make up the mitotic spindle fibers that are
necessary for eukaryotes. The formation of a ring composed of repeating units of a protein
called FtsZ directs the partition between the nucleoids in prokaryotes. Formation of the
FtsZ ring triggers the accumulation of other proteins that work together to recruit new
membrane and cell-wall materials to the site. FtsZ proteins can form filaments, rings,
and other three-dimensional structures resembling the way tubulin forms microtubules,
centrioles, and various cytoskeleton components. In addition, both FtsZ and tubulin employ
the same energy source, GTP (guanosine triphosphate), to rapidly assemble and
disassemble complex structures.
FtsZ and tubulin are an example of homology, structures derived from the same
evolutionary origins. In this example, FtsZ is presumed to be similar to the ancestor
protein to both the modern FtsZ and tubulin. While both proteins are found in extant
organisms, tubulin function has evolved and diversified tremendously since the evolution
from its FtsZ-like prokaryotic origin. A survey of cell-division machinery in present-day
unicellular eukaryotes reveals crucial intermediary steps to the complex mitotic machinery
of multicellular eukaryotes (Table 5.1).
Mitotic Spindle Evolution

Structure of
genetic
material
There is no
nucleus. The
single, circular
chromosome
Prokaryotes
exists in a region
of cytoplasm
called the
nucleoid.
Some
protists
Linear
chromosomes
exist in the
nucleus.
Division of nuclear material
Separation
of
daughter
cells
Occurs through binary fission. As the

chromosome is replicated, the two
copies move to opposite ends of the
cell by an unknown mechanism.
FtsZ proteins
assemble into a
ring that
pinches the cell
in two.
Chromosomes attach to the nuclear

envelope, which remains intact. The
mitotic spindle passes through the
envelope and elongates the cell. No
centrioles exist.
Microfilaments
form a
cleavage
furrow that
pinches the cell
in two.
Table 5.1 The mitotic spindle fibers of eukaryotes are composed of microtubules.
Microtubules are polymers of the protein tubulin. The FtsZ protein active in
prokaryote cell division is very similar to tubulin in the structures it can form and
its energy source. Single-celled eukaryotes (such as yeast) display possible
intermediary steps between FtsZ activity during binary fission in prokaryotes and
the mitotic spindle in multicellular eukaryotes, during which the nucleus breaks
down and is reformed.
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Mitotic Spindle Evolution

Structure of
genetic
material
Other
protists
Linear
chromosomes
exist in the
nucleus.
Linear
chromosomes
Animal cells
exist in the
nucleus.
Division of nuclear material
Separation
of
daughter
cells
A mitotic spindle forms from the

centrioles and passes through the
nuclear membrane, which remains
intact. Chromosomes attach to the
mitotic spindle. The mitotic spindle
separates the chromosomes and
elongates the cell.
Microfilaments
form a
cleavage
furrow that
pinches the cell
in two.
A mitotic spindle forms from the

centrioles. The nuclear envelope
dissolves. Chromosomes attach to the
mitotic spindle, which separates them
and elongates the cell.
Microfilaments
form a
cleavage
furrow that
pinches the cell
in two.
Table 5.1 The mitotic spindle fibers of eukaryotes are composed of microtubules.
Microtubules are polymers of the protein tubulin. The FtsZ protein active in
prokaryote cell division is very similar to tubulin in the structures it can form and
its energy source. Single-celled eukaryotes (such as yeast) display possible
intermediary steps between FtsZ activity during binary fission in prokaryotes and
the mitotic spindle in multicellular eukaryotes, during which the nucleus breaks
down and is reformed.
KEY TERMS
anaphase the stage of mitosis during which sister chromatids are separated from each other
binary fission the process of prokaryotic cell division
cell cycle checkpoints mechanisms that monitor the preparedness of a eukaryotic cell to advance
through the various cell cycle stages
cell cycle the ordered sequence of events that a cell passes through between one cell division and the
next
cell plate a structure formed during plant-cell cytokinesis by Golgi vesicles fusing at the metaphase
plate; will ultimately lead to formation of a cell wall to separate the two daughter cells
centriole a paired rod-like structure constructed of microtubules at the center of each animal cell
centrosome
cleavage furrow a constriction formed by the actin ring during animal-cell cytokinesis that leads to
cytoplasmic division
cytokinesis the division of the cytoplasm following mitosis to form two daughter cells
diploid describes a cell, nucleus, or organism containing two sets of chromosomes (2n)
FtsZ a tubulin-like protein component of the prokaryotic cytoskeleton that is important in prokaryotic
cytokinesis (name origin: Filamenting temperature-sensitive mutant Z)
G0 phase a cell-cycle phase distinct from the G1 phase of interphase; a cell in G0 is not preparing to
divide
G1 phase (also, first gap) a cell-cycle phase; first phase of interphase centered on cell growth during
mitosis
G2 phase (also, second gap) a cell-cycle phase; third phase of interphase where the cell undergoes
the final preparations for mitosis
gamete a haploid reproductive cell or sex cell (sperm or egg)
gene the physical and functional unit of heredity; a sequence of DNA that codes for a specific
peptide or RNA molecule
genome the entire genetic complement (DNA) of an organism
haploid describes a cell, nucleus, or organism containing one set of chromosomes (n)
homologous chromosomes chromosomes of the same length with genes in the same location;
diploid organisms have pairs of homologous chromosomes, and the members of each pair come
from different parents
interphase the period of the cell cycle leading up to mitosis; includes G1, S, and G2 phases; the
interim between two consecutive cell divisions
kinetochore a protein structure in the centromere of each sister chromatid that attracts and binds
spindle microtubules during prometaphase
locus the position of a gene on a chromosome
metaphase plate the equatorial plane midway between two poles of a cell where the chromosomes
align during metaphase
metaphase the stage of mitosis during which chromosomes are lined up at the metaphase plate
mitosis the period of the cell cycle at which the duplicated chromosomes are separated into identical
nuclei; includes prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
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mitotic phase the period of the cell cycle when duplicated chromosomes are distributed into two
nuclei and the cytoplasmic contents are divided; includes mitosis and cytokinesis
mitotic spindle the microtubule apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during
mitosis
oncogene a mutated version of a proto-oncogene, which allows for uncontrolled progression of the
cell cycle, or uncontrolled cell reproduction
origin the region of the prokaryotic chromosome at which replication begins
prometaphase the stage of mitosis during which mitotic spindle fibers attach to kinetochores
prophase the stage of mitosis during which chromosomes condense and the mitotic spindle begins
to form
proto-oncogene a normal gene that controls cell division by regulating the cell cycle that becomes
an oncogene if it is mutated
quiescent describes a cell that is performing normal cell functions and has not initiated preparations
for cell division
S phase the second, or synthesis phase, of interphase during which DNA replication occurs
septum a wall formed between bacterial daughter cells as a precursor to cell separation
telophase the stage of mitosis during which chromosomes arrive at opposite poles, decondense, and
are surrounded by new nuclear envelopes
tumor suppressor gene a gene that codes for regulator proteins that prevent the cell from
undergoing uncontrolled division
CHAPTER SUMMARY
5.1 The Genome
Prokaryotes have a single loop chromosome, whereas eukaryotes have multiple, linear chromosomes
surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes consisting of two sets
of 22 homologous chromosomes and a pair of nonhomologous sex chromosomes. This is the 2n, or
diploid, state. Human gametes have 23 chromosomes or one complete set of chromosomes. This is the
n, or haploid, state. Genes are segments of DNA that code for a specific protein or RNA molecule. An
organisms traits are determined in large part by the genes inherited from each parent, but also by the
environment that they experience. Genes are expressed as characteristics of the organism and each
characteristic may have different variants called traits that are caused by differences in the DNA
sequence for a gene.
5.2 The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events. Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a
series of precisely timed and carefully regulated stages. In eukaryotes, the cell cycle consists of a long
preparatory period, called interphase. Interphase is divided into G1, S, and G2 phases. Mitosis consists
of five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis is usually
accompanied by cytokinesis, during which the cytoplasmic components of the daughter cells are
separated either by an actin ring (animal cells) or by cell plate formation (plant cells).
Each step of the cell cycle is monitored by internal controls called checkpoints. There are three
major checkpoints in the cell cycle: one near the end of G1, a second at the G2M transition, and the
third during metaphase.
5.3 Cancer and the Cell Cycle

Cancer is the result of unchecked cell division caused by a breakdown of the mechanisms regulating the
cell cycle. The loss of control begins with a change in the DNA sequence of a gene that codes for one
of the regulatory molecules. Faulty instructions lead to a protein that does not function as it should. Any
disruption of the monitoring system can allow other mistakes to be passed on to the daughter cells.
Each successive cell division will give rise to daughter cells with even more accumulated damage.
Eventually, all checkpoints become nonfunctional, and rapidly reproducing cells crowd out normal
cells, resulting in tumorous growth.
5.4 Prokaryotic Cell Division

In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell division, the genomic DNA is replicated and each copy is
allocated into a daughter cell. The cytoplasmic contents are also divided evenly to the new cells.
However, there are many differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell division. Bacteria have a
single, circular DNA chromosome and no nucleus. Therefore, mitosis is not necessary in bacterial cell
division. Bacterial cytokinesis is directed by a ring composed of a protein called FtsZ. Ingrowth of
membrane and cell-wall material from the periphery of the cells results in a septum that eventually
forms the separate cell walls of the daughter cells.

1. Figure 5.4 Which of the following is the
correct order of events in mitosis?
a. Sister chromatids line up at the
metaphase plate. The kinetochore
becomes attached to the mitotic spindle.
The nucleus re-forms and the cell
divides. The sister chromatids separate.
b. The kinetochore becomes attached to
the mitotic spindle. The sister
chromatids separate. Sister chromatids
line up at the metaphase plate. The
nucleus re-forms and the cell divides.
c. The kinetochore becomes attached to

metaphase plate. Sister chromatids line
up at the metaphase plate. The
kinetochore breaks down and the sister
chromatids separate. The nucleus reforms and the cell divides.
d. The kinetochore becomes attached to
the mitotic spindle. Sister chromatids
line up at the metaphase plate. The
kinetochore breaks apart and the sister
chromatids separate. The nucleus reforms and the cell divides.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
2. A diploid cell has ________ the number of
chromosomes as a haploid cell.
a. one-fourth
b. one-half
c. twice
d. four times
3. An organisms traits are determined by the
specific combination of inherited ________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
cells
genes
proteins
chromatids
4. Chromosomes are duplicated during what

portion of the cell cycle?
a. G1 phase
b. S phase
c. prophase
d. prometaphase
5. Separation of the sister chromatids is a
characteristic of which stage of mitosis?
a.
b.
c.
d.
prometaphase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
6. The individual chromosomes become visible

with a light microscope during which stage of
mitosis?
a.
b.
c.
d.
prophase
prometaphase
metaphase
anaphase
7. What is necessary for a cell to pass the G2

checkpoint?
a. cell has reached a sufficient size
b. an adequate stockpile of nucleotides
c. accurate and complete DNA replication
d. proper attachment of mitotic spindle
fibers to kinetochores
8. ________ are changes to the nucleotides in a
segment of DNA that codes for a protein.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Proto-oncogenes
Tumor suppressor genes
Gene mutations
Negative regulators
9. A gene that codes for a positive cell cycle

regulator is called a(n) ________.
a. kinase inhibitor
b. tumor suppressor gene
c. proto-oncogene
d. oncogene
10. Which eukaryotic cell-cycle event is missing
in binary fission?
a. cell growth
b. DNA duplication
c. mitosis
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132
d. cytokinesis
a.
b.
c.
d.
11. FtsZ proteins direct the formation of a

________ that will eventually form the new cell
walls of the daughter cells.
contractile ring
cell plate
cytoskeleton
septum

12. Compare and contrast a human somatic cell to
a human gamete.
14. Outline the steps that lead to a cell becoming

cancerous.
13. Describe the similarities and differences

between the cytokinesis mechanisms found in
animal cells versus those in plant cells.
15. Explain the difference between a protooncogene and a tumor suppressor gene.
16. Name the common components of eukaryotic
cell division and binary fission.
CHAPTER 6 | THE CELLULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
6 | THE CELLULAR
BASIS OF
INHERITANCE
Figure 6.1 Each of us, like these other large multicellular organisms, begins life as a fertilized egg.
After trillions of cell divisions, each of us develops into a complex, multicellular organism. (credit a:
modification of work by Frank Wouters; credit b: modification of work by Ken Cole, USGS; credit c:
modification of work by Martin Pettitt)
Chapter Outline
6.1: Sexual Reproduction
6.2: Meiosis
6.3: Errors in Meiosis
Introduction
The ability to reproduce in kind is a basic characteristic of all living things. In kind means that
the offspring of any organism closely resembles its parent or parents. Hippopotamuses give birth to
hippopotamus calves; Monterey pine trees produce seeds from which Monterey pine seedlings emerge;
and adult flamingos lay eggs that hatch into flamingo chicks. In kind does not generally mean exactly the
same. While many single-celled organisms and a few multicellular organisms can produce genetically
identical clones of themselves through mitotic cell division, many single-celled organisms and most
multicellular organisms reproduce regularly using another method.
Sexual reproduction is the production by parents of haploid cells and the fusion of a haploid cell
from each parent to form a single, unique diploid cell. In multicellular organisms, the new diploid cell
will then undergo mitotic cell divisions to develop into an adult organism. A type of cell division called
meiosis leads to the haploid cells that are part of the sexual reproductive cycle. Sexual reproduction,
specifically meiosis and fertilization, introduces variation into offspring that may account for the
evolutionary success of sexual reproduction. The vast majority of eukaryotic organisms can or must
employ some form of meiosis and fertilization to reproduce.
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6.1 | Sexual Reproduction

Explain that variation among offspring is a potential evolutionary advantage resulting from
sexual reproduction
Describe the three different life-cycle strategies among sexual multicellular organisms and their
commonalities
Sexual reproduction was an early evolutionary innovation after the appearance of eukaryotic cells. The
fact that most eukaryotes reproduce sexually is evidence of its evolutionary success. In many animals,
it is the only mode of reproduction. And yet, scientists recognize some real disadvantages to sexual
reproduction. On the surface, offspring that are genetically identical to the parent may appear to be
more advantageous. If the parent organism is successfully occupying a habitat, offspring with the same
traits would be similarly successful. There is also the obvious benefit to an organism that can produce
offspring by asexual budding, fragmentation, or asexual eggs. These methods of reproduction do not
require another organism of the opposite sex. There is no need to expend energy finding or attracting
a mate. That energy can be spent on producing more offspring. Indeed, some organisms that lead a
solitary lifestyle have retained the ability to reproduce asexually. In addition, asexual populations only
have female individuals, so every individual is capable of reproduction. In contrast, the males in sexual
populations (half the population) are not producing offspring themselves. Because of this, an asexual
population can grow twice as fast as a sexual population in theory. This means that in competition, the
asexual population would have the advantage. All of these advantages to asexual reproduction, which
are also disadvantages to sexual reproduction, should mean that the number of species with asexual
reproduction should be more common.
However, multicellular organisms that exclusively depend on asexual reproduction are exceedingly
rare. Why is sexual reproduction so common? This is one of the important questions in biology and
has been the focus of much research from the latter half of the twentieth century until now. A likely
explanation is that the variation that sexual reproduction creates among offspring is very important to
the survival and reproduction of those offspring. The only source of variation in asexual organisms
is mutation. This is the ultimate source of variation in sexual organisms. In addition, those different
mutations are continually reshuffled from one generation to the next when different parents combine
their unique genomes, and the genes are mixed into different combinations by the process of meiosis.
Meiosis is the division of the contents of the nucleus that divides the chromosomes among gametes.
Variation is introduced during meiosis, as well as when the gametes combine in fertilization.
The Red Queen Hypothesis

There is no question that sexual reproduction provides evolutionary advantages to
organisms that employ this mechanism to produce offspring. The problematic question
is why, even in the face of fairly stable conditions, sexual reproduction persists when it
is more difficult and produces fewer offspring for individual organisms? Variation is the
outcome of sexual reproduction, but why are ongoing variations necessary? Enter the Red
[1]
Queen hypothesis, first proposed by Leigh Van Valen in 1973. The concept was named
in reference to the Red Queen's race in Lewis Carroll's book, Through the Looking-Glass,
in which the Red Queen says one must run at full speed just to stay where one is.
All species coevolve with other organisms. For example, predators coevolve with
their prey, and parasites coevolve with their hosts. A remarkable example of coevolution
between predators and their prey is the unique coadaptation of night flying bats and their
moth prey. Bats find their prey by emitting high-pitched clicks, but moths have evolved
simple ears to hear these clicks so they can avoid the bats. The moths have also adapted
behaviors, such as flying away from the bat when they first hear it, or dropping suddenly
to the ground when the bat is upon them. Bats have evolved quiet clicks in an attempt
to evade the moths hearing. Some moths have evolved the ability to respond to the bats
clicks with their own clicks as a strategy to confuse the bats echolocation abilities.
Each tiny advantage gained by favorable variation gives a species an edge over
close competitors, predators, parasites, or even prey. The only method that will allow a
coevolving species to keep its own share of the resources is also to continually improve
its ability to survive and produce offspring. As one species gains an advantage, other
species must also develop an advantage or they will be outcompeted. No single species
progresses too far ahead because genetic variation among progeny of sexual reproduction
provides all species with a mechanism to produce adapted individuals. Species whose
individuals cannot keep up become extinct. The Red Queens catchphrase was, It takes
all the running you can do to stay in the same place. This is an apt description of
coevolution between competing species.
Life Cycles of Sexually Reproducing Organisms

Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles. What happens between these two events depends
on the organism. The process of meiosis reduces the resulting gametes chromosome number by half.
Fertilization, the joining of two haploid gametes, restores the diploid condition. There are three main
categories of life cycles in multicellular organisms: diploid-dominant, in which the multicellular diploid
stage is the most obvious life stage (and there is no multicellular haploid stage), as with most animals
including humans; haploid-dominant, in which the multicellular haploid stage is the most obvious life
stage (and there is no multicellular diploid stage), as with all fungi and some algae; and alternation
of generations, in which the two stages, haploid and diploid, are apparent to one degree or another
depending on the group, as with plants and some algae.
Nearly all animals employ a diploid-dominant life-cycle strategy in which the only haploid cells
produced by the organism are the gametes. The gametes are produced from diploid germ cells, a special
cell line that only produces gametes. Once the haploid gametes are formed, they lose the ability to divide
again. There is no multicellular haploid life stage. Fertilization occurs with the fusion of two gametes,
usually from different individuals, restoring the diploid state (Figure 6.2a).
1. Leigh Van Valen, A new evolutionary law, Evolutionary Theory 1 (1973): 130.
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136
Figure 6.2 (a) In animals, sexually reproducing adults form haploid gametes from diploid germ
cells. (b) Fungi, such as black bread mold (Rhizopus nigricans), have haploid-dominant life
cycles. (c) Plants have a life cycle that alternates between a multicellular haploid organism and
a multicellular diploid organism. (credit c fern: modification of work by Cory Zanker; credit c
gametophyte: modification of work by Vlmastra/Wikimedia Commons)
If a mutation occurs so that a fungus is no longer able to produce a minus mating type, will
it still be able to reproduce?
Most fungi and algae employ a life-cycle strategy in which the multicellular body of the organism
is haploid. During sexual reproduction, specialized haploid cells from two individuals join to form a
diploid zygote. The zygote immediately undergoes meiosis to form four haploid cells called spores
(Figure 6.2b).
The third life-cycle type, employed by some algae and all plants, is called alternation of generations.
These species have both haploid and diploid multicellular organisms as part of their life cycle. The
haploid multicellular plants are called gametophytes because they produce gametes. Meiosis is not
involved in the production of gametes in this case, as the organism that produces gametes is already
haploid. Fertilization between the gametes forms a diploid zygote. The zygote will undergo many
rounds of mitosis and give rise to a diploid multicellular plant called a sporophyte. Specialized cells
of the sporophyte will undergo meiosis and produce haploid spores. The spores will develop into the
gametophytes (Figure 6.2c).
6.2 | Meiosis
Describe the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis
Describe cellular events during meiosis
Explain the differences between meiosis and mitosis
Explain the mechanisms within meiosis that generate genetic variation among the products of
meiosis
Sexual reproduction requires fertilization, a union of two cells from two individual organisms. If those
two cells each contain one set of chromosomes, then the resulting cell contains two sets of chromosomes.
The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell is called its ploidy level. Haploid cells contain one set of
chromosomes. Cells containing two sets of chromosomes are called diploid. If the reproductive cycle is
to continue, the diploid cell must somehow reduce its number of chromosome sets before fertilization can
occur again, or there will be a continual doubling in the number of chromosome sets in every generation.
So, in addition to fertilization, sexual reproduction includes a nuclear division, known as meiosis, that
reduces the number of chromosome sets.
Most animals and plants are diploid, containing two sets of chromosomes; in each somatic cell (the
nonreproductive cells of a multicellular organism), the nucleus contains two copies of each chromosome
that are referred to as homologous chromosomes. Somatic cells are sometimes referred to as body
cells. Homologous chromosomes are matched pairs containing genes for the same traits in identical
locations along their length. Diploid organisms inherit one copy of each homologous chromosome
from each parent; all together, they are considered a full set of chromosomes. In animals, haploid cells
containing a single copy of each homologous chromosome are found only within gametes. Gametes fuse
with another haploid gamete to produce a diploid cell.
The nuclear division that forms haploid cells, which is called meiosis, is related to mitosis. As you
have learned, mitosis is part of a cell reproduction cycle that results in identical daughter nuclei that
are also genetically identical to the original parent nucleus. In mitosis, both the parent and the daughter
nuclei contain the same number of chromosome setsdiploid for most plants and animals. Meiosis
employs many of the same mechanisms as mitosis. However, the starting nucleus is always diploid
and the nuclei that result at the end of a meiotic cell division are haploid. To achieve the reduction
in chromosome number, meiosis consists of one round of chromosome duplication and two rounds of
nuclear division. Because the events that occur during each of the division stages are analogous to the
events of mitosis, the same stage names are assigned. However, because there are two rounds of division,
the stages are designated with a I or II. Thus, meiosis I is the first round of meiotic division and
consists of prophase I, prometaphase I, and so on. Meiosis I reduces the number of chromosome sets
from two to one. The genetic information is also mixed during this division to create unique recombinant
chromosomes. Meiosis II, in which the second round of meiotic division takes place in a way that is
similar to mitosis, includes prophase II, prometaphase II, and so on.
Interphase
Meiosis is preceded by an interphase consisting of the G1, S, and G2 phases, which are nearly identical to
the phases preceding mitosis. The G1 phase is the first phase of interphase and is focused on cell growth.
In the S phase, the DNA of the chromosomes is replicated. Finally, in the G2 phase, the cell undergoes
the final preparations for meiosis.
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138
During DNA duplication of the S phase, each chromosome becomes composed of two identical
copies (called sister chromatids) that are held together at the centromere until they are pulled apart during
meiosis II. In an animal cell, the centrosomes that organize the microtubules of the meiotic spindle also
replicate. This prepares the cell for the first meiotic phase.
Meiosis I
Early in prophase I, the chromosomes can be seen clearly microscopically. As the nuclear envelope
begins to break down, the proteins associated with homologous chromosomes bring the pair close to each
other. The tight pairing of the homologous chromosomes is called synapsis. In synapsis, the genes on
the chromatids of the homologous chromosomes are precisely aligned with each other. An exchange of
chromosome segments between non-sister homologous chromatids occurs and is called crossing over.
This process is revealed visually after the exchange as chiasmata (singular = chiasma) (Figure 6.3).
As prophase I progresses, the close association between homologous chromosomes begins to break
down, and the chromosomes continue to condense, although the homologous chromosomes remain
attached to each other at chiasmata. The number of chiasmata varies with the species and the length of
the chromosome. At the end of prophase I, the pairs are held together only at chiasmata (Figure 6.3) and
are called tetrads because the four sister chromatids of each pair of homologous chromosomes are now
visible.
The crossover events are the first source of genetic variation produced by meiosis. A single
crossover event between homologous non-sister chromatids leads to a reciprocal exchange of equivalent
DNA between a maternal chromosome and a paternal chromosome. Now, when that sister chromatid is
moved into a gamete, it will carry some DNA from one parent of the individual and some DNA from the
other parent. The recombinant sister chromatid has a combination of maternal and paternal genes that
did not exist before the crossover.
Figure 6.3 In this illustration of the effects of crossing over, the blue chromosome came from the
individuals father and the red chromosome came from the individuals mother. Crossover occurs
between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. The result is an exchange of genetic
material between homologous chromosomes. The chromosomes that have a mixture of maternal
and paternal sequence are called recombinant and the chromosomes that are completely paternal
or maternal are called non-recombinant.
The key event in prometaphase I is the attachment of the spindle fiber microtubules to the
kinetochore proteins at the centromeres. The microtubules assembled from centrosomes at opposite
poles of the cell grow toward the middle of the cell. At the end of prometaphase I, each tetrad is
attached to microtubules from both poles, with one homologous chromosome attached at one pole and
the other homologous chromosome attached to the other pole. The homologous chromosomes are still
held together at chiasmata. In addition, the nuclear membrane has broken down entirely.
During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are arranged in the center of the cell with the
kinetochores facing opposite poles. The orientation of each pair of homologous chromosomes at the
center of the cell is random.
This randomness, called independent assortment, is the physical basis for the generation of the
second form of genetic variation in offspring. Consider that the homologous chromosomes of a sexually
reproducing organism are originally inherited as two separate sets, one from each parent. Using humans
as an example, one set of 23 chromosomes is present in the egg donated by the mother. The father
provides the other set of 23 chromosomes in the sperm that fertilizes the egg. In metaphase I, these pairs
line up at the midway point between the two poles of the cell. Because there is an equal chance that
a microtubule fiber will encounter a maternally or paternally inherited chromosome, the arrangement
of the tetrads at the metaphase plate is random. Any maternally inherited chromosome may face either
pole. Any paternally inherited chromosome may also face either pole. The orientation of each tetrad is
independent of the orientation of the other 22 tetrads.
In each cell that undergoes meiosis, the arrangement of the tetrads is different. The number of
variations depends on the number of chromosomes making up a set. There are two possibilities for
orientation (for each tetrad); thus, the possible number of alignments equals 2n where n is the number
of chromosomes per set. Humans have 23 chromosome pairs, which results in over eight million (223)
possibilities. This number does not include the variability previously created in the sister chromatids by
crossover. Given these two mechanisms, it is highly unlikely that any two haploid cells resulting from
meiosis will have the same genetic composition (Figure 6.4).
To summarize the genetic consequences of meiosis I: the maternal and paternal genes are
recombined by crossover events occurring on each homologous pair during prophase I; in addition, the
random assortment of tetrads at metaphase produces a unique combination of maternal and paternal
chromosomes that will make their way into the gametes.
Figure 6.4 To demonstrate random, independent assortment at metaphase I, consider a cell with
n = 2. In this case, there are two possible arrangements at the equatorial plane in metaphase I,
as shown in the upper cell of each panel. These two possible orientations lead to the production
of genetically different gametes. With more chromosomes, the number of possible arrangements
increases dramatically.
In anaphase I, the spindle fibers pull the linked chromosomes apart. The sister chromatids remain
tightly bound together at the centromere. It is the chiasma connections that are broken in anaphase I as
the fibers attached to the fused kinetochores pull the homologous chromosomes apart (Figure 6.5).
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In telophase I, the separated chromosomes arrive at opposite poles. The remainder of the typical
telophase events may or may not occur depending on the species. In some organisms, the chromosomes
decondense and nuclear envelopes form around the chromatids in telophase I.
Cytokinesis, the physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells, occurs
without reformation of the nuclei in other organisms. In nearly all species, cytokinesis separates the cell
contents by either a cleavage furrow (in animals and some fungi), or a cell plate that will ultimately
lead to formation of cell walls that separate the two daughter cells (in plants). At each pole, there is just
one member of each pair of the homologous chromosomes, so only one full set of the chromosomes is
present. This is why the cells are considered haploidthere is only one chromosome set, even though
there are duplicate copies of the set because each homolog still consists of two sister chromatids that are
still attached to each other. However, although the sister chromatids were once duplicates of the same
chromosome, they are no longer identical at this stage because of crossovers.
Review the process of meiosis, observing how chromosomes align and migrate, at this site
(http://openstaxcollege.org/l/animal_meiosis2) .
Meiosis II
In meiosis II, the connected sister chromatids remaining in the haploid cells from meiosis I will be split
to form four haploid cells. In some species, cells enter a brief interphase, or interkinesis, that lacks an
S phase, before entering meiosis II. Chromosomes are not duplicated during interkinesis. The two cells
produced in meiosis I go through the events of meiosis II in synchrony. Overall, meiosis II resembles the
mitotic division of a haploid cell.
In prophase II, if the chromosomes decondensed in telophase I, they condense again. If nuclear
envelopes were formed, they fragment into vesicles. The centrosomes duplicated during interkinesis
move away from each other toward opposite poles, and new spindles are formed. In prometaphase II, the
nuclear envelopes are completely broken down, and the spindle is fully formed. Each sister chromatid
forms an individual kinetochore that attaches to microtubules from opposite poles. In metaphase II, the
sister chromatids are maximally condensed and aligned at the center of the cell. In anaphase II, the sister
chromatids are pulled apart by the spindle fibers and move toward opposite poles.
Figure 6.5 In prometaphase I, microtubules attach to the fused kinetochores of homologous

chromosomes. In anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are separated. In prometaphase
II, microtubules attach to individual kinetochores of sister chromatids. In anaphase II, the sister
chromatids are separated.
In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to decondense. Nuclear
envelopes form around the chromosomes. Cytokinesis separates the two cells into four genetically
unique haploid cells. At this point, the nuclei in the newly produced cells are both haploid and have only
one copy of the single set of chromosomes. The cells produced are genetically unique because of the
random assortment of paternal and maternal homologs and because of the recombination of maternal and
paternal segments of chromosomeswith their sets of genesthat occurs during crossover.
Comparing Meiosis and Mitosis

Mitosis and meiosis, which are both forms of division of the nucleus in eukaryotic cells, share some
similarities, but also exhibit distinct differences that lead to their very different outcomes. Mitosis is
a single nuclear division that results in two nuclei, usually partitioned into two new cells. The nuclei
resulting from a mitotic division are genetically identical to the original. They have the same number of
sets of chromosomes: one in the case of haploid cells, and two in the case of diploid cells. On the other
hand, meiosis is two nuclear divisions that result in four nuclei, usually partitioned into four new cells.
The nuclei resulting from meiosis are never genetically identical, and they contain one chromosome set
onlythis is half the number of the original cell, which was diploid (Figure 6.6).
The differences in the outcomes of meiosis and mitosis occur because of differences in the behavior
of the chromosomes during each process. Most of these differences in the processes occur in meiosis I,
which is a very different nuclear division than mitosis. In meiosis I, the homologous chromosome pairs
become associated with each other, are bound together, experience chiasmata and crossover between
sister chromatids, and line up along the metaphase plate in tetrads with spindle fibers from opposite
spindle poles attached to each kinetochore of a homolog in a tetrad. All of these events occur only in
meiosis I, never in mitosis.
Homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles during meiosis I so the number of sets of
chromosomes in each nucleus-to-be is reduced from two to one. For this reason, meiosis I is referred to
as a reduction division. There is no such reduction in ploidy level in mitosis.
Meiosis II is much more analogous to a mitotic division. In this case, duplicated chromosomes
(only one set of them) line up at the center of the cell with divided kinetochores attached to spindle
fibers from opposite poles. During anaphase II, as in mitotic anaphase, the kinetochores divide and one
sister chromatid is pulled to one pole and the other sister chromatid is pulled to the other pole. If it were
not for the fact that there had been crossovers, the two products of each meiosis II division would be
identical as in mitosis; instead, they are different because there has always been at least one crossover
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per chromosome. Meiosis II is not a reduction division because, although there are fewer copies of the
genome in the resulting cells, there is still one set of chromosomes, as there was at the end of meiosis I.
Cells produced by mitosis will function in different parts of the body as a part of growth or replacing
dead or damaged cells. They may even be involved in asexual reproduction in some organisms. Cells
produced by meiosis in a diploid-dominant organism such as an animal will only participate in sexual
reproduction.
Figure 6.6 Meiosis and mitosis are both preceded by one round of DNA replication; however,
meiosis includes two nuclear divisions. The four daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid
and genetically distinct. The daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid and identical to the
parent cell.
For an animation comparing mitosis and meiosis, go to this website (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/

how_cells_dvid2) .
6.3 | Errors in Meiosis

Explain how nondisjunction leads to disorders in chromosome number
Describe how errors in chromosome structure occur through inversions and translocations
Inherited disorders can arise when chromosomes behave abnormally during meiosis. Chromosome
disorders can be divided into two categories: abnormalities in chromosome number and chromosome
structural rearrangements. Because even small segments of chromosomes can span many genes,
chromosomal disorders are characteristically dramatic and often fatal.
Disorders in Chromosome Number

The isolation and microscopic observation of chromosomes forms the basis of cytogenetics and is the
primary method by which clinicians detect chromosomal abnormalities in humans. A karyotype is
the number and appearance of chromosomes, including their length, banding pattern, and centromere
position. To obtain a view of an individuals karyotype, cytologists photograph the chromosomes and
then cut and paste each chromosome into a chart, or karyogram (Figure 6.7).
Figure 6.7 This karyogram shows the chromosomes of a female human immune cell during mitosis.
(credit: Andreas Bolzer, et al)
Geneticists Use Karyograms to Identify Chromosomal

Aberrations
The karyotype is a method by which traits characterized by chromosomal
abnormalities can be identified from a single cell. To observe an individuals karyotype, a
persons cells (like white blood cells) are first collected from a blood sample or other tissue.
In the laboratory, the isolated cells are stimulated to begin actively dividing. A chemical is
then applied to the cells to arrest mitosis during metaphase. The cells are then fixed to a
slide.
The geneticist then stains chromosomes with one of several dyes to better visualize
the distinct and reproducible banding patterns of each chromosome pair. Following
staining, chromosomes are viewed using bright-field microscopy. An experienced
cytogeneticist can identify each band. In addition to the banding patterns, chromosomes
are further identified on the basis of size and centromere location. To obtain the classic
depiction of the karyotype in which homologous pairs of chromosomes are aligned in
numerical order from longest to shortest, the geneticist obtains a digital image, identifies
each chromosome, and manually arranges the chromosomes into this pattern (Figure
6.7).
At its most basic, the karyogram may reveal genetic abnormalities in which an
individual has too many or too few chromosomes per cell. Examples of this are Down
syndrome, which is identified by a third copy of chromosome 21, and Turner syndrome,
which is characterized by the presence of only one X chromosome in women instead
of two. Geneticists can also identify large deletions or insertions of DNA. For instance,
Jacobsen syndrome, which involves distinctive facial features as well as heart and
bleeding defects, is identified by a deletion on chromosome 11. Finally, the karyotype can
pinpoint translocations, which occur when a segment of genetic material breaks from
one chromosome and reattaches to another chromosome or to a different part of the
same chromosome. Translocations are implicated in certain cancers, including chronic
myelogenous leukemia.
By observing a karyogram, geneticists can actually visualize the chromosomal
composition of an individual to confirm or predict genetic abnormalities in offspring even
before birth.
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Nondisjunctions, Duplications, and Deletions

Of all the chromosomal disorders, abnormalities in chromosome number are the most easily identifiable
from a karyogram. Disorders of chromosome number include the duplication or loss of entire
chromosomes, as well as changes in the number of complete sets of chromosomes. They are caused
by nondisjunction, which occurs when pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to
separate during meiosis. The risk of nondisjunction increases with the age of the parents.
Nondisjunction can occur during either meiosis I or II, with different results (Figure 6.8). If
homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis I, the result is two gametes that lack that
chromosome and two gametes with two copies of the chromosome. If sister chromatids fail to separate
during meiosis II, the result is one gamete that lacks that chromosome, two normal gametes with one
copy of the chromosome, and one gamete with two copies of the chromosome.
Figure 6.8 Following meiosis, each gamete has one copy of each chromosome. Nondisjunction
occurs when homologous chromosomes (meiosis I) or sister chromatids (meiosis II) fail to separate
during meiosis.
An individual with the appropriate number of chromosomes for their species is called euploid; in
humans, euploidy corresponds to 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. An individual
with an error in chromosome number is described as aneuploid, a term that includes monosomy (loss of
one chromosome) or trisomy (gain of an extraneous chromosome). Monosomic human zygotes missing
any one copy of an autosome invariably fail to develop to birth because they have only one copy of
essential genes. Most autosomal trisomies also fail to develop to birth; however, duplications of some
of the smaller chromosomes (13, 15, 18, 21, or 22) can result in offspring that survive for several
weeks to many years. Trisomic individuals suffer from a different type of genetic imbalance: an excess
in gene dose. Cell functions are calibrated to the amount of gene product produced by two copies
(doses) of each gene; adding a third copy (dose) disrupts this balance. The most common trisomy is
that of chromosome 21, which leads to Down syndrome. Individuals with this inherited disorder have
characteristic physical features and developmental delays in growth and cognition. The incidence of
Down syndrome is correlated with maternal age, such that older women are more likely to give birth to
children with Down syndrome (Figure 6.9).
Figure 6.9 The incidence of having a fetus with trisomy 21 increases dramatically with maternal age.
Visualize the addition of a chromosome that leads to Down syndrome in this video simulation
(http://openstaxcollege.org/l/down_syndrome2) .
Humans display dramatic deleterious effects with autosomal trisomies and monosomies. Therefore,
it may seem counterintuitive that human females and males can function normally, despite carrying
different numbers of the X chromosome. In part, this occurs because of a process called X inactivation.
Early in development, when female mammalian embryos consist of just a few thousand cells, one X
chromosome in each cell inactivates by condensing into a structure called a Barr body. The genes on
the inactive X chromosome are not expressed. The particular X chromosome (maternally or paternally
derived) that is inactivated in each cell is random, but once the inactivation occurs, all cells descended
from that cell will have the same inactive X chromosome. By this process, females compensate for their
double genetic dose of X chromosome.
In so-called tortoiseshell cats, X inactivation is observed as coat-color variegation (Figure 6.10).
Females heterozygous for an X-linked coat color gene will express one of two different coat colors
over different regions of their body, corresponding to whichever X chromosome is inactivated in the
embryonic cell progenitor of that region. When you see a tortoiseshell cat, you will know that it has to
be a female.
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Figure 6.10 Embryonic inactivation of one of two different X chromosomes encoding different coat
colors gives rise to the tortoiseshell phenotype in cats. (credit: Michael Bodega)
In an individual carrying an abnormal number of X chromosomes, cellular mechanisms will

inactivate all but one X in each of her cells. As a result, X-chromosomal abnormalities are typically
associated with mild mental and physical defects, as well as sterility. If the X chromosome is absent
altogether, the individual will not develop.
Several errors in sex chromosome number have been characterized. Individuals with three X
chromosomes, called triplo-X, appear female but express developmental delays and reduced fertility.
The XXY chromosome complement, corresponding to one type of Klinefelter syndrome, corresponds to
male individuals with small testes, enlarged breasts, and reduced body hair. The extra X chromosome
undergoes inactivation to compensate for the excess genetic dosage. Turner syndrome, characterized as
an X0 chromosome complement (i.e., only a single sex chromosome), corresponds to a female individual
with short stature, webbed skin in the neck region, hearing and cardiac impairments, and sterility.
An individual with more than the correct number of chromosome sets (two for diploid species) is
called polyploid. For instance, fertilization of an abnormal diploid egg with a normal haploid sperm
would yield a triploid zygote. Polyploid animals are extremely rare, with only a few examples among the
flatworms, crustaceans, amphibians, fish, and lizards. Triploid animals are sterile because meiosis cannot
proceed normally with an odd number of chromosome sets. In contrast, polyploidy is very common in
the plant kingdom, and polyploid plants tend to be larger and more robust than euploids of their species.
Chromosome Structural Rearrangements

Cytologists have characterized numerous structural rearrangements in chromosomes, including partial
duplications, deletions, inversions, and translocations. Duplications and deletions often produce
offspring that survive but exhibit physical and mental abnormalities. Cri-du-chat (from the French for
cry of the cat) is a syndrome associated with nervous system abnormalities and identifiable physical
features that results from a deletion of most of the small arm of chromosome 5 (Figure 6.11). Infants
with this genotype emit a characteristic high-pitched cry upon which the disorders name is based.
Figure 6.11 This individual with cri-du-chat syndrome is shown at various ages: (A) age two, (B) age
four, (C) age nine, and (D) age 12. (credit: Paola Cerruti Mainardi)
Chromosome inversions and translocations can be identified by observing cells during meiosis
because homologous chromosomes with a rearrangement in one of the pair must contort to maintain
appropriate gene alignment and pair effectively during prophase I.
A chromosome inversion is the detachment, 180 rotation, and reinsertion of part of a chromosome
(Figure 6.12). Unless they disrupt a gene sequence, inversions only change the orientation of genes and
are likely to have more mild effects than aneuploid errors.
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The Chromosome 18 Inversion

Not all structural rearrangements of chromosomes produce nonviable, impaired, or
infertile individuals. In rare instances, such a change can result in the evolution of a
new species. In fact, an inversion in chromosome 18 appears to have contributed to the
evolution of humans. This inversion is not present in our closest genetic relatives, the
chimpanzees.
The chromosome 18 inversion is believed to have occurred in early humans following
their divergence from a common ancestor with chimpanzees approximately five million
years ago. Researchers have suggested that a long stretch of DNA was duplicated on
chromosome 18 of an ancestor to humans, but that during the duplication it was inverted
(inserted into the chromosome in reverse orientation.
A comparison of human and chimpanzee genes in the region of this inversion
indicates that two genesROCK1 and USP14are farther apart on human chromosome
18 than they are on the corresponding chimpanzee chromosome. This suggests that one
of the inversion breakpoints occurred between these two genes. Interestingly, humans and
chimpanzees express USP14 at distinct levels in specific cell types, including cortical cells
and fibroblasts. Perhaps the chromosome 18 inversion in an ancestral human repositioned
specific genes and reset their expression levels in a useful way. Because both ROCK1
and USP14 code for enzymes, a change in their expression could alter cellular function.
It is not known how this inversion contributed to hominid evolution, but it appears to be a
[2]
significant factor in the divergence of humans from other primates.
A translocation occurs when a segment of a chromosome dissociates and reattaches to a different,
nonhomologous chromosome. Translocations can be benign or have devastating effects, depending
on how the positions of genes are altered with respect to regulatory sequences. Notably, specific
translocations have been associated with several cancers and with schizophrenia. Reciprocal
translocations result from the exchange of chromosome segments between two nonhomologous
chromosomes such that there is no gain or loss of genetic information (Figure 6.12).
Figure 6.12 An (a) inversion occurs when a chromosome segment breaks from the chromosome,
reverses its orientation, and then reattaches in the original position. A (b) reciprocal translocation
occurs between two nonhomologous chromosomes and does not cause any genetic information to
be lost or duplicated. (credit: modification of work by National Human Genome Research Institute
(USA)
2. V Goidts, et al., Segmental duplication associated with the human-specific inversion of chromosome 18: a further
example of the impact of segmental duplications on karyotype and genome evolution in primates, Human
Genetics, 115 (2004):11622.
KEY TERMS
alternation of generations a life-cycle type in which the diploid and haploid stages alternate
aneuploid an individual with an error in chromosome number; includes deletions and duplications
of chromosome segments
autosome any of the non-sex chromosomes
chiasmata (singular = chiasma) the structure that forms at the crossover points after genetic material
is exchanged
chromosome inversion the detachment, 180 rotation, and reinsertion of a chromosome arm
crossing over (also, recombination) the exchange of genetic material between homologous
chromosomes resulting in chromosomes that incorporate genes from both parents of the
organism forming reproductive cells
diploid-dominant a life-cycle type in which the multicellular diploid stage is prevalent
euploid an individual with the appropriate number of chromosomes for their species
fertilization the union of two haploid cells typically from two individual organisms
gametophyte a multicellular haploid life-cycle stage that produces gametes
germ cell a specialized cell that produces gametes, such as eggs or sperm
haploid-dominant a life-cycle type in which the multicellular haploid stage is prevalent
interkinesis a period of rest that may occur between meiosis I and meiosis II; there is no replication
of DNA during interkinesis
karyogram the photographic image of a karyotype
karyotype the number and appearance of an individuals chromosomes, including the size, banding
patterns, and centromere position
life cycle the sequence of events in the development of an organism and the production of cells that
produce offspring
meiosis II the second round of meiotic cell division following meiosis I; sister chromatids are
separated from each other, and the result is four unique haploid cells
meiosis I the first round of meiotic cell division; referred to as reduction division because the
resulting cells are haploid
meiosis a nuclear division process that results in four haploid cells
monosomy an otherwise diploid genotype in which one chromosome is missing
nondisjunction the failure of synapsed homologs to completely separate and migrate to separate
poles during the first cell division of meiosis
polyploid an individual with an incorrect number of chromosome sets
recombinant describing something composed of genetic material from two sources, such as a
chromosome with both maternal and paternal segments of DNA
reduction division a nuclear division that produces daughter nuclei each having one-half as many
chromosome sets as the parental nucleus; meiosis I is a reduction division
somatic cell all the cells of a multicellular organism except the gamete-forming cells
sporophyte a multicellular diploid life-cycle stage that produces spores
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synapsis the formation of a close association between homologous chromosomes during prophase
I
tetrad two duplicated homologous chromosomes (four chromatids) bound together by chiasmata
during prophase I
translocation the process by which one segment of a chromosome dissociates and reattaches to a
different, nonhomologous chromosome
trisomy an otherwise diploid genotype in which one entire chromosome is duplicated
X inactivation the condensation of X chromosomes into Barr bodies during embryonic
development in females to compensate for the double genetic dose
CHAPTER SUMMARY
6.1 Sexual Reproduction
Nearly all eukaryotes undergo sexual reproduction. The variation introduced into the reproductive cells
by meiosis appears to be one of the advantages of sexual reproduction that has made it so successful.
Meiosis and fertilization alternate in sexual life cycles. The process of meiosis produces genetically
unique reproductive cells called gametes, which have half the number of chromosomes as the parent
cell. Fertilization, the fusion of haploid gametes from two individuals, restores the diploid condition.
Thus, sexually reproducing organisms alternate between haploid and diploid stages. However, the ways
in which reproductive cells are produced and the timing between meiosis and fertilization vary greatly.
There are three main categories of life cycles: diploid-dominant, demonstrated by most animals;
haploid-dominant, demonstrated by all fungi and some algae; and alternation of generations,
demonstrated by plants and some algae.
6.2 Meiosis
Sexual reproduction requires that diploid organisms produce haploid cells that can fuse during
fertilization to form diploid offspring. The process that results in haploid cells is called meiosis. Meiosis
is a series of events that arrange and separate chromosomes into daughter cells. During the interphase of
meiosis, each chromosome is duplicated. In meiosis, there are two rounds of nuclear division resulting
in four nuclei and usually four haploid daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the
parent cell. During meiosis, variation in the daughter nuclei is introduced because of crossover in
prophase I and random alignment at metaphase I. The cells that are produced by meiosis are genetically
unique.
Meiosis and mitosis share similarities, but have distinct outcomes. Mitotic divisions are single
nuclear divisions that produce daughter nuclei that are genetically identical and have the same number
of chromosome sets as the original cell. Meiotic divisions are two nuclear divisions that produce four
daughter nuclei that are genetically different and have one chromosome set rather than the two sets the
parent cell had. The main differences between the processes occur in the first division of meiosis. The
homologous chromosomes separate into different nuclei during meiosis I causing a reduction of ploidy
level. The second division of meiosis is much more similar to a mitotic division.
6.3 Errors in Meiosis

The number, size, shape, and banding pattern of chromosomes make them easily identifiable in a
karyogram and allow for the assessment of many chromosomal abnormalities. Disorders in
chromosome number, or aneuploidies, are typically lethal to the embryo, although a few trisomic
genotypes are viable. Because of X inactivation, aberrations in sex chromosomes typically have milder
effects on an individual. Aneuploidies also include instances in which segments of a chromosome are
duplicated or deleted. Chromosome structures also may be rearranged, for example by inversion or
translocation. Both of these aberrations can result in negative effects on development, or death. Because
they force chromosomes to assume contorted pairings during meiosis I, inversions and translocations
are often associated with reduced fertility because of the likelihood of nondisjunction.
1. Figure 6.2 If a mutation occurs so that a fungus

is no longer able to produce a minus mating type,
will it still be able to reproduce?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
2. What is a likely evolutionary advantage of
sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?
a. sexual reproduction involves fewer steps
b. less chance of using up the resources in
a given environment
c. sexual reproduction results in greater
variation in the offspring
d. sexual reproduction is more costeffective
3. Which type of life cycle has both a haploid and
diploid multicellular stage?
a. an asexual life cycle
b. diploid-dominant
c. haploid-dominant
d. alternation of generations
4. Which event leads to a diploid cell in a life
cycle?
a. meiosis
b. fertilization
c. alternation of generations
d. mutation
7. The part of meiosis that is similar to mitosis is

________.
a. meiosis I
b. anaphase I
c. meiosis II
d. interkinesis
8. If a muscle cell of a typical organism has 32
chromosomes, how many chromosomes will be in
a gamete of that same organism?
a. 8
b. 16
c. 32
d. 64
9. The genotype XXY corresponds to:
a. Klinefelter syndrome
b. Turner syndrome
c. Triplo-X
d. Jacob syndrome
10. Abnormalities in the number of X
chromosomes tend to be milder than the same
abnormalities in autosomes because of ________.
5. Meiosis produces ________ daughter cells.

a.
b.
c.
d.
two haploid
two diploid
four haploid
four diploid
6. At which stage of meiosis are sister chromatids

separated from each other?
a. prophase I
b. prophase II
c. anaphase I
d. anaphase II
a.
b.
c.
d.
deletions
nonhomologous recombination
synapsis
X inactivation
11. Aneuploidies are deleterious for the individual

because of what phenomenon?
a. nondisjunction
b. gene dosage
c. meiotic errors
d. X inactivation

12. Explain the advantage that populations of
sexually reproducing organisms have over
asexually reproducing organisms?
13. Describe the two events that are common to
all sexually reproducing organisms and how they
fit into the different life cycles of those
organisms.
14. Explain how the random alignment of
homologous chromosomes during metaphase I
contributes to variation in gametes produced by

meiosis.
15. In what ways is meiosis II similar to and
different from mitosis of a diploid cell?
16. Individuals with trisomy 21 are more likely to
survive to adulthood than individuals with trisomy
18. Based on what you know about aneuploidies
from this module, what can you hypothesize about
chromosomes 21 and 18?
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CHAPTER 7 | PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE
7 | PATTERNS OF
INHERITANCE
Figure 7.1 Experimenting with thousands of garden peas, Mendel uncovered the fundamentals of
genetics. (credit: modification of work by Jerry Kirkhart)
Chapter Outline
7.1: Mendels Experiments
7.2: Laws of Inheritance
7.3: Extensions of the Laws of Inheritance
Introduction
Genetics is the study of heredity. Johann Gregor Mendel set the framework for genetics long before
chromosomes or genes had been identified, at a time when meiosis was not well understood. Mendel
selected a simple biological system and conducted methodical, quantitative analyses using large sample
sizes. Because of Mendels work, the fundamental principles of heredity were revealed. We now know
that genes, carried on chromosomes, are the basic functional units of heredity with the ability to be
replicated, expressed, or mutated. Today, the postulates put forth by Mendel form the basis of classical,
or Mendelian, genetics. Not all genes are transmitted from parents to offspring according to Mendelian
genetics, but Mendels experiments serve as an excellent starting point for thinking about inheritance.
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7.1 | Mendels Experiments

Explain the scientific reasons for the success of Mendels experimental work
Describe the expected outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving dominant and recessive
alleles
Figure 7.2 Johann Gregor Mendel set the framework for the study of genetics.
Johann Gregor Mendel (18221884) (Figure 7.2) was a lifelong learner, teacher, scientist, and man of
faith. As a young adult, he joined the Augustinian Abbey of St. Thomas in Brno in what is now the
Czech Republic. Supported by the monastery, he taught physics, botany, and natural science courses
at the secondary and university levels. In 1856, he began a decade-long research pursuit involving
inheritance patterns in honeybees and plants, ultimately settling on pea plants as his primary model
system (a system with convenient characteristics that is used to study a specific biological phenomenon
to gain understanding to be applied to other systems). In 1865, Mendel presented the results of his
experiments with nearly 30,000 pea plants to the local natural history society. He demonstrated that traits
are transmitted faithfully from parents to offspring in specific patterns. In 1866, he published his work,
[1]
Experiments in Plant Hybridization, in the proceedings of the Natural History Society of Brnn.
Mendels work went virtually unnoticed by the scientific community, which incorrectly believed
that the process of inheritance involved a blending of parental traits that produced an intermediate
physical appearance in offspring. This hypothetical process appeared to be correct because of what we
know now as continuous variation. Continuous variation is the range of small differences we see among
individuals in a characteristic like human height. It does appear that offspring are a blend of their
parents traits when we look at characteristics that exhibit continuous variation. Mendel worked instead
with traits that show discontinuous variation. Discontinuous variation is the variation seen among
individuals when each individual shows one of twoor a very feweasily distinguishable traits, such
as violet or white flowers. Mendels choice of these kinds of traits allowed him to see experimentally that
the traits were not blended in the offspring as would have been expected at the time, but that they were
inherited as distinct traits. In 1868, Mendel became abbot of the monastery and exchanged his scientific
pursuits for his pastoral duties. He was not recognized for his extraordinary scientific contributions
during his lifetime; in fact, it was not until 1900 that his work was rediscovered, reproduced, and
revitalized by scientists on the brink of discovering the chromosomal basis of heredity.
Mendels Crosses
Mendels seminal work was accomplished using the garden pea, Pisum sativum, to study inheritance.
This species naturally self-fertilizes, meaning that pollen encounters ova within the same flower. The
flower petals remain sealed tightly until pollination is completed to prevent the pollination of other
plants. The result is highly inbred, or true-breeding, pea plants. These are plants that always produce
1. Johann Gregor Mendel, Versuche ber Pflanzenhybriden. Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Brnn, Bd. IV
fr das Jahr, 1865 Abhandlungen (1866):347. [for English translation, see http://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.plain.html]
offspring that look like the parent. By experimenting with true-breeding pea plants, Mendel avoided
the appearance of unexpected traits in offspring that might occur if the plants were not true breeding.
The garden pea also grows to maturity within one season, meaning that several generations could
be evaluated over a relatively short time. Finally, large quantities of garden peas could be cultivated
simultaneously, allowing Mendel to conclude that his results did not come about simply by chance.
Mendel performed hybridizations, which involve mating two true-breeding individuals that have
different traits. In the pea, which is naturally self-pollinating, this is done by manually transferring pollen
from the anther of a mature pea plant of one variety to the stigma of a separate mature pea plant of the
second variety.
Plants used in first-generation crosses were called P, or parental generation, plants (Figure 7.3).
Mendel collected the seeds produced by the P plants that resulted from each cross and grew them
the following season. These offspring were called the F1, or the first filial (filial = daughter or son),
generation. Once Mendel examined the characteristics in the F1 generation of plants, he allowed them
to self-fertilize naturally. He then collected and grew the seeds from the F1 plants to produce the F2, or
second filial, generation. Mendels experiments extended beyond the F2 generation to the F3 generation,
F4 generation, and so on, but it was the ratio of characteristics in the P, F1, and F2 generations that were
the most intriguing and became the basis of Mendels postulates.
Figure 7.3 Mendels process for performing crosses included examining flower color.
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Garden Pea Characteristics Revealed the Basics of

Heredity
In his 1865 publication, Mendel reported the results of his crosses involving seven different
characteristics, each with two contrasting traits. A trait is defined as a variation in the physical
appearance of a heritable characteristic. The characteristics included plant height, seed texture, seed
color, flower color, pea-pod size, pea-pod color, and flower position. For the characteristic of flower
color, for example, the two contrasting traits were white versus violet. To fully examine each
characteristic, Mendel generated large numbers of F1 and F2 plants and reported results from thousands
of F2 plants.
What results did Mendel find in his crosses for flower color? First, Mendel confirmed that he was
using plants that bred true for white or violet flower color. Irrespective of the number of generations
that Mendel examined, all self-crossed offspring of parents with white flowers had white flowers, and all
self-crossed offspring of parents with violet flowers had violet flowers. In addition, Mendel confirmed
that, other than flower color, the pea plants were physically identical. This was an important check to
make sure that the two varieties of pea plants only differed with respect to one trait, flower color.
Once these validations were complete, Mendel applied the pollen from a plant with violet flowers
to the stigma of a plant with white flowers. After gathering and sowing the seeds that resulted from
this cross, Mendel found that 100 percent of the F1 hybrid generation had violet flowers. Conventional
wisdom at that time would have predicted the hybrid flowers to be pale violet or for hybrid plants to
have equal numbers of white and violet flowers. In other words, the contrasting parental traits were
expected to blend in the offspring. Instead, Mendels results demonstrated that the white flower trait had
completely disappeared in the F1 generation.
Importantly, Mendel did not stop his experimentation there. He allowed the F1 plants to self-fertilize
and found that 705 plants in the F2 generation had violet flowers and 224 had white flowers. This was a
ratio of 3.15 violet flowers to one white flower, or approximately 3:1. When Mendel transferred pollen
from a plant with violet flowers to the stigma of a plant with white flowers and vice versa, he obtained
approximately the same ratio irrespective of which parentmale or femalecontributed which trait.
This is called a reciprocal crossa paired cross in which the respective traits of the male and female
in one cross become the respective traits of the female and male in the other cross. For the other six
characteristics that Mendel examined, the F1 and F2 generations behaved in the same way that they
behaved for flower color. One of the two traits would disappear completely from the F1 generation, only
to reappear in the F2 generation at a ratio of roughly 3:1 (Figure 7.4).
Figure 7.4 Mendel identified seven pea plant characteristics.
Upon compiling his results for many thousands of plants, Mendel concluded that the characteristics
could be divided into expressed and latent traits. He called these dominant and recessive traits,
respectively. Dominant traits are those that are inherited unchanged in a hybridization. Recessive traits
become latent, or disappear in the offspring of a hybridization. The recessive trait does, however,
reappear in the progeny of the hybrid offspring. An example of a dominant trait is the violet-colored
flower trait. For this same characteristic (flower color), white-colored flowers are a recessive trait. The
fact that the recessive trait reappeared in the F2 generation meant that the traits remained separate (and
were not blended) in the plants of the F1 generation. Mendel proposed that this was because the plants
possessed two copies of the trait for the flower-color characteristic, and that each parent transmitted
one of their two copies to their offspring, where they came together. Moreover, the physical observation
of a dominant trait could mean that the genetic composition of the organism included two dominant
versions of the characteristic, or that it included one dominant and one recessive version. Conversely,
the observation of a recessive trait meant that the organism lacked any dominant versions of this
characteristic.
For an excellent review of Mendels experiments and to perform your own crosses and identify
patterns of inheritance, visit the Mendels Peas (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/mendels_peas) web
lab.
7.2 | Laws of Inheritance

Explain the relationship between genotypes and phenotypes in dominant and recessive gene
systems
Use a Punnett square to calculate the expected proportions of genotypes and phenotypes in a
monohybrid cross
Explain Mendels law of segregation and independent assortment in terms of genetics and the
events of meiosis
Explain the purpose and methods of a test cross
The seven characteristics that Mendel evaluated in his pea plants were each expressed as one of two
versions, or traits. Mendel deduced from his results that each individual had two discrete copies of the
characteristic that are passed individually to offspring. We now call those two copies genes, which are
carried on chromosomes. The reason we have two copies of each gene is that we inherit one from each
parent. In fact, it is the chromosomes we inherit and the two copies of each gene are located on paired
chromosomes. Recall that in meiosis these chromosomes are separated out into haploid gametes. This
separation, or segregation, of the homologous chromosomes means also that only one of the copies of
the gene gets moved into a gamete. The offspring are formed when that gamete unites with one from
another parent and the two copies of each gene (and chromosome) are restored.
For cases in which a single gene controls a single characteristic, a diploid organism has two genetic
copies that may or may not encode the same version of that characteristic. For example, one individual
may carry a gene that determines white flower color and a gene that determines violet flower color. Gene
variants that arise by mutation and exist at the same relative locations on homologous chromosomes are
called alleles. Mendel examined the inheritance of genes with just two allele forms, but it is common to
encounter more than two alleles for any given gene in a natural population.
Phenotypes and Genotypes

Two alleles for a given gene in a diploid organism are expressed and interact to produce physical
characteristics. The observable traits expressed by an organism are referred to as its phenotype. An
organisms underlying genetic makeup, consisting of both the physically visible and the non-expressed
alleles, is called its genotype. Mendels hybridization experiments demonstrate the difference between
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phenotype and genotype. For example, the phenotypes that Mendel observed in his crosses between
pea plants with differing traits are connected to the diploid genotypes of the plants in the P, F1, and F2
generations. We will use a second trait that Mendel investigated, seed color, as an example. Seed color
is governed by a single gene with two alleles. The yellow-seed allele is dominant and the green-seed
allele is recessive. When true-breeding plants were cross-fertilized, in which one parent had yellow seeds
and one had green seeds, all of the F1 hybrid offspring had yellow seeds. That is, the hybrid offspring
were phenotypically identical to the true-breeding parent with yellow seeds. However, we know that the
allele donated by the parent with green seeds was not simply lost because it reappeared in some of the F2
offspring (Figure 7.5). Therefore, the F1 plants must have been genotypically different from the parent
with yellow seeds.
The P plants that Mendel used in his experiments were each homozygous for the trait he was
studying. Diploid organisms that are homozygous for a gene have two identical alleles, one on each
of their homologous chromosomes. The genotype is often written as YY or yy, for which each letter
represents one of the two alleles in the genotype. The dominant allele is capitalized and the recessive
allele is lower case. The letter used for the gene (seed color in this case) is usually related to the dominant
trait (yellow allele, in this case, or Y). Mendels parental pea plants always bred true because both
produced gametes carried the same allele. When P plants with contrasting traits were cross-fertilized, all
of the offspring were heterozygous for the contrasting trait, meaning their genotype had different alleles
for the gene being examined. For example, the F1 yellow plants that received a Y allele from their yellow
parent and a y allele from their green parent had the genotype Yy.
Figure 7.5 Phenotypes are physical expressions of traits that are transmitted by alleles. Capital
letters represent dominant alleles and lowercase letters represent recessive alleles. The phenotypic
ratios are the ratios of visible characteristics. The genotypic ratios are the ratios of gene
combinations in the offspring, and these are not always distinguishable in the phenotypes.
Law of Dominance
Our discussion of homozygous and heterozygous organisms brings us to why the F1 heterozygous
offspring were identical to one of the parents, rather than expressing both alleles. In all seven peaplant characteristics, one of the two contrasting alleles was dominant, and the other was recessive.
Mendel called the dominant allele the expressed unit factor; the recessive allele was referred to as the
latent unit factor. We now know that these so-called unit factors are actually genes on homologous
chromosomes. For a gene that is expressed in a dominant and recessive pattern, homozygous dominant
and heterozygous organisms will look identical (that is, they will have different genotypes but the same
phenotype), and the recessive allele will only be observed in homozygous recessive individuals (Table
7.1).
Correspondence between Genotype and Phenotype for a DominantRecessive Characteristic.

Homozygous
Heterozygous
Homozygous
Genotype
YY
Yy
yy
Phenotype
yellow
yellow
green
Table 7.1
Mendels law of dominance states that in a heterozygote, one trait will conceal the presence of
another trait for the same characteristic. For example, when crossing true-breeding violet-flowered plants
with true-breeding white-flowered plants, all of the offspring were violet-flowered, even though they all
had one allele for violet and one allele for white. Rather than both alleles contributing to a phenotype,
the dominant allele will be expressed exclusively. The recessive allele will remain latent, but will be
transmitted to offspring in the same manner as that by which the dominant allele is transmitted. The
recessive trait will only be expressed by offspring that have two copies of this allele (Figure 7.6), and
these offspring will breed true when self-crossed.
Figure 7.6 The allele for albinism, expressed here in humans, is recessive. Both of this childs
parents carried the recessive allele.
Monohybrid Cross and the Punnett Square

When fertilization occurs between two true-breeding parents that differ by only the characteristic being
studied, the process is called a monohybrid cross, and the resulting offspring are called monohybrids.
Mendel performed seven types of monohybrid crosses, each involving contrasting traits for different
characteristics. Out of these crosses, all of the F1 offspring had the phenotype of one parent, and the F2
offspring had a 3:1 phenotypic ratio. On the basis of these results, Mendel postulated that each parent
in the monohybrid cross contributed one of two paired unit factors to each offspring, and every possible
combination of unit factors was equally likely.
The results of Mendels research can be explained in terms of probabilities, which are mathematical
measures of likelihood. The probability of an event is calculated by the number of times the event occurs
divided by the total number of opportunities for the event to occur. A probability of one (100 percent)
for some event indicates that it is guaranteed to occur, whereas a probability of zero (0 percent) indicates
that it is guaranteed to not occur, and a probability of 0.5 (50 percent) means it has an equal chance of
occurring or not occurring.
To demonstrate this with a monohybrid cross, consider the case of true-breeding pea plants with
yellow versus green seeds. The dominant seed color is yellow; therefore, the parental genotypes were YY
for the plants with yellow seeds and yy for the plants with green seeds. A Punnett square, devised by the
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British geneticist Reginald Punnett, is useful for determining probabilities because it is drawn to predict
all possible outcomes of all possible random fertilization events and their expected frequencies. Figure
7.9 shows a Punnett square for a cross between a plant with yellow peas and one with green peas. To
prepare a Punnett square, all possible combinations of the parental alleles (the genotypes of the gametes)
are listed along the top (for one parent) and side (for the other parent) of a grid. The combinations of egg
and sperm gametes are then made in the boxes in the table on the basis of which alleles are combining.
Each box then represents the diploid genotype of a zygote, or fertilized egg. Because each possibility
is equally likely, genotypic ratios can be determined from a Punnett square. If the pattern of inheritance
(dominant and recessive) is known, the phenotypic ratios can be inferred as well. For a monohybrid cross
of two true-breeding parents, each parent contributes one type of allele. In this case, only one genotype
is possible in the F1 offspring. All offspring are Yy and have yellow seeds.
When the F1 offspring are crossed with each other, each has an equal probability of contributing
either a Y or a y to the F2 offspring. The result is a 1 in 4 (25 percent) probability of both parents
contributing a Y, resulting in an offspring with a yellow phenotype; a 25 percent probability of parent
A contributing a Y and parent B a y, resulting in offspring with a yellow phenotype; a 25 percent
probability of parent A contributing a y and parent B a Y, also resulting in a yellow phenotype; and a
(25 percent) probability of both parents contributing a y, resulting in a green phenotype. When counting
all four possible outcomes, there is a 3 in 4 probability of offspring having the yellow phenotype and a
1 in 4 probability of offspring having the green phenotype. This explains why the results of Mendels
F2 generation occurred in a 3:1 phenotypic ratio. Using large numbers of crosses, Mendel was able to
calculate probabilities, found that they fit the model of inheritance, and use these to predict the outcomes
of other crosses.
Law of Segregation
Observing that true-breeding pea plants with contrasting traits gave rise to F1 generations that all
expressed the dominant trait and F2 generations that expressed the dominant and recessive traits in a
3:1 ratio, Mendel proposed the law of segregation. This law states that paired unit factors (genes) must
segregate equally into gametes such that offspring have an equal likelihood of inheriting either factor.
For the F2 generation of a monohybrid cross, the following three possible combinations of genotypes
result: homozygous dominant, heterozygous, or homozygous recessive. Because heterozygotes could
arise from two different pathways (receiving one dominant and one recessive allele from either parent),
and because heterozygotes and homozygous dominant individuals are phenotypically identical, the law
supports Mendels observed 3:1 phenotypic ratio. The equal segregation of alleles is the reason we
can apply the Punnett square to accurately predict the offspring of parents with known genotypes. The
physical basis of Mendels law of segregation is the first division of meiosis in which the homologous
chromosomes with their different versions of each gene are segregated into daughter nuclei. This process
was not understood by the scientific community during Mendels lifetime (Figure 7.7).
Figure 7.7 The first division in meiosis is shown.
Test Cross
Beyond predicting the offspring of a cross between known homozygous or heterozygous parents,
Mendel also developed a way to determine whether an organism that expressed a dominant trait
was a heterozygote or a homozygote. Called the test cross, this technique is still used by plant and
animal breeders. In a test cross, the dominant-expressing organism is crossed with an organism that is
homozygous recessive for the same characteristic. If the dominant-expressing organism is a homozygote,
then all F1 offspring will be heterozygotes expressing the dominant trait (Figure 7.8). Alternatively, if the
dominant-expressing organism is a heterozygote, the F1 offspring will exhibit a 1:1 ratio of heterozygotes
and recessive homozygotes (Figure 7.8). The test cross further validates Mendels postulate that pairs of
unit factors segregate equally.
Figure 7.8 A test cross can be performed to determine whether an organism expressing a dominant
trait is a homozygote or a heterozygote.
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Figure 7.9 This Punnett square shows the cross between plants with yellow seeds and green
seeds. The cross between the true-breeding P plants produces F1 heterozygotes that can be
self-fertilized. The self-cross of the F1 generation can be analyzed with a Punnett square to
predict the genotypes of the F2 generation. Given an inheritance pattern of dominantrecessive,
the genotypic and phenotypic ratios can then be determined.
In pea plants, round peas (R) are dominant to wrinkled peas (r). You do a test cross
between a pea plant with wrinkled peas (genotype rr) and a plant of unknown genotype
that has round peas. You end up with three plants, all which have round peas. From this
data, can you tell if the parent plant is homozygous dominant or heterozygous?
Law of Independent Assortment

Mendels law of independent assortment states that genes do not influence each other with regard to the
sorting of alleles into gametes, and every possible combination of alleles for every gene is equally likely
to occur. Independent assortment of genes can be illustrated by the dihybrid cross, a cross between two
true-breeding parents that express different traits for two characteristics. Consider the characteristics of
seed color and seed texture for two pea plants, one that has wrinkled, green seeds (rryy) and another that
has round, yellow seeds (RRYY). Because each parent is homozygous, the law of segregation indicates
that the gametes for the wrinkledgreen plant all are ry, and the gametes for the roundyellow plant are
all RY. Therefore, the F1 generation of offspring all are RrYy (Figure 7.10).
Figure 7.10 A dihybrid cross in pea plants involves the genes for seed color and texture. The
P cross produces F1 offspring that are all heterozygous for both characteristics. The resulting
9:3:3:1 F2 phenotypic ratio is obtained using a Punnett square.
In pea plants, purple flowers (P) are dominant to white (p), and yellow peas (Y)
are dominant to green (y). What are the possible genotypes and phenotypes for a cross
between PpYY and ppYy pea plants? How many squares would you need to complete a
Punnett square analysis of this cross?
The gametes produced by the F1 individuals must have one allele from each of the two genes. For
example, a gamete could get an R allele for the seed shape gene and either a Y or a y allele for the seed
color gene. It cannot get both an R and an r allele; each gamete can have only one allele per gene. The
law of independent assortment states that a gamete into which an r allele is sorted would be equally likely
to contain either a Y or a y allele. Thus, there are four equally likely gametes that can be formed when
the RrYy heterozygote is self-crossed, as follows: RY, rY, Ry, and ry. Arranging these gametes along the
top and left of a 4 4 Punnett square (Figure 7.10) gives us 16 equally likely genotypic combinations.
From these genotypes, we find a phenotypic ratio of 9 roundyellow:3 roundgreen:3 wrinkledyellow:1
wrinkledgreen (Figure 7.10). These are the offspring ratios we would expect, assuming we performed
the crosses with a large enough sample size.
The physical basis for the law of independent assortment also lies in meiosis I, in which the different
homologous pairs line up in random orientations. Each gamete can contain any combination of paternal
and maternal chromosomes (and therefore the genes on them) because the orientation of tetrads on the
metaphase plane is random (Figure 7.11).
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Figure 7.11 The random segregation into daughter nuclei that happens during the first division in
meiosis can lead to a variety of possible genetic arrangements.
7.3 | Extensions of the Laws of Inheritance

Identify non-Mendelian inheritance patterns such as incomplete dominance, codominance,
multiple alleles, and sex linkage from the results of crosses
Explain the effect of linkage and recombination on gamete genotypes
Explain the phenotypic outcomes of epistatic effects among genes
Mendel studied traits with only one mode of inheritance in pea plants. The inheritance of the traits
he studied all followed the relatively simple pattern of dominant and recessive alleles for a single
characteristic. There are several important modes of inheritance, discovered after Mendels work, that do
not follow the dominant and recessive, single-gene model.
Alternatives to Dominance and Recessiveness

Mendels experiments with pea plants suggested that: 1) two types of units or alleles exist for every
gene; 2) alleles maintain their integrity in each generation (no blending); and 3) in the presence of
the dominant allele, the recessive allele is hidden, with no contribution to the phenotype. Therefore,
recessive alleles can be carried and not expressed by individuals. Such heterozygous individuals are
sometimes referred to as carriers. Since then, genetic studies in other organisms have shown that much
more complexity exists, but that the fundamental principles of Mendelian genetics still hold true. In the
sections to follow, we consider some of the extensions of Mendelism.
Incomplete Dominance
Mendels results, demonstrating that traits are inherited as dominant and recessive pairs, contradicted
the view at that time that offspring exhibited a blend of their parents traits. However, the heterozygote
phenotype occasionally does appear to be intermediate between the two parents. For example, in the
snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus (Figure 7.12), a cross between a homozygous parent with white flowers
(CWCW) and a homozygous parent with red flowers (CRCR) will produce offspring with pink flowers
(CRCW). (Note that different genotypic abbreviations are used for Mendelian extensions to distinguish
these patterns from simple dominance and recessiveness.) This pattern of inheritance is described as
incomplete dominance, meaning that one of the alleles appears in the phenotype in the heterozygote,
but not to the exclusion of the other, which can also be seen. The allele for red flowers is incompletely
dominant over the allele for white flowers. However, the results of a heterozygote self-cross can still
be predicted, just as with Mendelian dominant and recessive crosses. In this case, the genotypic ratio
would be 1 CRCR:2 CRCW:1 CWCW, and the phenotypic ratio would be 1:2:1 for red:pink:white. The
basis for the intermediate color in the heterozygote is simply that the pigment produced by the red allele
(anthocyanin) is diluted in the heterozygote and therefore appears pink because of the white background
of the flower petals.
Figure 7.12 These pink flowers of a heterozygote snapdragon result from incomplete dominance.
(credit: "storebukkebruse"/Flickr)
Codominance
A variation on incomplete dominance is codominance, in which both alleles for the same characteristic
are simultaneously expressed in the heterozygote. An example of codominance occurs in the ABO blood
groups of humans. The A and B alleles are expressed in the form of A or B molecules present on the
surface of red blood cells. Homozygotes (IAIA and IBIB) express either the A or the B phenotype, and
heterozygotes (IAIB) express both phenotypes equally. The IAIB individual has blood type AB. In a selfcross between heterozygotes expressing a codominant trait, the three possible offspring genotypes are
phenotypically distinct. However, the 1:2:1 genotypic ratio characteristic of a Mendelian monohybrid
cross still applies (Figure 7.13).
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Figure 7.13 This Punnet square shows an AB/AB blood type cross
Multiple Alleles
Mendel implied that only two alleles, one dominant and one recessive, could exist for a given gene. We
now know that this is an oversimplification. Although individual humans (and all diploid organisms)
can only have two alleles for a given gene, multiple alleles may exist at the population level, such that
many combinations of two alleles are observed. Note that when many alleles exist for the same gene, the
convention is to denote the most common phenotype or genotype in the natural population as the wild
type (often abbreviated +). All other phenotypes or genotypes are considered variants (mutants) of this
typical form, meaning they deviate from the wild type. The variant may be recessive or dominant to the
wild-type allele.
An example of multiple alleles is the ABO blood-type system in humans. In this case, there are
three alleles circulating in the population. The IA allele codes for A molecules on the red blood cells, the
IB allele codes for B molecules on the surface of red blood cells, and the i allele codes for no molecules
on the red blood cells. In this case, the IA and IB alleles are codominant with each other and are both
dominant over the i allele. Although there are three alleles present in a population, each individual only
gets two of the alleles from their parents. This produces the genotypes and phenotypes shown in Figure
7.14. Notice that instead of three genotypes, there are six different genotypes when there are three alleles.
The number of possible phenotypes depends on the dominance relationships between the three alleles.
Figure 7.14 Inheritance of the ABO blood system in humans is shown.
Multiple Alleles Confer Drug Resistance in the Malaria

Parasite
Malaria is a parasitic disease in humans that is transmitted by infected female
mosquitoes, including Anopheles gambiae, and is characterized by cyclic high fevers,
chills, flu-like symptoms, and severe anemia. Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax are the
most common causative agents of malaria, and P. falciparum is the most deadly. When
promptly and correctly treated, P. falciparum malaria has a mortality rate of 0.1 percent.
However, in some parts of the world, the parasite has evolved resistance to commonly
used malaria treatments, so the most effective malarial treatments can vary by geographic
region.
In Southeast Asia, Africa, and South America, P. falciparum has developed resistance
to the anti-malarial drugs chloroquine, mefloquine, and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine. P.
falciparum, which is haploid during the life stage in which it is infective to humans,
has evolved multiple drug-resistant mutant alleles of the dhps gene. Varying degrees
of sulfadoxine resistance are associated with each of these alleles. Being haploid, P.
falciparum needs only one drug-resistant allele to express this trait.
In Southeast Asia, different sulfadoxine-resistant alleles of the dhps gene are localized
to different geographic regions. This is a common evolutionary phenomenon that comes
about because drug-resistant mutants arise in a population and interbreed with other P.
falciparum isolates in close proximity. Sulfadoxine-resistant parasites cause considerable
human hardship in regions in which this drug is widely used as an over-the-counter malaria
remedy. As is common with pathogens that multiply to large numbers within an infection
cycle, P. falciparum evolves relatively rapidly (over a decade or so) in response to the
selective pressure of commonly used anti-malarial drugs. For this reason, scientists must
constantly work to develop new drugs or drug combinations to combat the worldwide
[2]
malaria burden.
Sex-Linked Traits
In humans, as well as in many other animals and some plants, the sex of the individual is determined
by sex chromosomesone pair of non-homologous chromosomes. Until now, we have only considered
inheritance patterns among non-sex chromosomes, or autosomes. In addition to 22 homologous pairs
of autosomes, human females have a homologous pair of X chromosomes, whereas human males have
2. Sumiti Vinayak et al., Origin and Evolution of Sulfadoxine Resistant Plasmodium falciparum, PLoS Pathogens 6
(2010): e1000830.
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an XY chromosome pair. Although the Y chromosome contains a small region of similarity to the X
chromosome so that they can pair during meiosis, the Y chromosome is much shorter and contains fewer
genes. When a gene being examined is present on the X, but not the Y, chromosome, it is X-linked.
Eye color in Drosophila, the common fruit fly, was the first X-linked trait to be identified. Thomas
Hunt Morgan mapped this trait to the X chromosome in 1910. Like humans, Drosophila males have an
XY chromosome pair, and females are XX. In flies the wild-type eye color is red (XW) and is dominant
to white eye color (Xw) (Figure 7.15). Because of the location of the eye-color gene, reciprocal crosses
do not produce the same offspring ratios. Males are said to be hemizygous, in that they have only one
allele for any X-linked characteristic. Hemizygosity makes descriptions of dominance and recessiveness
irrelevant for XY males. Drosophila males lack the white gene on the Y chromosome; that is, their
genotype can only be XWY or XwY. In contrast, females have two allele copies of this gene and can be
XWXW, XWXw, or XwXw.
Figure 7.15 In Drosophila, the gene for eye color is located on the X chromosome. Red eye color is
wild-type and is dominant to white eye color.
In an X-linked cross, the genotypes of F1 and F2 offspring depend on whether the recessive trait
was expressed by the male or the female in the P generation. With respect to Drosophila eye color, when
the P male expresses the white-eye phenotype and the female is homozygously red-eyed, all members
of the F1 generation exhibit red eyes (Figure 7.16). The F1 females are heterozygous (XWXw), and the
males are all XWY, having received their X chromosome from the homozygous dominant P female and
their Y chromosome from the P male. A subsequent cross between the XWXw female and the XWY male
would produce only red-eyed females (with XWXW or XWXw genotypes) and both red- and white-eyed
males (with XWY or XwY genotypes). Now, consider a cross between a homozygous white-eyed female
and a male with red eyes. The F1 generation would exhibit only heterozygous red-eyed females (XWXw)
and only white-eyed males (XwY). Half of the F2 females would be red-eyed (XWXw) and half would be
white-eyed (XwXw). Similarly, half of the F2 males would be red-eyed (XWY) and half would be whiteeyed (XwY).
Figure 7.16 Crosses involving sex-linked traits often give rise to different phenotypes for the
different sexes of offspring, as is the case for this cross involving red and white eye color in
Drosophila. In the diagram, w is the white-eye mutant allele and W is the wild-type, red-eye
allele.
What ratio of offspring would result from a cross between a white-eyed male and a
female that is heterozygous for red eye color?
Discoveries in fruit fly genetics can be applied to human genetics. When a female parent is
homozygous for a recessive X-linked trait, she will pass the trait on to 100 percent of her male offspring,
because the males will receive the Y chromosome from the male parent. In humans, the alleles for certain
conditions (some color-blindness, hemophilia, and muscular dystrophy) are X-linked. Females who are
heterozygous for these diseases are said to be carriers and may not exhibit any phenotypic effects. These
females will pass the disease to half of their sons and will pass carrier status to half of their daughters;
therefore, X-linked traits appear more frequently in males than females.
In some groups of organisms with sex chromosomes, the sex with the non-homologous sex
chromosomes is the female rather than the male. This is the case for all birds. In this case, sex-linked
traits will be more likely to appear in the female, in whom they are hemizygous.
Watch this video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/sex-linked_trts) to learn more about sex-linked traits.
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Linked Genes Violate the Law of Independent Assortment

Although all of Mendels pea plant characteristics behaved according to the law of independent
assortment, we now know that some allele combinations are not inherited independently of each other.
Genes that are located on separate, non-homologous chromosomes will always sort independently.
However, each chromosome contains hundreds or thousands of genes, organized linearly on
chromosomes like beads on a string. The segregation of alleles into gametes can be influenced by
linkage, in which genes that are located physically close to each other on the same chromosome are more
likely to be inherited as a pair. However, because of the process of recombination, or crossover, it is
possible for two genes on the same chromosome to behave independently, or as if they are not linked. To
understand this, let us consider the biological basis of gene linkage and recombination.
Homologous chromosomes possess the same genes in the same order, though the specific alleles of
the gene can be different on each of the two chromosomes. Recall that during interphase and prophase I
of meiosis, homologous chromosomes first replicate and then synapse, with like genes on the homologs
aligning with each other. At this stage, segments of homologous chromosomes exchange linear segments
of genetic material (Figure 7.17). This process is called recombination, or crossover, and it is a common
genetic process. Because the genes are aligned during recombination, the gene order is not altered.
Instead, the result of recombination is that maternal and paternal alleles are combined onto the same
chromosome. Across a given chromosome, several recombination events may occur, causing extensive
shuffling of alleles.
Figure 7.17 The process of crossover, or recombination, occurs when two homologous
chromosomes align and exchange a segment of genetic material.
When two genes are located on the same chromosome, they are considered linked, and their alleles
tend to be transmitted through meiosis together. To exemplify this, imagine a dihybrid cross involving
flower color and plant height in which the genes are next to each other on the chromosome. If one
homologous chromosome has alleles for tall plants and red flowers, and the other chromosome has genes
for short plants and yellow flowers, then when the gametes are formed, the tall and red alleles will tend to
go together into a gamete and the short and yellow alleles will go into other gametes. These are called the
parental genotypes because they have been inherited intact from the parents of the individual producing
gametes. But unlike if the genes were on different chromosomes, there will be no gametes with tall
and yellow alleles and no gametes with short and red alleles. If you create a Punnett square with these
gametes, you will see that the classical Mendelian prediction of a 9:3:3:1 outcome of a dihybrid cross
would not apply. As the distance between two genes increases, the probability of one or more crossovers
between them increases and the genes behave more like they are on separate chromosomes. Geneticists
have used the proportion of recombinant gametes (the ones not like the parents) as a measure of how far
apart genes are on a chromosome. Using this information, they have constructed linkage maps of genes
on chromosomes for well-studied organisms, including humans.
Mendels seminal publication makes no mention of linkage, and many researchers have questioned
whether he encountered linkage but chose not to publish those crosses out of concern that they would
invalidate his independent assortment postulate. The garden pea has seven chromosomes, and some have
suggested that his choice of seven characteristics was not a coincidence. However, even if the genes
he examined were not located on separate chromosomes, it is possible that he simply did not observe
linkage because of the extensive shuffling effects of recombination.
Epistasis
Mendels studies in pea plants implied that the sum of an individuals phenotype was controlled by genes
(or as he called them, unit factors), such that every characteristic was distinctly and completely controlled
by a single gene. In fact, single observable characteristics are almost always under the influence of
multiple genes (each with two or more alleles) acting in unison. For example, at least eight genes
contribute to eye color in humans.
Eye color in humans is determined by multiple alleles. Use the Eye Color Calculator
(http://openstaxcollege.org/l/eye_color_calc) to predict the eye color of children from parental eye
color.
In some cases, several genes can contribute to aspects of a common phenotype without their
gene products ever directly interacting. In the case of organ development, for instance, genes may
be expressed sequentially, with each gene adding to the complexity and specificity of the organ.
Genes may function in complementary or synergistic fashions, such that two or more genes expressed
simultaneously affect a phenotype. An apparent example of this occurs with human skin color, which
appears to involve the action of at least three (and probably more) genes. Cases in which inheritance for
a characteristic like skin color or human height depend on the combined effects of numerous genes are
called polygenic inheritance.
Genes may also oppose each other, with one gene suppressing the expression of another. In
epistasis, the interaction between genes is antagonistic, such that one gene masks or interferes with the
expression of another. Epistasis is a word composed of Greek roots meaning standing upon. The
alleles that are being masked or silenced are said to be hypostatic to the epistatic alleles that are doing
the masking. Often the biochemical basis of epistasis is a gene pathway in which expression of one gene
is dependent on the function of a gene that precedes or follows it in the pathway.
An example of epistasis is pigmentation in mice. The wild-type coat color, agouti (AA) is dominant
to solid-colored fur (aa). However, a separate gene C, when present as the recessive homozygote (cc),
negates any expression of pigment from the A gene and results in an albino mouse (Figure 7.18).
Therefore, the genotypes AAcc, Aacc, and aacc all produce the same albino phenotype. A cross between
heterozygotes for both genes (AaCc x AaCc) would generate offspring with a phenotypic ratio of 9
agouti:3 black:4 albino (Figure 7.18). In this case, the C gene is epistatic to the A gene.
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Figure 7.18 In this example of epistasis, one gene (C) masks the expression of another (A) for
coat color. When the C allele is present, coat color is expressed; when it is absent (cc), no coat
color is expressed. Coat color depends on the A gene, which shows dominance, with the recessive
homozygote showing a different phenotype than the heterozygote or dominant homozygote.
KEY TERMS
allele one of two or more variants of a gene that determines a particular trait for a characteristic
codominance in a heterozygote, complete and simultaneous expression of both alleles for the same
characteristic
continuous variation a variation in a characteristic in which individuals show a range of traits with
small differences between them
dihybrid the result of a cross between two true-breeding parents that express different traits for two
characteristics
discontinuous variation a variation in a characteristic in which individuals show two, or a few,
traits with large differences between them
dominant describes a trait that masks the expression of another trait when both versions of the gene
are present in an individual
epistasis an interaction between genes such that one gene masks or interferes with the expression of
another
F1
the first filial generation in a cross; the offspring of the parental generation
F2
the second filial generation produced when F1 individuals are self-crossed or fertilized with each
other
genotype the underlying genetic makeup, consisting of both physically visible and non-expressed
alleles, of an organism
hemizygous the presence of only one allele for a characteristic, as in X-linkage; hemizygosity
makes descriptions of dominance and recessiveness irrelevant
heterozygous having two different alleles for a given gene on the homologous chromosomes
homozygous having two identical alleles for a given gene on the homologous chromosomes
hybridization the process of mating two individuals that differ, with the goal of achieving a certain
characteristic in their offspring
incomplete dominance in a heterozygote, expression of two contrasting alleles such that the
individual displays an intermediate phenotype
law of dominance in a heterozygote, one trait will conceal the presence of another trait for the
same characteristic
law of independent assortment genes do not influence each other with regard to sorting of
alleles into gametes; every possible combination of alleles is equally likely to occur
law of segregation paired unit factors (i.e., genes) segregate equally into gametes such that
offspring have an equal likelihood of inheriting any combination of factors
linkage a phenomenon in which alleles that are located in close proximity to each other on the same
chromosome are more likely to be inherited together
model system a species or biological system used to study a specific biological phenomenon to
gain understanding that will be applied to other species
monohybrid the result of a cross between two true-breeding parents that express different traits for
only one characteristic
P
the parental generation in a cross
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Punnett square a visual representation of a cross between two individuals in which the gametes of
each individual are denoted along the top and side of a grid, respectively, and the possible
zygotic genotypes are recombined at each box in the grid
phenotype the observable traits expressed by an organism
recessive describes a trait whose expression is masked by another trait when the alleles for both
traits are present in an individual
reciprocal cross a paired cross in which the respective traits of the male and female in one cross
become the respective traits of the female and male in the other cross
recombination the process during meiosis in which homologous chromosomes exchange linear
segments of genetic material, thereby dramatically increasing genetic variation in the offspring
and separating linked genes
test cross a cross between a dominant expressing individual with an unknown genotype and a
homozygous recessive individual; the offspring phenotypes indicate whether the unknown
parent is heterozygous or homozygous for the dominant trait
trait a variation in an inherited characteristic
wild type the most commonly occurring genotype or phenotype for a given characteristic found in a
population
X-linked a gene present on the X chromosome, but not the Y chromosome
CHAPTER SUMMARY
7.1 Mendels Experiments
Working with garden pea plants, Mendel found that crosses between parents that differed for one trait
produced F1 offspring that all expressed one parents traits. The traits that were visible in the F1
generation are referred to as dominant, and traits that disappear in the F1 generation are described as
recessive. When the F1 plants in Mendels experiment were self-crossed, the F2 offspring exhibited the
dominant trait or the recessive trait in a 3:1 ratio, confirming that the recessive trait had been
transmitted faithfully from the original P parent. Reciprocal crosses generated identical F 1 and F2
offspring ratios. By examining sample sizes, Mendel showed that traits were inherited as independent
events.
7.2 Laws of Inheritance

When true-breeding, or homozygous, individuals that differ for a certain trait are crossed, all of the
offspring will be heterozygous for that trait. If the traits are inherited as dominant and recessive, the F 1
offspring will all exhibit the same phenotype as the parent homozygous for the dominant trait. If these
heterozygous offspring are self-crossed, the resulting F2 offspring will be equally likely to inherit
gametes carrying the dominant or recessive trait, giving rise to offspring of which one quarter are
homozygous dominant, half are heterozygous, and one quarter are homozygous recessive. Because
homozygous dominant and heterozygous individuals are phenotypically identical, the observed traits in
the F2 offspring will exhibit a ratio of three dominant to one recessive.
Mendel postulated that genes (characteristics) are inherited as pairs of alleles (traits) that behave in
a dominant and recessive pattern. Alleles segregate into gametes such that each gamete is equally likely
to receive either one of the two alleles present in a diploid individual. In addition, genes are assorted
into gametes independently of one another. That is, in general, alleles are not more likely to segregate
into a gamete with a particular allele of another gene.
7.3 Extensions of the Laws of Inheritance

Alleles do not always behave in dominant and recessive patterns. Incomplete dominance describes
situations in which the heterozygote exhibits a phenotype that is intermediate between the homozygous
phenotypes. Codominance describes the simultaneous expression of both of the alleles in the
heterozygote. Although diploid organisms can only have two alleles for any given gene, it is common
for more than two alleles for a gene to exist in a population. In humans, as in many animals and some
plants, females have two X chromosomes and males have one X and one Y chromosome. Genes that
are present on the X but not the Y chromosome are said to be X-linked, such that males only inherit one
allele for the gene, and females inherit two.
According to Mendels law of independent assortment, genes sort independently of each other into
gametes during meiosis. This occurs because chromosomes, on which the genes reside, assort
independently during meiosis and crossovers cause most genes on the same chromosomes to also
behave independently. When genes are located in close proximity on the same chromosome, their
alleles tend to be inherited together. This results in offspring ratios that violate Mendel's law of
independent assortment. However, recombination serves to exchange genetic material on homologous
chromosomes such that maternal and paternal alleles may be recombined on the same chromosome.
This is why alleles on a given chromosome are not always inherited together. Recombination is a
random event occurring anywhere on a chromosome. Therefore, genes that are far apart on the same
chromosome are likely to still assort independently because of recombination events that occurred in
the intervening chromosomal space.
Whether or not they are sorting independently, genes may interact at the level of gene products,
such that the expression of an allele for one gene masks or modifies the expression of an allele for a
different gene. This is called epistasis.

1. Figure 7.9 In pea plants, round peas (R) are
dominant to wrinkled peas (r). You do a test cross
between a pea plant with wrinkled peas (genotype
rr) and a plant of unknown genotype that has
round peas. You end up with three plants, all
which have round peas. From this data, can you
tell if the parent plant is homozygous dominant or
heterozygous?
dominant to green (y). What are the possible

genotypes and phenotypes for a cross between
PpYY and ppYy pea plants? How many squares
would you need to complete a Punnett square
analysis of this cross?
3. Figure 7.16 What ratio of offspring would
result from a cross between a white-eyed male and
a female that is heterozygous for red eye color?
2. Figure 7.10 In pea plants, purple flowers (P)

are dominant to white (p), and yellow peas (Y) are
REVIEW QUESTIONS
4. Imagine that you are performing a cross
involving seed color in garden pea plants. What
traits would you expect to observe in the F1
offspring if you cross true-breeding parents with
green seeds and yellow seeds? Yellow seed color
is dominant over green.
a. only yellow-green seeds
b. only yellow seeds
c. 1:1 yellow seeds:green seeds
d. 1:3 green seeds:yellow seeds
5. Imagine that you are performing a cross
involving seed texture in garden pea plants. You
cross true-breeding round and wrinkled parents to
obtain F1 offspring. Which of the following
experimental results in terms of numbers of plants
are closest to what you expect in the F2 progeny?
a.
b.
c.
d.
810 round seeds

810 wrinkled seeds
405:395 round seeds:wrinkled seeds
610:190 round seeds:wrinkled seeds
6. The observable traits expressed by an organism

are described as its ________.
a. phenotype
b. genotype
c. alleles
d. zygote
7. A recessive trait will be observed in individuals

that are ________ for that trait.
a. heterozygous
b. homozygous or heterozygous
c. homozygous
d. diploid
8. What are the types of gametes that can be
produced by an individual with the genotype
AaBb?
a. Aa, Bb
b. AA, aa, BB, bb
c. AB, Ab, aB, ab
d. AB, ab
9. What is the reason for doing a test cross?
a. to identify heterozygous individuals
with the dominant phenotype
b. to determine which allele is dominant
and which is recessive
c. to identify homozygous recessive
individuals in the F2
d. to determine if two genes assort
independently
10. If black and white true-breeding mice are
mated and the result is all gray offspring, what
inheritance pattern would this be indicative of?
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a.
b.
c.
d.
dominance
codominance
multiple alleles
incomplete dominance
11. The ABO blood groups in humans are

expressed as the IA, IB, and i alleles. The IA allele
encodes the A blood group antigen, IB encodes B,
and i encodes O. Both A and B are dominant to O.
If a heterozygous blood type A parent (IAi) and a
heterozygous blood type B parent (IBi) mate, one
quarter of their offspring are expected to have the
AB blood type (IAIB) in which both antigens are
expressed equally. Therefore, ABO blood groups
are an example of:
a. multiple alleles and incomplete
dominance
b. codominance and incomplete
dominance
c. incomplete dominance only

d. multiple alleles and codominance
12. In a cross between a homozygous red-eyed
female fruit fly and a white-eyed male fruit fly,
what is the expected outcome?
a. all white-eyed male offspring
b. all white-eyed female offspring
c. all red-eyed offspring
d. half white-eyed make offspring
13. When a population has a gene with four
alleles circulating, how many possible genotypes
are there?
a. 3
b. 6
c. 10
d. 16

14. Describe one of the reasons that made the
garden pea an excellent choice of model system
for studying inheritance.
15. Use a Punnett square to predict the offspring
in a cross between a dwarf pea plant (homozygous
recessive) and a tall pea plant (heterozygous).
What is the phenotypic ratio of the offspring?
16. Use a Punnett square to predict the offspring
in a cross between a tall pea plant (heterozygous)
and a tall pea plant (heterozygous). What is the

genotypic ratio of the offspring?
17. Can a male be a carrier of red-green color
blindness?
18. Could an individual with blood type O
(genotype ii) be a legitimate child of parents in
which one parent had blood type A and the other
parent had blood type B?
CHAPTER 8 | MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
8 | MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
Figure 8.1 Dolly the sheep was the first cloned mammal.
Chapter Outline
8.1: The Structure of DNA
8.2: DNA Replication
8.3: Transcription
8.4: Translation
8.5: How Genes Are Regulated
Introduction
The three letters DNA have now become associated with crime solving, paternity testing, human
identification, and genetic testing. DNA can be retrieved from hair, blood, or saliva. With the exception
of identical twins, each persons DNA is unique and it is possible to detect differences between human
beings on the basis of their unique DNA sequence.
DNA analysis has many practical applications beyond forensics and paternity testing. DNA testing
is used for tracing genealogy and identifying pathogens. In the medical field, DNA is used in diagnostics,
new vaccine development, and cancer therapy. It is now possible to determine predisposition to many
diseases by analyzing genes.
DNA is the genetic material passed from parent to offspring for all life on Earth. The technology
of molecular genetics developed in the last half century has enabled us to see deep into the history of
life to deduce the relationships between living things in ways never thought possible. It also allows us
to understand the workings of evolution in populations of organisms. Over a thousand species have had
their entire genome sequenced, and there have been thousands of individual human genome sequences
completed. These sequences will allow us to understand human disease and the relationship of humans
to the rest of the tree of life. Finally, molecular genetics techniques have revolutionized plant and
animal breeding for human agricultural needs. All of these advances in biotechnology depended on basic
research leading to the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, and the research since then that has
uncovered the details of DNA replication and the complex process leading to the expression of DNA in
the form of proteins in the cell.
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8.1 | The Structure of DNA

Describe the structure of DNA
Describe how eukaryotic and prokaryotic DNA is arranged in the cell
In the 1950s, Francis Crick and James Watson worked together at the University of Cambridge, England,
to determine the structure of DNA. Other scientists, such as Linus Pauling and Maurice Wilkins, were
also actively exploring this field. Pauling had discovered the secondary structure of proteins using X-ray
crystallography. X-ray crystallography is a method for investigating molecular structure by observing
the patterns formed by X-rays shot through a crystal of the substance. The patterns give important
information about the structure of the molecule of interest. In Wilkins lab, researcher Rosalind Franklin
was using X-ray crystallography to understand the structure of DNA. Watson and Crick were able to
piece together the puzzle of the DNA molecule using Franklin's data (Figure 8.2). Watson and Crick
also had key pieces of information available from other researchers such as Chargaffs rules. Chargaff
had shown that of the four kinds of monomers (nucleotides) present in a DNA molecule, two types were
always present in equal amounts and the remaining two types were also always present in equal amounts.
This meant they were always paired in some way. In 1962, James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice
Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for their work in determining the structure of DNA.
Figure 8.2 Pioneering scientists (a) James Watson and Francis Crick are pictured here with
American geneticist Maclyn McCarty. Scientist Rosalind Franklin discovered (b) the X-ray diffraction
pattern of DNA, which helped to elucidate its double helix structure. (credit a: modification of work
by Marjorie McCarty; b: modification of work by NIH)
Now lets consider the structure of the two types of nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). The building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which are made up of three parts:
a deoxyribose (5-carbon sugar), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (Figure 8.3). There are
four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA. Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are double-ringed purines, and
cytosine (C) and thymine (T) are smaller, single-ringed pyrimidines. The nucleotide is named according
to the nitrogenous base it contains.
(a)
(b)
Figure 8.3 (a) Each DNA nucleotide is made up of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a base. (b)
Cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines. Guanine and adenine are purines.
The phosphate group of one nucleotide bonds covalently with the sugar molecule of the next
nucleotide, and so on, forming a long polymer of nucleotide monomers. The sugarphosphate groups line
up in a backbone for each single strand of DNA, and the nucleotide bases stick out from this backbone.
The carbon atoms of the five-carbon sugar are numbered clockwise from the oxygen as 1', 2', 3', 4', and
5' (1' is read as one prime). The phosphate group is attached to the 5' carbon of one nucleotide and the
3' carbon of the next nucleotide. In its natural state, each DNA molecule is actually composed of two
single strands held together along their length with hydrogen bonds between the bases.
Watson and Crick proposed that the DNA is made up of two strands that are twisted around each
other to form a right-handed helix, called a double helix. Base-pairing takes place between a purine
and pyrimidine: namely, A pairs with T, and G pairs with C. In other words, adenine and thymine are
complementary base pairs, and cytosine and guanine are also complementary base pairs. This is the basis
for Chargaffs rule; because of their complementarity, there is as much adenine as thymine in a DNA
molecule and as much guanine as cytosine. Adenine and thymine are connected by two hydrogen bonds,
and cytosine and guanine are connected by three hydrogen bonds. The two strands are anti-parallel in
nature; that is, one strand will have the 3' carbon of the sugar in the upward position, whereas the other
strand will have the 5' carbon in the upward position. The diameter of the DNA double helix is uniform
throughout because a purine (two rings) always pairs with a pyrimidine (one ring) and their combined
lengths are always equal. (Figure 8.4).
Figure 8.4 DNA (a) forms a double stranded helix, and (b) adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine
pairs with guanine. (credit a: modification of work by Jerome Walker, Dennis Myts)
The Structure of RNA

There is a second nucleic acid in all cells called ribonucleic acid, or RNA. Like DNA, RNA is a polymer
of nucleotides. Each of the nucleotides in RNA is made up of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar,
and a phosphate group. In the case of RNA, the five-carbon sugar is ribose, not deoxyribose. Ribose has
a hydroxyl group at the 2' carbon, unlike deoxyribose, which has only a hydrogen atom (Figure 8.5).
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Figure 8.5 The difference between the ribose found in RNA and the deoxyribose found in DNA is
that ribose has a hydroxyl group at the 2' carbon.
RNA nucleotides contain the nitrogenous bases adenine, cytosine, and guanine. However, they do
not contain thymine, which is instead replaced by uracil, symbolized by a U. RNA exists as a singlestranded molecule rather than a double-stranded helix. Molecular biologists have named several kinds of
RNA on the basis of their function. These include messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)molecules that are involved in the production of proteins from the DNA code.
How DNA Is Arranged in the Cell

DNA is a working molecule; it must be replicated when a cell is ready to divide, and it must be read
to produce the molecules, such as proteins, to carry out the functions of the cell. For this reason, the
DNA is protected and packaged in very specific ways. In addition, DNA molecules can be very long.
Stretched end-to-end, the DNA molecules in a single human cell would come to a length of about 2
meters. Thus, the DNA for a cell must be packaged in a very ordered way to fit and function within
a structure (the cell) that is not visible to the naked eye. The chromosomes of prokaryotes are much
simpler than those of eukaryotes in many of their features (Figure 8.6). Most prokaryotes contain a
single, circular chromosome that is found in an area in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.
Figure 8.6 A eukaryote contains a well-defined nucleus, whereas in prokaryotes, the chromosome
lies in the cytoplasm in an area called the nucleoid.
The size of the genome in one of the most well-studied prokaryotes, Escherichia coli, is 4.6 million
base pairs, which would extend a distance of about 1.6 mm if stretched out. So how does this fit inside a
small bacterial cell? The DNA is twisted beyond the double helix in what is known as supercoiling. Some
proteins are known to be involved in the supercoiling; other proteins and enzymes help in maintaining
the supercoiled structure.
Eukaryotes, whose chromosomes each consist of a linear DNA molecule, employ a different type
of packing strategy to fit their DNA inside the nucleus (Figure 8.7). At the most basic level, DNA is
wrapped around proteins known as histones to form structures called nucleosomes. The DNA is wrapped
tightly around the histone core. This nucleosome is linked to the next one by a short strand of DNA that is
free of histones. This is also known as the beads on a string structure; the nucleosomes are the beads
and the short lengths of DNA between them are the string. The nucleosomes, with their DNA coiled
around them, stack compactly onto each other to form a 30-nmwide fiber. This fiber is further coiled
into a thicker and more compact structure. At the metaphase stage of mitosis, when the chromosomes are
lined up in the center of the cell, the chromosomes are at their most compacted. They are approximately
700 nm in width, and are found in association with scaffold proteins.
In interphase, the phase of the cell cycle between mitoses at which the chromosomes are
decondensed, eukaryotic chromosomes have two distinct regions that can be distinguished by staining.
There is a tightly packaged region that stains darkly, and a less dense region. The darkly staining
regions usually contain genes that are not active, and are found in the regions of the centromere and
telomeres. The lightly staining regions usually contain genes that are active, with DNA packaged around
nucleosomes but not further compacted.
Figure 8.7 These figures illustrate the compaction of the eukaryotic chromosome.
Watch this animation (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/DNA_packaging) of DNA packaging.
8.2 | DNA Replication

Explain the process of DNA replication
Explain the importance of telomerase to DNA replication
Describe mechanisms of DNA repair
When a cell divides, it is important that each daughter cell receives an identical copy of the DNA. This
is accomplished by the process of DNA replication. The replication of DNA occurs during the synthesis
phase, or S phase, of the cell cycle, before the cell enters mitosis or meiosis.
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The elucidation of the structure of the double helix provided a hint as to how DNA is copied. Recall
that adenine nucleotides pair with thymine nucleotides, and cytosine with guanine. This means that the
two strands are complementary to each other. For example, a strand of DNA with a nucleotide sequence
of AGTCATGA will have a complementary strand with the sequence TCAGTACT (Figure 8.8).
Figure 8.8 The two strands of DNA are complementary, meaning the sequence of bases in one
strand can be used to create the correct sequence of bases in the other strand.
Because of the complementarity of the two strands, having one strand means that it is possible to
recreate the other strand. This model for replication suggests that the two strands of the double helix
separate during replication, and each strand serves as a template from which the new complementary
strand is copied (Figure 8.9).
Figure 8.9 The semiconservative model of DNA replication is shown. Gray indicates the original
DNA strands, and blue indicates newly synthesized DNA.
During DNA replication, each of the two strands that make up the double helix serves as a template
from which new strands are copied. The new strand will be complementary to the parental or old
strand. Each new double strand consists of one parental strand and one new daughter strand. This is
known as semiconservative replication. When two DNA copies are formed, they have an identical
sequence of nucleotide bases and are divided equally into two daughter cells.
DNA Replication in Eukaryotes

Because eukaryotic genomes are very complex, DNA replication is a very complicated process that
involves several enzymes and other proteins. It occurs in three main stages: initiation, elongation, and
termination.
Recall that eukaryotic DNA is bound to proteins known as histones to form structures called
nucleosomes. During initiation, the DNA is made accessible to the proteins and enzymes involved in the
replication process. How does the replication machinery know where on the DNA double helix to begin?
It turns out that there are specific nucleotide sequences called origins of replication at which replication
begins. Certain proteins bind to the origin of replication while an enzyme called helicase unwinds and
opens up the DNA helix. As the DNA opens up, Y-shaped structures called replication forks are formed
(Figure 8.10). Two replication forks are formed at the origin of replication, and these get extended
in both directions as replication proceeds. There are multiple origins of replication on the eukaryotic
chromosome, such that replication can occur simultaneously from several places in the genome.
During elongation, an enzyme called DNA polymerase adds DNA nucleotides to the 3' end of
the template. Because DNA polymerase can only add new nucleotides at the end of a backbone, a
primer sequence, which provides this starting point, is added with complementary RNA nucleotides.
This primer is removed later, and the nucleotides are replaced with DNA nucleotides. One strand, which
is complementary to the parental DNA strand, is synthesized continuously toward the replication fork
so the polymerase can add nucleotides in this direction. This continuously synthesized strand is known
as the leading strand. Because DNA polymerase can only synthesize DNA in a 5' to 3' direction, the
other new strand is put together in short pieces called Okazaki fragments. The Okazaki fragments each
require a primer made of RNA to start the synthesis. The strand with the Okazaki fragments is known as
the lagging strand. As synthesis proceeds, an enzyme removes the RNA primer, which is then replaced
with DNA nucleotides, and the gaps between fragments are sealed by an enzyme called DNA ligase.
The process of DNA replication can be summarized as follows:
1. DNA unwinds at the origin of replication.
2. New bases are added to the complementary parental strands. One new strand is made continuously,
while the other strand is made in pieces.
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3. Primers are removed, new DNA nucleotides are put in place of the primers and the backbone is
sealed by DNA ligase.
Figure 8.10 A replication fork is formed by the opening of the origin of replication, and helicase
separates the DNA strands. An RNA primer is synthesized, and is elongated by the DNA
polymerase. On the leading strand, DNA is synthesized continuously, whereas on the lagging
strand, DNA is synthesized in short stretches. The DNA fragments are joined by DNA ligase
(not shown).
You isolate a cell strain in which the joining together of Okazaki fragments is impaired and
suspect that a mutation has occurred in an enzyme found at the replication fork. Which
enzyme is most likely to be mutated?
Telomere Replication
Because eukaryotic chromosomes are linear, DNA replication comes to the end of a line in eukaryotic
chromosomes. As you have learned, the DNA polymerase enzyme can add nucleotides in only one
direction. In the leading strand, synthesis continues until the end of the chromosome is reached; however,
on the lagging strand there is no place for a primer to be made for the DNA fragment to be copied
at the end of the chromosome. This presents a problem for the cell because the ends remain unpaired,
and over time these ends get progressively shorter as cells continue to divide. The ends of the linear
chromosomes are known as telomeres, which have repetitive sequences that do not code for a particular
gene. As a consequence, it is telomeres that are shortened with each round of DNA replication instead
of genes. For example, in humans, a six base-pair sequence, TTAGGG, is repeated 100 to 1000 times.
The discovery of the enzyme telomerase (Figure 8.11) helped in the understanding of how chromosome
ends are maintained. The telomerase attaches to the end of the chromosome, and complementary bases
to the RNA template are added on the end of the DNA strand. Once the lagging strand template is
sufficiently elongated, DNA polymerase can now add nucleotides that are complementary to the ends of
the chromosomes. Thus, the ends of the chromosomes are replicated.
Figure 8.11 The ends of linear chromosomes are maintained by the action of the telomerase
enzyme.
Telomerase is typically found to be active in germ cells, adult stem cells, and some cancer cells. For
her discovery of telomerase and its action, Elizabeth Blackburn (Figure 8.12) received the Nobel Prize
for Medicine and Physiology in 2009.
Figure 8.12 Elizabeth Blackburn, 2009 Nobel Laureate, was the scientist who discovered how
telomerase works. (credit: U.S. Embassy, Stockholm, Sweden)
Telomerase is not active in adult somatic cells. Adult somatic cells that undergo cell division
continue to have their telomeres shortened. This essentially means that telomere shortening is associated
with aging. In 2010, scientists found that telomerase can reverse some age-related conditions in mice,
[1]
and this may have potential in regenerative medicine. Telomerase-deficient mice were used in these
studies; these mice have tissue atrophy, stem-cell depletion, organ system failure, and impaired tissue
1. Mariella Jaskelioff, et al., Telomerase reactivation reverses tissue degeneration in aged telomerase-deficient mice, Nature,
469 (2011):1027.
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injury responses. Telomerase reactivation in these mice caused extension of telomeres, reduced DNA
damage, reversed neurodegeneration, and improved functioning of the testes, spleen, and intestines.
Thus, telomere reactivation may have potential for treating age-related diseases in humans.
DNA Replication in Prokaryotes
Recall that the prokaryotic chromosome is a circular molecule with a less extensive coiling structure than
eukaryotic chromosomes. The eukaryotic chromosome is linear and highly coiled around proteins. While
there are many similarities in the DNA replication process, these structural differences necessitate some
differences in the DNA replication process in these two life forms.
DNA replication has been extremely well-studied in prokaryotes, primarily because of the small
size of the genome and large number of variants available. Escherichia coli has 4.6 million base pairs
in a single circular chromosome, and all of it gets replicated in approximately 42 minutes, starting from
a single origin of replication and proceeding around the chromosome in both directions. This means
that approximately 1000 nucleotides are added per second. The process is much more rapid than in
eukaryotes. Table 8.1 summarizes the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic replications.
Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Replications

Property
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Origin of replication
Single
Multiple
Rate of replication
1000 nucleotides/s
50 to 100 nucleotides/s
Chromosome structure
circular
linear
Telomerase
Not present
Present
Table 8.1
Click through a tutorial (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/DNA_replicatio2) on DNA replication.
DNA Repair
DNA polymerase can make mistakes while adding nucleotides. It edits the DNA by proofreading every
newly added base. Incorrect bases are removed and replaced by the correct base, and then polymerization
continues (Figure 8.13a). Most mistakes are corrected during replication, although when this does not
happen, the mismatch repair mechanism is employed. Mismatch repair enzymes recognize the wrongly
incorporated base and excise it from the DNA, replacing it with the correct base (Figure 8.13b). In yet
another type of repair, nucleotide excision repair, the DNA double strand is unwound and separated,
the incorrect bases are removed along with a few bases on the 5' and 3' end, and these are replaced by
copying the template with the help of DNA polymerase (Figure 8.13c). Nucleotide excision repair is
particularly important in correcting thymine dimers, which are primarily caused by ultraviolet light. In a
thymine dimer, two thymine nucleotides adjacent to each other on one strand are covalently bonded to
each other rather than their complementary bases. If the dimer is not removed and repaired it will lead to
a mutation. Individuals with flaws in their nucleotide excision repair genes show extreme sensitivity to
sunlight and develop skin cancers early in life.
Figure 8.13 Proofreading by DNA polymerase (a) corrects errors during replication. In mismatch
repair (b), the incorrectly added base is detected after replication. The mismatch repair proteins
detect this base and remove it from the newly synthesized strand by nuclease action. The gap is now
filled with the correctly paired base. Nucleotide excision (c) repairs thymine dimers. When exposed
to UV, thymines lying adjacent to each other can form thymine dimers. In normal cells, they are
excised and replaced.
Most mistakes are corrected; if they are not, they may result in a mutationdefined as a permanent
change in the DNA sequence. Mutations in repair genes may lead to serious consequences like cancer.
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8.3 | Transcription
Explain the central dogma
Explain the main steps of transcription
Describe how eukaryotic mRNA is processed
In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, the second function of DNA (the first was replication) is to provide
the information needed to construct the proteins necessary so that the cell can perform all of its functions.
To do this, the DNA is read or transcribed into an mRNA molecule. The mRNA then provides the code
to form a protein by a process called translation. Through the processes of transcription and translation,
a protein is built with a specific sequence of amino acids that was originally encoded in the DNA. This
module discusses the details of transcription.
The Central Dogma: DNA Encodes RNA; RNA Encodes

Protein
The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central
dogma (Figure 8.14), which states that genes specify the sequences of mRNAs, which in turn specify
the sequences of proteins.
Figure 8.14 The central dogma states that DNA encodes RNA, which in turn encodes protein.
The copying of DNA to mRNA is relatively straightforward, with one nucleotide being added to the
mRNA strand for every complementary nucleotide read in the DNA strand. The translation to protein is
more complex because groups of three mRNA nucleotides correspond to one amino acid of the protein
sequence. However, as we shall see in the next module, the translation to protein is still systematic, such
that nucleotides 1 to 3 correspond to amino acid 1, nucleotides 4 to 6 correspond to amino acid 2, and so
on.
Transcription: from DNA to mRNA

Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes perform fundamentally the same process of transcription, with the
important difference of the membrane-bound nucleus in eukaryotes. With the genes bound in the nucleus,
transcription occurs in the nucleus of the cell and the mRNA transcript must be transported to the
cytoplasm. The prokaryotes, which include bacteria and archaea, lack membrane-bound nuclei and other
organelles, and transcription occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes,
transcription occurs in three main stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.
Initiation
Transcription requires the DNA double helix to partially unwind in the region of mRNA synthesis. The
region of unwinding is called a transcription bubble. The DNA sequence onto which the proteins
and enzymes involved in transcription bind to initiate the process is called a promoter. In most cases,
promoters exist upstream of the genes they regulate. The specific sequence of a promoter is very
important because it determines whether the corresponding gene is transcribed all of the time, some of
the time, or hardly at all (Figure 8.15).
Figure 8.15 The initiation of transcription begins when DNA is unwound, forming a transcription
bubble. Enzymes and other proteins involved in transcription bind at the promoter.
Elongation
Transcription always proceeds from one of the two DNA strands, which is called the template strand.
The mRNA product is complementary to the template strand and is almost identical to the other DNA
strand, called the nontemplate strand, with the exception that RNA contains a uracil (U) in place of the
thymine (T) found in DNA. During elongation, an enzyme called RNA polymerase proceeds along the
DNA template adding nucleotides by base pairing with the DNA template in a manner similar to DNA
replication, with the difference that an RNA strand is being synthesized that does not remain bound to
the DNA template. As elongation proceeds, the DNA is continuously unwound ahead of the core enzyme
and rewound behind it (Figure 8.16).
Figure 8.16 During elongation, RNA polymerase tracks along the DNA template, synthesizes mRNA
in the 5' to 3' direction, and unwinds then rewinds the DNA as it is read.
Termination
Once a gene is transcribed, the prokaryotic polymerase needs to be instructed to dissociate from the DNA
template and liberate the newly made mRNA. Depending on the gene being transcribed, there are two
kinds of termination signals, but both involve repeated nucleotide sequences in the DNA template that
result in RNA polymerase stalling, leaving the DNA template, and freeing the mRNA transcript.
On termination, the process of transcription is complete. In a prokaryotic cell, by the time
termination occurs, the transcript would already have been used to partially synthesize numerous
copies of the encoded protein because these processes can occur concurrently using multiple ribosomes
(polyribosomes) (Figure 8.17). In contrast, the presence of a nucleus in eukaryotic cells precludes
simultaneous transcription and translation.
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Figure 8.17 Multiple polymerases can transcribe a single bacterial gene while numerous ribosomes
concurrently translate the mRNA transcripts into polypeptides. In this way, a specific protein can
rapidly reach a high concentration in the bacterial cell.
Eukaryotic RNA Processing

The newly transcribed eukaryotic mRNAs must undergo several processing steps before they can be
transferred from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and translated into a protein. The additional steps involved
in eukaryotic mRNA maturation create a molecule that is much more stable than a prokaryotic mRNA.
For example, eukaryotic mRNAs last for several hours, whereas the typical prokaryotic mRNA lasts no
more than five seconds.
The mRNA transcript is first coated in RNA-stabilizing proteins to prevent it from degrading
while it is processed and exported out of the nucleus. This occurs while the pre-mRNA still is being
synthesized by adding a special nucleotide cap to the 5' end of the growing transcript. In addition to
preventing degradation, factors involved in protein synthesis recognize the cap to help initiate translation
by ribosomes.
Once elongation is complete, an enzyme then adds a string of approximately 200 adenine residues
to the 3' end, called the poly-A tail. This modification further protects the pre-mRNA from degradation
and signals to cellular factors that the transcript needs to be exported to the cytoplasm.
Eukaryotic genes are composed of protein-coding sequences called exons (ex-on signifies that
they are expressed) and intervening sequences called introns (int-ron denotes their intervening role).
Introns are removed from the pre-mRNA during processing. Intron sequences in mRNA do not encode
functional proteins. It is essential that all of a pre-mRNAs introns be completely and precisely removed
before protein synthesis so that the exons join together to code for the correct amino acids. If the process
errs by even a single nucleotide, the sequence of the rejoined exons would be shifted, and the resulting
protein would be nonfunctional. The process of removing introns and reconnecting exons is called
splicing (Figure 8.18). Introns are removed and degraded while the pre-mRNA is still in the nucleus.
Figure 8.18 Eukaryotic mRNA contains introns that must be spliced out. A 5' cap and 3' tail are also
added.
8.4 | Translation
Describe the different steps in protein synthesis
Discuss the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis
Describe the genetic code and how the nucleotide sequence determines the amino acid and the
protein sequence
The synthesis of proteins is one of a cells most energy-consuming metabolic processes. In turn, proteins
account for more mass than any other component of living organisms (with the exception of water), and
proteins perform a wide variety of the functions of a cell. The process of translation, or protein synthesis,
involves decoding an mRNA message into a polypeptide product. Amino acids are covalently strung
together in lengths ranging from approximately 50 amino acids to more than 1,000.
The Protein Synthesis Machinery

In addition to the mRNA template, many other molecules contribute to the process of translation.
The composition of each component may vary across species; for instance, ribosomes may consist of
different numbers of ribosomal RNAs ( rRNA) and polypeptides depending on the organism. However,
the general structures and functions of the protein synthesis machinery are comparable from bacteria
to human cells. Translation requires the input of an mRNA template, ribosomes, tRNAs, and various
enzymatic factors (Figure 8.19).
Figure 8.19 The protein synthesis machinery includes the large and small subunits of the ribosome,
mRNA, and tRNA. (credit: modification of work by NIGMS, NIH)
In E. coli, there are 200,000 ribosomes present in every cell at any given time. A ribosome is a
complex macromolecule composed of structural and catalytic rRNAs, and many distinct polypeptides.
In eukaryotes, the nucleolus is completely specialized for the synthesis and assembly of rRNAs.
Ribosomes are located in the cytoplasm in prokaryotes and in the cytoplasm and endoplasmic
reticulum of eukaryotes. Ribosomes are made up of a large and a small subunit that come together for
translation. The small subunit is responsible for binding the mRNA template, whereas the large subunit
sequentially binds tRNAs, a type of RNA molecule that brings amino acids to the growing chain of the
polypeptide. Each mRNA molecule is simultaneously translated by many ribosomes, all synthesizing
protein in the same direction.
Depending on the species, 40 to 60 types of tRNA exist in the cytoplasm. Serving as adaptors,
specific tRNAs bind to sequences on the mRNA template and add the corresponding amino acid to the
polypeptide chain. Therefore, tRNAs are the molecules that actually translate the language of RNA
into the language of proteins. For each tRNA to function, it must have its specific amino acid bonded to
it. In the process of tRNA charging, each tRNA molecule is bonded to its correct amino acid.
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The Genetic Code

To summarize what we know to this point, the cellular process of transcription generates messenger
RNA (mRNA), a mobile molecular copy of one or more genes with an alphabet of A, C, G, and uracil
(U). Translation of the mRNA template converts nucleotide-based genetic information into a protein
product. Protein sequences consist of 20 commonly occurring amino acids; therefore, it can be said that
the protein alphabet consists of 20 letters. Each amino acid is defined by a three-nucleotide sequence
called the triplet codon. The relationship between a nucleotide codon and its corresponding amino acid
is called the genetic code.
Given the different numbers of letters in the mRNA and protein alphabets, combinations of
nucleotides corresponded to single amino acids. Using a three-nucleotide code means that there are a
total of 64 (4 4 4) possible combinations; therefore, a given amino acid is encoded by more than one
nucleotide triplet (Figure 8.20).
Figure 8.20 This figure shows the genetic code for translating each nucleotide triplet, or codon, in
mRNA into an amino acid or a termination signal in a nascent protein. (credit: modification of work
by NIH)
Three of the 64 codons terminate protein synthesis and release the polypeptide from the translation
machinery. These triplets are called stop codons. Another codon, AUG, also has a special function. In
addition to specifying the amino acid methionine, it also serves as the start codon to initiate translation.
The reading frame for translation is set by the AUG start codon near the 5' end of the mRNA. The genetic
code is universal. With a few exceptions, virtually all species use the same genetic code for protein
synthesis, which is powerful evidence that all life on Earth shares a common origin.
The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis

Just as with mRNA synthesis, protein synthesis can be divided into three phases: initiation, elongation,
and termination. The process of translation is similar in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Here we will explore
how translation occurs in E. coli, a representative prokaryote, and specify any differences between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic translation.
Protein synthesis begins with the formation of an initiation complex. In E. coli, this complex
involves the small ribosome subunit, the mRNA template, three initiation factors, and a special initiator
tRNA. The initiator tRNA interacts with the AUG start codon, and links to a special form of the amino
acid methionine that is typically removed from the polypeptide after translation is complete.
In prokaryotes and eukaryotes, the basics of polypeptide elongation are the same, so we will review
elongation from the perspective of E. coli. The large ribosomal subunit of E. coli consists of three
compartments: the A site binds incoming charged tRNAs (tRNAs with their attached specific amino
acids). The P site binds charged tRNAs carrying amino acids that have formed bonds with the growing
polypeptide chain but have not yet dissociated from their corresponding tRNA. The E site releases
dissociated tRNAs so they can be recharged with free amino acids. The ribosome shifts one codon at a
time, catalyzing each process that occurs in the three sites. With each step, a charged tRNA enters the
complex, the polypeptide becomes one amino acid longer, and an uncharged tRNA departs. The energy
for each bond between amino acids is derived from GTP, a molecule similar to ATP (Figure 8.21).
Amazingly, the E. coli translation apparatus takes only 0.05 seconds to add each amino acid, meaning
that a 200-amino acid polypeptide could be translated in just 10 seconds.
Figure 8.21 Translation begins when a tRNA anticodon recognizes a codon on the mRNA. The large
ribosomal subunit joins the small subunit, and a second tRNA is recruited. As the mRNA moves
relative to the ribosome, the polypeptide chain is formed. Entry of a release factor into the A site
terminates translation and the components dissociate.
Termination of translation occurs when a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) is encountered. When
the ribosome encounters the stop codon, the growing polypeptide is released and the ribosome subunits
dissociate and leave the mRNA. After many ribosomes have completed translation, the mRNA is
degraded so the nucleotides can be reused in another transcription reaction.
Transcribe a gene and translate it to protein using complementary pairing and the genetic code at this
site (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/create_protein2) .
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8.5 | How Genes Are Regulated

Discuss why every cell does not express all of its genes
Describe how prokaryotic gene expression occurs at the transcriptional level
Understand that eukaryotic gene expression occurs at the epigenetic, transcriptional, posttranscriptional, translational, and post-translational levels
For a cell to function properly, necessary proteins must be synthesized at the proper time. All organisms
and cells control or regulate the transcription and translation of their DNA into protein. The process
of turning on a gene to produce RNA and protein is called gene expression. Whether in a simple
unicellular organism or in a complex multicellular organism, each cell controls when and how its genes
are expressed. For this to occur, there must be a mechanism to control when a gene is expressed to make
RNA and protein, how much of the protein is made, and when it is time to stop making that protein
because it is no longer needed.
Cells in multicellular organisms are specialized; cells in different tissues look very different and
perform different functions. For example, a muscle cell is very different from a liver cell, which is very
different from a skin cell. These differences are a consequence of the expression of different sets of genes
in each of these cells. All cells have certain basic functions they must perform for themselves, such as
converting the energy in sugar molecules into energy in ATP. Each cell also has many genes that are
not expressed, and expresses many that are not expressed by other cells, such that it can carry out its
specialized functions. In addition, cells will turn on or off certain genes at different times in response
to changes in the environment or at different times during the development of the organism. Unicellular
organisms, both eukaryotic and prokaryotic, also turn on and off genes in response to the demands of
their environment so that they can respond to special conditions.
The control of gene expression is extremely complex. Malfunctions in this process are detrimental
to the cell and can lead to the development of many diseases, including cancer.
Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic Gene Expression

To understand how gene expression is regulated, we must first understand how a gene becomes a
functional protein in a cell. The process occurs in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, just in slightly
different fashions.
Because prokaryotic organisms lack a cell nucleus, the processes of transcription and translation
occur almost simultaneously. When the protein is no longer needed, transcription stops. As a result, the
primary method to control what type and how much protein is expressed in a prokaryotic cell is through
the regulation of DNA transcription into RNA. All the subsequent steps happen automatically. When
more protein is required, more transcription occurs. Therefore, in prokaryotic cells, the control of gene
expression is almost entirely at the transcriptional level.
The first example of such control was discovered using E. coli in the 1950s and 1960s by French
researchers and is called the lac operon. The lac operon is a stretch of DNA with three adjacent genes
that code for proteins that participate in the absorption and metabolism of lactose, a food source for E.
coli. When lactose is not present in the bacteriums environment, the lac genes are transcribed in small
amounts. When lactose is present, the genes are transcribed and the bacterium is able to use the lactose
as a food source. The operon also contains a promoter sequence to which the RNA polymerase binds to
begin transcription; between the promoter and the three genes is a region called the operator. When there
is no lactose present, a protein known as a repressor binds to the operator and prevents RNA polymerase
from binding to the promoter, except in rare cases. Thus very little of the protein products of the three
genes is made. When lactose is present, an end product of lactose metabolism binds to the repressor
protein and prevents it from binding to the operator. This allows RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter
and freely transcribe the three genes, allowing the organism to metabolize the lactose.
Eukaryotic cells, in contrast, have intracellular organelles and are much more complex. Recall that
in eukaryotic cells, the DNA is contained inside the cells nucleus and it is transcribed into mRNA there.
The newly synthesized mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm, where ribosomes
translate the mRNA into protein. The processes of transcription and translation are physically separated
by the nuclear membrane; transcription occurs only within the nucleus, and translation only occurs
outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm. The regulation of gene expression can occur at all stages of the
process (Figure 8.22). Regulation may occur when the DNA is uncoiled and loosened from nucleosomes
to bind transcription factors ( epigenetic level), when the RNA is transcribed (transcriptional level),
when RNA is processed and exported to the cytoplasm after it is transcribed ( post-transcriptional
level), when the RNA is translated into protein (translational level), or after the protein has been made (
post-translational level).
Figure 8.22 Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated during transcription and RNA processing,
which take place in the nucleus, as well as during protein translation, which takes place in the
cytoplasm. Further regulation may occur through post-translational modifications of proteins.
The differences in the regulation of gene expression between prokaryotes and eukaryotes are
summarized in Table 8.2.
Differences in the Regulation of Gene Expression of Prokaryotic

and Eukaryotic Organisms
Prokaryotic organisms
Eukaryotic organisms
Lack nucleus
Contain nucleus
RNA transcription and protein

translation occur almost
simultaneously
RNA transcription occurs prior to protein translation, and it

takes place in the nucleus. RNA translation to protein occurs
in the cytoplasm.
RNA post-processing includes addition of a 5' cap, poly-A
tail, and excision of introns and splicing of exons.
Table 8.2
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Differences in the Regulation of Gene Expression of Prokaryotic

and Eukaryotic Organisms
Prokaryotic organisms
Gene expression is regulated
primarily at the transcriptional
level
Eukaryotic organisms
Gene expression is regulated at many levels (epigenetic,
transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and posttranslational)
Table 8.2
Alternative RNA Splicing

In the 1970s, genes were first observed that exhibited alternative RNA splicing.
Alternative RNA splicing is a mechanism that allows different protein products to be
produced from one gene when different combinations of introns (and sometimes exons)
are removed from the transcript (Figure 8.23). This alternative splicing can be haphazard,
but more often it is controlled and acts as a mechanism of gene regulation, with the
frequency of different splicing alternatives controlled by the cell as a way to control
the production of different protein products in different cells, or at different stages of
development. Alternative splicing is now understood to be a common mechanism of
gene regulation in eukaryotes; according to one estimate, 70% of genes in humans are
expressed as multiple proteins through alternative splicing.
Figure 8.23 There are five basic modes of alternative splicing. Segments of pre-mRNA with
exons shown in blue, red, orange, and pink can be spliced to produce a variety of new mature
mRNA segments.
How could alternative splicing evolve? Introns have a beginning and ending
recognition sequence, and it is easy to imagine the failure of the splicing mechanism
to identify the end of an intron and find the end of the next intron, thus removing two
introns and the intervening exon. In fact, there are mechanisms in place to prevent such
exon skipping, but mutations are likely to lead to their failure. Such mistakes would
more than likely produce a nonfunctional protein. Indeed, the cause of many genetic
diseases is alternative splicing rather than mutations in a sequence. However, alternative
splicing would create a protein variant without the loss of the original protein, opening
up possibilities for adaptation of the new variant to new functions. Gene duplication has
played an important role in the evolution of new functions in a similar wayby providing
genes that may evolve without eliminating the original functional protein.
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KEY TERMS
alternative RNA splicing a post-transcriptional gene regulation mechanism in eukaryotes in
which multiple protein products are produced by a single gene through alternative splicing
combinations of the RNA transcript
codon three consecutive nucleotides in mRNA that specify the addition of a specific amino acid or
the release of a polypeptide chain during translation
DNA ligase the enzyme that catalyzes the joining of DNA fragments together
DNA polymerase an enzyme that synthesizes a new strand of DNA complementary to a template
strand
deoxyribose a five-carbon sugar molecule with a hydrogen atom rather than a hydroxyl group in the
2' position; the sugar component of DNA nucleotides
double helix the molecular shape of DNA in which two strands of nucleotides wind around each
other in a spiral shape
epigenetic describing non-genetic regulatory factors, such as changes in modifications to histone
proteins and DNA that control accessibility to genes in chromosomes
exon a sequence present in protein-coding mRNA after completion of pre-mRNA splicing
gene expression processes that control whether a gene is expressed
genetic code the amino acids that correspond to three-nucleotide codons of mRNA
helicase an enzyme that helps to open up the DNA helix during DNA replication by breaking the
hydrogen bonds
intron nonprotein-coding intervening sequences that are spliced from mRNA during processing
lagging strand during replication of the 3' to 5' strand, the strand that is replicated in short
fragments and away from the replication fork
leading strand the strand that is synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction that is synthesized
in the direction of the replication fork
mRNA messenger RNA; a form of RNA that carries the nucleotide sequence code for a protein
sequence that is translated into a polypeptide sequence
mismatch repair a form of DNA repair in which non-complementary nucleotides are recognized,
excised, and replaced with correct nucleotides
mutation a permanent variation in the nucleotide sequence of a genome
nitrogenous base a nitrogen-containing molecule that acts as a base; often referring to one of the
purine or pyrimidine components of nucleic acids
nontemplate strand the strand of DNA that is not used to transcribe mRNA; this strand is identical
to the mRNA except that T nucleotides in the DNA are replaced by U nucleotides in the mRNA
nucleotide excision repair a form of DNA repair in which the DNA molecule is unwound and
separated in the region of the nucleotide damage, the damaged nucleotides are removed and
replaced with new nucleotides using the complementary strand, and the DNA strand is resealed
and allowed to rejoin its complement
Okazaki fragments the DNA fragments that are synthesized in short stretches on the lagging strand
phosphate group a molecular group consisting of a central phosphorus atom bound to four oxygen
atoms
post-transcriptional control of gene expression after the RNA molecule has been created but
before it is translated into protein
post-translational control of gene expression after a protein has been created
primer a short stretch of RNA nucleotides that is required to initiate replication and allow DNA
polymerase to bind and begin replication
promoter a sequence on DNA to which RNA polymerase and associated factors bind and initiate
transcription
RNA polymerase an enzyme that synthesizes an RNA strand from a DNA template strand
rRNA ribosomal RNA; molecules of RNA that combine to form part of the ribosome
replication fork the Y-shaped structure formed during the initiation of replication
semiconservative replication the method used to replicate DNA in which the double-stranded
molecule is separated and each strand acts as a template for a new strand to be synthesized, so
the resulting DNA molecules are composed of one new strand of nucleotides and one old strand
of nucleotides
splicing the process of removing introns and reconnecting exons in a pre-mRNA
start codon the AUG (or, rarely GUG) on an mRNA from which translation begins; always
specifies methionine
stop codon one of the three mRNA codons that specifies termination of translation
tRNA transfer RNA; an RNA molecule that contains a specific three-nucleotide anticodon sequence
to pair with the mRNA codon and also binds to a specific amino acid
telomerase an enzyme that contains a catalytic part and an inbuilt RNA template; it functions to
maintain telomeres at chromosome ends
telomere the DNA at the end of linear chromosomes
template strand the strand of DNA that specifies the complementary mRNA molecule
transcription bubble the region of locally unwound DNA that allows for transcription of mRNA
CHAPTER SUMMARY
8.1 The Structure of DNA
The model of the double-helix structure of DNA was proposed by Watson and Crick. The DNA
molecule is a polymer of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon
sugar (deoxyribose), and a phosphate group. There are four nitrogenous bases in DNA, two purines
(adenine and guanine) and two pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine). A DNA molecule is composed of
two strands. Each strand is composed of nucleotides bonded together covalently between the phosphate
group of one and the deoxyribose sugar of the next. From this backbone extend the bases. The bases of
one strand bond to the bases of the second strand with hydrogen bonds. Adenine always bonds with
thymine, and cytosine always bonds with guanine. The bonding causes the two strands to spiral around
each other in a shape called a double helix. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a second nucleic acid found in
cells. RNA is a single-stranded polymer of nucleotides. It also differs from DNA in that it contains the
sugar ribose, rather than deoxyribose, and the nucleotide uracil rather than thymine. Various RNA
molecules function in the process of forming proteins from the genetic code in DNA.
Prokaryotes contain a single, double-stranded circular chromosome. Eukaryotes contain doublestranded linear DNA molecules packaged into chromosomes. The DNA helix is wrapped around
proteins to form nucleosomes. The protein coils are further coiled, and during mitosis and meiosis, the
chromosomes become even more greatly coiled to facilitate their movement. Chromosomes have two
distinct regions which can be distinguished by staining, reflecting different degrees of packaging and
determined by whether the DNA in a region is being expressed (euchromatin) or not (heterochromatin).
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8.2 DNA Replication

DNA replicates by a semi-conservative method in which each of the two parental DNA strands act as a
template for new DNA to be synthesized. After replication, each DNA has one parental or old strand,
and one daughter or new strand.
Replication in eukaryotes starts at multiple origins of replication, while replication in prokaryotes
starts from a single origin of replication. The DNA is opened with enzymes, resulting in the formation
of the replication fork. Primase synthesizes an RNA primer to initiate synthesis by DNA polymerase,
which can add nucleotides in only one direction. One strand is synthesized continuously in the direction
of the replication fork; this is called the leading strand. The other strand is synthesized in a direction
away from the replication fork, in short stretches of DNA known as Okazaki fragments. This strand is
known as the lagging strand. Once replication is completed, the RNA primers are replaced by DNA
nucleotides and the DNA is sealed with DNA ligase.
The ends of eukaryotic chromosomes pose a problem, as polymerase is unable to extend them
without a primer. Telomerase, an enzyme with an inbuilt RNA template, extends the ends by copying
the RNA template and extending one end of the chromosome. DNA polymerase can then extend the
DNA using the primer. In this way, the ends of the chromosomes are protected. Cells have mechanisms
for repairing DNA when it becomes damaged or errors are made in replication. These mechanisms
include mismatch repair to replace nucleotides that are paired with a non-complementary base and
nucleotide excision repair, which removes bases that are damaged such as thymine dimers.
8.3 Transcription
In prokaryotes, mRNA synthesis is initiated at a promoter sequence on the DNA template. Elongation
synthesizes new mRNA. Termination liberates the mRNA and occurs by mechanisms that stall the
RNA polymerase and cause it to fall off the DNA template. Newly transcribed eukaryotic mRNAs are
modified with a cap and a poly-A tail. These structures protect the mature mRNA from degradation and
help export it from the nucleus. Eukaryotic mRNAs also undergo splicing, in which introns are
removed and exons are reconnected with single-nucleotide accuracy. Only finished mRNAs are
exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
8.4 Translation
The central dogma describes the flow of genetic information in the cell from genes to mRNA to
proteins. Genes are used to make mRNA by the process of transcription; mRNA is used to synthesize
proteins by the process of translation. The genetic code is the correspondence between the threenucleotide mRNA codon and an amino acid. The genetic code is translated by the tRNA molecules,
which associate a specific codon with a specific amino acid. The genetic code is degenerate because 64
triplet codons in mRNA specify only 20 amino acids and three stop codons. This means that more than
one codon corresponds to an amino acid. Almost every species on the planet uses the same genetic
code.
The players in translation include the mRNA template, ribosomes, tRNAs, and various enzymatic
factors. The small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA template. Translation begins at the initiating
AUG on the mRNA. The formation of bonds occurs between sequential amino acids specified by the
mRNA template according to the genetic code. The ribosome accepts charged tRNAs, and as it steps
along the mRNA, it catalyzes bonding between the new amino acid and the end of the growing
polypeptide. The entire mRNA is translated in three-nucleotide steps of the ribosome. When a stop
codon is encountered, a release factor binds and dissociates the components and frees the new protein.
8.5 How Genes Are Regulated

While all somatic cells within an organism contain the same DNA, not all cells within that organism
express the same proteins. Prokaryotic organisms express the entire DNA they encode in every cell, but
not necessarily all at the same time. Proteins are expressed only when they are needed. Eukaryotic
organisms express a subset of the DNA that is encoded in any given cell. In each cell type, the type and
amount of protein is regulated by controlling gene expression. To express a protein, the DNA is first
transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into proteins. In prokaryotic cells, these processes occur
almost simultaneously. In eukaryotic cells, transcription occurs in the nucleus and is separate from the
translation that occurs in the cytoplasm. Gene expression in prokaryotes is regulated only at the
transcriptional level, whereas in eukaryotic cells, gene expression is regulated at the epigenetic,
transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels.

1. Figure 8.10 You isolate a cell strain in which
the joining together of Okazaki fragments is
impaired and suspect that a mutation has occurred
in an enzyme found at the replication fork. Which

enzyme is most likely to be mutated?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
2. Which of the following does cytosine pair
with?
a. guanine
b. thymine
c. adenine
d. a pyrimidine
3. Prokaryotes contain a ________chromosome,
and eukaryotes contain ________ chromosomes.
a. single-stranded circular; single-stranded
linear
b. single-stranded linear; single-stranded
circular
c. double-stranded circular; doublestranded linear
d. double-stranded linear; double-stranded
circular
4. DNA replicates by which of the following
models?
a. conservative
b. semiconservative
c. dispersive
d. none of the above
5. The initial mechanism for repairing nucleotide
errors in DNA is ________.
a. mismatch repair
b. DNA polymerase proofreading
c. nucleotide excision repair
d. thymine dimers
6. A promoter is ________.
a. a specific sequence of DNA nucleotides
b. a specific sequence of RNA nucleotides
c. a protein that binds to DNA
d. an enzyme that synthesizes RNA
a.
b.
c.
d.
exons
caps
poly-A tails
introns
8. The RNA components of ribosomes are

synthesized in the ________.
a. cytoplasm
b. nucleus
c. nucleolus
d. endoplasmic reticulum
9. How long would the peptide be that is
translated from this MRNA sequence: 5'AUGGGCUACCGA-3'?
a. 0
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
10. Control of gene expression in eukaryotic cells
occurs at which level(s)?
a. only the transcriptional level
b. epigenetic and transcriptional levels
c. epigenetic, transcriptional, and
translational levels
d. epigenetic, transcriptional, posttranscriptional, translational, and posttranslational levels
11. Post-translational control refers to:
a. regulation of gene expression after
transcription
b. regulation of gene expression after
translation
c. control of epigenetic activation
d. period between transcription and
translation
7. Portions of eukaryotic mRNA sequence that are

removed during RNA processing are ________.

12. Describe the organization of the eukaryotic
chromosome.
13. Describe the structure and complementary
base pairing of DNA.
14. How do the linear chromosomes in eukaryotes
ensure that its ends are replicated completely?
15. Transcribe and translate the following DNA

sequence (nontemplate strand): 5'ATGGCCGGTTATTAAGCA-3'
16. Describe how controlling gene expression will
alter the overall protein levels in the cell.
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CHAPTER 9 | BIOTECHNOLOGY
9 | BIOTECHNOLOGY
Figure 9.1 (a) A thermal cycler, such as the one shown here, is a basic tool used to study DNA in a
process called the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The polymerase enzyme most often used with
PCR comes from a strain of bacteria that lives in (b) the hot springs of Yellowstone National Park.
(credit a: modification of work by Magnus Manske; credit b: modification of work by Jon Sullivan)
Chapter Outline
9.1: Cloning and Genetic Engineering
9.2: Biotechnology in Medicine and Agriculture
9.3: Genomics and Proteomics
Introduction
The latter half of the twentieth century began with the discovery of the structure of DNA, then progressed
to the development of the basic tools used to study and manipulate DNA. These advances, as well as
advances in our understanding of and ability to manipulate cells, have led some to refer to the twenty-first
century as the biotechnology century. The rate of discovery and of the development of new applications
in medicine, agriculture, and energy is expected to accelerate, bringing huge benefits to humankind and
perhaps also significant risks. Many of these developments are expected to raise significant ethical and
social questions that human societies have not yet had to consider.
9.1 | Cloning and Genetic Engineering

Explain the basic techniques used to manipulate genetic material
Explain molecular and reproductive cloning
Biotechnology is the use of artificial methods to modify the genetic material of living organisms or cells
to produce novel compounds or to perform new functions. Biotechnology has been used for improving
livestock and crops since the beginning of agriculture through selective breeding. Since the discovery of
the structure of DNA in 1953, and particularly since the development of tools and methods to manipulate
DNA in the 1970s, biotechnology has become synonymous with the manipulation of organisms DNA at
the molecular level. The primary applications of this technology are in medicine (for the production of
vaccines and antibiotics) and in agriculture (for the genetic modification of crops). Biotechnology also
has many industrial applications, such as fermentation, the treatment of oil spills, and the production of
biofuels, as well as many household applications such as the use of enzymes in laundry detergent.
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Manipulating Genetic Material

To accomplish the applications described above, biotechnologists must be able to extract, manipulate,
and analyze nucleic acids.
Review of Nucleic Acid Structure
To understand the basic techniques used to work with nucleic acids, remember that nucleic acids are
macromolecules made of nucleotides (a sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base). The phosphate
groups on these molecules each have a net negative charge. An entire set of DNA molecules in the
nucleus of eukaryotic organisms is called the genome. DNA has two complementary strands linked by
hydrogen bonds between the paired bases.
Unlike DNA in eukaryotic cells, RNA molecules leave the nucleus. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is
analyzed most frequently because it represents the protein-coding genes that are being expressed in the
cell.
Isolation of Nucleic Acids
To study or manipulate nucleic acids, the DNA must first be extracted from cells. Various techniques
are used to extract different types of DNA (Figure 9.2). Most nucleic acid extraction techniques
involve steps to break open the cell, and then the use of enzymatic reactions to destroy all undesired
macromolecules. Cells are broken open using a detergent solution containing buffering compounds. To
prevent degradation and contamination, macromolecules such as proteins and RNA are inactivated using
enzymes. The DNA is then brought out of solution using alcohol. The resulting DNA, because it is made
up of long polymers, forms a gelatinous mass.
Figure 9.2 This diagram shows the basic method used for the extraction of DNA.
RNA is studied to understand gene expression patterns in cells. RNA is naturally very unstable
because enzymes that break down RNA are commonly present in nature. Some are even secreted by our
own skin and are very difficult to inactivate. Similar to DNA extraction, RNA extraction involves the
use of various buffers and enzymes to inactivate other macromolecules and preserve only the RNA.
Gel Electrophoresis
Because nucleic acids are negatively charged ions at neutral or alkaline pH in an aqueous environment,
they can be moved by an electric field. Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate charged
molecules on the basis of size and charge. The nucleic acids can be separated as whole chromosomes or
as fragments. The nucleic acids are loaded into a slot at one end of a gel matrix, an electric current is
applied, and negatively charged molecules are pulled toward the opposite end of the gel (the end with the
positive electrode). Smaller molecules move through the pores in the gel faster than larger molecules;
this difference in the rate of migration separates the fragments on the basis of size. The nucleic acids in
a gel matrix are invisible until they are stained with a compound that allows them to be seen, such as
a dye. Distinct fragments of nucleic acids appear as bands at specific distances from the top of the gel
(the negative electrode end) that are based on their size (Figure 9.3). A mixture of many fragments of
varying sizes appear as a long smear, whereas uncut genomic DNA is usually too large to run through
the gel and forms a single large band at the top of the gel.
Figure 9.3 Shown are DNA fragments from six samples run on a gel, stained with a fluorescent
dye and viewed under UV light. (credit: modification of work by James Jacob, Tompkins Cortland
Community College)
Polymerase Chain Reaction

DNA analysis often requires focusing on one or more specific regions of the genome. It also frequently
involves situations in which only one or a few copies of a DNA molecule are available for further
analysis. These amounts are insufficient for most procedures, such as gel electrophoresis. Polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to rapidly increase the number of copies of specific regions
of DNA for further analyses (Figure 9.4). PCR uses a special form of DNA polymerase, the enzyme
that replicates DNA, and other short nucleotide sequences called primers that base pair to a specific
portion of the DNA being replicated. PCR is used for many purposes in laboratories. These include:
1) the identification of the owner of a DNA sample left at a crime scene; 2) paternity analysis; 3) the
comparison of small amounts of ancient DNA with modern organisms; and 4) determining the sequence
of nucleotides in a specific region.
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Figure 9.4 Polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, is used to produce many copies of a specific
sequence of DNA using a special form of DNA polymerase.
Cloning
In general, cloning means the creation of a perfect replica. Typically, the word is used to describe the
creation of a genetically identical copy. In biology, the re-creation of a whole organism is referred to as
reproductive cloning. Long before attempts were made to clone an entire organism, researchers learned
how to copy short stretches of DNAa process that is referred to as molecular cloning.
Molecular Cloning
Cloning allows for the creation of multiple copies of genes, expression of genes, and study of specific
genes. To get the DNA fragment into a bacterial cell in a form that will be copied or expressed, the
fragment is first inserted into a plasmid. A plasmid (also called a vector in this context) is a small
circular DNA molecule that replicates independently of the chromosomal DNA in bacteria. In cloning,
the plasmid molecules can be used to provide a "vehicle" in which to insert a desired DNA fragment.
Modified plasmids are usually reintroduced into a bacterial host for replication. As the bacteria divide,
they copy their own DNA (including the plasmids). The inserted DNA fragment is copied along with the
rest of the bacterial DNA. In a bacterial cell, the fragment of DNA from the human genome (or another
organism that is being studied) is referred to as foreign DNA to differentiate it from the DNA of the
bacterium (the host DNA).
Plasmids occur naturally in bacterial populations (such as Escherichia coli) and have genes that
can contribute favorable traits to the organism, such as antibiotic resistance (the ability to be unaffected
by antibiotics). Plasmids have been highly engineered as vectors for molecular cloning and for the
subsequent large-scale production of important molecules, such as insulin. A valuable characteristic of
plasmid vectors is the ease with which a foreign DNA fragment can be introduced. These plasmid vectors
contain many short DNA sequences that can be cut with different commonly available restriction
enzymes. Restriction enzymes (also called restriction endonucleases) recognize specific DNA sequences
and cut them in a predictable manner; they are naturally produced by bacteria as a defense mechanism
against foreign DNA. Many restriction enzymes make staggered cuts in the two strands of DNA, such
that the cut ends have a 2- to 4-nucleotide single-stranded overhang. The sequence that is recognized
by the restriction enzyme is a four- to eight-nucleotide sequence that is a palindrome. Like with a word
palindrome, this means the sequence reads the same forward and backward. In most cases, the sequence
reads the same forward on one strand and backward on the complementary strand. When a staggered cut
is made in a sequence like this, the overhangs are complementary (Figure 9.5).
Figure 9.5 In this (a) six-nucleotide restriction enzyme recognition site, notice that the sequence of
six nucleotides reads the same in the 5' to 3' direction on one strand as it does in the 5' to 3' direction
on the complementary strand. This is known as a palindrome. (b) The restriction enzyme makes
breaks in the DNA strands, and (c) the cut in the DNA results in sticky ends. Another piece of DNA
cut on either end by the same restriction enzyme could attach to these sticky ends and be inserted
into the gap made by this cut.
Because these overhangs are capable of coming back together by hydrogen bonding with
complementary overhangs on a piece of DNA cut with the same restriction enzyme, these are called
sticky ends. The process of forming hydrogen bonds between complementary sequences on single
strands to form double-stranded DNA is called annealing. Addition of an enzyme called DNA ligase,
which takes part in DNA replication in cells, permanently joins the DNA fragments when the sticky ends
come together. In this way, any DNA fragment can be spliced between the two ends of a plasmid DNA
that has been cut with the same restriction enzyme (Figure 9.6).
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Figure 9.6 This diagram shows the steps involved in molecular cloning.
Plasmids with foreign DNA inserted into them are called recombinant DNA molecules because
they contain new combinations of genetic material. Proteins that are produced from recombinant DNA
molecules are called recombinant proteins. Not all recombinant plasmids are capable of expressing
genes. Plasmids may also be engineered to express proteins only when stimulated by certain
environmental factors, so that scientists can control the expression of the recombinant proteins.
Reproductive Cloning
Reproductive cloning is a method used to make a clone or an identical copy of an entire multicellular
organism. Most multicellular organisms undergo reproduction by sexual means, which involves the
contribution of DNA from two individuals (parents), making it impossible to generate an identical copy
or a clone of either parent. Recent advances in biotechnology have made it possible to reproductively
clone mammals in the laboratory.
Natural sexual reproduction involves the union, during fertilization, of a sperm and an egg. Each
of these gametes is haploid, meaning they contain one set of chromosomes in their nuclei. The resulting
cell, or zygote, is then diploid and contains two sets of chromosomes. This cell divides mitotically to
produce a multicellular organism. However, the union of just any two cells cannot produce a viable
zygote; there are components in the cytoplasm of the egg cell that are essential for the early development
of the embryo during its first few cell divisions. Without these provisions, there would be no subsequent
development. Therefore, to produce a new individual, both a diploid genetic complement and an egg
cytoplasm are required. The approach to producing an artificially cloned individual is to take the egg cell
of one individual and to remove the haploid nucleus. Then a diploid nucleus from a body cell of a second
individual, the donor, is put into the egg cell. The egg is then stimulated to divide so that development
proceeds. This sounds simple, but in fact it takes many attempts before each of the steps is completed
successfully.
The first cloned agricultural animal was Dolly, a sheep who was born in 1996. The success rate
of reproductive cloning at the time was very low. Dolly lived for six years and died of a lung tumor
(Figure 9.7). There was speculation that because the cell DNA that gave rise to Dolly came from an
older individual, the age of the DNA may have affected her life expectancy. Since Dolly, several species
of animals (such as horses, bulls, and goats) have been successfully cloned.
There have been attempts at producing cloned human embryos as sources of embryonic stem cells.
In the procedure, the DNA from an adult human is introduced into a human egg cell, which is then
stimulated to divide. The technology is similar to the technology that was used to produce Dolly, but the
embryo is never implanted into a surrogate mother. The cells produced are called embryonic stem cells
because they have the capacity to develop into many different kinds of cells, such as muscle or nerve
cells. The stem cells could be used to research and ultimately provide therapeutic applications, such as
replacing damaged tissues. The benefit of cloning in this instance is that the cells used to regenerate new
tissues would be a perfect match to the donor of the original DNA. For example, a leukemia patient
would not require a sibling with a tissue match for a bone-marrow transplant.
Figure 9.7 Dolly the sheep was the first agricultural animal to be cloned. To create Dolly, the
nucleus was removed from a donor egg cell. The enucleated egg was placed next to the other
cell, then they were shocked to fuse. They were shocked again to start division. The cells were
allowed to divide for several days until an early embryonic stage was reached, before being
implanted in a surrogate mother.
Why was Dolly a Finn-Dorset and not a Scottish Blackface sheep?
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Genetic Engineering
Using recombinant DNA technology to modify an organisms DNA to achieve desirable traits is called
genetic engineering. Addition of foreign DNA in the form of recombinant DNA vectors that are
generated by molecular cloning is the most common method of genetic engineering. An organism that
receives the recombinant DNA is called a genetically modified organism (GMO). If the foreign DNA
that is introduced comes from a different species, the host organism is called transgenic. Bacteria, plants,
and animals have been genetically modified since the early 1970s for academic, medical, agricultural,
and industrial purposes. These applications will be examined in more detail in the next module.
Watch this short video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/transgenic) explaining how scientists create a

transgenic animal.
Although the classic methods of studying the function of genes began with a given phenotype and
determined the genetic basis of that phenotype, modern techniques allow researchers to start at the DNA
sequence level and ask: "What does this gene or DNA element do?" This technique, called reverse
genetics, has resulted in reversing the classical genetic methodology. One example of this method is
analogous to damaging a body part to determine its function. An insect that loses a wing cannot fly,
which means that the wings function is flight. The classic genetic method compares insects that cannot
fly with insects that can fly, and observes that the non-flying insects have lost wings. Similarly in
a reverse genetics approach, mutating or deleting genes provides researchers with clues about gene
function. Alternately, reverse genetics can be used to cause a gene to overexpress itself to determine what
phenotypic effects may occur.
9.2 | Biotechnology in Medicine and

Agriculture
Describe uses of biotechnology in medicine
Describe uses of biotechnology in agriculture
It is easy to see how biotechnology can be used for medicinal purposes. Knowledge of the genetic
makeup of our species, the genetic basis of heritable diseases, and the invention of technology to
manipulate and fix mutant genes provides methods to treat diseases. Biotechnology in agriculture can
enhance resistance to disease, pests, and environmental stress to improve both crop yield and quality.
Genetic Diagnosis and Gene Therapy

The process of testing for suspected genetic defects before administering treatment is called genetic
diagnosis by genetic testing. In some cases in which a genetic disease is present in an individuals family,
family members may be advised to undergo genetic testing. For example, mutations in the BRCA genes
may increase the likelihood of developing breast and ovarian cancers in women and some other cancers
in women and men. A woman with breast cancer can be screened for these mutations. If one of the highrisk mutations is found, her female relatives may also wish to be screened for that particular mutation,
or simply be more vigilant for the occurrence of cancers. Genetic testing is also offered for fetuses (or
embryos with in vitro fertilization) to determine the presence or absence of disease-causing genes in
families with specific debilitating diseases.
See how human DNA is extracted (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/DNA_extraction) for uses such as

genetic testing.
Gene therapy is a genetic engineering technique that may one day be used to cure certain genetic
diseases. In its simplest form, it involves the introduction of a non-mutated gene at a random location
in the genome to cure a disease by replacing a protein that may be absent in these individuals because
of a genetic mutation. The non-mutated gene is usually introduced into diseased cells as part of a
vector transmitted by a virus, such as an adenovirus, that can infect the host cell and deliver the foreign
DNA into the genome of the targeted cell (Figure 9.8). To date, gene therapies have been primarily
experimental procedures in humans. A few of these experimental treatments have been successful, but
the methods may be important in the future as the factors limiting its success are resolved.
Figure 9.8 This diagram shows the steps involved in curing disease with gene therapy using an
adenovirus vector. (credit: modification of work by NIH)
Production of Vaccines, Antibiotics, and Hormones

Traditional vaccination strategies use weakened or inactive forms of microorganisms or viruses to
stimulate the immune system. Modern techniques use specific genes of microorganisms cloned into
vectors and mass-produced in bacteria to make large quantities of specific substances to stimulate the
immune system. The substance is then used as a vaccine. In some cases, such as the H1N1 flu vaccine,
genes cloned from the virus have been used to combat the constantly changing strains of this virus.
Antibiotics kill bacteria and are naturally produced by microorganisms such as fungi; penicillin
is perhaps the most well-known example. Antibiotics are produced on a large scale by cultivating and
manipulating fungal cells. The fungal cells have typically been genetically modified to improve the
yields of the antibiotic compound.
Recombinant DNA technology was used to produce large-scale quantities of the human hormone
insulin in E. coli as early as 1978. Previously, it was only possible to treat diabetes with pig insulin, which
caused allergic reactions in many humans because of differences in the insulin molecule. In addition,
human growth hormone (HGH) is used to treat growth disorders in children. The HGH gene was cloned
from a cDNA (complementary DNA) library and inserted into E. coli cells by cloning it into a bacterial
vector.
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Transgenic Animals
Although several recombinant proteins used in medicine are successfully produced in bacteria, some
proteins need a eukaryotic animal host for proper processing. For this reason, genes have been cloned
and expressed in animals such as sheep, goats, chickens, and mice. Animals that have been modified to
express recombinant DNA are called transgenic animals (Figure 9.9).
Figure 9.9 It can be seen that two of these mice are transgenic because they have a gene that
causes them to fluoresce under a UV light. The non-transgenic mouse does not have the gene that
causes fluorescence. (credit: Ingrid Moen et al.)
Several human proteins are expressed in the milk of transgenic sheep and goats. In one commercial
example, the FDA has approved a blood anticoagulant protein that is produced in the milk of transgenic
goats for use in humans. Mice have been used extensively for expressing and studying the effects of
recombinant genes and mutations.
Transgenic Plants
Manipulating the DNA of plants (creating genetically modified organisms, or GMOs) has helped to
create desirable traits such as disease resistance, herbicide, and pest resistance, better nutritional value,
and better shelf life (Figure 9.10). Plants are the most important source of food for the human population.
Farmers developed ways to select for plant varieties with desirable traits long before modern-day
biotechnology practices were established.
Figure 9.10 Corn, a major agricultural crop used to create products for a variety of industries, is
often modified through plant biotechnology. (credit: Keith Weller, USDA)
Transgenic plants have received DNA from other species. Because they contain unique
combinations of genes and are not restricted to the laboratory, transgenic plants and other GMOs are
closely monitored by government agencies to ensure that they are fit for human consumption and do
not endanger other plant and animal life. Because foreign genes can spread to other species in the
environment, particularly in the pollen and seeds of plants, extensive testing is required to ensure
ecological stability. Staples like corn, potatoes, and tomatoes were the first crop plants to be genetically
engineered.
Transformation of Plants Using Agrobacterium tumefaciens
In plants, tumors caused by the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens occur by transfer of DNA from
the bacterium to the plant. The artificial introduction of DNA into plant cells is more challenging than
in animal cells because of the thick plant cell wall. Researchers used the natural transfer of DNA from
Agrobacterium to a plant host to introduce DNA fragments of their choice into plant hosts. In nature, the
disease-causing A. tumefaciens have a set of plasmids that contain genes that integrate into the infected
plant cells genome. Researchers manipulate the plasmids to carry the desired DNA fragment and insert
it into the plant genome.
The Organic Insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a bacterium that produces protein crystals that are toxic to many insect
species that feed on plants. Insects that have eaten Bt toxin stop feeding on the plants within a few hours.
After the toxin is activated in the intestines of the insects, death occurs within a couple of days. The
crystal toxin genes have been cloned from the bacterium and introduced into plants, therefore allowing
plants to produce their own crystal Bt toxin that acts against insects. Bt toxin is safe for the environment
and non-toxic to mammals (including humans). As a result, it has been approved for use by organic
farmers as a natural insecticide. There is some concern, however, that insects may evolve resistance to
the Bt toxin in the same way that bacteria evolve resistance to antibiotics.
FlavrSavr Tomato
The first GM crop to be introduced into the market was the FlavrSavr Tomato produced in 1994.
Molecular genetic technology was used to slow down the process of softening and rotting caused by
fungal infections, which led to increased shelf life of the GM tomatoes. Additional genetic modification
improved the flavor of this tomato. The FlavrSavr tomato did not successfully stay in the market because
of problems maintaining and shipping the crop.
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9.3 | Genomics and Proteomics

Define genomics and proteomics
Define whole genome sequencing
Explain different applications of genomics and proteomics
The study of nucleic acids began with the discovery of DNA, progressed to the study of genes and small
fragments, and has now exploded to the field of genomics. Genomics is the study of entire genomes,
including the complete set of genes, their nucleotide sequence and organization, and their interactions
within a species and with other species. The advances in genomics have been made possible by DNA
sequencing technology. Just as information technology has led to Google Maps that enable us to get
detailed information about locations around the globe, genomic information is used to create similar
maps of the DNA of different organisms.
Mapping Genomes
Genome mapping is the process of finding the location of genes on each chromosome. The maps that are
created are comparable to the maps that we use to navigate streets. A genetic map is an illustration that
lists genes and their location on a chromosome. Genetic maps provide the big picture (similar to a map
of interstate highways) and use genetic markers (similar to landmarks). A genetic marker is a gene or
sequence on a chromosome that shows genetic linkage with a trait of interest. The genetic marker tends
to be inherited with the gene of interest, and one measure of distance between them is the recombination
frequency during meiosis. Early geneticists called this linkage analysis.
Physical maps get into the intimate details of smaller regions of the chromosomes (similar to
a detailed road map) (Figure 9.11). A physical map is a representation of the physical distance, in
nucleotides, between genes or genetic markers. Both genetic linkage maps and physical maps are
required to build a complete picture of the genome. Having a complete map of the genome makes it
easier for researchers to study individual genes. Human genome maps help researchers in their efforts
to identify human disease-causing genes related to illnesses such as cancer, heart disease, and cystic
fibrosis, to name a few. In addition, genome mapping can be used to help identify organisms with
beneficial traits, such as microbes with the ability to clean up pollutants or even prevent pollution.
Research involving plant genome mapping may lead to methods that produce higher crop yields or to the
development of plants that adapt better to climate change.
Figure 9.11 This is a physical map of the human X chromosome. (credit: modification of work by
NCBI, NIH)
Genetic maps provide the outline, and physical maps provide the details. It is easy to understand
why both types of genome-mapping techniques are important to show the big picture. Information
obtained from each technique is used in combination to study the genome. Genomic mapping is used
with different model organisms that are used for research. Genome mapping is still an ongoing process,
and as more advanced techniques are developed, more advances are expected. Genome mapping is
similar to completing a complicated puzzle using every piece of available data. Mapping information
generated in laboratories all over the world is entered into central databases, such as the National Center
for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Efforts are made to make the information more easily accessible
to researchers and the general public. Just as we use global positioning systems instead of paper maps
to navigate through roadways, NCBI allows us to use a genome viewer tool to simplify the data mining
process.
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Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/OMIM2) is a

searchable online catalog of human genes and genetic disorders. This website shows genome mapping,
and also details the history and research of each trait and disorder. Click the link to search for traits
(such as handedness) and genetic disorders (such as diabetes).
Whole Genome Sequencing

Although there have been significant advances in the medical sciences in recent years, doctors are still
confounded by many diseases and researchers are using whole genome sequencing to get to the bottom
of the problem. Whole genome sequencing is a process that determines the DNA sequence of an
entire genome. Whole genome sequencing is a brute-force approach to problem solving when there is
a genetic basis at the core of a disease. Several laboratories now provide services to sequence, analyze,
and interpret entire genomes.
In 2010, whole genome sequencing was used to save a young boy whose intestines had multiple
mysterious abscesses. The child had several colon operations with no relief. Finally, a whole genome
sequence revealed a defect in a pathway that controls apoptosis (programmed cell death). A bone marrow
transplant was used to overcome this genetic disorder, leading to a cure for the boy. He was the first
person to be successfully diagnosed using whole genome sequencing.
The first genomes to be sequenced, such as those belonging to viruses, bacteria, and yeast, were
smaller in terms of the number of nucleotides than the genomes of multicellular organisms. The genomes
of other model organisms, such as the mouse (Mus musculus), the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster),
and the nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans) are now known. A great deal of basic research is performed
in model organisms because the information can be applied to other organisms. A model organism is
a species that is studied as a model to understand the biological processes in other species that can be
represented by the model organism. For example, fruit flies are able to metabolize alcohol like humans,
so the genes affecting sensitivity to alcohol have been studied in fruit flies in an effort to understand the
variation in sensitivity to alcohol in humans. Having entire genomes sequenced helps with the research
efforts in these model organisms (Figure 9.12).
Figure 9.12 Much basic research is done with model organisms, such as the mouse, Mus musculus;
the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster; the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans; the yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae; and the common weed, Arabidopsis thaliana. (credit "mouse":
modification of work by Florean Fortescue; credit "nematodes": modification of work by
"snickclunk"/Flickr; credit "common weed": modification of work by Peggy Greb, USDA; scale-bar
data from Matt Russell)
The first human genome sequence was published in 2003. The number of whole genomes that have
been sequenced steadily increases and now includes hundreds of species and thousands of individual
human genomes.
Applying Genomics
The introduction of DNA sequencing and whole genome sequencing projects, particularly the Human
Genome Project, has expanded the applicability of DNA sequence information. Genomics is now being
used in a wide variety of fields, such as metagenomics, pharmacogenomics, and mitochondrial genomics.
The most commonly known application of genomics is to understand and find cures for diseases.
Predicting Disease Risk at the Individual Level
Predicting the risk of disease involves screening and identifying currently healthy individuals by genome
analysis at the individual level. Intervention with lifestyle changes and drugs can be recommended
before disease onset. However, this approach is most applicable when the problem arises from a single
gene mutation. Such defects only account for about 5 percent of diseases found in developed countries.
Most of the common diseases, such as heart disease, are multifactorial or polygenic, which refers to
a phenotypic characteristic that is determined by two or more genes, and also environmental factors
such as diet. In April 2010, scientists at Stanford University published the genome analysis of a healthy
individual (Stephen Quake, a scientist at Stanford University, who had his genome sequenced); the
analysis predicted his propensity to acquire various diseases. A risk assessment was done to analyze
Quakes percentage of risk for 55 different medical conditions. A rare genetic mutation was found that
showed him to be at risk for sudden heart attack. He was also predicted to have a 23 percent risk of
developing prostate cancer and a 1.4 percent risk of developing Alzheimers disease. The scientists used
databases and several publications to analyze the genomic data. Even though genomic sequencing is
becoming more affordable and analytical tools are becoming more reliable, ethical issues surrounding
genomic analysis at a population level remain to be addressed. For example, could such data be
legitimately used to charge more or less for insurance or to affect credit ratings?
Genome-wide Association Studies
Since 2005, it has been possible to conduct a type of study called a genome-wide association study,
or GWAS. A GWAS is a method that identifies differences between individuals in single nucleotide
polymorphisms (SNPs) that may be involved in causing diseases. The method is particularly suited to
diseases that may be affected by one or many genetic changes throughout the genome. It is very difficult
to identify the genes involved in such a disease using family history information. The GWAS method
relies on a genetic database that has been in development since 2002 called the International HapMap
Project. The HapMap Project sequenced the genomes of several hundred individuals from around the
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world and identified groups of SNPs. The groups include SNPs that are located near to each other on
chromosomes so they tend to stay together through recombination. The fact that the group stays together
means that identifying one marker SNP is all that is needed to identify all the SNPs in the group. There
are several million SNPs identified, but identifying them in other individuals who have not had their
complete genome sequenced is much easier because only the marker SNPs need to be identified.
In a common design for a GWAS, two groups of individuals are chosen; one group has the disease,
and the other group does not. The individuals in each group are matched in other characteristics to
reduce the effect of confounding variables causing differences between the two groups. For example, the
genotypes may differ because the two groups are mostly taken from different parts of the world. Once the
individuals are chosen, and typically their numbers are a thousand or more for the study to work, samples
of their DNA are obtained. The DNA is analyzed using automated systems to identify large differences
in the percentage of particular SNPs between the two groups. Often the study examines a million or more
SNPs in the DNA. The results of GWAS can be used in two ways: the genetic differences may be used as
markers for susceptibility to the disease in undiagnosed individuals, and the particular genes identified
can be targets for research into the molecular pathway of the disease and potential therapies. An offshoot
of the discovery of gene associations with disease has been the formation of companies that provide socalled personal genomics that will identify risk levels for various diseases based on an individuals
SNP complement. The science behind these services is controversial.
Because GWAS looks for associations between genes and disease, these studies provide data for
other research into causes, rather than answering specific questions themselves. An association between
a gene difference and a disease does not necessarily mean there is a cause-and-effect relationship.
However, some studies have provided useful information about the genetic causes of diseases. For
example, three different studies in 2005 identified a gene for a protein involved in regulating
inflammation in the body that is associated with a disease-causing blindness called age-related macular
degeneration. This opened up new possibilities for research into the cause of this disease. A large number
of genes have been identified to be associated with Crohns disease using GWAS, and some of these have
suggested new hypothetical mechanisms for the cause of the disease.
Pharmacogenomics
Pharmacogenomics involves evaluating the effectiveness and safety of drugs on the basis of information
from an individual's genomic sequence. Personal genome sequence information can be used to prescribe
medications that will be most effective and least toxic on the basis of the individual patients genotype.
Studying changes in gene expression could provide information about the gene transcription profile in
the presence of the drug, which can be used as an early indicator of the potential for toxic effects. For
example, genes involved in cellular growth and controlled cell death, when disturbed, could lead to
the growth of cancerous cells. Genome-wide studies can also help to find new genes involved in drug
toxicity. The gene signatures may not be completely accurate, but can be tested further before pathologic
symptoms arise.
Metagenomics
Traditionally, microbiology has been taught with the view that microorganisms are best studied under
pure culture conditions, which involves isolating a single type of cell and culturing it in the laboratory.
Because microorganisms can go through several generations in a matter of hours, their gene expression
profiles adapt to the new laboratory environment very quickly. On the other hand, many species resist
being cultured in isolation. Most microorganisms do not live as isolated entities, but in microbial
communities known as biofilms. For all of these reasons, pure culture is not always the best way to study
microorganisms. Metagenomics is the study of the collective genomes of multiple species that grow and
interact in an environmental niche. Metagenomics can be used to identify new species more rapidly and
to analyze the effect of pollutants on the environment (Figure 9.13). Metagenomics techniques can now
also be applied to communities of higher eukaryotes, such as fish.
Figure 9.13 Metagenomics involves isolating DNA from multiple species within an environmental
niche. The DNA is cut up and sequenced, allowing entire genome sequences of multiple species to
be reconstructed from the sequences of overlapping pieces.
Creation of New Biofuels

Knowledge of the genomics of microorganisms is being used to find better ways to harness biofuels
from algae and cyanobacteria. The primary sources of fuel today are coal, oil, wood, and other plant
products such as ethanol. Although plants are renewable resources, there is still a need to find more
alternative renewable sources of energy to meet our populations energy demands. The microbial world
is one of the largest resources for genes that encode new enzymes and produce new organic compounds,
and it remains largely untapped. This vast genetic resource holds the potential to provide new sources of
biofuels (Figure 9.14).
Figure 9.14 Renewable fuels were tested in Navy ships and aircraft at the first Naval Energy Forum.
(credit: modification of work by John F. Williams, US Navy)
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Mitochondrial Genomics
Mitochondria are intracellular organelles that contain their own DNA. Mitochondrial DNA mutates at
a rapid rate and is often used to study evolutionary relationships. Another feature that makes studying
the mitochondrial genome interesting is that in most multicellular organisms, the mitochondrial DNA is
passed on from the mother during the process of fertilization. For this reason, mitochondrial genomics is
often used to trace genealogy.
Genomics in Forensic Analysis
Information and clues obtained from DNA samples found at crime scenes have been used as evidence
in court cases, and genetic markers have been used in forensic analysis. Genomic analysis has also
become useful in this field. In 2001, the first use of genomics in forensics was published. It was a
collaborative effort between academic research institutions and the FBI to solve the mysterious cases
of anthrax (Figure 9.15) that was transported by the US Postal Service. Anthrax bacteria were made
into an infectious powder and mailed to news media and two U.S. Senators. The powder infected the
administrative staff and postal workers who opened or handled the letters. Five people died, and 17
were sickened from the bacteria. Using microbial genomics, researchers determined that a specific strain
of anthrax was used in all the mailings; eventually, the source was traced to a scientist at a national
biodefense laboratory in Maryland.
Figure 9.15 Bacillus anthracis is the organism that causes anthrax. (credit: modification of work by
CDC; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Genomics in Agriculture
Genomics can reduce the trials and failures involved in scientific research to a certain extent, which
could improve the quality and quantity of crop yields in agriculture (Figure 9.16). Linking traits to genes
or gene signatures helps to improve crop breeding to generate hybrids with the most desirable qualities.
Scientists use genomic data to identify desirable traits, and then transfer those traits to a different
organism to create a new genetically modified organism, as described in the previous module. Scientists
are discovering how genomics can improve the quality and quantity of agricultural production. For
example, scientists could use desirable traits to create a useful product or enhance an existing product,
such as making a drought-sensitive crop more tolerant of the dry season.
Figure 9.16 Transgenic agricultural plants can be made to resist disease. These transgenic plums
are resistant to the plum pox virus. (credit: Scott Bauer, USDA ARS)
Proteomics
Proteins are the final products of genes that perform the function encoded by the gene. Proteins are
composed of amino acids and play important roles in the cell. All enzymes (except ribozymes) are
proteins and act as catalysts that affect the rate of reactions. Proteins are also regulatory molecules, and
some are hormones. Transport proteins, such as hemoglobin, help transport oxygen to various organs.
Antibodies that defend against foreign particles are also proteins. In the diseased state, protein function
can be impaired because of changes at the genetic level or because of direct impact on a specific protein.
A proteome is the entire set of proteins produced by a cell type. Proteomes can be studied using
the knowledge of genomes because genes code for mRNAs, and the mRNAs encode proteins. The
study of the function of proteomes is called proteomics. Proteomics complements genomics and is
useful when scientists want to test their hypotheses that were based on genes. Even though all cells in
a multicellular organism have the same set of genes, the set of proteins produced in different tissues is
different and dependent on gene expression. Thus, the genome is constant, but the proteome varies and
is dynamic within an organism. In addition, RNAs can be alternatively spliced (cut and pasted to create
novel combinations and novel proteins), and many proteins are modified after translation. Although
the genome provides a blueprint, the final architecture depends on several factors that can change the
progression of events that generate the proteome.
Genomes and proteomes of patients suffering from specific diseases are being studied to understand
the genetic basis of the disease. The most prominent disease being studied with proteomic approaches is
cancer (Figure 9.17). Proteomic approaches are being used to improve the screening and early detection
of cancer; this is achieved by identifying proteins whose expression is affected by the disease process.
An individual protein is called a biomarker, whereas a set of proteins with altered expression levels is
called a protein signature. For a biomarker or protein signature to be useful as a candidate for early
screening and detection of a cancer, it must be secreted in body fluids such as sweat, blood, or urine, so
that large-scale screenings can be performed in a noninvasive fashion. The current problem with using
biomarkers for the early detection of cancer is the high rate of false-negative results. A false-negative
result is a negative test result that should have been positive. In other words, many cases of cancer go
undetected, which makes biomarkers unreliable. Some examples of protein biomarkers used in cancer
detection are CA-125 for ovarian cancer and PSA for prostate cancer. Protein signatures may be more
reliable than biomarkers to detect cancer cells. Proteomics is also being used to develop individualized
treatment plans, which involves the prediction of whether or not an individual will respond to specific
drugs and the side effects that the individual may have. Proteomics is also being used to predict the
possibility of disease recurrence.
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Figure 9.17 This machine is preparing to do a proteomic pattern analysis to identify specific cancers
so that an accurate cancer prognosis can be made. (credit: Dorie Hightower, NCI, NIH)
The National Cancer Institute has developed programs to improve the detection and treatment of
cancer. The Clinical Proteomic Technologies for Cancer and the Early Detection Research Network are
efforts to identify protein signatures specific to different types of cancers. The Biomedical Proteomics
Program is designed to identify protein signatures and design effective therapies for cancer patients.
KEY TERMS
anneal in molecular biology, the process by which two single strands of DNA hydrogen bond at
complementary nucleotides to form a double-stranded molecule
biomarker an individual protein that is uniquely produced in a diseased state
biotechnology the use of artificial methods to modify the genetic material of living organisms or
cells to produce novel compounds or to perform new functions
cloning the production of an exact copyspecifically, an exact genetic copyof a gene, cell, or
organism
gel electrophoresis a technique used to separate molecules on the basis of their ability to migrate
through a semisolid gel in response to an electric current
gene therapy the technique used to cure heritable diseases by replacing mutant genes with good
genes
genetic engineering alteration of the genetic makeup of an organism using the molecular methods
of biotechnology
genetic map an outline of genes and their location on a chromosome that is based on recombination
frequencies between markers
genetic testing identifying gene variants in an individual that may lead to a genetic disease in that
individual
genetically modified organism (GMO) an organism whose genome has been artificially
changed
genomics the study of entire genomes, including the complete set of genes, their nucleotide
sequence and organization, and their interactions within a species and with other species
metagenomics the study of the collective genomes of multiple species that grow and interact in an
environmental niche
model organism a species that is studied and used as a model to understand the biological
processes in other species represented by the model organism
pharmacogenomics the study of drug interactions with the genome or proteome; also called
toxicogenomics
physical map a representation of the physical distance between genes or genetic markers
plasmid a small circular molecule of DNA found in bacteria that replicates independently of the
main bacterial chromosome; plasmids code for some important traits for bacteria and can be
used as vectors to transport DNA into bacteria in genetic engineering applications
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) a technique used to make multiple copies of DNA
protein signature a set of over- or under-expressed proteins characteristic of cells in a particular
diseased tissue
proteomics study of the function of proteomes
recombinant DNA a combination of DNA fragments generated by molecular cloning that does not
exist in nature
recombinant protein a protein that is expressed from recombinant DNA molecules
reproductive cloning cloning of entire organisms
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restriction enzyme an enzyme that recognizes a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA and cuts the
DNA double strand at that recognition site, often with a staggered cut leaving short single
strands or sticky ends
reverse genetics a form of genetic analysis that manipulates DNA to disrupt or affect the product
of a gene to analyze the genes function
transgenic describing an organism that receives DNA from a different species
whole genome sequencing a process that determines the nucleotide sequence of an entire
genome
CHAPTER SUMMARY
9.1 Cloning and Genetic Engineering
Nucleic acids can be isolated from cells for the purposes of further analysis by breaking open the cells
and enzymatically destroying all other major macromolecules. Fragmented or whole chromosomes can
be separated on the basis of size by gel electrophoresis. Short stretches of DNA can be amplified by
PCR. DNA can be cut (and subsequently re-spliced together) using restriction enzymes. The molecular
and cellular techniques of biotechnology allow researchers to genetically engineer organisms,
modifying them to achieve desirable traits.
Cloning may involve cloning small DNA fragments (molecular cloning), or cloning entire
organisms (reproductive cloning). In molecular cloning with bacteria, a desired DNA fragment is
inserted into a bacterial plasmid using restriction enzymes and the plasmid is taken up by a bacterium,
which will then express the foreign DNA. Using other techniques, foreign genes can be inserted into
eukaryotic organisms. In each case, the organisms are called transgenic organisms. In reproductive
cloning, a donor nucleus is put into an enucleated egg cell, which is then stimulated to divide and
develop into an organism.
In reverse genetics methods, a gene is mutated or removed in some way to identify its effect on the
phenotype of the whole organism as a way to determine its function.
9.2 Biotechnology in Medicine and Agriculture

Genetic testing is performed to identify disease-causing genes, and can be used to benefit affected
individuals and their relatives who have not developed disease symptoms yet. Gene therapyby which
functioning genes are incorporated into the genomes of individuals with a non-functioning mutant
genehas the potential to cure heritable diseases. Transgenic organisms possess DNA from a different
species, usually generated by molecular cloning techniques. Vaccines, antibiotics, and hormones are
examples of products obtained by recombinant DNA technology. Transgenic animals have been created
for experimental purposes and some are used to produce some human proteins.
Genes are inserted into plants, using plasmids in the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which
infects plants. Transgenic plants have been created to improve the characteristics of crop plantsfor
example, by giving them insect resistance by inserting a gene for a bacterial toxin.
9.3 Genomics and Proteomics

Genome mapping is similar to solving a big, complicated puzzle with pieces of information coming
from laboratories all over the world. Genetic maps provide an outline for the location of genes within a
genome, and they estimate the distance between genes and genetic markers on the basis of the
recombination frequency during meiosis. Physical maps provide detailed information about the physical
distance between the genes. The most detailed information is available through sequence mapping.
Information from all mapping and sequencing sources is combined to study an entire genome.
Whole genome sequencing is the latest available resource to treat genetic diseases. Some doctors
are using whole genome sequencing to save lives. Genomics has many industrial applications,
including biofuel development, agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and pollution control.
Imagination is the only barrier to the applicability of genomics. Genomics is being applied to most
fields of biology; it can be used for personalized medicine, prediction of disease risks at an individual
level, the study of drug interactions before the conduction of clinical trials, and the study of
microorganisms in the environment as opposed to the laboratory. It is also being applied to the
generation of new biofuels, genealogical assessment using mitochondria, advances in forensic science,
and improvements in agriculture.
Proteomics is the study of the entire set of proteins expressed by a given type of cell under certain
environmental conditions. In a multicellular organism, different cell types will have different
proteomes, and these will vary with changes in the environment. Unlike a genome, a proteome is
dynamic and under constant flux, which makes it more complicated and more useful than the
knowledge of genomes alone.

1. Figure 9.7 Why was Dolly a Finn-Dorset and
not a Scottish Blackface sheep?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
2. In gel electrophoresis of DNA, the different
bands in the final gel form because the DNA
molecules ________.
a. are from different organisms
b. have different lengths
c. have different nucleotide compositions
d. have different genes
3. In the reproductive cloning of an animal, the
genome of the cloned individual comes from
________.
a. a sperm cell
b. an egg cell
c. any gamete cell
d. a body cell
4. What carries a gene from one organism into a
bacteria cell?
a. a plasmid
b. an electrophoresis gel
c. a restriction enzyme
d. polymerase chain reaction
5. What is a genetically modified organism
(GMO)?
a. a plant with certain genes removed
b. an organism with an artificially altered
genome
c. a hybrid organism
d. any agricultural organism produced by
breeding or biotechnology
6. What is the role of Agrobacterium tumefaciens
in the production of transgenic plants?
a. Genes from A. tumefaciens are inserted

into plant DNA to give the plant
different traits.
b. Transgenic plants have been given
resistance to the pest A. tumefaciens.
c. A. tumefaciens is used as a vector to
move genes into plant cells.
d. Plant genes are incorporated into the
genome of Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
7. What is the most challenging issue facing
genome sequencing?
a. the inability to develop fast and accurate
sequencing techniques
b. the ethics of using information from
genomes at the individual level
c. the availability and stability of DNA
d. all of the above
8. Genomics can be used in agriculture to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
generate new hybrid strains

improve disease resistance
improve yield
all of the above
9. What kind of diseases are studied using

genome-wide association studies?
a. viral diseases
b. single-gene inherited diseases
c. diseases caused by multiple genes
d. diseases caused by environmental
factors

10. What is the purpose and benefit of the
polymerase chain reaction?
12. Describe two of the applications for genome

mapping.
11. Today, it is possible for a diabetic patient to

purchase human insulin from a pharmacist. What
technology makes this possible and why is it a
benefit over how things used to be?
13. Identify a possible advantage and a possible

disadvantage of a genetic test that would identify
genes in individuals that increase their probability
of having Alzheimer's disease later in life.
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CHAPTER 10 | EVOLUTION AND ITS PROCESSES
10 | EVOLUTION AND
ITS PROCESSES
Figure 10.1 The diversity of life on Earth is the result of evolution, a continuous process that is still
occurring. (credit wolf: modification of work by Gary Kramer, USFWS; credit coral: modification
of work by William Harrigan, NOAA; credit river: modification of work by Vojtch Dostl; credit
protozoa: modification of work by Sharon Franklin, Stephen Ausmus, USDA ARS; credit fish
modification of work by Christian Mehlfhrer; credit mushroom, bee: modification of work by Cory
Zanker; credit tree: modification of work by Joseph Kranak)
Chapter Outline
10.1: Discovering How Populations Change
10.2: Mechanisms of Evolution
10.3: Evidence of Evolution
10.4: Speciation
10.5: Common Misconceptions about Evolution
Introduction
All species of living organismsfrom the bacteria on our skin, to the trees in our yards, to the birds
outsideevolved at some point from a different species. Although it may seem that living things today
stay much the same from generation to generation, that is not the case: evolution is ongoing. Evolution
is the process through which the characteristics of species change and through which new species arise.
The theory of evolution is the unifying theory of biology, meaning it is the framework within which
biologists ask questions about the living world. Its power is that it provides direction for predictions
about living things that are borne out in experiment after experiment. The Ukrainian-born American
geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky famously wrote that nothing makes sense in biology except in the
[1]
light of evolution. He meant that the principle that all life has evolved and diversified from a common
1. Theodosius Dobzhansky. Biology, Molecular and Organismic. American Zoologist 4, no. 4 (1964): 449.
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ancestor is the foundation from which we understand all other questions in biology. This chapter will
explain some of the mechanisms for evolutionary change and the kinds of questions that biologists can
and have answered using evolutionary theory.
10.1 | Discovering How Populations Change

Explain how Darwins theory of evolution differed from the current view at the time
Describe how the present-day theory of evolution was developed
Describe how population genetics is used to study the evolution of populations
The theory of evolution by natural selection describes a mechanism for species change over time. That
species change had been suggested and debated well before Darwin. The view that species were static
and unchanging was grounded in the writings of Plato, yet there were also ancient Greeks that expressed
evolutionary ideas.
In the eighteenth century, ideas about the evolution of animals were reintroduced by the naturalist
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon and even by Charles Darwins grandfather, Erasmus Darwin.
During this time, it was also accepted that there were extinct species. At the same time, James Hutton,
the Scottish naturalist, proposed that geological change occurred gradually by the accumulation of small
changes from processes (over long periods of time) just like those happening today. This contrasted with
the predominant view that the geology of the planet was a consequence of catastrophic events occurring
during a relatively brief past. Huttons view was later popularized by the geologist Charles Lyell in the
nineteenth century. Lyell became a friend to Darwin and his ideas were very influential on Darwins
thinking. Lyell argued that the greater age of Earth gave more time for gradual change in species, and the
process provided an analogy for gradual change in species.
In the early nineteenth century, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a book that detailed a mechanism
for evolutionary change that is now referred to as inheritance of acquired characteristics. In Lamarcks
theory, modifications in an individual caused by its environment, or the use or disuse of a structure during
its lifetime, could be inherited by its offspring and, thus, bring about change in a species. While this
mechanism for evolutionary change as described by Lamarck was discredited, Lamarcks ideas were an
important influence on evolutionary thought. The inscription on the statue of Lamarck that stands at the
gates of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris describes him as the founder of the doctrine of evolution.
Charles Darwin and Natural Selection

The actual mechanism for evolution was independently conceived of and described by two naturalists,
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace, in the mid-nineteenth century. Importantly, each spent
time exploring the natural world on expeditions to the tropics. From 1831 to 1836, Darwin traveled
around the world on H.M.S. Beagle, visiting South America, Australia, and the southern tip of Africa.
Wallace traveled to Brazil to collect insects in the Amazon rainforest from 1848 to 1852 and to the
Malay Archipelago from 1854 to 1862. Darwins journey, like Wallaces later journeys in the Malay
Archipelago, included stops at several island chains, the last being the Galpagos Islands (west of
Ecuador). On these islands, Darwin observed species of organisms on different islands that were clearly
similar, yet had distinct differences. For example, the ground finches inhabiting the Galpagos Islands
comprised several species that each had a unique beak shape (Figure 10.2). He observed both that these
finches closely resembled another finch species on the mainland of South America and that the group of
species in the Galpagos formed a graded series of beak sizes and shapes, with very small differences
between the most similar. Darwin imagined that the island species might be all species modified from
one original mainland species. In 1860, he wrote, Seeing this gradation and diversity of structure in one
small, intimately related group of birds, one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in
[2]
this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends.
2. Charles Darwin, Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the Countries Visited during the Voyage of
H.M.S. Beagle Round the World, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N, 2nd. ed. (London: John Murray, 1860),
http://www.archive.org/details/journalofresea00darw.
Figure 10.2 Darwin observed that beak shape varies among finch species. He postulated that the
beak of an ancestral species had adapted over time to equip the finches to acquire different food
sources. This illustration shows the beak shapes for four species of ground finch: 1. Geospiza
magnirostris (the large ground finch), 2. G. fortis (the medium ground finch), 3. G. parvula (the small
tree finch), and 4. Certhidea olivacea (the green-warbler finch).
Wallace and Darwin both observed similar patterns in other organisms and independently conceived
a mechanism to explain how and why such changes could take place. Darwin called this mechanism
natural selection. Natural selection, Darwin argued, was an inevitable outcome of three principles
that operated in nature. First, the characteristics of organisms are inherited, or passed from parent to
offspring. Second, more offspring are produced than are able to survive; in other words, resources
for survival and reproduction are limited. The capacity for reproduction in all organisms outstrips the
availability of resources to support their numbers. Thus, there is a competition for those resources in
each generation. Both Darwin and Wallaces understanding of this principle came from reading an essay
by the economist Thomas Malthus, who discussed this principle in relation to human populations. Third,
offspring vary among each other in regard to their characteristics and those variations are inherited.
Out of these three principles, Darwin and Wallace reasoned that offspring with inherited characteristics
that allow them to best compete for limited resources will survive and have more offspring than those
individuals with variations that are less able to compete. Because characteristics are inherited, these traits
will be better represented in the next generation. This will lead to change in populations over generations
in a process that Darwin called descent with modification.
Papers by Darwin and Wallace (Figure 10.3) presenting the idea of natural selection were read
together in 1858 before the Linnaean Society in London. The following year Darwins book, On the
Origin of Species, was published, which outlined in considerable detail his arguments for evolution by
natural selection.
Figure 10.3 (a) Charles Darwin and (b) Alfred Wallace wrote scientific papers on natural selection
that were presented together before the Linnean Society in 1858.
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Demonstrations of evolution by natural selection can be time consuming. One of the best
demonstrations has been in the very birds that helped to inspire the theory, the Galpagos finches. Peter
and Rosemary Grant and their colleagues have studied Galpagos finch populations every year since
1976 and have provided important demonstrations of the operation of natural selection. The Grants
found changes from one generation to the next in the beak shapes of the medium ground finches on the
Galpagos island of Daphne Major. The medium ground finch feeds on seeds. The birds have inherited
variation in the bill shape with some individuals having wide, deep bills and others having thinner bills.
Large-billed birds feed more efficiently on large, hard seeds, whereas smaller billed birds feed more
efficiently on small, soft seeds. During 1977, a drought period altered vegetation on the island. After
this period, the number of seeds declined dramatically: the decline in small, soft seeds was greater than
the decline in large, hard seeds. The large-billed birds were able to survive better than the small-billed
birds the following year. The year following the drought when the Grants measured beak sizes in the
much-reduced population, they found that the average bill size was larger (Figure 10.4). This was clear
evidence for natural selection (differences in survival) of bill size caused by the availability of seeds. The
Grants had studied the inheritance of bill sizes and knew that the surviving large-billed birds would tend
to produce offspring with larger bills, so the selection would lead to evolution of bill size. Subsequent
studies by the Grants have demonstrated selection on and evolution of bill size in this species in response
to changing conditions on the island. The evolution has occurred both to larger bills, as in this case, and
to smaller bills when large seeds became rare.
Figure 10.4 A drought on the Galpagos island of Daphne Major in 1977 reduced the number of
small seeds available to finches, causing many of the small-beaked finches to die. This caused an
increase in the finches average beak size between 1976 and 1978.
Variation and Adaptation

Natural selection can only take place if there is variation, or differences, among individuals in a
population. Importantly, these differences must have some genetic basis; otherwise, selection will not
lead to change in the next generation. This is critical because variation among individuals can be caused
by non-genetic reasons, such as an individual being taller because of better nutrition rather than different
genes.
Genetic diversity in a population comes from two main sources: mutation and sexual reproduction.
Mutation, a change in DNA, is the ultimate source of new alleles or new genetic variation in any
population. An individual that has a mutated gene might have a different trait than other individuals in
the population. However, this is not always the case. A mutation can have one of three outcomes on the
organisms appearance (or phenotype):
A mutation may affect the phenotype of the organism in a way that gives it reduced fitnesslower
likelihood of survival, resulting in fewer offspring.
A mutation may produce a phenotype with a beneficial effect on fitness.
Many mutations, called neutral mutations, will have no effect on fitness.
Mutations may also have a whole range of effect sizes on the fitness of the organism that expresses
them in their phenotype, from a small effect to a great effect. Sexual reproduction and crossing over
in meiosis also lead to genetic diversity: when two parents reproduce, unique combinations of alleles
assemble to produce unique genotypes and, thus, phenotypes in each of the offspring.
A heritable trait that aids the survival and reproduction of an organism in its present environment is
called an adaptation. An adaptation is a match of the organism to the environment. Adaptation to an
environment comes about when a change in the range of genetic variation occurs over time that increases
or maintains the match of the population with its environment. The variations in finch beaks shifted from
generation to generation providing adaptation to food availability.
Whether or not a trait is favorable depends on the environment at the time. The same traits do not
always have the same relative benefit or disadvantage because environmental conditions can change. For
example, finches with large bills were benefited in one climate, while small bills were a disadvantage; in
a different climate, the relationship reversed.
Patterns of Evolution
The evolution of species has resulted in enormous variation in form and function. When two species
evolve in different directions from a common point, it is called divergent evolution. Such divergent
evolution can be seen in the forms of the reproductive organs of flowering plants, which share the same
basic anatomies; however, they can look very different as a result of selection in different physical
environments, and adaptation to different kinds of pollinators (Figure 10.5).
Figure 10.5 Flowering plants evolved from a common ancestor. Notice that the (a) dense blazing
star and (b) purple coneflower vary in appearance, yet both share a similar basic morphology. (credit
a, b: modification of work by Cory Zanker)
In other cases, similar phenotypes evolve independently in distantly related species. For example,
flight has evolved in both bats and insects, and they both have structures we refer to as wings, which
are adaptations to flight. The wings of bats and insects, however, evolved from very different original
structures. When similar structures arise through evolution independently in different species it is
called convergent evolution. The wings of bats and insects are called analogous structures; they are
similar in function and appearance, but do not share an origin in a common ancestor. Instead they
evolved independently in the two lineages. The wings of a hummingbird and an ostrich are homologous
structures, meaning they share similarities (despite their differences resulting from evolutionary
divergence). The wings of hummingbirds and ostriches did not evolve independently in the hummingbird
lineage and the ostrich lineagethey descended from a common ancestor with wings.
The Modern Synthesis

The mechanisms of inheritance, genetics, were not understood at the time Darwin and Wallace were
developing their idea of natural selection. This lack of understanding was a stumbling block to
comprehending many aspects of evolution. In fact, blending inheritance was the predominant (and
incorrect) genetic theory of the time, which made it difficult to understand how natural selection might
operate. Darwin and Wallace were unaware of the genetics work by Austrian monk Gregor Mendel,
which was published in 1866, not long after publication of On the Origin of Species. Mendels work
was rediscovered in the early twentieth century at which time geneticists were rapidly coming to an
understanding of the basics of inheritance. Initially, the newly discovered particulate nature of genes
made it difficult for biologists to understand how gradual evolution could occur. But over the next few
decades genetics and evolution were integrated in what became known as the modern synthesisthe
coherent understanding of the relationship between natural selection and genetics that took shape by
the 1940s and is generally accepted today. In sum, the modern synthesis describes how evolutionary
pressures, such as natural selection, can affect a populations genetic makeup, and, in turn, how this can
result in the gradual evolution of populations and species. The theory also connects this gradual change
of a population over time, called microevolution, with the processes that gave rise to new species and
higher taxonomic groups with widely divergent characters, called macroevolution.
Population Genetics
Recall that a gene for a particular character may have several variants, or alleles, that code for different
traits associated with that character. For example, in the ABO blood type system in humans, three
alleles determine the particular blood-type protein on the surface of red blood cells. Each individual in a
population of diploid organisms can only carry two alleles for a particular gene, but more than two may
be present in the individuals that make up the population. Mendel followed alleles as they were inherited
from parent to offspring. In the early twentieth century, biologists began to study what happens to all the
alleles in a population in a field of study known as population genetics.
Until now, we have defined evolution as a change in the characteristics of a population of organisms,
but behind that phenotypic change is genetic change. In population genetic terms, evolution is defined
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as a change in the frequency of an allele in a population. Using the ABO system as an example, the
frequency of one of the alleles, IA, is the number of copies of that allele divided by all the copies of
the ABO gene in the population. For example, a study in Jordan found a frequency of IA to be 26.1
[3]
percent. The IB, I0 alleles made up 13.4 percent and 60.5 percent of the alleles respectively, and all of
the frequencies add up to 100 percent. A change in this frequency over time would constitute evolution
in the population.
There are several ways the allele frequencies of a population can change. One of those ways is
natural selection. If a given allele confers a phenotype that allows an individual to have more offspring
that survive and reproduce, that allele, by virtue of being inherited by those offspring, will be in greater
frequency in the next generation. Since allele frequencies always add up to 100 percent, an increase in
the frequency of one allele always means a corresponding decrease in one or more of the other alleles.
Highly beneficial alleles may, over a very few generations, become fixed in this way, meaning that
every individual of the population will carry the allele. Similarly, detrimental alleles may be swiftly
eliminated from the gene pool, the sum of all the alleles in a population. Part of the study of population
genetics is tracking how selective forces change the allele frequencies in a population over time, which
can give scientists clues regarding the selective forces that may be operating on a given population. The
studies of changes in wing coloration in the peppered moth from mottled white to dark in response to
soot-covered tree trunks and then back to mottled white when factories stopped producing so much soot
is a classic example of studying evolution in natural populations (Figure 10.6).
Figure 10.6 As the Industrial Revolution caused trees to darken from soot, darker colored peppered
moths were better camouflaged than the lighter colored ones, which caused there to be more of the
darker colored moths in the population.
In the early twentieth century, English mathematician Godfrey Hardy and German physician
Wilhelm Weinberg independently provided an explanation for a somewhat counterintuitive concept.
Hardys original explanation was in response to a misunderstanding as to why a dominant allele, one
that masks a recessive allele, should not increase in frequency in a population until it eliminated all
the other alleles. The question resulted from a common confusion about what dominant means, but it
forced Hardy, who was not even a biologist, to point out that if there are no factors that affect an allele
frequency those frequencies will remain constant from one generation to the next. This principle is now
known as the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The theory states that a populations allele and genotype
frequencies are inherently stableunless some kind of evolutionary force is acting on the population, the
population would carry the same alleles in the same proportions generation after generation. Individuals
would, as a whole, look essentially the same and this would be unrelated to whether the alleles were
dominant or recessive. The four most important evolutionary forces, which will disrupt the equilibrium,
are natural selection, mutation, genetic drift, and migration into or out of a population. A fifth factor,
nonrandom mating, will also disrupt the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium but only by shifting genotype
frequencies, not allele frequencies. In nonrandom mating, individuals are more likely to mate with like
individuals (or unlike individuals) rather than at random. Since nonrandom mating does not change
allele frequencies, it does not cause evolution directly. Natural selection has been described. Mutation
creates one allele out of another one and changes an alleles frequency by a small, but continuous amount
each generation. Each allele is generated by a low, constant mutation rate that will slowly increase the
alleles frequency in a population if no other forces act on the allele. If natural selection acts against the
allele, it will be removed from the population at a low rate leading to a frequency that results from a
balance between selection and mutation. This is one reason that genetic diseases remain in the human
population at very low frequencies. If the allele is favored by selection, it will increase in frequency.
Genetic drift causes random changes in allele frequencies when populations are small. Genetic drift can
often be important in evolution, as discussed in the next section. Finally, if two populations of a species
have different allele frequencies, migration of individuals between them will cause frequency changes
3. Sahar S. Hanania, Dhia S. Hassawi, and Nidal M. Irshaid, Allele Frequency and Molecular Genotypes of ABO Blood
Group System in a Jordanian Population, Journal of Medical Sciences 7 (2007): 51-58, doi:10.3923/jms.2007.51.58
in both populations. As it happens, there is no population in which one or more of these processes are
not operating, so populations are always evolving, and the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium will never be
exactly observed. However, the Hardy-Weinberg principle gives scientists a baseline expectation for
allele frequencies in a non-evolving population to which they can compare evolving populations and
thereby infer what evolutionary forces might be at play. The population is evolving if the frequencies of
alleles or genotypes deviate from the value expected from the Hardy-Weinberg principle.
Darwin identified a special case of natural selection that he called sexual selection. Sexual selection
affects an individuals ability to mate and thus produce offspring, and it leads to the evolution of dramatic
traits that often appear maladaptive in terms of survival but persist because they give their owners
greater reproductive success. Sexual selection occurs in two ways: through malemale competition
for mates and through female selection of mates. Malemale competition takes the form of conflicts
between males, which are often ritualized, but may also pose significant threats to a males survival.
Sometimes the competition is for territory, with females more likely to mate with males with higher
quality territories. Female choice occurs when females choose a male based on a particular trait, such
as feather colors, the performance of a mating dance, or the building of an elaborate structure. In some
cases malemale competition and female choice combine in the mating process. In each of these cases,
the traits selected for, such as fighting ability or feather color and length, become enhanced in the males.
In general, it is thought that sexual selection can proceed to a point at which natural selection against a
characters further enhancement prevents its further evolution because it negatively impacts the males
ability to survive. For example, colorful feathers or an elaborate display make the male more obvious to
predators.
10.2 | Mechanisms of Evolution

Describe the four basic causes of evolution: natural selection, mutation, genetic drift, and gene
flow
Explain how each evolutionary force can influence the allele frequencies of a population
The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle says that allele frequencies in a population will remain
constant in the absence of the four factors that could change them. Those factors are natural selection,
mutation, genetic drift, and migration (gene flow). In fact, we know they are probably always affecting
populations.
Natural Selection
Natural selection has already been discussed. Alleles are expressed in a phenotype. Depending on the
environmental conditions, the phenotype confers an advantage or disadvantage to the individual with the
phenotype relative to the other phenotypes in the population. If it is an advantage, then that individual
will likely have more offspring than individuals with the other phenotypes, and this will mean that the
allele behind the phenotype will have greater representation in the next generation. If conditions remain
the same, those offspring, which are carrying the same allele, will also benefit. Over time, the allele will
increase in frequency in the population.
Mutation
Mutation is a source of new alleles in a population. Mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of the
gene. A mutation can change one allele into another, but the net effect is a change in frequency. The
change in frequency resulting from mutation is small, so its effect on evolution is small unless it interacts
with one of the other factors, such as selection. A mutation may produce an allele that is selected against,
selected for, or selectively neutral. Harmful mutations are removed from the population by selection and
will generally only be found in very low frequencies equal to the mutation rate. Beneficial mutations
will spread through the population through selection, although that initial spread is slow. Whether or
not a mutation is beneficial or harmful is determined by whether it helps an organism survive to sexual
maturity and reproduce. It should be noted that mutation is the ultimate source of genetic variation in all
populationsnew alleles, and, therefore, new genetic variations arise through mutation.
Genetic Drift
Another way a populations allele frequencies can change is genetic drift (Figure 10.7), which is simply
the effect of chance. Genetic drift is most important in small populations. Drift would be completely
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absent in a population with infinite individuals, but, of course, no population is this large. Genetic drift
occurs because the alleles in an offspring generation are a random sample of the alleles in the parent
generation. Alleles may or may not make it into the next generation due to chance events including
mortality of an individual, events affecting finding a mate, and even the events affecting which gametes
end up in fertilizations. If one individual in a population of ten individuals happens to die before it leaves
any offspring to the next generation, all of its genesa tenth of the populations gene poolwill be
suddenly lost. In a population of 100, that 1 individual represents only 1 percent of the overall gene pool;
therefore, it has much less impact on the populations genetic structure and is unlikely to remove all
copies of even a relatively rare allele.
Imagine a population of ten individuals, half with allele A and half with allele a (the individuals
are haploid). In a stable population, the next generation will also have ten individuals. Choose that
generation randomly by flipping a coin ten times and let heads be A and tails be a. It is unlikely that the
next generation will have exactly half of each allele. There might be six of one and four of the other, or
some different set of frequencies. Thus, the allele frequencies have changed and evolution has occurred.
A coin will no longer work to choose the next generation (because the odds are no longer one half for
each allele). The frequency in each generation will drift up and down on what is known as a random
walk until at one point either all A or all a are chosen and that allele is fixed from that point on. This
could take a very long time for a large population. This simplification is not very biological, but it can
be shown that real populations behave this way. The effect of drift on frequencies is greater the smaller a
population is. Its effect is also greater on an allele with a frequency far from one half. Drift will influence
every allele, even those that are being naturally selected.
Figure 10.7 Genetic drift in a population can lead to the elimination of an allele from a
population by chance. In each generation, a random set of individuals reproduces to produce
the next generation. The frequency of alleles in the next generation is equal to the frequency of
alleles among the individuals reproducing.
Do you think genetic drift would happen more quickly on an island or on the mainland?
Genetic drift can also be magnified by natural or human-caused events, such as a disaster that
randomly kills a large portion of the population, which is known as the bottleneck effect that results in
a large portion of the genome suddenly being wiped out (Figure 10.8). In one fell swoop, the genetic
structure of the survivors becomes the genetic structure of the entire population, which may be very
different from the pre-disaster population. The disaster must be one that kills for reasons unrelated to the
organisms traits, such as a hurricane or lava flow. A mass killing caused by unusually cold temperatures
at night, is likely to affect individuals differently depending on the alleles they possess that confer cold
hardiness.
Figure 10.8 A chance event or catastrophe can reduce the genetic variability within a population.
Another scenario in which populations might experience a strong influence of genetic drift is if
some portion of the population leaves to start a new population in a new location, or if a population
gets divided by a physical barrier of some kind. In this situation, those individuals are unlikely to be
representative of the entire population which results in the founder effect. The founder effect occurs
when the genetic structure matches that of the new populations founding fathers and mothers. The
founder effect is believed to have been a key factor in the genetic history of the Afrikaner population
of Dutch settlers in South Africa, as evidenced by mutations that are common in Afrikaners but rare in
most other populations. This is likely due to a higher-than-normal proportion of the founding colonists,
which were a small sample of the original population, carried these mutations. As a result, the population
expresses unusually high incidences of Huntingtons disease (HD) and Fanconi anemia (FA), a genetic
[4]
disorder known to cause bone marrow and congenital abnormalities, and even cancer.
Visit this site (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/genetic_drift2) to learn more about genetic drift and to
run simulations of allele changes caused by drift.
Gene Flow
Another important evolutionary force is gene flow, or the flow of alleles in and out of a population
resulting from the migration of individuals or gametes (Figure 10.9). While some populations are fairly
stable, others experience more flux. Many plants, for example, send their seeds far and wide, by wind
or in the guts of animals; these seeds may introduce alleles common in the source population to a new
population in which they are rare.
4. A. J. Tipping et al., Molecular and Genealogical Evidence for a Founder Effect in Fanconi Anemia Families of the
Afrikaner Population of South Africa, PNAS 98, no. 10 (2001): 5734-5739, doi: 10.1073/pnas.091402398.
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Figure 10.9 Gene flow can occur when an individual travels from one geographic location to another
and joins a different population of the species. In the example shown here, the brown allele is
introduced into the green population.
10.3 | Evidence of Evolution

Explain sources of evidence for evolution
Define homologous and vestigial structures
The evidence for evolution is compelling and extensive. Looking at every level of organization in living
systems, biologists see the signature of past and present evolution. Darwin dedicated a large portion of
his book, On the Origin of Species, identifying patterns in nature that were consistent with evolution and
since Darwin our understanding has become clearer and broader.
Fossils
Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are not the same as those found today;
fossils show a progression of evolution. Scientists determine the age of fossils and categorize them all
over the world to determine when the organisms lived relative to each other. The resulting fossil record
tells the story of the past, and shows the evolution of form over millions of years (Figure 10.10). For
example, highly detailed fossil records have been recovered for sequences of species in the evolution
of whales and modern horses. The fossil record of horses in North America is especially rich and many
contain transition fossils: those showing intermediate anatomy between earlier and later forms. The fossil
record extends back to a dog-like ancestor some 55 million years ago that gave rise to the first horselike species 55 to 42 million years ago in the genus Eohippus. The series of fossils tracks the change in
anatomy resulting from a gradual drying trend that changed the landscape from a forested one to a prairie.
Successive fossils show the evolution of teeth shapes and foot and leg anatomy to a grazing habit, with
adaptations for escaping predators, for example in species of Mesohippus found from 40 to 30 million
years ago. Later species showed gains in size, such as those of Hipparion, which existed from about 23
to 2 million years ago. The fossil record shows several adaptive radiations in the horse lineage, which is
now much reduced to only one genus, Equus, with several species.
Figure 10.10 This illustration shows an artists renderings of these species derived from fossils of the
evolutionary history of the horse and its ancestors. The species depicted are only four from a very
diverse lineage that contains many branches, dead ends, and adaptive radiations. One of the trends,
depicted here is the evolutionary tracking of a drying climate and increase in prairie versus forest
habitat reflected in forms that are more adapted to grazing and predator escape through running.
Przewalski's horse is one of a few living species of horse.
Anatomy and Embryology

Another type of evidence for evolution is the presence of structures in organisms that share the same
basic form. For example, the bones in the appendages of a human, dog, bird, and whale all share the
same overall construction (Figure 10.11). That similarity results from their origin in the appendages of a
common ancestor. Over time, evolution led to changes in the shapes and sizes of these bones in different
species, but they have maintained the same overall layout, evidence of descent from a common ancestor.
Scientists call these synonymous parts homologous structures. Some structures exist in organisms that
have no apparent function at all, and appear to be residual parts from a past ancestor. For example, some
snakes have pelvic bones despite having no legs because they descended from reptiles that did have legs.
These unused structures without function are called vestigial structures. Other examples of vestigial
structures are wings on flightless birds (which may have other functions), leaves on some cacti, traces of
pelvic bones in whales, and the sightless eyes of cave animals.
Figure 10.11 The similar construction of these appendages indicates that these organisms share a
common ancestor.
Click through the activities at this interactive site (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/bone_structure2) to

guess which bone structures are homologous and which are analogous, and to see examples of all kinds
of evolutionary adaptations that illustrate these concepts.
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Another evidence of evolution is the convergence of form in organisms that share similar
environments. For example, species of unrelated animals, such as the arctic fox and ptarmigan (a bird),
living in the arctic region have temporary white coverings during winter to blend with the snow and ice
(Figure 10.12). The similarity occurs not because of common ancestry, indeed one covering is of fur
and the other of feathers, but because of similar selection pressuresthe benefits of not being seen by
predators.
Figure 10.12 The white winter coat of (a) the arctic fox and (b) the ptarmigans plumage are
adaptations to their environments. (credit a: modification of work by Keith Morehouse)
Embryology, the study of the development of the anatomy of an organism to its adult form also
provides evidence of relatedness between now widely divergent groups of organisms. Structures that
are absent in some groups often appear in their embryonic forms and disappear by the time the adult
or juvenile form is reached. For example, all vertebrate embryos, including humans, exhibit gill slits
at some point in their early development. These disappear in the adults of terrestrial groups, but are
maintained in adult forms of aquatic groups such as fish and some amphibians. Great ape embryos,
including humans, have a tail structure during their development that is lost by the time of birth. The
reason embryos of unrelated species are often similar is that mutational changes that affect the organism
during embryonic development can cause amplified differences in the adult, even while the embryonic
similarities are preserved.
Biogeography
The geographic distribution of organisms on the planet follows patterns that are best explained by
evolution in conjunction with the movement of tectonic plates over geological time. Broad groups that
evolved before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea (about 200 million years ago) are distributed
worldwide. Groups that evolved since the breakup appear uniquely in regions of the planet, for example
the unique flora and fauna of northern continents that formed from the supercontinent Laurasia and of
the southern continents that formed from the supercontinent Gondwana. The presence of Proteaceae in
Australia, southern Africa, and South America is best explained by the plant familys presence there prior
to the southern supercontinent Gondwana breaking up (Figure 10.13).
Figure 10.13 The Proteacea family of plants evolved before the supercontinent Gondwana broke
up. Today, members of this plant family are found throughout the southern hemisphere (shown in
red). (credit Proteacea flower: modification of work by dorofofoto/Flickr)
The great diversification of the marsupials in Australia and the absence of other mammals reflects
that island continents long isolation. Australia has an abundance of endemic speciesspecies found
nowhere elsewhich is typical of islands whose isolation by expanses of water prevents migration of
species to other regions. Over time, these species diverge evolutionarily into new species that look very
different from their ancestors that may exist on the mainland. The marsupials of Australia, the finches on
the Galpagos, and many species on the Hawaiian Islands are all found nowhere else but on their island,
yet display distant relationships to ancestral species on mainlands.
Molecular Biology
Like anatomical structures, the structures of the molecules of life reflect descent with modification.
Evidence of a common ancestor for all of life is reflected in the universality of DNA as the genetic
material and of the near universality of the genetic code and the machinery of DNA replication and
expression. Fundamental divisions in life between the three domains are reflected in major structural
differences in otherwise conservative structures such as the components of ribosomes and the structures
of membranes. In general, the relatedness of groups of organisms is reflected in the similarity of their
DNA sequencesexactly the pattern that would be expected from descent and diversification from a
common ancestor.
DNA sequences have also shed light on some of the mechanisms of evolution. For example, it is
clear that the evolution of new functions for proteins commonly occurs after gene duplication events.
These duplications are a kind of mutation in which an entire gene is added as an extra copy (or many
copies) in the genome. These duplications allow the free modification of one copy by mutation, selection,
and drift, while the second copy continues to produce a functional protein. This allows the original
function for the protein to be kept, while evolutionary forces tweak the copy until it functions in a new
way.
10.4 | Speciation
Describe the definition of species and how species are identified as different
Explain allopatric and sympatric speciation
Describe adaptive radiation
The biological definition of species, which works for sexually reproducing organisms, is a group
of actually or potentially interbreeding individuals. According to this definition, one species is
distinguished from another by the possibility of matings between individuals from each species to
produce fertile offspring. There are exceptions to this rule. Many species are similar enough that hybrid
offspring are possible and may often occur in nature, but for the majority of species this rule generally
holds. In fact, the presence of hybrids between similar species suggests that they may have descended
from a single interbreeding species and that the speciation process may not yet be completed.
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Given the extraordinary diversity of life on the planet there must be mechanisms for speciation:
the formation of two species from one original species. Darwin envisioned this process as a branching
event and diagrammed the process in the only illustration found in On the Origin of Species (Figure
10.14a). For speciation to occur, two new populations must be formed from one original population,
and they must evolve in such a way that it becomes impossible for individuals from the two new
populations to interbreed. Biologists have proposed mechanisms by which this could occur that fall
into two broad categories. Allopatric speciation, meaning speciation in other homelands, involves
a geographic separation of populations from a parent species and subsequent evolution. Sympatric
speciation, meaning speciation in the same homeland, involves speciation occurring within a parent
species while remaining in one location.
Biologists think of speciation events as the splitting of one ancestral species into two descendant
species. There is no reason why there might not be more than two species formed at one time except that
it is less likely and such multiple events can also be conceptualized as single splits occurring close in
time.
Figure 10.14 The only illustration in Darwins On the Origin of Species is (a) a diagram showing
speciation events leading to biological diversity. The diagram shows similarities to phylogenetic
charts that are drawn today to illustrate the relationships of species. (b) Modern elephants evolved
from the Palaeomastodon, a species that lived in Egypt 3550 million years ago.
Speciation through Geographic Separation

A geographically continuous population has a gene pool that is relatively homogeneous. Gene flow,
the movement of alleles across the range of the species, is relatively free because individuals can
move and then mate with individuals in their new location. Thus, the frequency of an allele at one
end of a distribution will be similar to the frequency of the allele at the other end. When populations
become geographically discontinuous that free-flow of alleles is prevented. When that separation lasts
for a period of time, the two populations are able to evolve along different trajectories. Thus, their
allele frequencies at numerous genetic loci gradually become more and more different as new alleles
independently arise by mutation in each population. Typically, environmental conditions, such as
climate, resources, predators, and competitors, for the two populations will differ causing natural
selection to favor divergent adaptations in each group. Different histories of genetic drift, enhanced
because the populations are smaller than the parent population, will also lead to divergence.
Given enough time, the genetic and phenotypic divergence between populations will likely affect
characters that influence reproduction enough that were individuals of the two populations brought
together, mating would be less likely, or if a mating occurred, offspring would be non-viable or infertile.
Many types of diverging characters may affect the reproductive isolation (inability to interbreed) of the
two populations. These mechanisms of reproductive isolation can be divided into prezygotic mechanisms
(those that operate before fertilization) and postzygotic mechanisms (those that operate after
fertilization). Prezygotic mechanisms include traits that allow the individuals to find each other, such
as the timing of mating, sensitivity to pheromones, or choice of mating sites. If individuals are able to
encounter each other, character divergence may prevent courtship rituals from leading to a mating either
because female preferences have changed or male behaviors have changed. Physiological changes may
interfere with successful fertilization if mating is able to occur. Postzygotic mechanisms include genetic
incompatibilities that prevent proper development of the offspring, or if the offspring live, they may be
unable to produce viable gametes themselves as in the example of the mule, the infertile offspring of a
female horse and a male donkey.
If the two isolated populations are brought back together and the hybrid offspring that formed
from matings between individuals of the two populations have lower survivorship or reduced fertility,
then selection will favor individuals that are able to discriminate between potential mates of their own
population and the other population. This selection will enhance the reproductive isolation.
Isolation of populations leading to allopatric speciation can occur in a variety of ways: from a
river forming a new branch, erosion forming a new valley, or a group of organisms traveling to a new
location without the ability to return, such as seeds floating over the ocean to an island. The nature of the
geographic separation necessary to isolate populations depends entirely on the biology of the organism
and its potential for dispersal. If two flying insect populations took up residence in separate nearby
valleys, chances are that individuals from each population would fly back and forth, continuing gene
flow. However, if two rodent populations became divided by the formation of a new lake, continued gene
flow would be unlikely; therefore, speciation would be more likely.
Biologists group allopatric processes into two categories. If a few members of a species move
to a new geographical area, this is called dispersal. If a natural situation arises to physically divide
organisms, this is called vicariance.
Scientists have documented numerous cases of allopatric speciation taking place. For example,
along the west coast of the United States, two separate subspecies of spotted owls exist. The northern
spotted owl has genetic and phenotypic differences from its close relative, the Mexican spotted owl,
which lives in the south (Figure 10.15). The cause of their initial separation is not clear, but it may have
[5]
been caused by the glaciers of the ice age dividing an initial population into two.
Figure 10.15 The northern spotted owl and the Mexican spotted owl inhabit geographically separate
locations with different climates and ecosystems. The owl is an example of incipient speciation.
(credit northern spotted owl: modification of work by John and Karen Hollingsworth, USFWS; credit
Mexican spotted owl: modification of work by Bill Radke, USFWS)
Additionally, scientists have found that the further the distance between two groups that once
were the same species, the more likely for speciation to take place. This seems logical because as the
distance increases, the various environmental factors would likely have less in common than locations
in close proximity. Consider the two owls; in the north, the climate is cooler than in the south; the other
types of organisms in each ecosystem differ, as do their behaviors and habits; also, the hunting habits
and prey choices of the owls in the south vary from the northern ones. These variances can lead to
evolved differences in the owls, and over time speciation will likely occur unless gene flow between the
populations is restored.
In some cases, a population of one species disperses throughout an area, and each finds a distinct
niche or isolated habitat. Over time, the varied demands of their new lifestyles lead to multiple speciation
5. Courtney, S.P., et al, Scientific Evaluation of the Status of the Northern Spotted Owl, Sustainable Ecosystems Institute
(2004), Portland, OR.
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events originating from a single species, which is called adaptive radiation. From one point of origin,
many adaptations evolve causing the species to radiate into several new ones. Island archipelagos like
the Hawaiian Islands provide an ideal context for adaptive radiation events because water surrounds
each island, which leads to geographical isolation for many organisms (Figure 10.16). The Hawaiian
honeycreeper illustrates one example of adaptive radiation. From a single species, called the founder
species, numerous species have evolved, including the eight shown in Figure 10.16.
Figure 10.16 The honeycreeper birds illustrate adaptive radiation. From one original species of bird,
multiple others evolved, each with its own distinctive characteristics.
Notice the differences in the species beaks in Figure 10.16. Change in the genetic variation for
beaks in response to natural selection based on specific food sources in each new habitat led to evolution
of a different beak suited to the specific food source. The fruit and seed-eating birds have thicker,
stronger beaks which are suited to break hard nuts. The nectar-eating birds have long beaks to dip into
flowers to reach their nectar. The insect-eating birds have beaks like swords, appropriate for stabbing
and impaling insects. Darwins finches are another well-studied example of adaptive radiation in an
archipelago.
Click through this interactive site (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/bird_evolution) to see how island

birds evolved; click to see images of each species in evolutionary increments from five million years
ago to today.
Speciation without Geographic Separation

Can divergence occur if no physical barriers are in place to separate individuals who continue to live and
reproduce in the same habitat? A number of mechanisms for sympatric speciation have been proposed
and studied.
One form of sympatric speciation can begin with a chromosomal error during meiosis or the
formation of a hybrid individual with too many chromosomes. Polyploidy is a condition in which a
cell, or organism, has an extra set, or sets, of chromosomes. Scientists have identified two main types
of polyploidy that can lead to reproductive isolation of an individual in the polyploid state. In some
cases a polyploid individual will have two or more complete sets of chromosomes from its own species
in a condition called autopolyploidy (Figure 10.17). The prefix auto means self, so the term means
multiple chromosomes from ones own species. Polyploidy results from an error in meiosis in which all
of the chromosomes move into one cell instead of separating.
Figure 10.17 Autopolyploidy results when mitosis is not followed by cytokinesis.
For example, if a plant species with 2n = 6 produces autopolyploid gametes that are also diploid
(2n = 6, when they should be n = 3), the gametes now have twice as many chromosomes as they should
have. These new gametes will be incompatible with the normal gametes produced by this plant species.
But they could either self-pollinate or reproduce with other autopolyploid plants with gametes having the
same diploid number. In this way, sympatric speciation can occur quickly by forming offspring with 4n
called a tetraploid. These individuals would immediately be able to reproduce only with those of this new
kind and not those of the ancestral species. The other form of polyploidy occurs when individuals of two
different species reproduce to form a viable offspring called an allopolyploid. The prefix allo means
other (recall from allopatric); therefore, an allopolyploid occurs when gametes from two different
species combine. Figure 10.18 illustrates one possible way an allopolyploidy can form. Notice how it
takes two generations, or two reproductive acts, before the viable fertile hybrid results.
Figure 10.18 Alloploidy results when two species mate to produce viable offspring. In the example
shown, a normal gamete from one species fuses with a polyploid gamete from another. Two matings
are necessary to produce viable offspring.
The cultivated forms of wheat, cotton, and tobacco plants are all allopolyploids. Although
polyploidy occurs occasionally in animals, most chromosomal abnormalities in animals are lethal; it
takes place most commonly in plants. Scientists have discovered more than 1/2 of all plant species
studied relate back to a species evolved through polyploidy.
Sympatric speciation may also take place in ways other than polyploidy. For example, imagine
a species of fish that lived in a lake. As the population grew, competition for food also grew. Under
pressure to find food, suppose that a group of these fish had the genetic flexibility to discover and feed
off another resource that was unused by the other fish. What if this new food source was found at a
different depth of the lake? Over time, those feeding on the second food source would interact more
with each other than the other fish; therefore they would breed together as well. Offspring of these fish
would likely behave as their parents and feed and live in the same area, keeping them separate from
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the original population. If this group of fish continued to remain separate from the first population,
eventually sympatric speciation might occur as more genetic differences accumulated between them.
This scenario does play out in nature, as do others that lead to reproductive isolation. One such
place is Lake Victoria in Africa, famous for its sympatric speciation of cichlid fish. Researchers have
found hundreds of sympatric speciation events in these fish, which have not only happened in great
number, but also over a short period of time. Figure 10.19 shows this type of speciation among a cichlid
fish population in Nicaragua. In this locale, two types of cichlids live in the same geographic location;
however, they have come to have different morphologies that allow them to eat various food sources.
Figure 10.19 Cichlid fish from Lake Apoyeque, Nicaragua, show evidence of sympatric speciation.
Lake Apoyeque, a crater lake, is 1800 years old, but genetic evidence indicates that the lake was
populated only 100 years ago by a single population of cichlid fish. Nevertheless, two populations
with distinct morphologies and diets now exist in the lake, and scientists believe these populations
may be in an early stage of speciation.
Finally, a well-documented example of ongoing sympatric speciation occurred in the apple maggot
fly, Rhagoletis pomonella, which arose as an isolated population sometime after the introduction of the
apple into North America. The native population of flies fed on hawthorn species and is host-specific:
it only infests hawthorn trees. Importantly, it also uses the trees as a location to meet for mating. It
is hypothesized that either through mutation or a behavioral mistake, flies jumped hosts and met and
mated in apple trees, subsequently laying their eggs in apple fruit. The offspring matured and kept
their preference for the apple trees effectively dividing the original population into two new populations
separated by host species, not by geography. The host jump took place in the nineteenth century, but there
are now measureable differences between the two populations of fly. It seems likely that host specificity
of parasites in general is a common cause of sympatric speciation.
10.5 | Common Misconceptions about

Evolution
Identify common misconceptions about evolution
Identify common criticisms of evolution
Although the theory of evolution initially generated some controversy, by 20 years after the publication
of On the Origin of Species it was almost universally accepted by biologists, particularly younger
biologists. Nevertheless, the theory of evolution is a difficult concept and misconceptions about how it
works abound. In addition, there are those that reject it as an explanation for the diversity of life.
This website (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/misconception2) addresses some of the main

misconceptions associated with the theory of evolution.
Evolution Is Just a Theory

Critics of the theory of evolution dismiss its importance by purposefully confounding the everyday usage
of the word theory with the way scientists use the word. In science, a theory is understood to be
a concept that has been extensively tested and supported over time. We have a theory of the atom, a
theory of gravity, and the theory of relativity, each of which describes what scientists understand to be
facts about the world. In the same way, the theory of evolution describes facts about the living world. As
such, a theory in science has survived significant efforts to discredit it by scientists, who are naturally
skeptical. While theories can sometimes be overturned or revised, this does not lessen their weight but
simply reflects the constantly evolving state of scientific knowledge. In contrast, a theory in common
vernacular means a guess or suggested explanation for something. This meaning is more akin to the
concept of a hypothesis used by scientists, which is a tentative explanation for something that is
proposed to either be supported or disproved. When critics of evolution say evolution is just a theory,
they are implying that there is little evidence supporting it and that it is still in the process of being
rigorously tested. This is a mischaracterization. If this were the case, geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky
[6]
would not have said that nothing in biology makes sense, except in the light of evolution.
Individuals Evolve
An individual is born with the genes it hasthese do not change as the individual ages. Therefore,
an individual cannot evolve or adapt through natural selection. Evolution is the change in genetic
composition of a population over time, specifically over generations, resulting from differential
reproduction of individuals with certain alleles. Individuals do change over their lifetime, but this is
called development; it involves changes programmed by the set of genes the individual acquired at birth
in coordination with the individuals environment. When thinking about the evolution of a characteristic,
it is probably best to think about the change of the average value of the characteristic in the population
over time. For example, when natural selection leads to bill-size change in medium ground finches in
the Galpagos, this does not mean that individual bills on the finches are changing. If one measures the
average bill size among all individuals in the population at one time, and then measures the average bill
size in the population several years later after there has been a strong selective pressure, this average
value may be different as a result of evolution. Although some individuals may survive from the first
time to the second, those individuals will still have the same bill size. However, there may be enough
new individuals with different bill sizes to change the average bill size.
Evolution Explains the Origin of Life

It is a common misunderstanding that evolution includes an explanation of lifes origins. Conversely,
some of the theorys critics complain that it cannot explain the origin of life. The theory does not try
to explain the origin of life. The theory of evolution explains how populations change over time and
how life diversifiesthe origin of species. It does not shed light on the beginnings of life including the
origins of the first cells, which is how life is defined. The mechanisms of the origin of life on Earth
are a particularly difficult problem because it occurred a very long time ago, over a very long time,
and presumably just occurred once. Importantly, biologists believe that the presence of life on Earth
precludes the possibility that the events that led to life on Earth can be repeated because the intermediate
stages would immediately become food for existing living things. The early stages of life included the
formation of organic molecules such as carbohydrates, amino acids, or nucleotides. If these were formed
from inorganic precursors today, they would simply be broken down by living things. The early stages
of life also probably included more complex aggregations of molecules into enclosed structures with an
internal environment, a boundary layer of some form, and the external environment. Such structures, if
they were formed now, would be quickly consumed or broken down by living organisms.
However, once a mechanism of inheritance was in place in the form of a molecule like DNA
or RNA, either within a cell or within a pre-cell, these entities would be subject to the principle of
natural selection. More effective reproducers would increase in frequency at the expense of inefficient
reproducers. So while evolution does not explain the origin of life, it may have something to say about
some of the processes operating once pre-living entities acquired certain properties.
Organisms Evolve on Purpose

Statements such as organisms evolve in response to a change in an environment, are quite common.
There are two easy misunderstandings possible with such a statement. First of all, the statement must
not be understood to mean that individual organisms evolve, as was discussed above. The statement
is shorthand for a population evolves in response to a changing environment. However, a second
6. Theodosius Dobzhansky. Biology, Molecular and Organismic. American Zoologist 4, no. 4 (1964): 449.
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misunderstanding may arise by interpreting the statement to mean that the evolution is somehow
intentional. A changed environment results in some individuals in the population, those with particular
phenotypes, benefiting and, therefore, producing proportionately more offspring than other phenotypes.
This results in change in the population if the characters are genetically determined.
It is also important to understand that the variation that natural selection works on is already
in a population and does not arise in response to an environmental change. For example, applying
antibiotics to a population of bacteria will, over time, select for a population of bacteria that are resistant
to antibiotics. The resistance, which is caused by a gene, did not arise by mutation because of the
application of the antibiotic. The gene for resistance was already present in the gene pool of the bacteria,
likely at a low frequency. The antibiotic, which kills the bacterial cells without the resistance gene,
strongly selects for individuals that are resistant, since these would be the only ones that survived and
divided. Experiments have demonstrated that mutations for antibiotic resistance do not arise as a result
of antibiotic application.
In a larger sense, evolution is also not goal directed. Species do not become better over time;
they simply track their changing environment with adaptations that maximize their reproduction in
a particular environment at a particular time. Evolution has no goal of making faster, bigger, more
complex, or even smarter species. This kind of language is common in popular literature. Certain
organisms, ourselves included, are described as the pinnacle of evolution, or perfected by evolution.
What characteristics evolve in a species are a function of the variation present and the environment, both
of which are constantly changing in a non-directional way. What trait is fit in one environment at one
time may well be fatal at some point in the future. This holds equally well for a species of insect as it
does the human species.
Evolution Is Controversial among Scientists

The theory of evolution was controversial when it was first proposed in 1859, yet within 20 years
virtually every working biologist had accepted evolution as the explanation for the diversity of life.
The rate of acceptance was extraordinarily rapid, partly because Darwin had amassed an impressive
body of evidence. The early controversies involved both scientific arguments against the theory and the
arguments of religious leaders. It was the arguments of the biologists that were resolved after a short
time, while the arguments of religious leaders have persisted to this day.
The theory of evolution replaced the predominant theory at the time that species had all been
specially created within relatively recent history. Despite the prevalence of this theory, it was becoming
increasingly clear to naturalists during the nineteenth century that it could no longer explain many
observations of geology and the living world. The persuasiveness of the theory of evolution to these
naturalists lay in its ability to explain these phenomena, and it continues to hold extraordinary
explanatory power to this day. Its continued rejection by some religious leaders results from its
replacement of special creation, a tenet of their religious belief. These leaders cannot accept the
replacement of special creation by a mechanistic process that excludes the actions of a deity as an
explanation for the diversity of life including the origins of the human species. It should be noted,
however, that most of the major denominations in the United States have statements supporting the
acceptance of evidence for evolution as compatible with their theologies.
The nature of the arguments against evolution by religious leaders has evolved over time. One
current argument is that the theory is still controversial among biologists. This claim is simply not true.
The number of working scientists who reject the theory of evolution, or question its validity and say so,
is small. A Pew Research poll in 2009 found that 97 percent of the 2500 scientists polled believe species
[7]
evolve. The support for the theory is reflected in signed statements from many scientific societies
such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science, which includes working scientists
as members. Many of the scientists that reject or question the theory of evolution are non-biologists,
such as engineers, physicians, and chemists. There are no experimental results or research programs that
contradict the theory. There are no papers published in peer-reviewed scientific journals that appear to
refute the theory. The latter observation might be considered a consequence of suppression of dissent,
but it must be remembered that scientists are skeptics and that there is a long history of published reports
that challenged scientific orthodoxy in unpopular ways. Examples include the endosymbiotic theory of
eukaryotic origins, the theory of group selection, the microbial cause of stomach ulcers, the asteroidimpact theory of the Cretaceous extinction, and the theory of plate tectonics. Research with evidence and
ideas with scientific merit are considered by the scientific community. Research that does not meet these
standards is rejected.
7. Pew Research Center for the People & the Press, Public Praises Science; Scientists Fault Public, Media (Washington, DC,
2009), 37.
Other Theories Should Be Taught

A common argument from some religious leaders is that alternative theories to evolution should be
taught in public schools. Critics of evolution use this strategy to create uncertainty about the validity
of the theory without offering actual evidence. In fact, there are no viable alternative scientific theories
to evolution. The last such theory, proposed by Lamarck in the nineteenth century, was replaced by the
theory of natural selection. A single exception was a research program in the Soviet Union based on
Lamarcks theory during the early twentieth century that set that countrys agricultural research back
decades. Special creation is not a viable alternative scientific theory because it is not a scientific theory,
since it relies on an untestable explanation. Intelligent design, despite the claims of its proponents, is
also not a scientific explanation. This is because intelligent design posits the existence of an unknown
designer of living organisms and their systems. Whether the designer is unknown or supernatural, it is
a cause that cannot be measured; therefore, it is not a scientific explanation. There are two reasons not
to teach nonscientific theories. First, these explanations for the diversity of life lack scientific usefulness
because they do not, and cannot, give rise to research programs that promote our understanding of the
natural world. Experiments cannot test non-material explanations for natural phenomena. For this reason,
teaching these explanations as science in public schools is not in the public interest. Second, in the
United States, it is illegal to teach them as science because the U.S. Supreme Court and lower courts
have ruled that the teaching of religious belief, such as special creation or intelligent design, violates
the establishment clause of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which prohibits government
sponsorship of a particular religion.
The theory of evolution and science in general is, by definition, silent on the existence or nonexistence of the spiritual world. Science is only able to study and know the material world. Individual
biologists have sometimes been vocal atheists, but it is equally true that there are many deeply religious
biologists. Nothing in biology precludes the existence of a god, indeed biology as a science has nothing
to say about it. The individual biologist is free to reconcile her or his personal and scientific knowledge
as they see fit. The Voices for Evolution project (http://ncse.com/voices), developed through the National
Center for Science Education, works to gather the diversity of perspectives on evolution to advocate it
being taught in public schools.
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KEY TERMS
adaptation a heritable trait or behavior in an organism that aids in its survival in its present
environment
adaptive radiation a speciation when one species radiates out to form several other species
allopatric speciation a speciation that occurs via a geographic separation
analogous structure a structure that is similar because of evolution in response to similar selection
pressures resulting in convergent evolution, not similar because of descent from a common
ancestor
bottleneck effect the magnification of genetic drift as a result of natural events or catastrophes
convergent evolution an evolution that results in similar forms on different species
dispersal an allopatric speciation that occurs when a few members of a species move to a new
geographical area
divergent evolution an evolution that results in different forms in two species with a common
ancestor
founder effect a magnification of genetic drift in a small population that migrates away from a large
parent population carrying with it an unrepresentative set of alleles
gene flow the flow of alleles in and out of a population due to the migration of individuals or
gametes
gene pool all of the alleles carried by all of the individuals in the population
genetic drift the effect of chance on a populations gene pool
homologous structure a structure that is similar because of descent from a common ancestor
inheritance of acquired characteristics a phrase that describes the mechanism of evolution
proposed by Lamarck in which traits acquired by individuals through use or disuse could be
passed on to their offspring thus leading to evolutionary change in the population
macroevolution a broader scale of evolutionary changes seen over paleontological time
microevolution the changes in a populations genetic structure (i.e., allele frequency)
migration the movement of individuals of a population to a new location; in population genetics it
refers to the movement of individuals and their alleles from one population to another,
potentially changing allele frequencies in both the old and the new population
modern synthesis the overarching evolutionary paradigm that took shape by the 1940s and is
generally accepted today
natural selection the greater relative survival and reproduction of individuals in a population that
have favorable heritable traits, leading to evolutionary change
population genetics the study of how selective forces change the allele frequencies in a population
over time
speciation a formation of a new species
sympatric speciation a speciation that occurs in the same geographic space
variation the variety of alleles in a population
vestigial structure a physical structure present in an organism but that has no apparent function
and appears to be from a functional structure in a distant ancestor
vicariance an allopatric speciation that occurs when something in the environment separates
organisms of the same species into separate groups
CHAPTER SUMMARY
10.1 Discovering How Populations Change
Evolution by natural selection arises from three conditions: individuals within a species vary, some of
those variations are heritable, and organisms have more offspring than resources can support. The
consequence is that individuals with relatively advantageous variations will be more likely to survive
and have higher reproductive rates than those individuals with different traits. The advantageous traits
will be passed on to offspring in greater proportion. Thus, the trait will have higher representation in the
next and subsequent generations leading to genetic change in the population.
The modern synthesis of evolutionary theory grew out of the reconciliation of Darwins, Wallaces,
and Mendels thoughts on evolution and heredity. Population genetics is a theoretical framework for
describing evolutionary change in populations through the change in allele frequencies. Population
genetics defines evolution as a change in allele frequency over generations. In the absence of
evolutionary forces allele frequencies will not change in a population; this is known as Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium principle. However, in all populations, mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and
migration act to change allele frequencies.
10.2 Mechanisms of Evolution

There are four factors that can change the allele frequencies of a population. Natural selection works by
selecting for alleles that confer beneficial traits or behaviors, while selecting against those for
deleterious qualities. Mutations introduce new alleles into a population. Genetic drift stems from the
chance occurrence that some individuals have more offspring than others and results in changes in
allele frequencies that are random in direction. When individuals leave or join the population, allele
frequencies can change as a result of gene flow.
10.3 Evidence of Evolution

The evidence for evolution is found at all levels of organization in living things and in the extinct
species we know about through fossils. Fossils provide evidence for the evolutionary change through
now extinct forms that led to modern species. For example, there is a rich fossil record that shows the
evolutionary transitions from horse ancestors to modern horses that document intermediate forms and a
gradual adaptation o changing ecosystems. The anatomy of species and the embryological development
of that anatomy reveal common structures in divergent lineages that have been modified over time by
evolution. The geographical distribution of living species reflects the origins of species in particular
geographic locations and the history of continental movements. The structures of molecules, like
anatomical structures, reflect the relationships of living species and match patterns of similarity
expected from descent with modification.
10.4 Speciation
Speciation occurs along two main pathways: geographic separation (allopatric speciation) and through
mechanisms that occur within a shared habitat (sympatric speciation). Both pathways force
reproductive isolation between populations. Sympatric speciation can occur through errors in meiosis
that form gametes with extra chromosomes, called polyploidy. Autopolyploidy occurs within a single
species, whereas allopolyploidy occurs because of a mating between closely related species. Once the
populations are isolated, evolutionary divergence can take place leading to the evolution of
reproductive isolating traits that prevent interbreeding should the two populations come together again.
The reduced viability of hybrid offspring after a period of isolation is expected to select for stronger
inherent isolating mechanisms.
10.5 Common Misconceptions about Evolution

The theory of evolution is a difficult concept and misconceptions abound. The factual nature of
evolution is often challenged by wrongly associating the scientific meaning of a theory with the
vernacular meaning. Evolution is sometimes mistakenly interpreted to mean that individuals evolve,
when in fact only populations can evolve as their gene frequencies change over time. Evolution is often
assumed to explain the origin of life, which it does not speak to. It is often spoken in goal-directed
terms by which organisms change through intention, and selection operates on mutations present in a
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population that have not arisen in response to a particular environmental stress. Evolution is often
characterized as being controversial among scientists; however, it is accepted by the vast majority of
working scientists. Critics of evolution often argue that alternative theories to evolution should be
taught in public schools; however, there are no viable alternative scientific theories to evolution. The
alternative religious beliefs should not be taught as science because it cannot be proven, and in the
United States it is unconstitutional. Science is silent on the question of the existence of a god while
scientists are able to reconcile religious belief and scientific knowledge.

1. Figure 10.7 Do you think genetic drift would
happen more quickly on an island or on the
mainland?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
2. Which scientific concept did Charles Darwin
and Alfred Wallace independently discover?
a.
b.
c.
d.
mutation
natural selection
overbreeding
sexual reproduction
3. Which of the following situations will lead to

natural selection?
a. The seeds of two plants land near each
other and one grows larger than the
other.
b. Two types of fish eat the same kind of
food, and one is better able to gather
food than the other.
c. Male lions compete for the right to mate
with females, with only one possible
winner.
d. all of the above
4. What is the difference between micro- and
macroevolution?
a. Microevolution describes the evolution
of small organisms, such as insects,
while macroevolution describes the
evolution of large organisms, like
people and elephants.
b. Microevolution describes the evolution
of microscopic entities, such as
molecules and proteins, while
macroevolution describes the evolution
of whole organisms.
c. Microevolution describes the evolution
of populations, while macroevolution
describes the emergence of new species
over long periods of time.
d. Microevolution describes the evolution
of organisms over their lifetimes, while
macroevolution describes the evolution
of organisms over multiple generations.
5. Population genetics is the study of ________.
a. how allele frequencies in a population
change over time
b. populations of cells in an individual
c. the rate of population growth

d. how genes affect embryological
development
6. Galpagos medium ground finches are found
on Santa Cruz and San Cristbal islands, which
are separated by about 100 km of ocean.
Occasionally, individuals from either island fly to
the other island to stay. This can alter the allele
frequencies of the population through which of the
following mechanisms?
a. natural selection
b. genetic drift
c. gene flow
d. mutation
7. In which of the following pairs do both
evolutionary processes introduce new genetic
variation into a population?
a. natural selection and genetic drift
b. mutation and gene flow
c. natural selection and gene flow
d. gene flow and genetic drift
8. The wing of a bird and the arm of a human are
examples of ________.
a. vestigial structures
b. molecular structures
c. homologous structures
d. analogous structures
9. The fact that DNA sequences are more similar
in more closely related organisms is evidence of
what?
a. optimal design in organisms
b. adaptation
c. mutation
d. descent with modification
10. Which situation would most likely lead to
allopatric speciation?
a. A flood causes the formation of a new
lake.
b. A storm causes several large trees to fall
down.
c. A mutation causes a new trait to
develop.
d. An injury causes an organism to seek
out a new food source.
11. What is the main difference between dispersal

and vicariance?
a. One leads to allopatric speciation,
whereas the other leads to sympatric
speciation.
b. One involves the movement of the
organism, whereas the other involves a
change in the environment.
c. One depends on a genetic mutation
occurring, whereas the other does not.
d. One involves closely related organisms,
whereas the other involves only
individuals of the same species.
12. Which variable increases the likelihood of
allopatric speciation taking place more quickly?
a. lower rate of mutation
b. longer distance between divided groups
c. increased instances of hybrid formation

d. equivalent numbers of individuals in
each population
13. The word theory in theory of evolution is
best replaced by ________.
a. fact
b. hypothesis
c. idea
d. alternate explanation
14. Why are alternative scientific theories to
evolution not taught in public school?
a. more theories would confuse students
b. there are no viable scientific alternatives
c. it is against the law
d. alternative scientific theories are
suppressed by the science establishment

15. If a person scatters a handful of plant seeds
from one species in an area, how would natural
selection work in this situation?
16. Explain the Hardy-Weinberg principle of
equilibrium.
17. Describe natural selection and give an
example of natural selection at work in a
population.
18. Why do scientists consider vestigial structures
evidence for evolution?
19. Why do island chains provide ideal conditions
for adaptive radiation to occur?
20. Two species of fish had recently undergone

sympatric speciation. The males of each species
had a different coloring through which females
could identify and choose a partner from her own
species. After some time, pollution made the lake
so cloudy it was hard for females to distinguish
colors. What might take place in this situation?
21. How does the scientific meaning of theory
differ from the common, everyday meaning of the
word?
22. Explain why the statement that a monkey is
more evolved than a mouse is incorrect.
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CHAPTER 11 | THE IMMUNE SYSTEM AND DISEASE
11 | THE IMMUNE
SYSTEM AND
DISEASE
11.1 | Viruses
Describe how viruses were first discovered and how they are detected
Explain the detailed steps of viral replication
Describe how vaccines are used in prevention and treatment of viral diseases
Figure 11.1 (a) The tobacco mosaic virus, seen by transmission electron microscopy, was the first
virus to be discovered. (b) The leaves of an infected plant are shown. (credit a: scale-bar data from
Matt Russell; credit b: modification of work by USDA, Department of Plant Pathology Archive, North
Carolina State University)
No one knows exactly when viruses emerged or from where they came, since viruses do not leave
historical footprints such as fossils. Modern viruses are thought to be a mosaic of bits and pieces of
nucleic acids picked up from various sources along their respective evolutionary paths. Viruses are
acellular, parasitic entities that are not classified within any domain because they are not considered
alive. They have no plasma membrane, internal organelles, or metabolic processes, and they do not
divide. Instead, they infect a host cell and use the hosts replication processes to produce progeny
virus particles. Viruses infect all forms of organisms including bacteria, archaea, fungi, plants, and
animals. Living things grow, metabolize, and reproduce. Viruses replicate, but to do so, they are entirely
dependent on their host cells. They do not metabolize or grow, but are assembled in their mature form.
Viruses are diverse. They vary in their structure, their replication methods, and in their target hosts
or even host cells. While most biological diversity can be understood through evolutionary history, such
as how species have adapted to conditions and environments, much about virus origins and evolution
remains unknown.
How Viruses Replicate

Viruses were first discovered after the development of a porcelain filter, called the ChamberlandPasteur filter, which could remove all bacteria visible under the microscope from any liquid sample.
In 1886, Adolph Meyer demonstrated that a disease of tobacco plants, tobacco mosaic disease, could
be transferred from a diseased plant to a healthy one through liquid plant extracts. In 1892, Dmitri
Ivanowski showed that this disease could be transmitted in this way even after the Chamberland-Pasteur
filter had removed all viable bacteria from the extract. Still, it was many years before it was proven
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that these filterable infectious agents were not simply very small bacteria but were a new type of tiny,
disease-causing particle.
Virions, single virus particles, are very small, about 20250 nanometers (1 nanometer = 1/1,000,000
mm). These individual virus particles are the infectious form of a virus outside the host cell. Unlike
bacteria (which are about 100 times larger), we cannot see viruses with a light microscope, with the
exception of some large virions of the poxvirus family (Figure 11.2).
Figure 11.2 The size of a virus is very small relative to the size of cells and organelles.
It was not until the development of the electron microscope in the 1940s that scientists got their first
good view of the structure of the tobacco mosaic virus (Figure 11.1) and others. The surface structure
of virions can be observed by both scanning and transmission electron microscopy, whereas the internal
structures of the virus can only be observed in images from a transmission electron microscope (Figure
11.3).
Figure 11.3 The ebola virus is shown here as visualized through (a) a scanning electron micrograph
and (b) a transmission electron micrograph. (credit a: modification of work by Cynthia Goldsmith,
CDC; credit b: modification of work by Thomas W. Geisbert, Boston University School of Medicine;
scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
The use of this technology has allowed for the discovery of many viruses of all types of living
organisms. They were initially grouped by shared morphology, meaning their size, shape, and
distinguishing structures. Later, groups of viruses were classified by the type of nucleic acid they
contained, DNA or RNA, and whether their nucleic acid was single- or double-stranded. More recently,
molecular analysis of viral replication cycles has further refined their classification.
A virion consists of a nucleic-acid core, an outer protein coating, and sometimes an outer envelope
made of protein and phospholipid membranes derived from the host cell. The most visible difference
between members of viral families is their morphology, which is quite diverse. An interesting feature
of viral complexity is that the complexity of the host does not correlate to the complexity of the virion.
Some of the most complex virion structures are observed in bacteriophages, viruses that infect the
simplest living organisms, bacteria.
Viruses come in many shapes and sizes, but these are consistent and distinct for each viral family
(Figure 11.4). All virions have a nucleic-acid genome covered by a protective layer of protein, called
a capsid. The capsid is made of protein subunits called capsomeres. Some viral capsids are simple
polyhedral spheres, whereas others are quite complex in structure. The outer structure surrounding
the capsid of some viruses is called the viral envelope. All viruses use some sort of glycoprotein to
attach to their host cells at molecules on the cell called viral receptors. The virus exploits these cellsurface molecules, which the cell uses for some other purpose, as a way to recognize and infect specific
cell types. For example, the measles virus uses a cell-surface glycoprotein in humans that normally
functions in immune reactions and possibly in the sperm-egg interaction at fertilization. Attachment is a
requirement for viruses to later penetrate the cell membrane, inject the viral genome, and complete their
replication inside the cell.
The T4 bacteriophage, which infects the E. coli bacterium, is among the most complex virion
known; T4 has a protein tail structure that the virus uses to attach to the host cell and a head structure
that houses its DNA.
Adenovirus, a nonenveloped animal virus that causes respiratory illnesses in humans, uses protein
spikes protruding from its capsomeres to attach to the host cell. Nonenveloped viruses also include
those that cause polio (poliovirus), plantar warts (papillomavirus), and hepatitis A (hepatitis A virus).
Nonenveloped viruses tend to be more robust and more likely to survive under harsh conditions, such as
the gut.
Enveloped virions like HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), the causative agent in AIDS
(acquired immune deficiency syndrome), consist of nucleic acid (RNA in the case of HIV) and capsid
proteins surrounded by a phospholipid bilayer envelope and its associated proteins (Figure 11.4).
Chicken pox, influenza, and mumps are examples of diseases caused by viruses with envelopes. Because
of the fragility of the envelope, nonenveloped viruses are more resistant to changes in temperature, pH,
and some disinfectants than enveloped viruses.
Overall, the shape of the virion and the presence or absence of an envelope tells us little about what
diseases the viruses may cause or what species they might infect, but is still a useful means to begin viral
classification.
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Figure 11.4 Viruses can be complex in shape or relatively simple. This figure shows three
relatively complex virions: the bacteriophage T4, with its DNA-containing head group and tail
fibers that attach to host cells; adenovirus, which uses spikes from its capsid to bind to the host
cells; and HIV, which uses glycoproteins embedded in its envelope to do so. Notice that HIV
has proteins called matrix proteins, internal to the envelope, which help stabilize virion shape.
HIV is a retrovirus, which means it reverse transcribes its RNA genome into DNA, which is then
spliced into the hosts DNA. (credit bacteriophage, adenovirus: modification of work by NCBI,
NIH; credit HIV retrovirus: modification of work by NIAID, NIH)
a.
b.
c.
d.
Which of the following statements about virus structure is true?

All viruses are encased in a viral membrane.
The capsomere is made up of small protein subunits called capsids.
DNA is the genetic material in all viruses.
Glycoproteins help the virus attach to the host cell.
Unlike all living organisms that use DNA as their genetic material, viruses may use either DNA or
RNA as theirs. The virus core contains the genome or total genetic content of the virus. Viral genomes
tend to be small compared to bacteria or eukaryotes, containing only those genes that code for proteins
the virus cannot get from the host cell. This genetic material may be single-stranded or double-stranded.
It may also be linear or circular. While most viruses contain a single segment of nucleic acid, others have
genomes that consist of several segments.
DNA viruses have a DNA core. The viral DNA directs the host cells replication proteins to
synthesize new copies of the viral genome and to transcribe and translate that genome into viral proteins.
DNA viruses cause human diseases such as chickenpox, hepatitis B, and some venereal diseases like
herpes and genital warts.
RNA viruses contain only RNA in their cores. To replicate their genomes in the host cell, the
genomes of RNA viruses encode enzymes not found in host cells. RNA polymerase enzymes are not as
stable as DNA polymerases and often make mistakes during transcription. For this reason, mutations,
changes in the nucleotide sequence, in RNA viruses occur more frequently than in DNA viruses. This
leads to more rapid evolution and change in RNA viruses. For example, the fact that influenza is an
RNA virus is one reason a new flu vaccine is needed every year. Human diseases caused by RNA viruses
include hepatitis C, measles, and rabies.
Viruses can be seen as obligate intracellular parasites. The virus must attach to a living cell, be taken
inside, manufacture its proteins and copy its genome, and find a way to escape the cell so the virus can
infect other cells and ultimately other individuals. Viruses can infect only certain species of hosts and
only certain cells within that host. The molecular basis for this specificity is that a particular surface
molecule, known as the viral receptor, must be found on the host cell surface for the virus to attach. Also,
metabolic differences seen in different cell types based on differential gene expression are a likely factor
in which cells a virus may use to replicate. The cell must be making the substances the virus needs, such
as enzymes the virus genome itself does not have genes for, or the virus will not be able to replicate using
that cell.
Steps of Virus Infections

A virus must take over a cell to replicate. The viral replication cycle can produce dramatic biochemical
and structural changes in the host cell, which may cause cell damage. These changes, called cytopathic
effects, can change cell functions or even destroy the cell. Some infected cells, such as those infected by
the common cold virus (rhinovirus), die through lysis (bursting) or apoptosis (programmed cell death
or cell suicide), releasing all the progeny virions at once. The symptoms of viral diseases result from
the immune response to the virus, which attempts to control and eliminate the virus from the body, and
from cell damage caused by the virus. Many animal viruses, such as HIV (human immunodeficiency
virus), leave the infected cells of the immune system by a process known as budding, where virions leave
the cell individually. During the budding process, the cell does not undergo lysis and is not immediately
killed. However, the damage to the cells that HIV infects may make it impossible for the cells to function
as mediators of immunity, even though the cells remain alive for a period of time. Most productive
viral infections follow similar steps in the virus replication cycle: attachment, penetration, uncoating,
replication, assembly, and release.
A virus attaches to a specific receptor site on the host-cell membrane through attachment proteins
in the capsid or proteins embedded in its envelope. The attachment is specific, and typically a virus will
only attach to cells of one or a few species and only certain cell types within those species with the
appropriate receptors.
View this video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/influenza2) for a visual explanation of how influenza

attacks the body.
Unlike animal viruses, the nucleic acid of bacteriophages is injected into the host cell naked, leaving
the capsid outside the cell. Plant and animal viruses can enter their cells through endocytosis, in which
the cell membrane surrounds and engulfs the entire virus. Some enveloped viruses enter the cell when the
viral envelope fuses directly with the cell membrane. Once inside the cell, the viral capsid is degraded
and the viral nucleic acid is released, which then becomes available for replication and transcription.
The replication mechanism depends on the viral genome. DNA viruses usually use host cell proteins
and enzymes to make additional DNA that is used to copy the genome or be transcribed to messenger
RNA (mRNA), which is then used in protein synthesis. RNA viruses, such as the influenza virus, usually
use the RNA core as a template for synthesis of viral genomic RNA and mRNA. The viral mRNA is
translated into viral enzymes and capsid proteins to assemble new virions (Figure 11.5). Of course, there
are exceptions to this pattern. If a host cell does not provide the enzymes necessary for viral replication,
viral genes supply the information to direct synthesis of the missing proteins. Retroviruses, such as
HIV, have an RNA genome that must be reverse transcribed to make DNA, which then is inserted into
the hosts DNA. To convert RNA into DNA, retroviruses contain genes that encode the virus-specific
enzyme reverse transcriptase that transcribes an RNA template to DNA. The fact that HIV produces
some of its own enzymes, which are not found in the host, has allowed researchers to develop drugs
that inhibit these enzymes. These drugs, including the reverse transcriptase inhibitor AZT, inhibit HIV
replication by reducing the activity of the enzyme without affecting the hosts metabolism.
The last stage of viral replication is the release of the new virions into the host organism, where they
are able to infect adjacent cells and repeat the replication cycle. Some viruses are released when the host
cell dies and other viruses can leave infected cells by budding through the membrane without directly
killing the cell.
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Figure 11.5 In influenza virus infection, glycoproteins attach to a host epithelial cell. As a result,
the virus is engulfed. RNA and proteins are made and assembled into new virions.
Influenza virus is packaged in a viral envelope, which fuses with the plasma
membrane. This way, the virus can exit the host cell without killing it. What advantage does
the virus gain by keeping the host cell alive?
Click through this tutorial (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/viruses2) on viruses to identify structures,

modes of transmission, replication, and more.
Viruses and Disease

Viruses cause a variety of diseases in animals, including humans, ranging from the common cold to
potentially fatal illnesses like meningitis (Figure 11.6). These diseases can be treated by antiviral drugs
or by vaccines, but some viruses, such as HIV, are capable of avoiding the immune response and
mutating so as to become resistant to antiviral drugs.
Figure 11.6 Viruses are the cause of dozens of ailments in humans, ranging from mild illnesses to
serious diseases. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Hggstrm)
Vaccines for Prevention

While we do have limited numbers of effective antiviral drugs, such as those used to treat HIV and
influenza, the primary method of controlling viral disease is by vaccination, which is intended to prevent
outbreaks by building immunity to a virus or virus family. A vaccine may be prepared using weakened
live viruses, killed viruses, or molecular subunits of the virus. In general, live viruses lead to better
immunity, but have the possibility of causing disease at some low frequency. Killed viral vaccine and the
subunit viruses are both incapable of causing disease, but in general lead to less effective or long-lasting
immunity.
Weakened live viral vaccines are designed in the laboratory to cause few symptoms in recipients
while giving them immunity against future infections. Polio was one disease that represented a milestone
in the use of vaccines. Mass immunization campaigns in the U.S. in the 1950s (killed vaccine) and 1960s
(live vaccine) essentially eradicated the disease, which caused muscle paralysis in children and generated
fear in the general population when regional epidemics occurred. The success of the polio vaccine paved
the way for the routine dispensation of childhood vaccines against measles, mumps, rubella, chickenpox,
and other diseases.
Live vaccines are usually made by attenuation (weakening) of the wild-type (disease-causing)
virus by growing it in the laboratory in tissues or at temperatures different from what the virus is
accustomed to in the host. For example, the virus may be grown in cells in a test tube, in bird embryos,
or in live animals. The adaptation to these new cells or temperature induces mutations in the virus
genomes, allowing them to grow better in the laboratory while inhibiting their ability to cause disease
when reintroduced into the conditions found in the host. These attenuated viruses thus still cause an
infection, but they do not grow very well, allowing the immune response to develop in time to prevent
major disease. The danger of using live vaccines, which are usually more effective than killed vaccines,
is the low but significant risk that these viruses will revert back to their disease-causing form by back
mutations. Back mutations occur when the vaccine undergoes mutations in the host such that it readapts
to the host and can again cause disease, which can then be spread to other humans in an epidemic. This
happened as recently as 2007 in Nigeria where mutations in a polio vaccine led to an epidemic of polio
in that country.
Some vaccines are in continuous development because certain viruses, such as influenza and HIV,
have a high mutation rate compared to other viruses or host cells. With influenza, mutation in genes
for the surface molecules helps the virus evade the protective immunity that may have been obtained
in a previous influenza season, making it necessary for individuals to get vaccinated every year. Other
viruses, such as those that cause the childhood diseases measles, mumps, and rubella, mutate so little that
the same vaccine is used year after year.
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Vaccines and Antiviral Drugs for Treatment

In some cases, vaccines can be used to treat an active viral infection. In the case of rabies, a fatal
neurological disease transmitted in the saliva of rabies virus-infected animals, the progression of the
disease from the time of the animal bite to the time it enters the central nervous system may be two weeks
or longer. This is enough time to vaccinate an individual who suspects being bitten by a rabid animal, and
the boosted immune response from the vaccination is enough to prevent the virus from entering nervous
tissue. Thus, the fatal neurological consequences of the disease are averted and the individual only has
to recover from the infected bite. This approach is also being used for the treatment of Ebola, one of the
fastest and most deadly viruses affecting humans, though usually infecting limited populations. Ebola is
also a leading cause of death in gorillas. Transmitted by bats and great apes, this virus can cause death in
7090 percent of the infected within two weeks. Using newly developed vaccines that boost the immune
response, there is hope that immune systems of affected individuals will be better able to control the
virus, potentially reducing mortality rates.
Another way of treating viral infections is the use of antiviral drugs. These drugs often have limited
ability to cure viral disease but have been used to control and reduce symptoms for a wide variety of
viral diseases. For most viruses, these drugs inhibit the virus by blocking the actions of one or more of its
proteins. It is important that the targeted proteins be encoded for by viral genes and that these molecules
are not present in a healthy host cell. In this way, viral growth is inhibited without damaging the host.
There are large numbers of antiviral drugs available to treat infections, some specific for a particular
virus and others that can affect multiple viruses.
Antivirals have been developed to treat genital herpes (herpes simplex II) and influenza. For genital
herpes, drugs such as acyclovir can reduce the number and duration of the episodes of active viral disease
during which patients develop viral lesions in their skins cells. As the virus remains latent in nervous
tissue of the body for life, this drug is not a cure but can make the symptoms of the disease more
manageable. For influenza, drugs like Tamiflu can reduce the duration of flu symptoms by one or two
days, but the drug does not prevent symptoms entirely. Other antiviral drugs, such as Ribavirin, have
been used to treat a variety of viral infections.
By far the most successful use of antivirals has been in the treatment of the retrovirus HIV, which
causes a disease that, if untreated, is usually fatal within 1012 years after being infected. Anti-HIV
drugs have been able to control viral replication to the point that individuals receiving these drugs survive
for a significantly longer time than the untreated.
Anti-HIV drugs inhibit viral replication at many different phases of the HIV replicative cycle. Drugs
have been developed that inhibit the fusion of the HIV viral envelope with the plasma membrane of
the host cell (fusion inhibitors), the conversion of its RNA genome to double-stranded DNA (reverse
transcriptase inhibitors), the integration of the viral DNA into the host genome (integrase inhibitors), and
the processing of viral proteins (protease inhibitors).
When any of these drugs are used individually, the virus high mutation rate allows the virus to
rapidly evolve resistance to the drug. The breakthrough in the treatment of HIV was the development of
highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART), which involves a mixture of different drugs, sometimes
called a drug cocktail. By attacking the virus at different stages of its replication cycle, it is difficult for
the virus to develop resistance to multiple drugs at the same time. Still, even with the use of combination
HAART therapy, there is concern that, over time, the virus will evolve resistance to this therapy. Thus,
new anti-HIV drugs are constantly being developed with the hope of continuing the battle against this
highly fatal virus.
Section Summary
Viruses are acellular entities that can usually only be seen with an electron microscope. Their genomes
contain either DNA or RNA, and they replicate using the replication proteins of a host cell. Viruses are
diverse, infecting archaea, bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. Viruses consist of a nucleic-acid core
surrounded by a protein capsid with or without an outer lipid envelope.
Viral replication within a living cell always produces changes in the cell, sometimes resulting in cell
death and sometimes slowly killing the infected cells. There are six basic stages in the virus replication
cycle: attachment, penetration, uncoating, replication, assembly, and release. A viral infection may be
productive, resulting in new virions, or nonproductive, meaning the virus remains inside the cell without
producing new virions.
Viruses cause a variety of diseases in humans. Many of these diseases can be prevented by the use
of viral vaccines, which stimulate protective immunity against the virus without causing major disease.
Viral vaccines may also be used in active viral infections, boosting the ability of the immune system to
control or destroy the virus. Antiviral drugs that target enzymes and other protein products of viral genes
have been developed and used with mixed success. Combinations of anti-HIV drugs have been used to
effectively control the virus, extending the lifespan of infected individuals.
Art Connections
Exercise 11.1
Figure 11.4 Which of the following statements about virus structure is true?
a. All viruses are encased in a viral membrane.
b. The capsomere is made up of small protein subunits called capsids.
c. DNA is the genetic material in all viruses.
d. Glycoproteins help the virus attach to the host cell.
Solution
Figure 11.4 D
Exercise 11.2
Figure 11.5 Influenza virus is packaged in a viral envelope, which fuses with the plasma membrane. This
way, the virus can exit the host cell without killing it. What advantage does the virus gain by keeping the
host cell alive?
Solution
Figure 11.5 The host cell can continue to make new virus particles.
Review Questions
Exercise 11.3
Which statement is true?
a. A virion contains DNA and RNA.
b. Viruses are acellular.
c. Viruses replicate outside of the cell.
d. Most viruses are easily visualized with a light microscope.
Solution
B
Exercise 11.4
The viral ________ plays a role in attaching a virion to the host cell.
a. core
b. capsid
c. envelope
d. both b and c
Solution
D
Exercise 11.5
Which statement is true of viral replication?
a. In the process of apoptosis, the cell survives.
b. During attachment, the virus attaches at specific sites on the cell surface.
c. The viral capsid helps the host cell produce more copies of the viral genome.
d. mRNA works outside of the host cell to produce enzymes and proteins.
Solution
B
Free Response
Exercise 11.6
Why cant dogs catch the measles?
Solution
The virus cannot attach to dog cells because dog cells do not express the receptors for the virus or there
is no cell within the dog that is permissive for viral replication.
Exercise 11.7
Why is immunization after being bitten by a rabid animal so effective?
Solution
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Rabies vaccine works after a bite because it takes two weeks for the virus to travel from the site of the
bite to the central nervous system, where the most severe symptoms of the disease occur. The vaccine is
able to cause an immune response in the body during this time that clears the infection before it reaches
the nervous system.
11.2 | Innate Immunity

Describe the bodys innate physical and chemical defenses
Explain the inflammatory response
Describe the complement system
The vertebrate, including human, immune system is a complex multilayered system for defending
against external and internal threats to the integrity of the body. The system can be divided into two
types of defense systems: the innate immune system, which is nonspecific toward a particular kind of
pathogen, and the adaptive immune system, which is specific (Figure 11.7). Innate immunity is not
caused by an infection or vaccination and depends initially on physical and chemical barriers that work
on all pathogens, sometimes called the first line of defense. The second line of defense of the innate
system includes chemical signals that produce inflammation and fever responses as well as mobilizing
protective cells and other chemical defenses. The adaptive immune system mounts a highly specific
response to substances and organisms that do not belong in the body. The adaptive system takes longer
to respond and has a memory system that allows it to respond with greater intensity should the body
reencounter a pathogen even years later.
Figure 11.7 There are two main parts to the vertebrate immune system. The innate immune system,
which is made up of physical barriers and internal defenses, responds to all pathogens. The adaptive
immune system is highly specific.
External and Chemical Barriers

The body has significant physical barriers to potential pathogens. The skin contains the protein keratin,
which resists physical entry into cells. Other body surfaces, particularly those associated with body
openings, are protected by the mucous membranes. The sticky mucus provides a physical trap for
pathogens, preventing their movement deeper into the body. The openings of the body, such as the nose
and ears, are protected by hairs that catch pathogens, and the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory
tract have cilia that constantly move pathogens trapped in the mucus coat up to the mouth.
The skin and mucous membranes also create a chemical environment that is hostile to many
microorganisms. The surface of the skin is acidic, which prevents bacterial growth. Saliva, mucus, and
the tears of the eye contain an enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls. The stomach secretions
create a highly acidic environment, which kills many pathogens entering the digestive system.
Finally, the surface of the body and the lower digestive system have a community of
microorganisms such as bacteria, archaea, and fungi that coexist without harming the body. There is
evidence that these organisms are highly beneficial to their host, combating disease-causing organisms
and outcompeting them for nutritional resources provided by the host body. Despite these defenses,
pathogens may enter the body through skin abrasions or punctures, or by collecting on mucosal surfaces
in large numbers that overcome the protections of mucus or cilia.
Internal Defenses
When pathogens enter the body, the innate immune system responds with a variety of internal defenses.
These include the inflammatory response, phagocytosis, natural killer cells, and the complement system.
White blood cells in the blood and lymph recognize pathogens as foreign to the body. A white blood cell
is larger than a red blood cell, is nucleated, and is typically able to move using amoeboid locomotion.
Because they can move on their own, white blood cells can leave the blood to go to infected tissues.
For example, a monocyte is a type of white blood cell that circulates in the blood and lymph and
develops into a macrophage after it moves into infected tissue. A macrophage is a large cell that engulfs
foreign particles and pathogens. Mast cells are produced in the same way as white blood cells, but unlike
circulating white blood cells, mast cells take up residence in connective tissues and especially mucosal
tissues. They are responsible for releasing chemicals in response to physical injury. They also play a role
in the allergic response, which will be discussed later in the chapter.
When a pathogen is recognized as foreign, chemicals called cytokines are released. A cytokine is
a chemical messenger that regulates cell differentiation (form and function), proliferation (production),
and gene expression to produce a variety of immune responses. Approximately 40 types of cytokines
exist in humans. In addition to being released from white blood cells after pathogen recognition,
cytokines are also released by the infected cells and bind to nearby uninfected cells, inducing those cells
to release cytokines. This positive feedback loop results in a burst of cytokine production.
One class of early-acting cytokines is the interferons, which are released by infected cells as a
warning to nearby uninfected cells. An interferon is a small protein that signals a viral infection to
other cells. The interferons stimulate uninfected cells to produce compounds that interfere with viral
replication. Interferons also activate macrophages and other cells.
The Inflammatory Response and Phagocytosis
The first cytokines to be produced encourage inflammation, a localized redness, swelling, heat, and
pain. Inflammation is a response to physical trauma, such as a cut or a blow, chemical irritation, and
infection by pathogens (viruses, bacteria, or fungi). The chemical signals that trigger an inflammatory
response enter the extracellular fluid and cause capillaries to dilate (expand) and capillary walls to
become more permeable, or leaky. The serum and other compounds leaking from capillaries cause
swelling of the area, which in turn causes pain. Various kinds of white blood cells are attracted to the
area of inflammation. The types of white blood cells that arrive at an inflamed site depend on the nature
of the injury or infecting pathogen. For example, a neutrophil is an early arriving white blood cell
that engulfs and digests pathogens. Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cells of the immune
system (Figure 11.8). Macrophages follow neutrophils and take over the phagocytosis function and are
involved in the resolution of an inflamed site, cleaning up cell debris and pathogens.
Figure 11.8 White blood cells (leukocytes) release chemicals to stimulate the inflammatory response
following a cut in the skin.
Cytokines also send feedback to cells of the nervous system to bring about the overall symptoms
of feeling sick, which include lethargy, muscle pain, and nausea. Cytokines also increase the core body
temperature, causing a fever. The elevated temperatures of a fever inhibit the growth of pathogens and
speed up cellular repair processes. For these reasons, suppression of fevers should be limited to those
that are dangerously high.
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Check out this 23-second, stop-motion video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/neutrophil) showing a

neutrophil that searches and engulfs fungus spores during an elapsed time of 79 minutes.
Natural Killer Cells
A lymphocyte is a white blood cell that contains a large nucleus (Figure 11.9). Most lymphocytes
are associated with the adaptive immune response, but infected cells are identified and destroyed by
natural killer cells, the only lymphocytes of the innate immune system. A natural killer (NK) cell is a
lymphocyte that can kill cells infected with viruses (or cancerous cells). NK cells identify intracellular
infections, especially from viruses, by the altered expression of major histocompatibility class (MHC)
I molecules on the surface of infected cells. MHC class I molecules are proteins on the surfaces of all
nucleated cells that provide a sample of the cells internal environment at any given time. Unhealthy
cells, whether infected or cancerous, display an altered MHC class I complement on their cell surfaces.
Figure 11.9 Lymphocytes, such as NK cells, are characterized by their large nuclei that actively
absorb Wright stain and therefore appear dark colored under a microscope. (credit: scale-bar data
from Matt Russell)
After the NK cell detects an infected or tumor cell, it induces programmed cell death, or apoptosis.
Phagocytic cells then come along and digest the cell debris left behind. NK cells are constantly patrolling
the body and are an effective mechanism for controlling potential infections and preventing cancer
progression. The various types of immune cells are shown in Figure 11.10.
Figure 11.10 Cells involved in the innate immune response include mast cells, natural killer cells,
and white blood cells, such as monocytes, macrophages and neutrophils.
Complement
An array of approximately 20 types of proteins, called a complement system, is also activated by
infection or the activity of the cells of the adaptive immune system and functions to destroy extracellular
pathogens. Liver cells and macrophages synthesize inactive forms of complement proteins continuously;
these proteins are abundant in the blood serum and are capable of responding immediately to infecting
microorganisms. The complement system is so named because it is complementary to the innate
and adaptive immune system. Complement proteins bind to the surfaces of microorganisms and are
particularly attracted to pathogens that are already tagged by the adaptive immune system. This
tagging involves the attachment of specific proteins called antibodies (discussed in detail later) to
the pathogen. When they attach, the antibodies change shape providing a binding site for one of the
complement proteins. After the first few complement proteins bind, a cascade of binding in a specific
sequence of proteins follows in which the pathogen rapidly becomes coated in complement proteins.
Complement proteins perform several functions, one of which is to serve as a marker to indicate the
presence of a pathogen to phagocytic cells and enhance engulfment. Certain complement proteins can
combine to open pores in microbial cell membranes and cause lysis of the cells.
Section Summary
The innate immune system consists first of physical and chemical barriers to infection including the
skin and mucous membranes and their secretions, ciliated surfaces, and body hairs. The second line of
defense is an internal defense system designed to counter pathogenic threats that bypass the physical
and chemical barriers of the body. Using a combination of cellular and molecular responses, the innate
immune system identifies the nature of a pathogen and responds with inflammation, phagocytosis,
cytokine release, destruction by NK cells, or the complement system.
Review Questions
Exercise 11.8
Which of the following is a barrier against pathogens provided by the skin?
a. low pH
b. mucus
c. tears
d. cilia
Solution
A
Exercise 11.9
Although interferons have several effects, they are particularly useful against infections with which type
of pathogen?
a. bacteria
b. viruses
c. fungi
d. helminths
Solution
B
Exercise 11.10
Which innate immune system component uses MHC class I molecules directly in its defense strategy?
a. macrophages
b. neutrophils
c. NK cells
d. interferon
Solution
C
Free Response
Exercise 11.11
Different MHC class I molecules between donor and recipient cells can lead to rejection of a transplanted
organ or tissue. Suggest a reason for this.
Solution
If the MHC class I molecules expressed on donor cells differ from the MHC class I molecules expressed
on recipient cells, NK cells may identify the donor cells as not normal and produce enzymes to induce
the donor cells to undergo apoptosis, which would destroy the transplanted organ.
Exercise 11.12
If a series of genetic mutations prevented some, but not all, of the complement proteins from binding
antibodies or pathogens, would the entire complement system be compromised?
Solution
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The entire complement system would probably be affected even when only a few members were mutated
such that they could no longer bind. Because the complement involves the binding of activated proteins
in a specific sequence, when one or more proteins in the sequence is absent, the subsequent proteins
would be incapable of binding to elicit the complements pathogen-destructive effects.
11.3 | Adaptive Immunity

Explain adaptive immunity
Describe cell-mediated immune response and humoral immune response
Describe immune tolerance
The adaptive, or acquired, immune response takes days or even weeks to become establishedmuch
longer than the innate response; however, adaptive immunity is more specific to an invading pathogen.
Adaptive immunity is an immunity that occurs after exposure to an antigen either from a pathogen
or a vaccination. An antigen is a molecule that stimulates a response in the immune system. This
part of the immune system is activated when the innate immune response is insufficient to control an
infection. In fact, without information from the innate immune system, the adaptive response could not
be mobilized. There are two types of adaptive responses: the cell-mediated immune response, which is
controlled by activated T cells, and the humoral immune response, which is controlled by activated B
cells and antibodies. Activated T and B cells whose surface binding sites are specific to the molecules
on the pathogen greatly increase in numbers and attack the invading pathogen. Their attack can kill
pathogens directly or they can secrete antibodies that enhance the phagocytosis of pathogens and disrupt
the infection. Adaptive immunity also involves a memory to give the host long-term protection from
reinfection with the same type of pathogen; on reexposure, this host memory will facilitate a rapid and
powerful response.
B and T Cells
Lymphocytes, which are white blood cells, are formed with other blood cells in the red bone marrow
found in many flat bones, such as the shoulder or pelvic bones. The two types of lymphocytes of the
adaptive immune response are B and T cells (Figure 11.11). Whether an immature lymphocyte becomes
a B cell or T cell depends on where in the body it matures. The B cells remain in the bone marrow to
mature (hence the name B for bone marrow), while T cells migrate to the thymus, where they mature
(hence the name T for thymus).
Maturation of a B or T cell involves becoming immunocompetent, meaning that it can recognize, by
binding, a specific molecule or antigen (discussed below). During the maturation process, B and T cells
that bind too strongly to the bodys own cells are eliminated in order to minimize an immune response
against the bodys own tissues. Those cells that react weakly to the bodys own cells, but have highly
specific receptors on their cell surfaces that allow them to recognize a foreign molecule, or antigen,
remain. This process occurs during fetal development and continues throughout life. The specificity of
this receptor is determined by the genetics of the individual and is present before a foreign molecule
is introduced to the body or encountered. Thus, it is genetics and not experience that initially provides
a vast array of cells, each capable of binding to a different specific foreign molecule. Once they are
immunocompetent, the T and B cells will migrate to the spleen and lymph nodes where they will remain
until they are called on during an infection. B cells are involved in the humoral immune response,
which targets pathogens loose in blood and lymph, and T cells are involved in the cell-mediated immune
response, which targets infected cells.
Figure 11.11 This scanning electron micrograph shows a T lymphocyte. T and B cells are
indistinguishable by light microscopy but can be differentiated experimentally by probing their
surface receptors. (credit: modification of work by NCI; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Humoral Immune Response

As mentioned, an antigen is a molecule that stimulates a response in the immune system. Not every
molecule is antigenic. B cells participate in a chemical response to antigens present in the body by
producing specific antibodies that circulate throughout the body and bind with the antigen whenever it
is encountered. This is known as the humoral immune response. As discussed, during maturation of B
cells, a set of highly specific B cells are produced that have many antigen receptor molecules in their
membrane (Figure 11.12).
Figure 11.12 B cell receptors are embedded in the membranes of B cells and bind a variety of
antigens through their variable regions.
Each B cell has only one kind of antigen receptor, which makes every B cell different. Once the
B cells mature in the bone marrow, they migrate to lymph nodes or other lymphatic organs. When a B
cell encounters the antigen that binds to its receptor, the antigen molecule is brought into the cell by
endocytosis and reappears on the surface of the cell bound to an MHC class II molecule. When this
process is complete, the B cell is sensitized. In most cases, the sensitized B cell must then encounter a
specific kind of T cell, called a helper T cell, before it is activated. The helper T cell must already have
been activated through an encounter with the antigen (discussed below).
The helper T cell binds to the antigen-MHC class II complex and is induced to release cytokines
that induce the B cell to divide rapidly, which makes thousands of identical (clonal) cells. These daughter
cells become either plasma cells or memory B cells. The memory B cells remain inactive at this point,
until another later encounter with the antigen, caused by a reinfection by the same bacteria or virus,
results in them dividing into a new population of plasma cells. The plasma cells, on the other hand,
produce and secrete large quantities, up to 100 million molecules per hour, of antibody molecules. An
antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a protein that is produced by plasma cells after
stimulation by an antigen. Antibodies are the agents of humoral immunity. Antibodies occur in the blood,
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in gastric and mucus secretions, and in breast milk. Antibodies in these bodily fluids can bind pathogens
and mark them for destruction by phagocytes before they can infect cells.
These antibodies circulate in the blood stream and lymphatic system and bind with the antigen
whenever it is encountered. The binding can fight infection in several ways. Antibodies can bind to
viruses or bacteria and interfere with the chemical interactions required for them to infect or bind to other
cells. The antibodies may create bridges between different particles containing antigenic sites clumping
them all together and preventing their proper functioning. The antigen-antibody complex stimulates
the complement system described previously, destroying the cell bearing the antigen. Phagocytic cells,
such as those already described, are attracted by the antigen-antibody complexes, and phagocytosis is
enhanced when the complexes are present. Finally, antibodies stimulate inflammation, and their presence
in mucus and on the skin prevents pathogen attack.
Antibodies coat extracellular pathogens and neutralize them by blocking key sites on the pathogen
that enhance their infectivity (such as receptors that dock pathogens on host cells) (Figure 11.13).
Antibody neutralization can prevent pathogens from entering and infecting host cells. The neutralized
antibody-coated pathogens can then be filtered by the spleen and eliminated in urine or feces.
Antibodies also mark pathogens for destruction by phagocytic cells, such as macrophages or
neutrophils, in a process called opsonization. In a process called complement fixation, some antibodies
provide a place for complement proteins to bind. The combination of antibodies and complement
promotes rapid clearing of pathogens.
The production of antibodies by plasma cells in response to an antigen is called active immunity
and describes the hosts active response of the immune system to an infection or to a vaccination.
There is also a passive immune response where antibodies come from an outside source, instead of the
individuals own plasma cells, and are introduced into the host. For example, antibodies circulating in a
pregnant womans body move across the placenta into the developing fetus. The child benefits from the
presence of these antibodies for up to several months after birth. In addition, a passive immune response
is possible by injecting antibodies into an individual in the form of an antivenom to a snake-bite toxin or
antibodies in blood serum to help fight a hepatitis infection. This gives immediate protection since the
body does not need the time required to mount its own response.
Figure 11.13 Antibodies may inhibit infection by (a) preventing the antigen from binding its target, (b)
tagging a pathogen for destruction by macrophages or neutrophils, or (c) activating the complement
cascade.
Cell-Mediated Immunity
Unlike B cells, T lymphocytes are unable to recognize pathogens without assistance. Instead, dendritic
cells and macrophages first engulf and digest pathogens into hundreds or thousands of antigens. Then,
an antigen-presenting cell (APC) detects, engulfs, and informs the adaptive immune response about an
infection. When a pathogen is detected, these APCs will engulf and break it down through phagocytosis.
Antigen fragments will then be transported to the surface of the APC, where they will serve as an
indicator to other immune cells. A dendritic cell is an immune cell that mops up antigenic materials in
its surroundings and presents them on its surface. Dendritic cells are located in the skin, the linings of the
nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines. These positions are ideal locations to encounter invading pathogens.
Once they are activated by pathogens and mature to become APCs they migrate to the spleen or a lymph
node. Macrophages also function as APCs. After phagocytosis by a macrophage, the phagocytic vesicle
fuses with an intracellular lysosome. Within the resulting phagolysosome, the components are broken
down into fragments; the fragments are then loaded onto MHC class II molecules and are transported
to the cell surface for antigen presentation (Figure 11.14). Helper T cells cannot properly respond to an
antigen unless it is processed and embedded in an MHC class II molecule. The APCs express MHC class
II on their surfaces, and when combined with a foreign antigen, these complexes signal an invader.
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Figure 11.14 An antigen-presenting cell (APC), such as a macrophage, engulfs a foreign antigen,
partially digests it in a lysosome, and then embeds it in an MHC class II molecule for presentation
at the cell surface. Lymphocytes of the adaptive immune response must interact with antigenembedded MHC class II molecules to mature into functional immune cells.
View this animation from Rockefeller University (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/immune_system2)

to see how dendritic cells act as sentinels in the bodys immune system.
T cells have many functions. Some respond to APCs of the innate immune system and indirectly
induce immune responses by releasing cytokines. Others stimulate B cells to start the humoral response
as described previously. Another type of T cell detects APC signals and directly kills the infected cells,
while some are involved in suppressing inappropriate immune reactions to harmless or self antigens.
There are two main types of T cells: helper T lymphocytes (TH) and the cytotoxic T lymphocytes
(TC). The TH lymphocytes function indirectly to tell other immune cells about potential pathogens. TH
lymphocytes recognize specific antigens presented by the MHC class II complexes of APCs. There are
two populations of TH cells: TH1 and TH2. TH1 cells secrete cytokines to enhance the activities of
macrophages and other T cells. TH2 cells stimulate nave B cells to secrete antibodies. Whether a TH1
or a TH2 immune response develops depends on the specific types of cytokines secreted by cells of the
innate immune system, which in turn depends on the nature of the invading pathogen.
Cytotoxic T cells (TC) are the key component of the cell-mediated part of the adaptive immune
system and attack and destroy infected cells. TC cells are particularly important in protecting against
viral infections; this is because viruses replicate within cells where they are shielded from extracellular
contact with circulating antibodies. Once activated, the TC creates a large clone of cells with one specific
set of cell-surface receptors, as in the case with proliferation of activated B cells. As with B cells, the
clone includes active TC cells and inactive memory TC cells. The resulting active TC cells then identify
infected host cells. Because of the time required to generate a population of clonal T and B cells, there is
a delay in the adaptive immune response compared to the innate immune response.
TC cells attempt to identify and destroy infected cells before the pathogen can replicate and
escape, thereby halting the progression of intracellular infections. TC cells also support NK lymphocytes
to destroy early cancers. Cytokines secreted by the TH1 response that stimulates macrophages also
stimulate TC cells and enhance their ability to identify and destroy infected cells and tumors. A summary
of how the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses are activated appears in Figure 11.15.
B plasma cells and TC cells are collectively called effector cells because they are involved in
effecting (bringing about) the immune response of killing pathogens and infected host cells.
Figure 11.15 A helper T cell becomes activated by binding to an antigen presented by an APC
via the MHCII receptor, causing it to release cytokines. Depending on the cytokines released, this
activates either the humoral or the cell-mediated immune response.
Immunological Memory
The adaptive immune system has a memory component that allows for a rapid and large response upon
reinvasion of the same pathogen. During the adaptive immune response to a pathogen that has not been
encountered before, known as the primary immune response, plasma cells secreting antibodies and
differentiated T cells increase, then plateau over time. As B and T cells mature into effector cells, a subset
of the nave populations differentiates into B and T memory cells with the same antigen specificities
(Figure 11.16). A memory cell is an antigen-specific B or T lymphocyte that does not differentiate into
an effector cell during the primary immune response, but that can immediately become an effector cell on
reexposure to the same pathogen. As the infection is cleared and pathogenic stimuli subside, the effectors
are no longer needed and they undergo apoptosis. In contrast, the memory cells persist in the circulation.
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Figure 11.16 After initially binding an antigen to the B cell receptor, a B cell internalizes the
antigen and presents it on MHC class II. A helper T cell recognizes the MHC class II- antigen
complex and activates the B cell. As a result, memory B cells and plasma cells are made.
The Rh antigen is found on Rh-positive red blood cells. An Rh-negative female can
usually carry an Rh-positive fetus to term without difficulty. However, if she has a second
Rh-positive fetus, her body may launch an immune attack that causes hemolytic disease
of the newborn. Why do you think hemolytic disease is only a problem during the second
or subsequent pregnancies?
If the pathogen is never encountered again during the individuals lifetime, B and T memory cells
will circulate for a few years or even several decades and will gradually die off, having never functioned
as effector cells. However, if the host is re-exposed to the same pathogen type, circulating memory cells
will immediately differentiate into plasma cells and TC cells without input from APCs or TH cells. This
is known as the secondary immune response. One reason why the adaptive immune response is delayed
is because it takes time for nave B and T cells with the appropriate antigen specificities to be identified,
activated, and proliferate. On reinfection, this step is skipped, and the result is a more rapid production
of immune defenses. Memory B cells that differentiate into plasma cells output tens to hundreds-fold
greater antibody amounts than were secreted during the primary response (Figure 11.17). This rapid
and dramatic antibody response may stop the infection before it can even become established, and the
individual may not realize they had been exposed.
Figure 11.17 In the primary response to infection, antibodies are secreted first from plasma cells.
Upon re-exposure to the same pathogen, memory cells differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma
cells that output a greater amount of antibody for a longer period of time.
Vaccination is based on the knowledge that exposure to noninfectious antigens, derived from known
pathogens, generates a mild primary immune response. The immune response to vaccination may not be
perceived by the host as illness but still confers immune memory. When exposed to the corresponding
pathogen to which an individual was vaccinated, the reaction is similar to a secondary exposure. Because
each reinfection generates more memory cells and increased resistance to the pathogen, some vaccine
courses involve one or more booster vaccinations to mimic repeat exposures.
The Lymphatic System

Lymph is the watery fluid that bathes tissues and organs and contains protective white blood cells but
does not contain erythrocytes. Lymph moves about the body through the lymphatic system, which is
made up of vessels, lymph ducts, lymph glands, and organs, such as tonsils, adenoids, thymus, and
spleen.
Although the immune system is characterized by circulating cells throughout the body, the
regulation, maturation, and intercommunication of immune factors occur at specific sites. The blood
circulates immune cells, proteins, and other factors through the body. Approximately 0.1 percent of
all cells in the blood are leukocytes, which include monocytes (the precursor of macrophages) and
lymphocytes. Most cells in the blood are red blood cells. Cells of the immune system can travel between
the distinct lymphatic and blood circulatory systems, which are separated by interstitial space, by a
process called extravasation (passing through to surrounding tissue).
Recall that cells of the immune system originate from stem cells in the bone marrow. B cell
maturation occurs in the bone marrow, whereas progenitor cells migrate from the bone marrow and
develop and mature into nave T cells in the organ called the thymus.
On maturation, T and B lymphocytes circulate to various destinations. Lymph nodes scattered
throughout the body house large populations of T and B cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages (Figure
11.18). Lymph gathers antigens as it drains from tissues. These antigens then are filtered through lymph
nodes before the lymph is returned to circulation. APCs in the lymph nodes capture and process antigens
and inform nearby lymphocytes about potential pathogens.
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Figure 11.18 (a) Lymphatic vessels carry a clear fluid called lymph throughout the body. The liquid
passes through (b) lymph nodes that filter the lymph that enters the node through afferent vessels
and leaves through efferent vessels; lymph nodes are filled with lymphocytes that purge infecting
cells. (credit a: modification of work by NIH; credit b: modification of work by NCI, NIH)
The spleen houses B and T cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and NK cells (Figure 11.19). The
spleen is the site where APCs that have trapped foreign particles in the blood can communicate with
lymphocytes. Antibodies are synthesized and secreted by activated plasma cells in the spleen, and the
spleen filters foreign substances and antibody-complexed pathogens from the blood. Functionally, the
spleen is to the blood as lymph nodes are to the lymph.
Figure 11.19 The spleen functions to immunologically filter the blood and allow for communication
between cells corresponding to the innate and adaptive immune responses. (credit: modification of
work by NCI, NIH)
Mucosal Immune System

The innate and adaptive immune responses compose the systemic immune system (affecting the whole
body), which is distinct from the mucosal immune system. Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
is a crucial component of a functional immune system because mucosal surfaces, such as the nasal
passages, are the first tissues onto which inhaled or ingested pathogens are deposited. The mucosal tissue
includes the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus, and the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and urogenital tracts.
Mucosal immunity is formed by MALT, which functions independently of the systemic immune
system, and which has its own innate and adaptive components. MALT is a collection of lymphatic tissue
that combines with epithelial tissue lining the mucosa throughout the body. This tissue functions as the
immune barrier and response in areas of the body with direct contact to the external environment. The
systemic and mucosal immune systems use many of the same cell types. Foreign particles that make their
way to MALT are taken up by absorptive epithelial cells and delivered to APCs located directly below
the mucosal tissue. APCs of the mucosal immune system are primarily dendritic cells, with B cells and
macrophages having minor roles. Processed antigens displayed on APCs are detected by T cells in the
MALT and at the tonsils, adenoids, appendix, or the mesenteric lymph nodes of the intestine. Activated
T cells then migrate through the lymphatic system and into the circulatory system to mucosal sites of
infection.
Immune Tolerance
The immune system has to be regulated to prevent wasteful, unnecessary responses to harmless
substances, and more importantly, so that it does not attack self. The acquired ability to prevent an
unnecessary or harmful immune response to a detected foreign substance known not to cause disease,
or self-antigens, is described as immune tolerance. The primary mechanism for developing immune
tolerance to self-antigens occurs during the selection for weakly self-binding cells during T and B
lymphocyte maturation. There are populations of T cells that suppress the immune response to selfantigens and that suppress the immune response after the infection has cleared to minimize host cell
damage induced by inflammation and cell lysis. Immune tolerance is especially well developed in
the mucosa of the upper digestive system because of the tremendous number of foreign substances
(such as food proteins) that APCs of the oral cavity, pharynx, and gastrointestinal mucosa encounter.
Immune tolerance is brought about by specialized APCs in the liver, lymph nodes, small intestine, and
lung that present harmless antigens to a diverse population of regulatory T (Treg) cells, specialized
lymphocytes that suppress local inflammation and inhibit the secretion of stimulatory immune factors.
The combined result of Treg cells is to prevent immunologic activation and inflammation in undesired
tissue compartments and to allow the immune system to focus on pathogens instead.
Section Summary
The adaptive immune response is a slower-acting, longer-lasting, and more specific response than the
innate response. However, the adaptive response requires information from the innate immune system to
function. APCs display antigens on MHC molecules to nave T cells. T cells with cell-surface receptors
that bind a specific antigen will bind to that APC. In response, the T cells differentiate and proliferate,
becoming TH cells or TC cells. TH cells stimulate B cells that have engulfed and presented pathogenderived antigens. B cells differentiate into plasma cells that secrete antibodies, whereas TC cells destroy
infected or cancerous cells. Memory cells are produced by activated and proliferating B and T cells and
persist after a primary exposure to a pathogen. If re-exposure occurs, memory cells differentiate into
effector cells without input from the innate immune system. The mucosal immune system is largely
independent of the systemic immune system but functions in parallel to protect the extensive mucosal
surfaces of the body. Immune tolerance is brought about by Treg cells to limit reactions to harmless
antigens and the bodys own molecules.
Art Connections
Exercise 11.13
Figure 11.16 The Rh antigen is found on Rh-positive red blood cells. An Rh-negative female can usually
carry an Rh-positive fetus to term without difficulty. However, if she has a second Rh-positive fetus, her
body may launch an immune attack that causes hemolytic disease of the newborn. Why do you think
hemolytic disease is only a problem during the second or subsequent pregnancies?
Solution
Figure 11.16 If the blood of the mother and fetus mixes, memory cells that recognize the Rh antigen
of the fetus can form in the mother late in the first pregnancy. During subsequent pregnancies, these
memory cells launch an immune attack on the fetal blood cells of an Rh-positive fetus. Injection of antiRh antibody during the first pregnancy prevents the immune response from occurring.
Review Questions
Exercise 11.14
The humoral immune response depends on which cells?
a. TC cells
b. B cells
c. B and TH cells
d. TC and TH cells
Solution
C
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Exercise 11.15
The fact that the body does not normally mount an immune response to the molecules in food is an
example of _______.
a. secondary immune response
b. immunological memory
c. immune tolerance
d. passive immunity
Solution
C
Exercise 11.16
Foreign particles circulating in the blood are filtered by the ____________.
a. spleen
b. lymph nodes
c. MALT
d. lymph
Solution
A
Free Response
Exercise 11.17
How do B and T cells differ with respect to antigens that they bind?
Solution
T cells bind antigens that have been digested and embedded in MHC molecules by APCs. In contrast, B
cells function as APCs to bind intact, unprocessed antigens.
Exercise 11.18
Why is the immune response after reinfection much faster than the adaptive immune response after the
initial infection?
Solution
Upon reinfection, the memory cells will immediately differentiate into plasma cells and CTLs without
input from APCs or TH cells. In contrast, the adaptive immune response to the initial infection requires
time for nave B and T cells with the appropriate antigen specificities to be identified and activated.
11.4 | Disruptions in the Immune System

Describe hypersensitivity
Define autoimmunity
A functioning immune system is essential for survival, but even the sophisticated cellular and molecular
defenses of the mammalian immune response can be defeated by pathogens at virtually every step.
In the competition between immune protection and pathogen evasion, pathogens have the advantage
of more rapid evolution because of their shorter generation time, large population sizes and often
higher mutation rates. Thus pathogens have evolved a diverse array of immune escape mechanisms. For
instance, Streptococcus pneumoniae (the bacterium that causes pneumonia and meningitis) surrounds
itself with a capsule that inhibits phagocytes from engulfing it and displaying antigens to the adaptive
immune system. Staphylococcus aureus (the bacterium that can cause skin infections, abscesses, and
meningitis) synthesizes a toxin called leukocidin that kills phagocytes after they engulf the bacterium.
Other pathogens can also hinder the adaptive immune system. HIV infects TH cells using their CD4
surface molecules, gradually depleting the number of TH cells in the body (Figure 11.20); this inhibits
the adaptive immune systems capacity to generate sufficient responses to infection or tumors. As a
result, HIV-infected individuals often suffer from infections that would not cause illness in people with
healthy immune systems but which can cause devastating illness to immune-compromised individuals.
Figure 11.20 HIV (green) is shown budding from a lymphocyte cell (red) in culture. (credit:
modification of work by C. Goldsmith, CDC; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Inappropriate responses of immune cells and molecules themselves can also disrupt the proper
functioning of the entire system, leading to host-cell damage that can become fatal.
Immunodeficiency
Immunodeficiency is a failure, insufficiency, or delay in the response of the immune system, which
may be acquired or inherited. Immunodeficiency can allow pathogens or tumor cells to gain a foothold
and replicate or proliferate to high enough levels so that the immune system becomes overwhelmed.
Immunodeficiency can be acquired as a result of infection with certain pathogens that attack the cells
of the immune system itself (such as HIV), chemical exposure (including certain medical treatments
such as chemotherapy), malnutrition, or extreme stress. For instance, radiation exposure can destroy
populations of lymphocytes and elevate an individuals susceptibility to infections and cancer. Rarely,
primary immunodeficiencies that are present from birth may also occur. For example, severe combined
immunodeficiency disease (SCID) is a condition in which children are born without functioning B or T
cells.
Hypersensitivities
A maladaptive immune response toward harmless foreign substances or self-antigens that occur after
tissue sensitization is termed a hypersensitivity. Types of hypersensitivities include immediate, delayed,
and autoimmune. A large proportion of the human population is affected by one or more types of
hypersensitivity.
Allergies
The immune reaction that results from immediate hypersensitivities in which an antibody-mediated
immune response occurs within minutes of exposure to a usually harmless antigen is called an allergy.
In the United States, 20 percent of the population exhibits symptoms of allergy or asthma, whereas
55 percent test positive against one or more allergens. On initial exposure to a potential allergen, an
allergic individual synthesizes antibodies through the typical process of APCs presenting processed
antigen to TH cells that stimulate B cells to produce the antibodies. The antibody molecules interact with
mast cells embedded in connective tissues. This process primes, or sensitizes, the tissue. On subsequent
exposure to the same allergen, antibody molecules on mast cells bind the antigen and stimulate the
mast cell to release histamine and other inflammatory chemicals; these chemical mediators then recruit
eosinophils (a type of white blood cell), which also appear to be adapted to responding to parasitic worms
(Figure 11.21). Eosinophils release factors that enhance the inflammatory response and the secretions
of mast cells. The effects of an allergic reaction range from mild symptoms like sneezing and itchy,
watery eyes to more severe or even life-threatening reactions involving intensely itchy welts or hives,
airway constriction with severe respiratory distress, and plummeting blood pressure caused by dilating
blood vessels and fluid loss from the circulatory system. This extreme reaction, typically in response
to an allergen introduced to the circulatory system, is known as anaphylactic shock. Antihistamines are
an insufficient counter to anaphylactic shock and if not treated with epinephrine to counter the blood
pressure and breathing effects, this condition can be fatal.
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Figure 11.21 On first exposure to an allergen, an antibody is synthesized by plasma cells in

response to a harmless antigen. The antibodies bind to mast cells, and on secondary exposure,
the mast cells release histamines and other modulators that cause the symptoms of allergy. (credit:
modification of work by NIH)
Delayed hypersensitivity is a cell-mediated immune response that takes approximately one to two
days after secondary exposure for a maximal reaction. This type of hypersensitivity involves the TH1
cytokine-mediated inflammatory response and may cause local tissue lesions or contact dermatitis (rash
or skin irritation). Delayed hypersensitivity occurs in some individuals in response to contact with certain
types of jewelry or cosmetics. Delayed hypersensitivity facilitates the immune response to poison ivy
and is also the reason why the skin test for tuberculosis results in a small region of inflammation
on individuals who were previously exposed to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the organism that causes
tuberculosis.
Try your hand at diagnosing an allergic reaction by selecting one of the interactive case studies
(http://openstaxcollege.org/l/world_allergy) at the World Allergy Organization website.
Autoimmunity
Autoimmunity is a type of hypersensitivity to self-antigens that affects approximately five percent
of the population. Most types of autoimmunity involve the humoral immune response. An antibody
that inappropriately marks self-components as foreign is termed an autoantibody. In patients with
myasthenia gravis, an autoimmune disease, muscle-cell receptors that induce contraction in response
to acetylcholine are targeted by antibodies. The result is muscle weakness that may include marked
difficultly with fine or gross motor functions. In systemic lupus erythematosus, a diffuse autoantibody
response to the individuals own DNA and proteins results in various systemic diseases (Figure 11.22).
Systemic lupus erythematosus may affect the heart, joints, lungs, skin, kidneys, central nervous system,
or other tissues, causing tissue damage through antibody binding, complement recruitment, lysis, and
inflammation.
Figure 11.22 Systemic lupus erythematosus is characterized by autoimmunity to the individuals own
DNA and/or proteins, which leads to varied dysfunction of the organs. (credit: modification of work
by Mikael Hggstrm)
Autoimmunity can develop with time and its causes may be rooted in molecular mimicry, a situation
in which one molecule is similar enough in shape to another molecule that it binds the same immune
receptors. Antibodies and T-cell receptors may bind self-antigens that are structurally similar to pathogen
antigens. As an example, infection with Streptococcus pyogenes (the bacterium that causes strep throat)
may generate antibodies or T cells that react with heart muscle, which has a similar structure to the
surface of S. pyogenes. These antibodies can damage heart muscle with autoimmune attacks, leading
to rheumatic fever. Insulin-dependent (Type 1) diabetes mellitus arises from a destructive inflammatory
TH1 response against insulin-producing cells of the pancreas. Patients with this autoimmunity must be
treated with regular insulin injections.
Section Summary
Immune disruptions may involve insufficient immune responses or inappropriate immune responses.
Immunodeficiency increases an individual's susceptibility to infections and cancers. Hypersensitivities
are misdirected responses either to harmless foreign particles, as in the case of allergies, or to the
individuals own tissues, as in the case of autoimmunity. Reactions to self-components may be the result
of molecular mimicry.
Review Questions
Exercise 11.19
Allergy to pollen is classified as ________.
a. an autoimmune reaction
b. immunodeficiency
c. delayed hypersensitivity
d. immediate hypersensitivity
Solution
D
Exercise 11.20
A potential cause of acquired autoimmunity is ________.
a. tissue hypersensitivity
b. molecular mimicry
c. histamine release
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d. radiation exposure
Solution
B
Exercise 11.21
Autoantibodies are probably involved in ________.
a. reactions to poison ivy
b. pollen allergies
c. systemic lupus erythematosus
d. HIV/AIDS
Solution
C
Free Response
Exercise 11.22
Some photographers develop a sensitivity to certain film developing chemicals leading to severe rashes
on their hands such that they are unable to work with them. Explain what is probably happening.
Solution
This is probably a delayed sensitivity reaction to one or more chemicals in the developer. An initial
exposure would have sensitized the individual to the chemical and then subsequent exposures will induce
a delayed inflammation reaction a day or two after exposure.
KEY TERMS
acellular lacking cells
active immunity an immunity that occurs as a result of the activity of the bodys own cells rather
than from antibodies acquired from an external source
adaptive immunity a specific immune response that occurs after exposure to an antigen either from
a pathogen or a vaccination
allergy an immune reaction that results from immediate hypersensitivities in which an antibodymediated immune response occurs within minutes of exposure to a harmless antigen
antibody a protein that is produced by plasma cells after stimulation by an antigen; also known as an
immunoglobulin
antigen-presenting cell (APC) an immune cell that detects, engulfs, and informs the adaptive
immune response about an infection by presenting the processed antigen on its cell surface
antigen a macromolecule that reacts with cells of the immune system and which may or may not
have a stimulatory effect
apoptosis the cell death caused by induction of a cells own internal mechanisms either as a natural
step in the development of a multicellular organism or by other environmental factors such as
signals from cells of the immune system
attenuation the weakening of a virus during vaccine development
autoantibody an antibody that incorrectly marks self components as foreign and stimulates the
immune response
autoimmunity a type of hypersensitivity to self-antigens
B cell a lymphocyte that matures in the bone marrow
capsid the protein coating of the viral core
cell-mediated immune response an adaptive immune response that is controlled by T cells
complement system an array of approximately 20 soluble proteins of the innate immune system
that enhance phagocytosis, bore holes in pathogens, and recruit lymphocytes
cytokine a chemical messenger that regulates cell differentiation, proliferation, and gene expression
to effect immune responses
cytopathic causing cell damage
cytotoxic T lymphocyte (TC) an adaptive immune cell that directly kills infected cells via
enzymes, and that releases cytokines to enhance the immune
response
dendritic cell an immune cell that processes antigen material and presents it on the surface of its cell
in MHC class II molecules and induces an immune response in other cells
effector cell a lymphocyte that has differentiated, such as a B cell, plasma cell, or cytotoxic T cell
glycoprotein a protein molecule with attached carbohydrate molecules
helper T lymphocyte (TH) a cell of the adaptive immune system that binds APCs via MHC class II
molecules and stimulates B cells or secretes cytokines to initiate the
immune response
humoral immune response the adaptive immune response that is controlled by activated B cells
and antibodies
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hypersensitivity a spectrum of inappropriate immune responses toward harmless foreign particles

or self-antigens; occurs after tissue sensitization and includes immediate-type (allergy), delayedtype, and autoimmunity
immune tolerance an acquired ability to prevent an unnecessary or harmful immune response to a
detected foreign body known not to cause disease
immunodeficiency a failure, insufficiency, or delay at any level of the immune system, which may
be acquired or inherited
inflammation the localized redness, swelling, heat, and pain that results from the movement of
leukocytes through opened capillaries to a site of infection
innate immunity an immunity that occurs naturally because of genetic factors or physiology, and is
not caused by infection or vaccination
interferon a cytokine that inhibits viral replication
lymph the watery fluid present in the lymphatic circulatory system that bathes tissues and organs
with protective white blood cells and does not contain erythrocytes
lymphocyte a type of white blood cell that includes natural killer cells of the innate immune system
and B and T cells of the adaptive immune system
macrophage a large phagocytic cell that engulfs foreign particles and pathogens
major histocompatibility class (MHC) II molecule a protein found on the surface of antigenpresenting cells that signals to immune cells whether the cell is normal or is infected or
cancerous; it provides the appropriate template into which antigens can be loaded for recognition
by lymphocytes
major histocompatibility class (MHC) I a group of proteins found on the surface of all nucleated
cells that signals to immune cells whether the cell is normal or is infected or cancerous; it also
provides the appropriate sites into which antigens can be loaded for recognition by lymphocytes
mast cell a leukocyte that produces inflammatory molecules, such as histamine, in response to large
pathogens
memory cell an antigen-specific B or T lymphocyte that does not differentiate into an effector cell
during the primary immune response but that can immediately become an effector cell on
reexposure to the same pathogen
monocyte a type of white blood cell that circulates in the blood and lymph and differentiates into a
macrophage after it moves into infected tissue
natural killer (NK) cell a lymphocyte that can kill cells infected with viruses or tumor cells
neutrophil a phagocytic leukocyte that engulfs and digests pathogens
passive immunity an immunity that does not result from the activity of the bodys own immune
cells but by transfer of antibodies from one individual to another
primary immune response the response of the adaptive immune system to the first exposure to an
antigen
secondary immune response the response of the adaptive immune system to a second or later
exposure to an antigen mediated by memory cells
T cell a lymphocyte that matures in the thymus gland
vaccine a weakened solution of virus components, viruses, or other agents that produce an immune
response
viral envelope a lipid bilayer that envelops some viruses
virion an individual virus particle outside a host cell
white blood cell a nucleated cell found in the blood that is a part of the immune system; also called
leukocytes
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CHAPTER 12 | POPULATION AND COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
12 | POPULATION
AND COMMUNITY
ECOLOGY
Figure 12.1 Asian carp jump out of the water in response to electrofishing. The Asian carp in
the inset photograph were harvested from the Little Calumet River in Illinois in May, 2010, using
rotenone, a toxin often used as an insecticide, in an effort to learn more about the population of the
species. (credit main image: modification of work by USGS; credit inset: modification of work by Lt.
David French, USCG)
Chapter Outline
12.1: Population Demographics and Dynamics
12.2: Population Growth and Regulation
12.3: The Human Population
12.4: Community Ecology
Introduction
Imagine sailing down a river in a small motorboat on a weekend afternoon; the water is smooth, and
you are enjoying the sunshine and cool breeze when suddenly you are hit in the head by a 20-pound
silver carp. This is a risk now on many rivers and canal systems in Illinois and Missouri because of the
presence of Asian carp.
This fishactually a group of species including the silver, black, grass, and big head carphas
been farmed and eaten in China for over 1,000 years. It is one of the most important aquaculture food
resources worldwide. In the United States, however, Asian carp is considered a dangerous invasive
species that disrupts ecological community structure to the point of threatening native species.
The effects of invasive species (such as the Asian carp, kudzu vine, predatory snakehead fish,
and zebra mussel) are just one aspect of what ecologists study to understand how populations interact
within ecological communities, and what impact natural and human-induced disturbances have on the
characteristics of communities.
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12.1 | Population Demographics and

Dynamics
Describe how ecologists measure population size and density
Describe three different patterns of population distribution
Use life tables to calculate mortality rates
Describe the three types of survivorship curves and relate them to specific populations
Populations are dynamic entities. Their size and composition fluctuate in response to numerous factors,
including seasonal and yearly changes in the environment, natural disasters such as forest fires and
volcanic eruptions, and competition for resources between and within species. The statistical study of
populations is called demography: a set of mathematical tools designed to describe populations and
investigate how they change. Many of these tools were actually designed to study human populations.
For example, life tables, which detail the life expectancy of individuals within a population, were
initially developed by life insurance companies to set insurance rates. In fact, while the term
demographics is sometimes assumed to mean a study of human populations, all living populations can
be studied using this approach.
Population Size and Density

Populations are characterized by their population size (total number of individuals) and their population
density (number of individuals per unit area). A population may have a large number of individuals
that are distributed densely, or sparsely. There are also populations with small numbers of individuals
that may be dense or very sparsely distributed in a local area. Population size can affect potential for
adaptation because it affects the amount of genetic variation present in the population. Density can have
effects on interactions within a population such as competition for food and the ability of individuals to
find a mate. Smaller organisms tend to be more densely distributed than larger organisms (Figure 12.2).
Figure 12.2 Australian mammals show a typical inverse relationship between population
density and body size.
As this graph shows, population density typically decreases with increasing body size.
Why do you think this is the case?
Estimating Population Size

The most accurate way to determine population size is to count all of the individuals within the area.
However, this method is usually not logistically or economically feasible, especially when studying large
areas. Thus, scientists usually study populations by sampling a representative portion of each habitat
and use this sample to make inferences about the population as a whole. The methods used to sample
populations to determine their size and density are typically tailored to the characteristics of the organism
being studied. For immobile organisms such as plants, or for very small and slow-moving organisms,
a quadrat may be used. A quadrat is a wood, plastic, or metal square that is randomly located on the
ground and used to count the number of individuals that lie within its boundaries. To obtain an accurate
count using this method, the square must be placed at random locations within the habitat enough times
to produce an accurate estimate. This counting method will provide an estimate of both population size
and density. The number and size of quadrat samples depends on the type of organisms and the nature of
their distribution.
For smaller mobile organisms, such as mammals, a technique called mark and recapture is often
used. This method involves marking a sample of captured animals in some way and releasing them back
into the environment to mix with the rest of the population; then, a new sample is captured and scientists
determine how many of the marked animals are in the new sample. This method assumes that the larger
the population, the lower the percentage of marked organisms that will be recaptured since they will
have mixed with more unmarked individuals. For example, if 80 field mice are captured, marked, and
released into the forest, then a second trapping 100 field mice are captured and 20 of them are marked,
the population size (N) can be determined using the following equation:
number marked first catch total number second catch = N

number marked second catch
Using our example, the population size would be 400.
80 100 = 400
20
These results give us an estimate of 400 total individuals in the original population. The true number
usually will be a bit different from this because of chance errors and possible bias caused by the sampling
methods.
Species Distribution
In addition to measuring density, further information about a population can be obtained by looking at the
distribution of the individuals throughout their range. A species distribution pattern is the distribution
of individuals within a habitat at a particular point in timebroad categories of patterns are used to
describe them.
Individuals within a population can be distributed at random, in groups, or equally spaced apart
(more or less). These are known as random, clumped, and uniform distribution patterns, respectively
(Figure 12.3). Different distributions reflect important aspects of the biology of the species; they
also affect the mathematical methods required to estimate population sizes. An example of random
distribution occurs with dandelion and other plants that have wind-dispersed seeds that germinate
wherever they happen to fall in favorable environments. A clumped distribution, may be seen in plants
that drop their seeds straight to the ground, such as oak trees; it can also be seen in animals that live
in social groups (schools of fish or herds of elephants). Uniform distribution is observed in plants that
secrete substances inhibiting the growth of nearby individuals (such as the release of toxic chemicals
by sage plants). It is also seen in territorial animal species, such as penguins that maintain a defined
territory for nesting. The territorial defensive behaviors of each individual create a regular pattern of
distribution of similar-sized territories and individuals within those territories. Thus, the distribution of
the individuals within a population provides more information about how they interact with each other
than does a simple density measurement. Just as lower density species might have more difficulty finding
a mate, solitary species with a random distribution might have a similar difficulty when compared to
social species clumped together in groups.
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Figure 12.3 Species may have a random, clumped, or uniform distribution. Plants such as (a)
dandelions with wind-dispersed seeds tend to be randomly distributed. Animals such as (b)
elephants that travel in groups exhibit a clumped distribution. Territorial birds such as (c) penguins
tend to have a uniform distribution. (credit a: modification of work by Rosendahl; credit b:
modification of work by Rebecca Wood; credit c: modification of work by Ben Tubby)
Demography
While population size and density describe a population at one particular point in time, scientists must
use demography to study the dynamics of a population. Demography is the statistical study of population
changes over time: birth rates, death rates, and life expectancies. These population characteristics are
often displayed in a life table.
Life Tables
Life tables provide important information about the life history of an organism and the life expectancy
of individuals at each age. They are modeled after actuarial tables used by the insurance industry for
estimating human life expectancy. Life tables may include the probability of each age group dying
before their next birthday, the percentage of surviving individuals dying at a particular age interval (their
mortality rate, and their life expectancy at each interval. An example of a life table is shown in Table
12.1 from a study of Dall mountain sheep, a species native to northwestern North America. Notice that
the population is divided into age intervals (column A). The mortality rate (per 1000) shown in column
D is based on the number of individuals dying during the age interval (column B), divided by the number
of individuals surviving at the beginning of the interval (Column C) multiplied by 1000.
mortality rate =
number of individuals dying

1000
number of individuals surviving
For example, between ages three and four, 12 individuals die out of the 776 that were remaining
from the original 1000 sheep. This number is then multiplied by 1000 to give the mortality rate per
thousand.
mortality rate = 12 1000 15.5

776
As can be seen from the mortality rate data (column D), a high death rate occurred when the sheep
were between six months and a year old, and then increased even more from 8 to 12 years old, after
which there were few survivors. The data indicate that if a sheep in this population were to survive to age
one, it could be expected to live another 7.7 years on average, as shown by the life-expectancy numbers
in column E.
Life Table of Dall Mountain Sheep
[1]
Age
interval
(years)
Number
dying in
age
interval
out of
1000
born
Number
surviving at
beginning of
age interval
out of 1000
born
Mortality
rate per
1000 alive at
beginning
of age
interval
Life expectancy
or mean lifetime
remaining to
those attaining
age interval
00.5
54
1000
54.0
7.06
0.51
145
946
153.3
12
12
801
15.0
7.7
23
13
789
16.5
6.8
34
12
776
15.5
5.9
45
30
764
39.3
5.0
56
46
734
62.7
4.2
67
48
688
69.8
3.4
78
69
640
107.8
2.6
89
132
571
231.2
1.9
910
187
439
426.0
1.3
1011
156
252
619.0
0.9
1112
90
96
937.5
0.6
1213
500.0
1.2
1314
1000
0.7
Table 12.1 This life table of Ovis dalli shows the number of deaths, number of
survivors, mortality rate, and life expectancy at each age interval for Dall mountain
sheep.
Survivorship Curves
Another tool used by population ecologists is a survivorship curve, which is a graph of the number
of individuals surviving at each age interval versus time. These curves allow us to compare the life
histories of different populations (Figure 12.4). There are three types of survivorship curves. In a type I
curve, mortality is low in the early and middle years and occurs mostly in older individuals. Organisms
exhibiting a type I survivorship typically produce few offspring and provide good care to the offspring
increasing the likelihood of their survival. Humans and most mammals exhibit a type I survivorship
curve. In type II curves, mortality is relatively constant throughout the entire life span, and mortality
is equally likely to occur at any point in the life span. Many bird populations provide examples of an
intermediate or type II survivorship curve. In type III survivorship curves, early ages experience the
highest mortality with much lower mortality rates for organisms that make it to advanced years. Type
III organisms typically produce large numbers of offspring, but provide very little or no care for them.
Trees and marine invertebrates exhibit a type III survivorship curve because very few of these organisms
survive their younger years, but those that do make it to an old age are more likely to survive for a
relatively long period of time.
1. Data Adapted from Edward S. Deevey, Jr., Life Tables for Natural Populations of Animals, The
Quarterly Review of Biology 22, no. 4 (December 1947): 283-314.
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Figure 12.4 Survivorship curves show the distribution of individuals in a population according to age.
Humans and most mammals have a Type I survivorship curve, because death primarily occurs in the
older years. Birds have a Type II survivorship curve, as death at any age is equally probable. Trees
have a Type III survivorship curve because very few survive the younger years, but after a certain
age, individuals are much more likely to survive.
12.2 | Population Growth and Regulation

Explain the characteristics of and differences between exponential and logistic growth patterns
Give examples of exponential and logistic growth in natural populations
Give examples of how the carrying capacity of a habitat may change
Compare and contrast density-dependent growth regulation and density-independent growth
regulation giving examples
Population ecologists make use of a variety of methods to model population dynamics. An accurate
model should be able to describe the changes occurring in a population and predict future changes.
Population Growth
The two simplest models of population growth use deterministic equations (equations that do not account
for random events) to describe the rate of change in the size of a population over time. The first of
these models, exponential growth, describes theoretical populations that increase in numbers without
any limits to their growth. The second model, logistic growth, introduces limits to reproductive growth
that become more intense as the population size increases. Neither model adequately describes natural
populations, but they provide points of comparison.
Exponential Growth
Charles Darwin, in developing his theory of natural selection, was influenced by the English clergyman
Thomas Malthus. Malthus published his book in 1798 stating that populations with abundant natural
resources grow very rapidly; however, they limit further growth by depleting their resources. The early
pattern of accelerating population size is called exponential growth.
The best example of exponential growth in organisms is seen in bacteria. Bacteria are prokaryotes
that reproduce largely by binary fission. This division takes about an hour for many bacterial species.
If 1000 bacteria are placed in a large flask with an abundant supply of nutrients (so the nutrients will
not become quickly depleted), the number of bacteria will have doubled from 1000 to 2000 after just
an hour. In another hour, each of the 2000 bacteria will divide, producing 4000 bacteria. After the third
hour, there should be 8000 bacteria in the flask. The important concept of exponential growth is that the
growth ratethe number of organisms added in each reproductive generationis itself increasing; that
is, the population size is increasing at a greater and greater rate. After 24 of these cycles, the population
would have increased from 1000 to more than 16 billion bacteria. When the population size, N, is plotted
over time, a J-shaped growth curve is produced (Figure 12.5a).
The bacteria-in-a-flask example is not truly representative of the real world where resources are
usually limited. However, when a species is introduced into a new habitat that it finds suitable, it may
show exponential growth for a while. In the case of the bacteria in the flask, some bacteria will die
during the experiment and thus not reproduce; therefore, the growth rate is lowered from a maximal rate
in which there is no mortality. The growth rate of a population is largely determined by subtracting the
death rate, D, (number organisms that die during an interval) from the birth rate, B, (number organisms
that are born during an interval). The growth rate can be expressed in a simple equation that combines
the birth and death rates into a single factor: r. This is shown in the following formula:
Population growth = rN
The value of r can be positive, meaning the population is increasing in size (the rate of change is
positive); or negative, meaning the population is decreasing in size; or zero, in which case the population
size is unchanging, a condition known as zero population growth.
Logistic Growth
Extended exponential growth is possible only when infinite natural resources are available; this is not
the case in the real world. Charles Darwin recognized this fact in his description of the struggle for
existence, which states that individuals will compete (with members of their own or other species) for
limited resources. The successful ones are more likely to survive and pass on the traits that made them
successful to the next generation at a greater rate (natural selection). To model the reality of limited
resources, population ecologists developed the logistic growth model.
Carrying Capacity and the Logistic Model
In the real world, with its limited resources, exponential growth cannot continue indefinitely. Exponential
growth may occur in environments where there are few individuals and plentiful resources, but when
the number of individuals gets large enough, resources will be depleted and the growth rate will slow
down. Eventually, the growth rate will plateau or level off (Figure 12.5b). This population size, which
is determined by the maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain, is called the
carrying capacity, or K. In real populations, a growing population often overshoots its carrying capacity,
and the death rate increases beyond the birth rate causing the population size to decline back to the
carrying capacity or below it. Most populations usually fluctuate around the carrying capacity in an
undulating fashion rather than existing right at it.
The formula used to calculate logistic growth adds the carrying capacity as a moderating force in
the growth rate. The expression K N is equal to the number of individuals that may be added to a
population at a given time, and K N divided by K is the fraction of the carrying capacity available
for further growth. Thus, the exponential growth model is restricted by this factor to generate the logistic
growth equation:
Population growth = rN K N
K
Notice that when N is almost zero the quantity in brackets is almost equal to 1 (or K/K) and growth
is close to exponential. When the population size is equal to the carrying capacity, or N = K, the quantity
in brackets is equal to zero and growth is equal to zero. A graph of this equation (logistic growth) yields
the S-shaped curve (Figure 12.5b). It is a more realistic model of population growth than exponential
growth. There are three different sections to an S-shaped curve. Initially, growth is exponential because
there are few individuals and ample resources available. Then, as resources begin to become limited, the
growth rate decreases. Finally, the growth rate levels off at the carrying capacity of the environment, with
little change in population number over time.
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Figure 12.5 When resources are unlimited, populations exhibit (a) exponential growth, shown in a Jshaped curve. When resources are limited, populations exhibit (b) logistic growth. In logistic growth,
population expansion decreases as resources become scarce, and it levels off when the carrying
capacity of the environment is reached. The logistic growth curve is S-shaped.
Role of Intraspecific Competition

The logistic model assumes that every individual within a population will have equal access to resources
and, thus, an equal chance for survival. For plants, the amount of water, sunlight, nutrients, and space to
grow are the important resources, whereas in animals, important resources include food, water, shelter,
nesting space, and mates.
In the real world, phenotypic variation among individuals within a population means that some
individuals will be better adapted to their environment than others. The resulting competition for
resources among population members of the same species is termed intraspecific competition.
Intraspecific competition may not affect populations that are well below their carrying capacity, as
resources are plentiful and all individuals can obtain what they need. However, as population size
increases, this competition intensifies. In addition, the accumulation of waste products can reduce
carrying capacity in an environment.
Examples of Logistic Growth
Yeast, a microscopic fungus used to make bread and alcoholic beverages, exhibits the classical S-shaped
curve when grown in a test tube (Figure 12.6a). Its growth levels off as the population depletes the
nutrients that are necessary for its growth. In the real world, however, there are variations to this idealized
curve. Examples in wild populations include sheep and harbor seals (Figure 12.6b). In both examples,
the population size exceeds the carrying capacity for short periods of time and then falls below the
carrying capacity afterwards. This fluctuation in population size continues to occur as the population
oscillates around its carrying capacity. Still, even with this oscillation, the logistic model is confirmed.
Figure 12.6 (a) Yeast grown in ideal conditions in a test tube shows a classical S-shaped
logistic growth curve, whereas (b) a natural population of seals shows real-world fluctuation.
The yeast is visualized using differential interference contrast light micrography. (credit a: scalebar data from Matt Russell)
If the major food source of seals declines due to pollution or overfishing, which of the
following would likely occur?
a. The carrying capacity of seals would decrease, as would the seal population.
b. The carrying capacity of seals would decrease, but the seal population would remain
the same.
c. The number of seal deaths would increase, but the number of births would also
increase, so the population size would remain the same.
d. The carrying capacity of seals would remain the same, but the population of seals
would decrease.
Population Dynamics and Regulation

The logistic model of population growth, while valid in many natural populations and a useful model,
is a simplification of real-world population dynamics. Implicit in the model is that the carrying capacity
of the environment does not change, which is not the case. The carrying capacity varies annually.
For example, some summers are hot and dry whereas others are cold and wet; in many areas, the
carrying capacity during the winter is much lower than it is during the summer. Also, natural events
such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and fires can alter an environment and hence its carrying capacity.
Additionally, populations do not usually exist in isolation. They share the environment with other
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species, competing with them for the same resources (interspecific competition). These factors are also
important to understanding how a specific population will grow.
Population growth is regulated in a variety of ways. These are grouped into density-dependent
factors, in which the density of the population affects growth rate and mortality, and densityindependent factors, which cause mortality in a population regardless of population density. Wildlife
biologists, in particular, want to understand both types because this helps them manage populations and
prevent extinction or overpopulation.
Density-dependent Regulation
Most density-dependent factors are biological in nature and include predation, inter- and intraspecific
competition, and parasites. Usually, the denser a population is, the greater its mortality rate. For example,
during intra- and interspecific competition, the reproductive rates of the species will usually be lower,
reducing their populations rate of growth. In addition, low prey density increases the mortality of its
predator because it has more difficulty locating its food source. Also, when the population is denser,
diseases spread more rapidly among the members of the population, which affect the mortality rate.
Density dependent regulation was studied in a natural experiment with wild donkey populations
[2]
on two sites in Australia. On one site the population was reduced by a population control program;
the population on the other site received no interference. The high-density plot was twice as dense
as the low-density plot. From 1986 to 1987 the high-density plot saw no change in donkey density,
while the low-density plot saw an increase in donkey density. The difference in the growth rates of
the two populations was caused by mortality, not by a difference in birth rates. The researchers found
that numbers of offspring birthed by each mother was unaffected by density. Growth rates in the two
populations were different mostly because of juvenile mortality caused by the mothers malnutrition due
to scarce high-quality food in the dense population. Figure 12.7 shows the difference in age-specific
mortalities in the two populations.
Figure 12.7 This graph shows the age-specific mortality rates for wild donkeys from high- and lowdensity populations. The juvenile mortality is much higher in the high-density population because of
maternal malnutrition caused by a shortage of high-quality food.
Density-independent Regulation and Interaction with

Density-dependent Factors
Many factors that are typically physical in nature cause mortality of a population regardless of its density.
These factors include weather, natural disasters, and pollution. An individual deer will be killed in a
forest fire regardless of how many deer happen to be in that area. Its chances of survival are the same
whether the population density is high or low. The same holds true for cold winter weather.
In real-life situations, population regulation is very complicated and density-dependent and
independent factors can interact. A dense population that suffers mortality from a density-independent
cause will be able to recover differently than a sparse population. For example, a population of deer
affected by a harsh winter will recover faster if there are more deer remaining to reproduce.
2. David Choquenot, Density-Dependent Growth, Body Condition, and Demography in Feral Donkeys: Testing the Food
Hypothesis, Ecology 72, no. 3 (June 1991):805813.
Why Did the Woolly Mammoth Go Extinct?
Figure 12.8 The three images include: (a) 1916 mural of a mammoth herd from the American
Museum of Natural History, (b) the only stuffed mammoth in the world is in the Museum of
Zoology located in St. Petersburg, Russia, and (c) a one-month-old baby mammoth, named
Lyuba, discovered in Siberia in 2007. (credit a: modification of work by Charles R. Knight; credit
b: modification of work by Tanapon/Flickr; credit c: modification of work by Matt Howry)
Woolly mammoths began to go extinct about 10,000 years ago, soon after
paleontologists believe humans able to hunt them began to colonize North America and
northern Eurasia (Figure 12.8). A mammoth population survived on Wrangel Island, in the
East Siberian Sea, and was isolated from human contact until as recently as 1700 BC. We
know a lot about these animals from carcasses found frozen in the ice of Siberia and other
northern regions.
It is commonly thought that climate change and human hunting led to their extinction.
A 2008 study estimated that climate change reduced the mammoths range from 3,000,000
[3]
square miles 42,000 years ago to 310,000 square miles 6,000 years ago. Through
archaeological evidence of kill sites, it is also well documented that humans hunted these
animals. A 2012 study concluded that no single factor was exclusively responsible for the
[4]
extinction of these magnificent creatures. In addition to climate change and reduction of
habitat, scientists demonstrated another important factor in the mammoths extinction was
the migration of human hunters across the Bering Strait to North America during the last
ice age 20,000 years ago.
The maintenance of stable populations was and is very complex, with many
interacting factors determining the outcome. It is important to remember that humans are
also part of nature. Once we contributed to a species decline using primitive hunting
technology only.
3. David Nogus-Bravo et al., Climate Change, Humans, and the Extinction of the Woolly Mammoth. PLoS Biol 6
(April 2008): e79, doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060079.
4. G.M. MacDonald et al., Pattern of Extinction of the Woolly Mammoth in Beringia. Nature Communications 3, no.
893 (June 2012), doi:10.1038/ncomms1881.
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Demographic-Based Population Models

Population ecologists have hypothesized that suites of characteristics may evolve in species that lead
to particular adaptations to their environments. These adaptations impact the kind of population growth
their species experience. Life history characteristics such as birth rates, age at first reproduction, the
numbers of offspring, and even death rates evolve just like anatomy or behavior, leading to adaptations
that affect population growth. Population ecologists have described a continuum of life-history
strategies with K-selected species on one end and r-selected species on the other. K-selected species
are adapted to stable, predictable environments. Populations of K-selected species tend to exist close
to their carrying capacity. These species tend to have larger, but fewer, offspring and contribute large
amounts of resources to each offspring. Elephants would be an example of a K-selected species. rselected species are adapted to unstable and unpredictable environments. They have large numbers
of small offspring. Animals that are r-selected do not provide a lot of resources or parental care to
offspring, and the offspring are relatively self-sufficient at birth. Examples of r-selected species are
marine invertebrates such as jellyfish and plants such as the dandelion. The two extreme strategies are at
two ends of a continuum on which real species life histories will exist. In addition, life history strategies
do not need to evolve as suites, but can evolve independently of each other, so each species may have
some characteristics that trend toward one extreme or the other.
12.3 | The Human Population

Discuss how human population growth can be exponential
Explain how humans have expanded the carrying capacity of their habitat
Relate population growth and age structure to the level of economic development in different
countries
Discuss the long-term implications of unchecked human population growth
Concepts of animal population dynamics can be applied to human population growth. Humans are not
unique in their ability to alter their environment. For example, beaver dams alter the stream environment
where they are built. Humans, however, have the ability to alter their environment to increase its
carrying capacity, sometimes to the detriment of other species. Earths human population and their use of
resources are growing rapidly, to the extent that some worry about the ability of Earths environment to
sustain its human population. Long-term exponential growth carries with it the potential risks of famine,
disease, and large-scale death, as well as social consequences of crowding such as increased crime.
Human technology and particularly our harnessing of the energy contained in fossil fuels have
caused unprecedented changes to Earths environment, altering ecosystems to the point where some may
be in danger of collapse. Changes on a global scale including depletion of the ozone layer, desertification
and topsoil loss, and global climate change are caused by human activities.
The worlds human population is presently growing exponentially (Figure 12.9).
Figure 12.9 Human population growth since 1000 AD is exponential.
A consequence of exponential growth rate is that the time that it takes to add a particular number
of humans to the population is becoming shorter. Figure 12.10 shows that 123 years were necessary to
add 1 billion humans between 1804 and 1930, but it only took 24 years to add the two billion people
between 1975 and 1999. This acceleration in growth rate will likely begin to decrease in the coming
decades. Despite this, the population will continue to increase and the threat of overpopulation remains,
particularly because the damage caused to ecosystems and biodiversity is lowering the human carrying
capacity of the planet.
Figure 12.10 The time between the addition of each billion human beings to Earth decreases over
time. (credit: modification of work by Ryan T. Cragun)
Click through this interactive view (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/human_growth2) of how human

populations have changed over time.
Overcoming Density-Dependent Regulation

Humans are unique in their ability to alter their environment in myriad ways. This ability is responsible
for human population growth because it resets the carrying capacity and overcomes density-dependent
growth regulation. Much of this ability is related to human intelligence, society, and communication.
Humans construct shelters to protect themselves from the elements and have developed agriculture and
domesticated animals to increase their food supplies. In addition, humans use language to communicate
this technology to new generations, allowing them to improve upon previous accomplishments.
Other factors in human population growth are migration and public health. Humans originated in
Africa, but we have since migrated to nearly all inhabitable land on Earth, thus, increasing the area that
we have colonized. Public health, sanitation, and the use of antibiotics and vaccines have decreased
the ability of infectious disease to limit human population growth in developed countries. In the past,
diseases such as the bubonic plaque of the fourteenth century killed between 30 and 60 percent of
Europes population and reduced the overall world population by as many as one hundred million
people. Infectious disease continues to have an impact on human population growth. For example, life
expectancy in sub-Saharan Africa, which was increasing from 1950 to 1990, began to decline after 1985
largely as a result of HIV/AIDS mortality. The reduction in life expectancy caused by HIV/AIDS was
[5]
estimated to be 7 years for 2005.
Declining life expectancy is an indicator of higher mortality rates and leads to lower birth rates.
5. Danny Dorling, Mary Shaw, and George Davey Smith, Global Inequality of Life Expectancy due to AIDS, BMJ 332, no.
7542 (March 2006): 662-664, doi: 10.1136/bmj.332.7542.662.
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The fundamental cause of the acceleration of growth rate for humans in the past 200 years has
been the reduced death rate due to a development of the technological advances of the industrial
age, urbanization that supported those technologies, and especially the exploitation of the energy in
fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are responsible for dramatically increasing the resources available for human
population growth through agriculture (mechanization, pesticides, and fertilizers) and harvesting wild
populations.
Age Structure, Population Growth, and Economic

Development
The age structure of a population is an important factor in population dynamics. Age structure is the
proportion of a population in different age classes. Models that incorporate age structure allow better
prediction of population growth, plus the ability to associate this growth with the level of economic
development in a region. Countries with rapid growth have a pyramidal shape in their age structure
diagrams, showing a preponderance of younger individuals, many of whom are of reproductive age
(Figure 12.11). This pattern is most often observed in underdeveloped countries where individuals do
not live to old age because of less-than-optimal living conditions, and there is a high birth rate. Age
structures of areas with slow growth, including developed countries such as the United States, still
have a pyramidal structure, but with many fewer young and reproductive-aged individuals and a greater
proportion of older individuals. Other developed countries, such as Italy, have zero population growth.
The age structure of these populations is more conical, with an even greater percentage of middle-aged
and older individuals. The actual growth rates in different countries are shown in Figure 12.12, with the
highest rates tending to be in the less economically developed countries of Africa and Asia.
Figure 12.11 Typical age structure diagrams are shown. The rapid growth diagram narrows to
a point, indicating that the number of individuals decreases rapidly with age. In the slow growth
model, the number of individuals decreases steadily with age. Stable population diagrams are
rounded on the top, showing that the number of individuals per age group decreases gradually,
and then increases for the older part of the population.
Age structure diagrams for rapidly growing, slow growing, and stable populations
are shown in stages 1 through 3. What type of population change do you think stage 4
represents?
Figure 12.12 The percent growth rate of population in different countries is shown. Notice that the
highest growth is occurring in less economically developed countries in Africa and Asia.
Long-Term Consequences of Exponential Human

Population Growth
Many dire predictions have been made about the worlds population leading to a major crisis called
the population explosion. In the 1968 book The Population Bomb, biologist Dr. Paul R. Ehrlich
wrote, The battle to feed all of humanity is over. In the 1970s hundreds of millions of people will
starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now. At this late date nothing can
[6]
prevent a substantial increase in the world death rate. While many critics view this statement as
an exaggeration, the laws of exponential population growth are still in effect, and unchecked human
population growth cannot continue indefinitely.
Efforts to moderate population control led to the one-child policy in China, which imposes fines on
urban couples who have more than one child. Due to the fact that some couples wish to have a male heir,
many Chinese couples continue to have more than one child. The effectiveness of the policy in limiting
overall population growth is controversial, as is the policy itself. Moreover, there are stories of female
infanticide having occurred in some of the more rural areas of the country. Family planning education
programs in other countries have had highly positive effects on limiting population growth rates and
increasing standards of living. In spite of population control policies, the human population continues to
grow. Because of the subsequent need to produce more and more food to feed our population, inequalities
in access to food and other resources will continue to widen. The United Nations estimates the future
world population size could vary from 6 billion (a decrease) to 16 billion people by the year 2100.
There is no way to know whether human population growth will moderate to the point where the crisis
described by Dr. Ehrlich will be averted.
Another consequence of population growth is the change and degradation of the natural
environment. Many countries have attempted to reduce the human impact on climate change by limiting
their emission of greenhouse gases. However, a global climate change treaty remains elusive, and many
underdeveloped countries trying to improve their economic condition may be less likely to agree with
such provisions without compensation if it means slowing their economic development. Furthermore,
the role of human activity in causing climate change has become a hotly debated socio-political issue
in some developed countries, including the United States. Thus, we enter the future with considerable
uncertainty about our ability to curb human population growth and protect our environment to maintain
the carrying capacity for the human species.
6. Paul R. Erlich, prologue to The Population Bomb, (1968; repr., New York: Ballantine, 1970).
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Visit this website (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/populations2) and select Launch the movie for an
animation discussing the global impacts of human population growth.
12.4 | Community Ecology

Discuss the predator-prey cycle
Give examples of defenses against predation and herbivory
Describe the competitive exclusion principle
Give examples of symbiotic relationships between species
Describe community structure and succession
In general, populations of one species never live in isolation from populations of other species. The
interacting populations occupying a given habitat form an ecological community. The number of species
occupying the same habitat and their relative abundance is known as the diversity of the community.
Areas with low species diversity, such as the glaciers of Antarctica, still contain a wide variety of living
organisms, whereas the diversity of tropical rainforests is so great that it cannot be accurately assessed.
Scientists study ecology at the community level to understand how species interact with each other and
compete for the same resources.
Predation and Herbivory

Perhaps the classical example of species interaction is the predator-prey relationship. The narrowest
definition of the predator-prey interaction describes individuals of one population that kill and then
consume the individuals of another population. Population sizes of predators and prey in a community
are not constant over time, and they may vary in cycles that appear to be related. The most often
cited example of predator-prey population dynamics is seen in the cycling of the lynx (predator) and
the snowshoe hare (prey), using 100 years of trapping data from North America (Figure 12.13). This
cycling of predator and prey population sizes has a period of approximately ten years, with the predator
population lagging one to two years behind the prey population. An apparent explanation for this pattern
is that as the hare numbers increase, there is more food available for the lynx, allowing the lynx
population to increase as well. When the lynx population grows to a threshold level, however, they kill
so many hares that hare numbers begin to decline, followed by a decline in the lynx population because
of scarcity of food. When the lynx population is low, the hare population size begins to increase due, in
part, to low predation pressure, starting the cycle anew.
Figure 12.13 The cycling of snowshoe hare and lynx populations in Northern Ontario is an example
of predator-prey dynamics.
Defense Mechanisms against Predation and Herbivory

Predation and predator avoidance are strong selective agents. Any heritable character that allows an
individual of a prey population to better evade its predators will be represented in greater numbers in
later generations. Likewise, traits that allow a predator to more efficiently locate and capture its prey
will lead to a greater number of offspring and an increase in the commonness of the trait within the
population. Such ecological relationships between specific populations lead to adaptations that are driven
by reciprocal evolutionary responses in those populations. Species have evolved numerous mechanisms
to escape predation and herbivory (the consumption of plants for food). Defenses may be mechanical,
chemical, physical, or behavioral.
Mechanical defenses, such as the presence of armor in animals or thorns in plants, discourage
predation and herbivory by discouraging physical contact (Figure 12.14a). Many animals produce or
obtain chemical defenses from plants and store them to prevent predation. Many plant species produce
secondary plant compounds that serve no function for the plant except that they are toxic to animals and
discourage consumption. For example, the foxglove produces several compounds, including digitalis,
that are extremely toxic when eaten (Figure 12.14b). (Biomedical scientists have purposed the chemical
produced by foxglove as a heart medication, which has saved lives for many decades.)
Figure 12.14 The (a) honey locust tree uses thorns, a mechanical defense, against herbivores,
while the (b) foxglove uses a chemical defense: toxins produces by the plant can cause nausea,
vomiting, hallucinations, convulsions, or death when consumed. (credit a: modification of work by
Huw Williams; credit b: modification of work by Philip Jgenstedt)
Many species use their body shape and coloration to avoid being detected by predators. The tropical
walking stick is an insect with the coloration and body shape of a twig, which makes it very hard to
see when it is stationary against a background of real twigs (Figure 12.15a). In another example, the
chameleon can change its color to match its surroundings (Figure 12.15b).
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Figure 12.15 (a) The tropical walking stick and (b) the chameleon use their body shape and/or
coloration to prevent detection by predators. (credit a: modification of work by Linda Tanner; credit
b: modification of work by Frank Vassen)
Some species use coloration as a way of warning predators that they are distasteful or poisonous.
For example, the monarch butterfly caterpillar sequesters poisons from its food (plants and milkweeds)
to make itself poisonous or distasteful to potential predators. The caterpillar is bright yellow and black to
advertise its toxicity. The caterpillar is also able to pass the sequestered toxins on to the adult monarch,
which is also dramatically colored black and red as a warning to potential predators. Fire-bellied toads
produce toxins that make them distasteful to their potential predators. They have bright red or orange
coloration on their bellies, which they display to a potential predator to advertise their poisonous nature
and discourage an attack. These are only two examples of warning coloration, which is a relatively
common adaptation. Warning coloration only works if a predator uses eyesight to locate prey and can
learna nave predator must experience the negative consequences of eating one before it will avoid
other similarly colored individuals (Figure 12.16).
Figure 12.16 The fire-bellied toad has bright coloration on its belly that serves to warn potential
predators that it is toxic. (credit: modification of work by Roberto Verzo)
While some predators learn to avoid eating certain potential prey because of their coloration, other
species have evolved mechanisms to mimic this coloration to avoid being eaten, even though they
themselves may not be unpleasant to eat or contain toxic chemicals. In some cases of mimicry, a
harmless species imitates the warning coloration of a harmful species. Assuming they share the same
predators, this coloration then protects the harmless ones. Many insect species mimic the coloration of
wasps, which are stinging, venomous insects, thereby discouraging predation (Figure 12.17).
Figure 12.17 One form of mimicry is when a harmless species mimics the coloration of a harmful
species, as is seen with the (a) wasp (Polistes sp.) and the (b) hoverfly (Syrphus sp.). (credit:
modification of work by Tom Ings)
In other cases of mimicry, multiple species share the same warning coloration, but all of them
actually have defenses. The commonness of the signal improves the compliance of all the potential
predators. Figure 12.18 shows a variety of foul-tasting butterflies with similar coloration.
Figure 12.18 Several unpleasant-tasting Heliconius butterfly species share a similar color pattern
with better-tasting varieties, an example of mimicry. (credit: Joron M, Papa R, Beltrn M,
Chamberlain N, Mavrez J, et al.)
Go to this website (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/find_the_mimic2) to view stunning examples of

mimicry.
Competitive Exclusion Principle

Resources are often limited within a habitat and multiple species may compete to obtain them. Ecologists
have come to understand that all species have an ecological niche. A niche is the unique set of resources
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used by a species, which includes its interactions with other species. The competitive exclusion
principle states that two species cannot occupy the same niche in a habitat: in other words, different
species cannot coexist in a community if they are competing for all the same resources. This principle
works because if there is an overlap in resource use and therefore competition between two species, then
traits that lessen reliance on the shared resource will be selected for leading to evolution that reduces the
overlap. If either species is unable to evolve to reduce competition, then the species that most efficiently
exploits the resource will drive the other species to extinction. An experimental example of this principle
is shown in Figure 12.19 with two protozoan species: Paramecium aurelia and Paramecium caudatum.
When grown individually in the laboratory, they both thrive. But when they are placed together in the
same test tube (habitat), P. aurelia outcompetes P. caudatum for food, leading to the latters eventual
extinction.
Figure 12.19 Paramecium aurelia and Paramecium caudatum grow well individually, but when they
compete for the same resources, the P. aurelia outcompetes the P. caudatum.
Symbiosis
Symbiotic relationships are close, long-term interactions between individuals of different species.
Symbioses may be commensal, in which one species benefits while the other is neither harmed nor
benefited; mutualistic, in which both species benefit; or parasitic, in which the interaction harms one
species and benefits the other.
Commensalism
A commensal relationship occurs when one species benefits from a close prolonged interaction, while
the other neither benefits nor is harmed. Birds nesting in trees provide an example of a commensal
relationship (Figure 12.20). The tree is not harmed by the presence of the nest among its branches. The
nests are light and produce little strain on the structural integrity of the branch, and most of the leaves,
which the tree uses to get energy by photosynthesis, are above the nest so they are unaffected. The bird,
on the other hand, benefits greatly. If the bird had to nest in the open, its eggs and young would be
vulnerable to predators. Many potential commensal relationships are difficult to identify because it is
difficult to prove that one partner does not derive some benefit from the presence of the other.
Figure 12.20 The southern masked-weaver is starting to make a nest in a tree in Zambezi Valley,
Zambia. This is an example of a commensal relationship, in which one species (the bird) benefits,
while the other (the tree) neither benefits nor is harmed. (credit: Hanay/Wikimedia Commons)
Mutualism
A second type of symbiotic relationship is called mutualism, in which two species benefit from their
interaction. For example, termites have a mutualistic relationship with protists that live in the insects gut
(Figure 12.21a). The termite benefits from the ability of the protists to digest cellulose. However, the
protists are able to digest cellulose only because of the presence of symbiotic bacteria within their cells
that produce the cellulase enzyme. The termite itself cannot do this: without the protozoa, it would not
be able to obtain energy from its food (cellulose from the wood it chews and eats). The protozoa benefit
by having a protective environment and a constant supply of food from the wood chewing actions of the
termite. In turn, the protists benefit from the enzymes provided by their bacterial endosymbionts, while
the bacteria benefit from a doubly protective environment and a constant source of nutrients from two
hosts. Lichen are a mutualistic relationship between a fungus and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria
(Figure 12.21b). The glucose produced by the algae provides nourishment for both organisms, whereas
the physical structure of the lichen protects the algae from the elements and makes certain nutrients in
the atmosphere more available to the algae. The algae of lichens can live independently given the right
environment, but many of the fungal partners are unable to live on their own.
Figure 12.21 (a) Termites form a mutualistic relationship with symbiotic protozoa in their guts, which
allow both organisms to obtain energy from the cellulose the termite consumes. (b) Lichen is a
fungus that has symbiotic photosynthetic algae living in close association. (credit a: modification of
work by Scott Bauer, USDA; credit b: modification of work by Cory Zanker)
Parasitism
A parasite is an organism that feeds off another without immediately killing the organism it is feeding
on. In this relationship, the parasite benefits, but the organism being fed upon, the host, is harmed. The
host is usually weakened by the parasite as it siphons resources the host would normally use to maintain
itself. Parasites may kill their hosts, but there is usually selection to slow down this process to allow the
parasite time to complete its reproductive cycle before it or its offspring are able to spread to another
host.
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The reproductive cycles of parasites are often very complex, sometimes requiring more than one
host species. A tapeworm causes disease in humans when contaminated, undercooked meat such as
pork, fish, or beef is consumed (Figure 12.22). The tapeworm can live inside the intestine of the host
for several years, benefiting from the hosts food, and it may grow to be over 50 feet long by adding
segments. The parasite moves from one host species to a second host species in order to complete its life
cycle. Plasmodium falciparum is another parasite: the protists that cause malaria, a significant disease
in many parts of the world. Living inside human liver and red blood cells, the organism reproduces
asexually in the human host and then sexually in the gut of blood-feeding mosquitoes to complete its life
cycle. Thus malaria is spread from human to mosquito and back to human, one of many arthropod-borne
infectious diseases of humans.
Figure 12.22 This diagram shows the life cycle of the tapeworm, a human worm parasite. (credit:
modification of work by CDC)
To learn more about Symbiosis in the Sea, watch this webisode (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/
symbiosis) of Jonathan Birds Blue World.
Characteristics of Communities
Communities are complex systems that can be characterized by their structure (the number and size of
populations and their interactions) and dynamics (how the members and their interactions change over
time). Understanding community structure and dynamics allows us to minimize impacts on ecosystems
and manage ecological communities we benefit from.
Biodiversity
Ecologists have extensively studied one of the fundamental characteristics of communities: biodiversity.
One measure of biodiversity used by ecologists is the number of different species in a particular area
and their relative abundance. The area in question could be a habitat, a biome, or the entire biosphere.
Species richness is the term used to describe the number of species living in a habitat or other unit.
Species richness varies across the globe (Figure 12.23). Ecologists have struggled to understand the
determinants of biodiversity. Species richness is related to latitude: the greatest species richness occurs
near the equator and the lowest richness occurs near the poles. Other factors influence species richness
as well. Island biogeography attempts to explain the great species richness found in isolated islands,
and has found relationships between species richness, island size, and distance from the mainland.
Relative species abundance is the number individuals in a species relative to the total number of
individuals in all species within a system. Foundation species, described below, often have the highest
relative abundance of species.
Figure 12.23 The greatest species richness for mammals in North America is associated in the
equatorial latitudes. (credit: modification of work by NASA, CIESIN, Columbia University)
Foundation Species
Foundation species are considered the base or bedrock of a community, having the greatest
influence on its overall structure. They are often primary producers, and they are typically an abundant
organism. For example, kelp, a species of brown algae, is a foundation species that forms the basis of the
kelp forests off the coast of California.
Foundation species may physically modify the environment to produce and maintain habitats that
benefit the other organisms that use them. Examples include the kelp described above or tree species
found in a forest. The photosynthetic corals of the coral reef also provide structure by physically
modifying the environment (Figure 12.24). The exoskeletons of living and dead coral make up most of
the reef structure, which protects many other species from waves and ocean currents.
Figure 12.24 Coral is the foundation species of coral reef ecosystems. (credit: Jim E. Maragos,
USFWS)
Keystone Species
A keystone species is one whose presence has inordinate influence in maintaining the prevalence of
various species in an ecosystem, the ecological communitys structure, and sometimes its biodiversity.
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Pisaster ochraceus, the intertidal sea star, is a keystone species in the northwestern portion of the United
States (Figure 12.25). Studies have shown that when this organism is removed from communities,
mussel populations (their natural prey) increase, which completely alters the species composition and
reduces biodiversity. Another keystone species is the banded tetra, a fish in tropical streams, which
supplies nearly all of the phosphorus, a necessary inorganic nutrient, to the rest of the community.
The banded tetra feeds largely on insects from the terrestrial ecosystem and then excretes phosphorus
into the aquatic ecosystem. The relationships between populations in the community, and possibly the
biodiversity, would change dramatically if these fish were to become extinct.
Figure 12.25 The Pisaster ochraceus sea star is a keystone species. (credit: Jerry Kirkhart)
Invasive Species
Invasive species are non-native organisms that, when introduced to an area out of its
native range, alter the community they invade. In the United States, invasive species like
the purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) and the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)
have altered aquatic ecosystems, and some forests are threatened by the spread of
common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) and garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata). Some
well-known invasive animals include the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) and the
European starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Whether enjoying a forest hike, taking a summer
boat trip, or simply walking down an urban street, you have likely encountered an invasive
species.
One of the many recent proliferations of an invasive species concerns the Asian carp
in the United States. Asian carp were introduced to the United States in the 1970s by
fisheries (commercial catfish ponds) and by sewage treatment facilities that used the fishs
excellent filter feeding abilities to clean their ponds of excess plankton. Some of the fish
escaped, and by the 1980s they had colonized many waterways of the Mississippi River
basin, including the Illinois and Missouri Rivers.
Voracious feeders and rapid reproducers, Asian carp may outcompete native species
for food and could lead to their extinction. One species, the grass carp, feeds on
phytoplankton and aquatic plants. It competes with native species for these resources and
alters nursery habitats for other fish by removing aquatic plants. Another species, the silver
carp, competes with native fish that feed on zooplankton. In some parts of the Illinois River,
Asian carp constitute 95 percent of the community's biomass. Although edible, the fish is
bony and not desired in the United States. Moreover, their presence now threatens the
native fish and fisheries of the Great Lakes, which are important to local economies and
recreational anglers. Asian carp have even injured humans. The fish, frightened by the
sound of approaching motorboats, thrust themselves into the air, often landing in the boat
or directly hitting boaters.
The Great Lakes and their prized salmon and lake trout fisheries are being threatened
by Asian carp. The carp are not yet present in the Great Lakes, and attempts are being
made to prevent its access to the lakes through the Chicago Ship and Sanitary Canal,
which is the only connection between the Mississippi River and Great Lakes basins. To
prevent the Asian carp from leaving the canal, a series of electric barriers have been
used to discourage their migration; however, the threat is significant enough that several
states and Canada have sued to have the Chicago channel permanently cut off from Lake
Michigan. Local and national politicians have weighed in on how to solve the problem. In
general, governments have been ineffective in preventing or slowing the introduction of
invasive species.
The issues associated with Asian carp show how population and community ecology,
fisheries management, and politics intersect on issues of vital importance to the human
food supply and economy. Socio-political issues like the Asian carp make extensive use of
the sciences of population ecology, the study of members of a particular species occupying
a habitat; and community ecology, the study of the interaction of all species within a
habitat.
Community Dynamics
Community dynamics are the changes in community structure and composition over time, often
following environmental disturbances such as volcanoes, earthquakes, storms, fires, and climate
change. Communities with a relatively constant number of species are said to be at equilibrium. The
equilibrium is dynamic with species identities and relationships changing over time, but maintaining
relatively constant numbers. Following a disturbance, the community may or may not return to the
equilibrium state.
Succession describes the sequential appearance and disappearance of species in a community
over time after a severe disturbance. In primary succession, newly exposed or newly formed rock
is colonized by living organisms; in secondary succession, a part of an ecosystem is disturbed and
remnants of the previous community remain. In both cases, there is a sequential change in species until
a more or less permanent community develops.
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Primary Succession and Pioneer Species

Primary succession occurs when new land is formed, for example, following the eruption of volcanoes,
such as those on the Big Island of Hawaii. As lava flows into the ocean, new land is continually being
formed. On the Big Island, approximately 32 acres of land is added to it its size each year. Weathering
and other natural forces break down the rock enough for the establishment of hearty species such as
lichens and some plants, known as pioneer species (Figure 12.26). These species help to further break
down the mineral-rich lava into soil where other, less hardy but more competitive species, such as
grasses, shrubs, and trees, will grow and eventually replace the pioneer species. Over time the area will
reach an equilibrium state, with a set of organisms quite different from the pioneer species.
Figure 12.26 During primary succession in lava on Maui, Hawaii, succulent plants are the pioneer
species. (credit: Forest and Kim Starr)
Secondary succession
A classic example of secondary succession occurs in oak and hickory forests cleared by wildfire (Figure
12.27). Wildfires will burn most vegetation, and unless the animals can flee the area, they are killed.
Their nutrients, however, are returned to the ground in the form of ash. Thus, although the community
has been dramatically altered, there is a soil ecosystem present that provides a foundation for rapid
recolonization.
Before the fire, the vegetation was dominated by tall trees with access to the major plant energy
resource: sunlight. Their height gave them access to sunlight while also shading the ground and other
low-lying species. After the fire, though, these trees are no longer dominant. Thus, the first plants to
grow back are usually annual plants followed within a few years by quickly growing and spreading
grasses and other pioneer species. Due, at least in part, to changes in the environment brought on by the
growth of grasses and forbs, over many years, shrubs emerge along with small pine, oak, and hickory
trees. These organisms are called intermediate species. Eventually, over 150 years, the forest will reach
its equilibrium point and resemble the community before the fire. This equilibrium state is referred to as
the climax community, which will remain until the next disturbance. The climax community is typically
characteristic of a given climate and geology. Although the community in equilibrium looks the same
once it is attained, the equilibrium is a dynamic one with constant changes in abundance and sometimes
species identities. The return of a natural ecosystem after agricultural activities is also a well-documented
secondary succession process.
Figure 12.27 Secondary succession is seen in an oak and hickory forest after a forest fire. A
sequence of the community present at three successive times at the same location is depicted.
KEY TERMS
K-selected species a species suited to stable environments that produce a few, relatively large
offspring and provide parental care
r-selected species a species suited to changing environments that produce many offspring and
provide little or no parental care
age structure the distribution of the proportion of population members in each age class
birth rate the number of births within a population at a specific point in time
carrying capacity the maximum number of individuals of a population that can be supported by the
limited resources of a habitat
climax community the final stage of succession, where a stable community is formed by a
characteristic assortment of plant and animal species
competitive exclusion principle no two species within a habitat can coexist indefinitely when
they compete for the same resources at the same time and place
death rate the number of deaths within a population at a specific point in time
demography the statistical study of changes in populations over time
density-dependent regulation the regulation of population in which birth and death rates are
dependent on population size
density-independent regulation the regulation of population in which the death rate is
independent of the population size
environmental disturbance a change in the environment caused by natural disasters or human
activities
exponential growth an accelerating growth pattern seen in populations where resources are not
limiting
foundation species a species which often forms the major structural portion of the habitat
host an organism a parasite lives on
intraspecific competition the competition among members of the same species
island biogeography the study of life on island chains and how their geography interacts with the
diversity of species found there
J-shaped growth curve the shape of an exponential growth curve
keystone species a species whose presence is key to maintaining biodiversity in an ecosystem and
to upholding an ecological communitys structure
life table a table showing the life expectancy of a population member based on its age
logistic growth the leveling off of exponential growth due to limiting resources
mark and recapture a method used to determine population size in mobile organisms
mimicry an adaptation in which an organism looks like another organism that is dangerous, toxic, or
distasteful to its predators
mortality rate the proportion of population surviving to the beginning of an age interval that dies
during that age interval
mutualism a symbiotic relationship between two species where both species benefit
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one-child policy a policy in China to limit population growth by limiting urban couples to have
only one child or face a penalty of a fine
parasite an organism that uses resources from another species: the host
pioneer species the first species to appear in primary and secondary succession
population density the number of population members divided by the area being measured
population size the number of individuals in a population
primary succession the succession on land that previously has had no life
quadrat a square within which a count of individuals is made that is combined with other such
counts to determine population size and density in slow moving or stationary organisms
relative species abundance the absolute population size of a particular species relative to the
population size of other species within the community
S-shaped growth curve the shape of a logistic growth curve
secondary succession the succession in response to environmental disturbances that move a
community away from its equilibrium
species distribution pattern the distribution of individuals within a habitat at a given point in
time
species richness the number of different species in a community
survivorship curve a graph of the number of surviving population members versus the relative age
of the member
zero population growth the steady population size where birth rates and death rates are equal
CHAPTER SUMMARY
12.1 Population Demographics and Dynamics
Populations are individuals of a species that live in a particular habitat. Ecologists measure
characteristics of populations: size, density, and distribution pattern. Life tables are useful to calculate
life expectancies of individual population members. Survivorship curves show the number of
individuals surviving at each age interval plotted versus time.
12.2 Population Growth and Regulation

Populations with unlimited resources grow exponentiallywith an accelerating growth rate. When
resources become limiting, populations follow a logistic growth curve in which population size will
level off at the carrying capacity.
Populations are regulated by a variety of density-dependent and density-independent factors. Lifehistory characteristics, such as age at first reproduction or numbers of offspring, are characteristics that
evolve in populations just as anatomy or behavior can evolve over time. The model of r- and Kselection suggests that characters, and possibly suites of characters, may evolve adaptations to
population stability near the carrying capacity (K-selection) or rapid population growth and collapse (rselection). Species will exhibit adaptations somewhere on a continuum between these two extremes.
12.3 The Human Population

Earths human population is growing exponentially. Humans have increased their carrying capacity
through technology, urbanization, and harnessing the energy of fossil fuels. The age structure of a
population allows us to predict population growth. Unchecked human population growth could have
dire long-term effects on human welfare and Earths ecosystems.
12.4 Community Ecology

Communities include all the different species living in a given area. The variety of these species is
referred to as biodiversity. Many organisms have developed defenses against predation and herbivory,
including mechanical defenses, warning coloration, and mimicry. Two species cannot exist indefinitely
in the same habitat competing directly for the same resources. Species may form symbiotic
relationships such as commensalism, mutualism, or parasitism. Community structure is described by its
foundation and keystone species. Communities respond to environmental disturbances by succession:
the predictable appearance of different types of plant species, until a stable community structure is
established.

1. Figure 12.2 As this graph shows, population
density typically decreases with increasing body
size. Why do you think this is the case?
2. Figure 12.6 If the major food source of seals
declines due to pollution or overfishing, which of
the following would likely occur?
a. The carrying capacity of seals would
decrease, as would the seal population.
b. The carrying capacity of seals would
decrease, but the seal population would
remain the same.
c. The number of seal deaths would

increase, but the number of births would
also increase, so the population size
would remain the same.
d. The carrying capacity of seals would
remain the same, but the population of
seals would decrease.
3. Figure 12.11 Age structure diagrams for
rapidly growing, slow growing, and stable
populations are shown in stages 1 through 3. What
type of population change do you think stage 4
represents?
REVIEW QUESTIONS
4. Which of the following methods will provide
information to an ecologist about both the size and
density of a population?
a. mark and recapture
b. mark and release
c. quadrat
d. life table
5. Which of the following is best at showing the
life expectancy of an individual within a
population?
a. quadrat
b. mark and recapture
c. survivorship curve
d. life table
d. exponential growth pattern

9. The population size of a species capable of
being supported by the environment is called its
________.
a. limit
b. carrying capacity
c. biotic potential
d. logistic growth pattern
10. Species that have many offspring at one time
are usually:
a. r-selected
b. K-selected
c. both r- and K-selected
d. not selected
6. Human populations have which type of

survivorship curve?
a. Type I
b. Type II
c. Type III
d. Type IV
11. A forest fire is an example of ________

regulation.
a. density-dependent
b. density-independent
c. r-selected
d. K-selected
7. Species with limited resources usually exhibit

a(n) ________ growth curve.
a. logistic
b. logical
c. experimental
d. exponential
12. A country with zero population growth is

likely to be ________.
a. in Africa
b. in Asia
c. economically developed
d. economically underdeveloped
8. The maximum growth rate characteristic of a

species is called its ________.
a. limit
b. carrying capacity
c. biotic potential
13. Which type of country has the greatest

proportion of young individuals?
a. economically developed
b. economically underdeveloped
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c. countries with zero population growth

d. countries in Europe
14. Which of the following is not a way that
humans have increased the carrying capacity of
the environment?
a. agriculture
b. using large amounts of natural resources
c. domestication of animals
d. use of language
15. The first species to live on new land, such as
that formed from volcanic lava, are
called________.
a. climax community
b. keystone species
c. foundation species
d. pioneer species
16. A symbiotic relationship where both of the

co-existing species benefit from the interaction is
called ________.
a. commensalism
b. parasitism
c. mutualism
d. communism
17. When an invasive species alters the
community structure it is introduced to, what can
the consequence be?
a. extinction of economically important
species
b. reduced predation on some native
species
c. increased predation on some native
species
d. all of the above

18. Describe how a researcher would determine
the size of a penguin population in Antarctica
using the mark and release method.
21. Describe the age structures in rapidly growing

countries, slowly growing countries, and countries
with zero population growth.
19. Describe the growth at various parts of the Sshaped curve of logistic growth.
22. Describe the competitive exclusion principle

and its effects on competing species.
20. Give an example of how density-dependent

and density-independent factors might interact.
23. Describe the potential effects when a keystone

species is removed from a community.
CHAPTER 13 | ECOSYSTEMS AND THE BIOSPHERE
13 | ECOSYSTEMS
AND THE BIOSPHERE
Figure 13.1 The (a) Karner blue butterfly and (b) wild lupine live in oak-pine barren habitats in North
America. (credit a: modification of work by John & Karen Hollingsworth, USFWS)
Chapter Outline
13.1: Energy Flow through Ecosystems
13.2: Biogeochemical Cycles
13.3: Terrestrial Biomes
13.4: Aquatic and Marine Biomes
Introduction
Ecosystem ecology is an extension of organismal, population, and community ecology. The ecosystem
comprises all the biotic components (living things) and abiotic components (non-living things) in
a particular geographic area. Some of the abiotic components include air, water, soil, and climate.
Ecosystem biologists study how nutrients and energy are stored and moved among organisms and the
surrounding atmosphere, soil, and water.
Wild lupine and Karner blue butterflies live in an oak-pine barren habitat in portions of Indiana,
Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and New York (Figure 13.1). This habitat is characterized by natural
disturbance in the form of fire and nutrient-poor soils that are low in nitrogenimportant factors in the
distribution of the plants that live in this habitat. Researchers interested in ecosystem ecology study the
importance of limited resources in this ecosystem and the movement of resources (such as nutrients)
through the biotic and abiotic portions of the ecosystem. Researchers also examine how organisms have
adapted to their ecosystem.
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13.1 | Energy Flow through Ecosystems

Describe the basic types of ecosystems on Earth
Differentiate between food chains and food webs and recognize the importance of each
Describe how organisms acquire energy in a food web and in associated food chains
Explain how the efficiency of energy transfers between trophic levels effects ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms and their abiotic (non-living) environment.
Ecosystems can be small, such as the tide pools found near the rocky shores of many oceans, or large,
such as those found in the tropical rainforest of the Amazon in Brazil (Figure 13.2).
Figure 13.2 A (a) tidal pool ecosystem in Matinicus Island, Maine, is a small ecosystem, while the
(b) Amazon rainforest in Brazil is a large ecosystem. (credit a: modification of work by Jim Kuhn;
credit b: modification of work by Ivan Mlinaric)
There are three broad categories of ecosystems based on their general environment: freshwater,
marine, and terrestrial. Within these three categories are individual ecosystem types based on the
environmental habitat and organisms present.
Ecology of Ecosystems
Life in an ecosystem often involves competition for limited resources, which occurs both within a
single species and between different species. Organisms compete for food, water, sunlight, space,
and mineral nutrients. These resources provide the energy for metabolic processes and the matter to
make up organisms physical structures. Other critical factors influencing community dynamics are the
components of its physical environment: a habitats climate (seasons, sunlight, and rainfall), elevation,
and geology. These can all be important environmental variables that determine which organisms can
exist within a particular area.
Freshwater ecosystems are the least common, occurring on only 1.8 percent of Earth's surface.
These systems comprise lakes, rivers, streams, and springs; they are quite diverse, and support a variety
of animals, plants, fungi, protists and prokaryotes.
Marine ecosystems are the most common, comprising 75 percent of Earth's surface and consisting
of three basic types: shallow ocean, deep ocean water, and deep ocean bottom. Shallow ocean ecosystems
include extremely biodiverse coral reef ecosystems, yet the deep ocean water is known for large numbers
of plankton and krill (small crustaceans) that support it. These two environments are especially important
to aerobic respirators worldwide, as the phytoplankton perform 40 percent of all photosynthesis on Earth.
Although not as diverse as the other two, deep ocean bottom ecosystems contain a wide variety of marine
organisms. Such ecosystems exist even at depths where light is unable to penetrate through the water.
Terrestrial ecosystems, also known for their diversity, are grouped into large categories called
biomes. A biome is a large-scale community of organisms, primarily defined on land by the dominant
plant types that exist in geographic regions of the planet with similar climatic conditions. Examples
of biomes include tropical rainforests, savannas, deserts, grasslands, temperate forests, and tundras.
Grouping these ecosystems into just a few biome categories obscures the great diversity of the individual
ecosystems within them. For example, the saguaro cacti (Carnegiea gigantean) and other plant life in
the Sonoran Desert, in the United States, are relatively diverse compared with the desolate rocky desert
of Boa Vista, an island off the coast of Western Africa (Figure 13.3).
Figure 13.3 Desert ecosystems, like all ecosystems, can vary greatly. The desert in (a) Saguaro
National Park, Arizona, has abundant plant life, while the rocky desert of (b) Boa Vista island,
Cape Verde, Africa, is devoid of plant life. (credit a: modification of work by Jay Galvin; credit b:
modification of work by Ingo Wlbern)
Ecosystems and Disturbance

Ecosystems are complex with many interacting parts. They are routinely exposed to various
disturbances: changes in the environment that affect their compositions, such as yearly variations in
rainfall and temperature. Many disturbances are a result of natural processes. For example, when
lightning causes a forest fire and destroys part of a forest ecosystem, the ground is eventually populated
with grasses, followed by bushes and shrubs, and later mature trees: thus, the forest is restored to its
former state. This process is so universal that ecologists have given it a namesuccession. The impact of
environmental disturbances caused by human activities is now as significant as the changes wrought by
natural processes. Human agricultural practices, air pollution, acid rain, global deforestation, overfishing,
oil spills, and illegal dumping on land and into the ocean all have impacts on ecosystems.
Equilibrium is a dynamic state of an ecosystem in which, despite changes in species numbers and
occurrence, biodiversity remains somewhat constant. In ecology, two parameters are used to measure
changes in ecosystems: resistance and resilience. The ability of an ecosystem to remain at equilibrium
in spite of disturbances is called resistance. The speed at which an ecosystem recovers equilibrium after
being disturbed is called resilience. Ecosystem resistance and resilience are especially important when
considering human impact. The nature of an ecosystem may change to such a degree that it can lose
its resilience entirely. This process can lead to the complete destruction or irreversible altering of the
ecosystem.
Food Chains and Food Webs

A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy pass as one organism
eats another; the levels in the food chain are producers, primary consumers, higher-level consumers, and
finally decomposers. These levels are used to describe ecosystem structure and dynamics. There is a
single path through a food chain. Each organism in a food chain occupies a specific trophic level (energy
level), its position in the food chain or food web.
In many ecosystems, the base, or foundation, of the food chain consists of photosynthetic organisms
(plants or phytoplankton), which are called producers. The organisms that consume the producers are
herbivores: the primary consumers. Secondary consumers are usually carnivores that eat the primary
consumers. Tertiary consumers are carnivores that eat other carnivores. Higher-level consumers feed
on the next lower trophic levels, and so on, up to the organisms at the top of the food chain: the apex
consumers. In the Lake Ontario food chain, shown in Figure 13.4, the Chinook salmon is the apex
consumer at the top of this food chain.
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Figure 13.4 These are the trophic levels of a food chain in Lake Ontario at the United
StatesCanada border. Energy and nutrients flow from photosynthetic green algae at the base to
the top of the food chain: the Chinook salmon. (credit: modification of work by National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration/NOAA)
One major factor that limits the number of steps in a food chain is energy. Energy is lost at each
trophic level and between trophic levels as heat and in the transfer to decomposers (Figure 13.5). Thus,
after a limited number of trophic energy transfers, the amount of energy remaining in the food chain may
not be great enough to support viable populations at yet a higher trophic level.
Figure 13.5 The relative energy in trophic levels in a Silver Springs, Florida, ecosystem is shown.
Each trophic level has less energy available, and usually, but not always, supports a smaller mass
of organisms at the next level.
There is a one problem when using food chains to describe most ecosystems. Even when all
organisms are grouped into appropriate trophic levels, some of these organisms can feed on more
than one trophic level; likewise, some of these organisms can also be fed on from multiple trophic
levels. In addition, species feed on and are eaten by more than one species. In other words, the linear
model of ecosystems, the food chain, is a hypothetical, overly simplistic representation of ecosystem
structure. A holistic modelwhich includes all the interactions between different species and their
complex interconnected relationships with each other and with the environmentis a more accurate
and descriptive model for ecosystems. A food web is a concept that accounts for the multiple trophic
(feeding) interactions between each species and the many species it may feed on, or that feed on it. In a
food web, the several trophic connections between each species and the other species that interact with
it may cross multiple trophic levels. The matter and energy movements of virtually all ecosystems are
more accurately described by food webs (Figure 13.6).
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Figure 13.6 This food web shows the interactions between organisms across trophic levels. Arrows
point from an organism that is consumed to the organism that consumes it. All the producers
and consumers eventually become nourishment for the decomposers (fungi, mold, earthworms,
and bacteria in the soil). (credit "fox": modification of work by Kevin Bacher, NPS; credit "owl":
modification of work by John and Karen Hollingsworth, USFWS; credit "snake": modification of work
by Steve Jurvetson; credit "robin": modification of work by Alan Vernon; credit "frog": modification
of work by Alessandro Catenazzi; credit "spider": modification of work by "Sanba38"/Wikimedia
Commons; credit "centipede": modification of work by Bauerph/Wikimedia Commons; credit
"squirrel": modification of work by Dawn Huczek; credit "mouse": modification of work by NIGMS,
NIH; credit "sparrow": modification of work by David Friel; credit "beetle": modification of work by
Scott Bauer, USDA Agricultural Research Service; credit "mushrooms": modification of work by Chris
Wee; credit "mold": modification of work by Dr. Lucille Georg, CDC; credit "earthworm": modification
of work by Rob Hille; credit "bacteria": modification of work by Don Stalons, CDC)
Head to this online interactive simulator (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/food_web) to investigate

food web function. In the Interactive Labs box, under Food Web, click Step 1. Read the instructions
first, and then click Step 2 for additional instructions. When you are ready to create a simulation, in
the upper-right corner of the Interactive Labs box, click OPEN SIMULATOR.
Two general types of food webs are often shown interacting within a single ecosystem. A grazing
food web has plants or other photosynthetic organisms at its base, followed by herbivores and various
carnivores. A detrital food web consists of a base of organisms that feed on decaying organic matter
(dead organisms), including decomposers (which break down dead and decaying organisms) and
detritivores (which consume organic detritus). These organisms are usually bacteria, fungi, and
invertebrate animals that recycle organic material back into the biotic part of the ecosystem as they
themselves are consumed by other organisms. As ecosystems require a method to recycle material from
dead organisms, grazing food webs have an associated detrital food web. For example, in a meadow
ecosystem, plants may support a grazing food web of different organisms, primary and other levels of
consumers, while at the same time supporting a detrital food web of bacteria and fungi feeding off dead
plants and animals. Simultaneously, a detrital food web can contribute energy to a grazing food web, as
when a robin eats an earthworm.
How Organisms Acquire Energy in a Food Web

All living things require energy in one form or another. Energy is used by most complex metabolic
pathways (usually in the form of ATP), especially those responsible for building large molecules from
smaller compounds. Living organisms would not be able to assemble macromolecules (proteins, lipids,
nucleic acids, and complex carbohydrates) from their monomers without a constant energy input.
Food-web diagrams illustrate how energy flows directionally through ecosystems. They can also
indicate how efficiently organisms acquire energy, use it, and how much remains for use by other
organisms of the food web. Energy is acquired by living things in two ways: autotrophs harness light or
chemical energy and heterotrophs acquire energy through the consumption and digestion of other living
or previously living organisms.
Photosynthetic and chemosynthetic organisms are autotrophs, which are organisms capable of
synthesizing their own food (more specifically, capable of using inorganic carbon as a carbon source).
Photosynthetic autotrophs ( photoautotrophs) use sunlight as an energy source, and chemosynthetic
autotrophs ( chemoautotrophs) use inorganic molecules as an energy source. Autotrophs are critical for
most ecosystems: they are the producer trophic level. Without these organisms, energy would not be
available to other living organisms, and life itself would not be possible.
Photoautotrophs, such as plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria, are the energy source for a
majority of the worlds ecosystems. These ecosystems are often described by grazing and detrital food
webs. Photoautotrophs harness the Suns solar energy by converting it to chemical energy in the form
of ATP (and NADP). The energy stored in ATP is used to synthesize complex organic molecules, such
as glucose. The rate at which photosynthetic producers incorporate energy from the Sun is called gross
primary productivity. However, not all of the energy incorporated by producers is available to the
other organisms in the food web because producers must also grow and reproduce, which consumes
energy. Net primary productivity is the energy that remains in the producers after accounting for these
organisms respiration and heat loss. The net productivity is then available to the primary consumers at
the next trophic level.
Chemoautotrophs are primarily bacteria and archaea that are found in rare ecosystems where
sunlight is not available, such as those associated with dark caves or hydrothermal vents at the bottom
of the ocean (Figure 13.7). Many chemoautotrophs in hydrothermal vents use hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
which is released from the vents as a source of chemical energy; this allows them to synthesize complex
organic molecules, such as glucose, for their own energy and, in turn, supplies energy to the rest of the
ecosystem.
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Figure 13.7 Swimming shrimp, a few squat lobsters, and hundreds of vent mussels are seen at a
hydrothermal vent at the bottom of the ocean. As no sunlight penetrates to this depth, the ecosystem
is supported by chemoautotrophic bacteria and organic material that sinks from the oceans surface.
This picture was taken in 2006 at the submerged NW Eifuku volcano off the coast of Japan by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The summit of this highly active volcano
lies 1535 m below the surface.
Consequences of Food Webs: Biological Magnification

One of the most important consequences of ecosystem dynamics in terms of human impact is
biomagnification. Biomagnification is the increasing concentration of persistent, toxic substances in
organisms at each successive trophic level. These are substances that are fat soluble, not water soluble,
and are stored in the fat reserves of each organism. Many substances have been shown to biomagnify,
including classical studies with the pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), which were
described in the 1960s bestseller, Silent Spring by Rachel Carson. DDT was a commonly used pesticide
before its dangers to apex consumers, such as the bald eagle, became known. In aquatic ecosystems,
organisms from each trophic level consumed many organisms in the lower level, which caused DDT to
increase in birds (apex consumers) that ate fish. Thus, the birds accumulated sufficient amounts of DDT
to cause fragility in their eggshells. This effect increased egg breakage during nesting and was shown to
have devastating effects on these bird populations. The use of DDT was banned in the United States in
the 1970s.
Other substances that biomagnify are polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), which were used as coolant
liquids in the United States until their use was banned in 1979, and heavy metals, such as mercury, lead,
and cadmium. These substances are best studied in aquatic ecosystems, where predatory fish species
accumulate very high concentrations of toxic substances that are at quite low concentrations in the
environment and in producers. As illustrated in a study performed by the NOAA in the Saginaw Bay of
Lake Huron of the North American Great Lakes (Figure 13.8), PCB concentrations increased from the
producers of the ecosystem (phytoplankton) through the different trophic levels of fish species. The apex
consumer, the walleye, has more than four times the amount of PCBs compared to phytoplankton. Also,
based on results from other studies, birds that eat these fish may have PCB levels at least one order of
magnitude higher than those found in the lake fish.
Figure 13.8 This chart shows the PCB concentrations found at the various trophic levels in the
Saginaw Bay ecosystem of Lake Huron. Notice that the fish in the higher trophic levels accumulate
more PCBs than those in lower trophic levels. (credit: Patricia Van Hoof, NOAA)
Other concerns have been raised by the biomagnification of heavy metals, such as mercury and
cadmium, in certain types of seafood. The United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends
that pregnant women and young children should not consume any swordfish, shark, king mackerel, or
tilefish because of their high mercury content. These individuals are advised to eat fish low in mercury:
salmon, shrimp, pollock, and catfish. Biomagnification is a good example of how ecosystem dynamics
can affect our everyday lives, even influencing the food we eat.
13.2 | Biogeochemical Cycles

Discuss the biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur
Explain how human activities have impacted these cycles and the resulting potential
consequences for Earth
Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight (or inorganic molecules for
chemoautotrophs) and leaving as heat during the transfers between trophic levels. Rather than flowing
through an ecosystem, the matter that makes up living organisms is conserved and recycled. The six most
common elements associated with organic moleculescarbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus,
and sulfurtake a variety of chemical forms and may exist for long periods in the atmosphere, on land,
in water, or beneath Earths surface. Geologic processes, such as weathering, erosion, water drainage,
and the subduction of the continental plates, all play a role in the cycling of elements on Earth. Because
geology and chemistry have major roles in the study of this process, the recycling of inorganic matter
between living organisms and their nonliving environment is called a biogeochemical cycle.
Water, which contains hydrogen and oxygen, is essential to all living processes. The hydrosphere
is the area of Earth where water movement and storage occurs: as liquid water on the surface (rivers,
lakes, oceans) and beneath the surface (groundwater) or ice, (polar ice caps and glaciers), and as water
vapor in the atmosphere. Carbon is found in all organic macromolecules and is an important constituent
of fossil fuels. Nitrogen is a major component of our nucleic acids and proteins and is critical to human
agriculture. Phosphorus, a major component of nucleic acids, is one of the main ingredients (along with
nitrogen) in artificial fertilizers used in agriculture, which has environmental impacts on our surface
water. Sulfur, critical to the three-dimensional folding of proteins (as in disulfide binding), is released
into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels.
The cycling of these elements is interconnected. For example, the movement of water is critical for
the leaching of nitrogen and phosphate into rivers, lakes, and oceans. The ocean is also a major reservoir
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for carbon. Thus, mineral nutrients are cycled, either rapidly or slowly, through the entire biosphere
between the biotic and abiotic world and from one living organism to another.
Head to this website (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/biogeochemical) to learn more about

biogeochemical cycles.
The Water Cycle

Water is essential for all living processes. The human body is more than one-half water and human
cells are more than 70 percent water. Thus, most land animals need a supply of fresh water to survive.
Of the stores of water on Earth, 97.5 percent is salt water (Figure 13.9). Of the remaining water, 99
percent is locked as underground water or ice. Thus, less than one percent of fresh water is present
in lakes and rivers. Many living things are dependent on this small amount of surface fresh water
supply, a lack of which can have important effects on ecosystem dynamics. Humans, of course, have
developed technologies to increase water availability, such as digging wells to harvest groundwater,
storing rainwater, and using desalination to obtain drinkable water from the ocean. Although this pursuit
of drinkable water has been ongoing throughout human history, the supply of fresh water continues to be
a major issue in modern times.
Figure 13.9 Only 2.5 percent of water on Earth is fresh water, and less than 1 percent of fresh water
is easily accessible to living things.
The various processes that occur during the cycling of water are illustrated in Figure 13.10. The
processes include the following:
evaporation and sublimation
condensation and precipitation
subsurface water flow
surface runoff and snowmelt
streamflow
The water cycle is driven by the Suns energy as it warms the oceans and other surface waters. This
leads to evaporation (water to water vapor) of liquid surface water and sublimation (ice to water vapor)
of frozen water, thus moving large amounts of water into the atmosphere as water vapor. Over time, this
water vapor condenses into clouds as liquid or frozen droplets and eventually leads to precipitation (rain
or snow), which returns water to Earths surface. Rain reaching Earths surface may evaporate again,
flow over the surface, or percolate into the ground. Most easily observed is surface runoff: the flow of
fresh water either from rain or melting ice. Runoff can make its way through streams and lakes to the
oceans or flow directly to the oceans themselves.
In most natural terrestrial environments rain encounters vegetation before it reaches the soil surface.
A significant percentage of water evaporates immediately from the surfaces of plants. What is left
reaches the soil and begins to move down. Surface runoff will occur only if the soil becomes saturated
with water in a heavy rainfall. Most water in the soil will be taken up by plant roots. The plant will use
some of this water for its own metabolism, and some of that will find its way into animals that eat the
plants, but much of it will be lost back to the atmosphere through a process known as evapotranspiration.
Water enters the vascular system of the plant through the roots and evaporates, or transpires, through the
stomata of the leaves. Water in the soil that is not taken up by a plant and that does not evaporate is able
to percolate into the subsoil and bedrock. Here it forms groundwater.
Groundwater is a significant reservoir of fresh water. It exists in the pores between particles in
sand and gravel, or in the fissures in rocks. Shallow groundwater flows slowly through these pores and
fissures and eventually finds its way to a stream or lake where it becomes a part of the surface water
again. Streams do not flow because they are replenished from rainwater directly; they flow because there
is a constant inflow from groundwater below. Some groundwater is found very deep in the bedrock and
can persist there for millennia. Most groundwater reservoirs, or aquifers, are the source of drinking or
irrigation water drawn up through wells. In many cases these aquifers are being depleted faster than they
are being replenished by water percolating down from above.
Rain and surface runoff are major ways in which minerals, including carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
and sulfur, are cycled from land to water. The environmental effects of runoff will be discussed later as
these cycles are described.
Figure 13.10 Water from the land and oceans enters the atmosphere by evaporation or sublimation,
where it condenses into clouds and falls as rain or snow. Precipitated water may enter freshwater
bodies or infiltrate the soil. The cycle is complete when surface or groundwater reenters the ocean.
(credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)
The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in living organisms. Carbon is present in all organic
molecules, and its role in the structure of macromolecules is of primary importance to living organisms.
Carbon compounds contain energy, and many of these compounds from plants and algae have remained
stored as fossilized carbon, which humans use as fuel. Since the 1800s, the use of fossil fuels has
accelerated. As global demand for Earths limited fossil fuel supplies has risen since the beginning of
the Industrial Revolution, the amount of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere has increased as the fuels
are burned. This increase in carbon dioxide has been associated with climate change and is a major
environmental concern worldwide.
The carbon cycle is most easily studied as two interconnected subcycles: one dealing with rapid
carbon exchange among living organisms and the other dealing with the long-term cycling of carbon
through geologic processes. The entire carbon cycle is shown in Figure 13.11.
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Figure 13.11 Carbon dioxide gas exists in the atmosphere and is dissolved in water. Photosynthesis
converts carbon dioxide gas to organic carbon, and respiration cycles the organic carbon back into
carbon dioxide gas. Long-term storage of organic carbon occurs when matter from living organisms
is buried deep underground and becomes fossilized. Volcanic activity and, more recently, human
emissions bring this stored carbon back into the carbon cycle. (credit: modification of work by John
M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)
The Biological Carbon Cycle

Living organisms are connected in many ways, even between ecosystems. A good example of this
connection is the exchange of carbon between heterotrophs and autotrophs within and between
ecosystems by way of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is the basic building block that
autotrophs use to build multi-carbon, high-energy compounds, such as glucose. The energy harnessed
from the Sun is used by these organisms to form the covalent bonds that link carbon atoms together.
These chemical bonds store this energy for later use in the process of respiration. Most terrestrial
autotrophs obtain their carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere, while marine autotrophs acquire it
in the dissolved form (carbonic acid, HCO3). However the carbon dioxide is acquired, a byproduct of
fixing carbon in organic compounds is oxygen. Photosynthetic organisms are responsible for maintaining
approximately 21 percent of the oxygen content of the atmosphere that we observe today.
The partners in biological carbon exchange are the heterotrophs (especially the primary consumers,
largely herbivores). Heterotrophs acquire the high-energy carbon compounds from the autotrophs by
consuming them and breaking them down by respiration to obtain cellular energy, such as ATP. The
most efficient type of respiration, aerobic respiration, requires oxygen obtained from the atmosphere
or dissolved in water. Thus, there is a constant exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
autotrophs (which need the carbon) and the heterotrophs (which need the oxygen). Autotrophs also
respire and consume the organic molecules they form: using oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. They
release more oxygen gas as a waste product of photosynthesis than they use for their own respiration;
therefore, there is excess available for the respiration of other aerobic organisms. Gas exchange through
the atmosphere and water is one way that the carbon cycle connects all living organisms on Earth.
The Biogeochemical Carbon Cycle
The movement of carbon through land, water, and air is complex, and, in many cases, it occurs much
more slowly geologically than the movement between living organisms. Carbon is stored for long
periods in what are known as carbon reservoirs, which include the atmosphere, bodies of liquid water
(mostly oceans), ocean sediment, soil, rocks (including fossil fuels), and Earths interior.
As stated, the atmosphere is a major reservoir of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide that is
essential to the process of photosynthesis. The level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is greatly
influenced by the reservoir of carbon in the oceans. The exchange of carbon between the atmosphere
and water reservoirs influences how much carbon is found in each, and each one affects the other
reciprocally. Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere dissolves in water and, unlike oxygen and
nitrogen gas, reacts with water molecules to form ionic compounds. Some of these ions combine with
calcium ions in the seawater to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a major component of the shells of
marine organisms. These organisms eventually form sediments on the ocean floor. Over geologic time,
the calcium carbonate forms limestone, which comprises the largest carbon reservoir on Earth.
On land, carbon is stored in soil as organic carbon as a result of the decomposition of living
organisms or from weathering of terrestrial rock and minerals. Deeper under the ground, at land and
at sea, are fossil fuels, the anaerobically decomposed remains of plants that take millions of years to
form. Fossil fuels are considered a non-renewable resource because their use far exceeds their rate of
formation. A non-renewable resource is either regenerated very slowly or not at all. Another way for
carbon to enter the atmosphere is from land (including land beneath the surface of the ocean) by the
eruption of volcanoes and other geothermal systems. Carbon sediments from the ocean floor are taken
deep within Earth by the process of subduction: the movement of one tectonic plate beneath another.
Carbon is released as carbon dioxide when a volcano erupts or from volcanic hydrothermal vents.
Carbon dioxide is also added to the atmosphere by the animal husbandry practices of humans.
The large number of land animals raised to feed Earths growing human population results in increased
carbon-dioxide levels in the atmosphere caused by their respiration. This is another example of how
human activity indirectly affects biogeochemical cycles in a significant way. Although much of the
debate about the future effects of increasing atmospheric carbon on climate change focuses on fossils
fuels, scientists take natural processes, such as volcanoes, plant growth, soil carbon levels, and
respiration, into account as they model and predict the future impact of this increase.
The Nitrogen Cycle

Getting nitrogen into living organisms is difficult. Plants and phytoplankton are not equipped to
incorporate nitrogen from the atmosphere (where it exists as tightly bonded, triple covalent N2) even
though this molecule comprises approximately 78 percent of the atmosphere. Nitrogen enters the living
world through free-living and symbiotic bacteria, which incorporate nitrogen into their macromolecules
through specialized biochemical pathways leading to nitrogen fixation. Cyanobacteria live in most
aquatic ecosystems where sunlight is present; they play a key role in nitrogen fixation. Cyanobacteria
are able to fix nitrogen (from nitrogen gas) into ammonia (NH3) that can be incorporated into the
macromolecules of the organism. Rhizobium bacteria also fix nitrogen and live symbiotically in the root
nodules of legumes (such as peas, beans, and peanuts) and provide them with the organic nitrogen they
need. Free-living bacteria, such as Azotobacter, are also able to fix nitrogen.
Organic nitrogen is especially important to the study of ecosystem dynamics since many ecosystem
processes, such as primary production and decomposition, are limited by the available supply of
nitrogen. As shown in Figure 13.12, the nitrogen that enters living systems by nitrogen fixation is
eventually converted from organic nitrogen back into nitrogen gas by bacteria. This process occurs
in three steps in terrestrial systems: ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. First, the
ammonification process converts nitrogenous waste from living animals or from the remains of dead
animals into ammonium (NH4+ ) by certain bacteria and fungi. Second, this ammonium is then converted
to nitrites (NO2) by nitrifying bacteria, such as Nitrosomonas, through nitrification. Subsequently,
nitrites are converted to nitrates (NO3) by similar organisms. Lastly, the process of denitrification
occurs, whereby bacteria, such as Pseudomonas and Clostridium, convert the nitrates into nitrogen gas,
thus allowing it to re-enter the atmosphere.
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Figure 13.12 Nitrogen enters the living world from the atmosphere through nitrogen-fixing
bacteria. This nitrogen and nitrogenous waste from animals is then processed back into
gaseous nitrogen by soil bacteria, which also supply terrestrial food webs with the organic
nitrogen they need. (credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman,
USGS)
Which of the following statements about the nitrogen cycle is false?

a. Ammonification converts organic nitrogenous matter from living organisms into
ammonium (NH4+).
b. Denitrification by bacteria converts nitrates (NO3)to nitrogen gas (N2).
c. Nitrification by bacteria converts nitrates (NO3)to nitrites (NO2)
d. Nitrogen fixing bacteria convert nitrogen gas (N2) into organic compounds.
Human activity can release nitrogen into the environment by two primary means: the combustion
of fossil fuels, which releases different nitrogen oxides, and by the use of artificial fertilizers (which
contain nitrogen and phosphorus compounds) in agriculture, which are then washed into lakes, streams,
and rivers by surface runoff. Atmospheric nitrogen (other than N2) is associated with several effects
on Earths ecosystems including the production of acid rain (as nitric acid, HNO3) and greenhouse gas
effects (as nitrous oxide, N2O), potentially causing climate change. A major effect from fertilizer runoff
is saltwater and freshwater eutrophication, a process whereby nutrient runoff causes the overgrowth of
algae and a number of consequential problems.
A similar process occurs in the marine nitrogen cycle, where the ammonification, nitrification, and
denitrification processes are performed by marine bacteria and archaea. Some of this nitrogen falls to the
ocean floor as sediment, which can then be moved to land in geologic time by uplift of Earths surface,
and thereby incorporated into terrestrial rock. Although the movement of nitrogen from rock directly
into living systems has been traditionally seen as insignificant compared with nitrogen fixed from the
atmosphere, a recent study showed that this process may indeed be significant and should be included in
[1]
any study of the global nitrogen cycle.
1. Scott L. Morford, Benjamin Z. Houlton, and Randy A. Dahlgren, Increased Forest Ecosystem Carbon and Nitrogen Storage
from Nitrogen Rich Bedrock, Nature 477, no. 7362 (2011): 7881.
The Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for living processes; it is a major component of nucleic acids
and phospholipids, and, as calcium phosphate, makes up the supportive components of our bones.
Phosphorus is often the limiting nutrient (necessary for growth) in aquatic, particularly freshwater,
ecosystems.
Phosphorus occurs in nature as the phosphate ion (PO43-). In addition to phosphate runoff as a
result of human activity, natural surface runoff occurs when it is leached from phosphate-containing rock
by weathering, thus sending phosphates into rivers, lakes, and the ocean. This rock has its origins in
the ocean. Phosphate-containing ocean sediments form primarily from the bodies of ocean organisms
and from their excretions. However, volcanic ash, aerosols, and mineral dust may also be significant
phosphate sources. This sediment then is moved to land over geologic time by the uplifting of Earths
surface. (Figure 13.13)
Phosphorus is also reciprocally exchanged between phosphate dissolved in the ocean and marine
organisms. The movement of phosphate from the ocean to the land and through the soil is extremely
slow, with the average phosphate ion having an oceanic residence time between 20,000 and 100,000
years.
Figure 13.13 In nature, phosphorus exists as the phosphate ion (PO43-). Weathering of rocks and
volcanic activity releases phosphate into the soil, water, and air, where it becomes available to
terrestrial food webs. Phosphate enters the oceans in surface runoff, groundwater flow, and river
flow. Phosphate dissolved in ocean water cycles into marine food webs. Some phosphate from the
marine food webs falls to the ocean floor, where it forms sediment. (credit: modification of work by
John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)
Excess phosphorus and nitrogen that enter these ecosystems from fertilizer runoff and from sewage
cause excessive growth of algae. The subsequent death and decay of these organisms depletes dissolved
oxygen, which leads to the death of aquatic organisms, such as shellfish and finfish. This process is
responsible for dead zones in lakes and at the mouths of many major rivers and for massive fish kills,
which often occur during the summer months (see Figure 13.14).
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Figure 13.14 Dead zones occur when phosphorus and nitrogen from fertilizers cause excessive
growth of microorganisms, which depletes oxygen and kills fauna. Worldwide, large dead zones
are found in areas of high population density. (credit: Robert Simmon, Jesse Allen, NASA Earth
Observatory)
A dead zone is an area in lakes and oceans near the mouths of rivers where large areas are
periodically depleted of their normal flora and fauna; these zones can be caused by eutrophication, oil
spills, dumping toxic chemicals, and other human activities. The number of dead zones has increased for
several years, and more than 400 of these zones were present as of 2008. One of the worst dead zones
is off the coast of the United States in the Gulf of Mexico: fertilizer runoff from the Mississippi River
basin created a dead zone of over 8,463 square miles. Phosphate and nitrate runoff from fertilizers also
negatively affect several lake and bay ecosystems including the Chesapeake Bay in the eastern United
States.
Chesapeake Bay
Figure 13.15 This (a) satellite image shows the Chesapeake Bay, an ecosystem affected by
phosphate and nitrate runoff. A (b) member of the Army Corps of Engineers holds a clump of
oysters being used as a part of the oyster restoration effort in the bay. (credit a: modification of
work by NASA/MODIS; credit b: modification of work by U.S. Army)
The Chesapeake Bay (Figure 13.15a) is one of the most scenic areas on Earth; it
is now in distress and is recognized as a case study of a declining ecosystem. In the
1970s, the Chesapeake Bay was one of the first aquatic ecosystems to have identified
dead zones, which continue to kill many fish and bottom-dwelling species such as clams,
oysters, and worms. Several species have declined in the Chesapeake Bay because
surface water runoff contains excess nutrients from artificial fertilizer use on land. The
source of the fertilizers (with high nitrogen and phosphate content) is not limited to
agricultural practices. There are many nearby urban areas and more than 150 rivers and
streams empty into the bay that are carrying fertilizer runoff from lawns and gardens. Thus,
the decline of the Chesapeake Bay is a complex issue and requires the cooperation of
industry, agriculture, and individual homeowners.
Of particular interest to conservationists is the oyster population (Figure 13.15b); it is
estimated that more than 200,000 acres of oyster reefs existed in the bay in the 1700s,
but that number has now declined to only 36,000 acres. Oyster harvesting was once a
major industry for Chesapeake Bay, but it declined 88 percent between 1982 and 2007.
This decline was caused not only by fertilizer runoff and dead zones, but also because of
overharvesting. Oysters require a certain minimum population density because they must
be in close proximity to reproduce. Human activity has altered the oyster population and
locations, thus greatly disrupting the ecosystem.
The restoration of the oyster population in the Chesapeake Bay has been ongoing for
several years with mixed success. Not only do many people find oysters good to eat, but
the oysters also clean up the bay. They are filter feeders, and as they eat, they clean the
water around them. Filter feeders eat by pumping a continuous stream of water over finely
divided appendages (gills in the case of oysters) and capturing prokaryotes, plankton, and
fine organic particles in their mucus. In the 1700s, it was estimated that it took only a few
days for the oyster population to filter the entire volume of the bay. Today, with the changed
water conditions, it is estimated that the present population would take nearly a year to do
the same job.
Restoration efforts have been ongoing for several years by non-profit organizations
such as the Chesapeake Bay Foundation. The restoration goal is to find a way to increase
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population density so the oysters can reproduce more efficiently. Many disease-resistant
varieties (developed at the Virginia Institute of Marine Science for the College of William
and Mary) are now available and have been used in the construction of experimental
oyster reefs. Efforts by Virginia and Delaware to clean and restore the bay have been
hampered because much of the pollution entering the bay comes from other states, which
emphasizes the need for interstate cooperation to gain successful restoration.
The new, hearty oyster strains have also spawned a new and economically viable
industryoyster aquaculturewhich not only supplies oysters for food and profit, but also
has the added benefit of cleaning the bay.
The Sulfur Cycle

Sulfur is an essential element for the macromolecules of living things. As part of the amino acid cysteine,
it is involved in the formation of proteins. As shown in Figure 13.16, sulfur cycles between the oceans,
land, and atmosphere. Atmospheric sulfur is found in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2), which enters the
atmosphere in three ways: first, from the decomposition of organic molecules; second, from volcanic
activity and geothermal vents; and, third, from the burning of fossil fuels by humans.
Figure 13.16 Sulfur dioxide from the atmosphere becomes available to terrestrial and marine
ecosystems when it is dissolved in precipitation as weak sulfuric acid or when it falls directly
to Earth as fallout. Weathering of rocks also makes sulfates available to terrestrial ecosystems.
Decomposition of living organisms returns sulfates to the ocean, soil, and atmosphere. (credit:
modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)
On land, sulfur is deposited in four major ways: precipitation, direct fallout from the atmosphere,
rock weathering, and geothermal vents (Figure 13.17). Atmospheric sulfur is found in the form of
sulfur dioxide (SO2), and as rain falls through the atmosphere, sulfur is dissolved in the form of weak
sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfur can also fall directly from the atmosphere in a process called fallout. Also,
as sulfur-containing rocks weather, sulfur is released into the soil. These rocks originate from ocean
sediments that are moved to land by the geologic uplifting of ocean sediments. Terrestrial ecosystems
can then make use of these soil sulfates (SO42-), which enter the food web by being taken up by plant
roots. When these plants decompose and die, sulfur is released back into the atmosphere as hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) gas.
Figure 13.17 At this sulfur vent in Lassen Volcanic National Park in northeastern California, the
yellowish sulfur deposits are visible near the mouth of the vent. (credit: Calbear22/Wikimedia
Commons)
Sulfur enters the ocean in runoff from land, from atmospheric fallout, and from underwater
geothermal vents. Some ecosystems rely on chemoautotrophs using sulfur as a biological energy source.
This sulfur then supports marine ecosystems in the form of sulfates.
Human activities have played a major role in altering the balance of the global sulfur cycle. The
burning of large quantities of fossil fuels, especially from coal, releases larger amounts of hydrogen
sulfide gas into the atmosphere. As rain falls through this gas, it creates the phenomenon known as
acid rain, which damages the natural environment by lowering the pH of lakes, thus killing many of the
resident plants and animals. Acid rain is corrosive rain caused by rainwater falling to the ground through
sulfur dioxide gas, turning it into weak sulfuric acid, which causes damage to aquatic ecosystems. Acid
rain also affects the man-made environment through the chemical degradation of buildings. For example,
many marble monuments, such as the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC, have suffered significant
damage from acid rain over the years. These examples show the wide-ranging effects of human activities
on our environment and the challenges that remain for our future.
13.3 | Terrestrial Biomes

Identify the two major abiotic factors that determine the type of terrestrial biome in an area
Recognize distinguishing characteristics of each of the eight major terrestrial biomes
Earths biomes can be either terrestrial or aquatic. Terrestrial biomes are based on land, while aquatic
biomes include both ocean and freshwater biomes. The eight major terrestrial biomes on Earth are each
distinguished by characteristic temperatures and amount of precipitation. Annual totals and fluctuations
of precipitation affect the kinds of vegetation and animal life that can exist in broad geographical regions.
Temperature variation on a daily and seasonal basis is also important for predicting the geographic
distribution of a biome. Since a biome is defined by climate, the same biome can occur in geographically
distinct areas with similar climates (Figure 13.18). There are also large areas on Antarctica, Greenland,
and in mountain ranges that are covered by permanent glaciers and support very little life. Strictly
speaking, these are not considered biomes and in addition to extremes of cold, they are also often deserts
with very low precipitation.
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Figure 13.18 Each of the worlds eight major biomes is distinguished by characteristic temperatures
and amount of precipitation. Polar ice caps and mountains are also shown.
Tropical Forest
Tropical rainforests are also referred to as tropical wet forests. This biome is found in equatorial
regions (Figure 13.18). Tropical rainforests are the most diverse terrestrial biome. This biodiversity
is still largely unknown to science and is under extraordinary threat primarily through logging and
deforestation for agriculture. Tropical rainforests have also been described as natures pharmacy because
of the potential for new drugs that is largely hidden in the chemicals produced by the huge diversity of
plants, animals, and other organisms. The vegetation is characterized by plants with spreading roots and
broad leaves that fall off throughout the year, unlike the trees of deciduous forests that lose their leaves
in one season. These forests are evergreen, year-round.
The temperature and sunlight profiles of tropical rainforests are stable in comparison to that of other
terrestrial biomes, with average temperatures ranging from 20oC to 34oC (68oF to 93oF). Month-tomonth temperatures are relatively constant in tropical rainforests, in contrast to forests further from the
equator. This lack of temperature seasonality leads to year-round plant growth, rather than the seasonal
growth seen in other biomes. In contrast to other ecosystems, a more constant daily amount of sunlight
(1112 hours per day) provides more solar radiation, thereby a longer period of time for plant growth.
The annual rainfall in tropical rainforests ranges from 250 cm to more than 450 cm (8.214.8 ft)
with considerable seasonal variation. Tropical rainforests have wet months in which there can be more
than 30 cm (1112 in) of precipitation, as well as dry months in which there are fewer than 10 cm (3.5
in) of rainfall. However, the driest month of a tropical rainforest can still exceed the annual rainfall of
some other biomes, such as deserts.
Tropical rainforests have high net primary productivity because the annual temperatures and
precipitation values support rapid plant growth (Figure 13.19). However, the high rainfall quickly
leaches nutrients from the soils of these forests, which are typically low in nutrients. Tropical rainforests
are characterized by vertical layering of vegetation and the formation of distinct habitats for animals
within each layer. On the forest floor is a sparse layer of plants and decaying plant matter. Above that
is an understory of short, shrubby foliage. A layer of trees rises above this understory and is topped by
a closed upper canopythe uppermost overhead layer of branches and leaves. Some additional trees
emerge through this closed upper canopy. These layers provide diverse and complex habitats for the
variety of plants, animals, and other organisms within the tropical wet forests. Many species of animals
use the variety of plants and the complex structure of the tropical wet forests for food and shelter. Some
organisms live several meters above ground rarely ever descending to the forest floor.
Rainforests are not the only forest biome in the tropics; there are also tropical dry forests, which are
characterized by a dry season of varying lengths. These forests commonly experience leaf loss during
the dry season to one degree or another. The loss of leaves from taller trees during the dry season
opens up the canopy and allows sunlight to the forest floor that allows the growth of thick ground-level
brush, which is absent in tropical rainforests. Extensive tropical dry forests occur in Africa (including
Madagascar), India, southern Mexico, and South America.
Figure 13.19 Species diversity is very high in tropical wet forests, such as these forests of Madre de
Dios, Peru, near the Amazon River. (credit: Roosevelt Garcia)
Savannas
Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees, and they are found in Africa, South America, and northern
Australia (Figure 13.18). Savannas are hot, tropical areas with temperatures averaging from 24oC 29oC
(75oF 84oF) and an annual rainfall of 51127 cm (2050 in). Savannas have an extensive dry season
and consequent fires. As a result, scattered in the grasses and forbs (herbaceous flowering plants) that
dominate the savanna, there are relatively few trees (Figure 13.20). Since fire is an important source of
disturbance in this biome, plants have evolved well-developed root systems that allow them to quickly
re-sprout after a fire.
Figure 13.20 Although savannas are dominated by grasses, small woodlands, such as this one
in Mount Archer National Park in Queensland, Australia, may dot the landscape. (credit: "Ethel
Aardvark"/Wikimedia Commons)
Deserts
Subtropical deserts exist between 15o and 30o north and south latitude and are centered on the Tropic
of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn (Figure 13.18). Deserts are frequently located on the downwind
or lee side of mountain ranges, which create a rain shadow after prevailing winds drop their water
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content on the mountains. This is typical of the North American deserts, such as the Mohave and
Sonoran deserts. Deserts in other regions, such as the Sahara Desert in northern Africa or the Namib
Desert in southwestern Africa are dry because of the high-pressure, dry air descending at those latitudes.
Subtropical deserts are very dry; evaporation typically exceeds precipitation. Subtropical hot deserts can
have daytime soil surface temperatures above 60oC (140oF) and nighttime temperatures approaching
0oC (32oF). The temperature drops so far because there is little water vapor in the air to prevent radiative
cooling of the land surface. Subtropical deserts are characterized by low annual precipitation of fewer
than 30 cm (12 in) with little monthly variation and lack of predictability in rainfall. Some years may
receive tiny amounts of rainfall, while others receive more. In some cases, the annual rainfall can be
as low as 2 cm (0.8 in) in subtropical deserts located in central Australia (the Outback) and northern
Africa.
The low species diversity of this biome is closely related to its low and unpredictable precipitation.
Despite the relatively low diversity, desert species exhibit fascinating adaptations to the harshness of
their environment. Very dry deserts lack perennial vegetation that lives from one year to the next;
instead, many plants are annuals that grow quickly and reproduce when rainfall does occur, then they
die. Perennial plants in deserts are characterized by adaptations that conserve water: deep roots, reduced
foliage, and water-storing stems (Figure 13.21). Seed plants in the desert produce seeds that can lie
dormant for extended periods between rains. Most animal life in subtropical deserts has adapted to a
nocturnal life, spending the hot daytime hours beneath the ground. The Namib Desert is the oldest on
the planet, and has probably been dry for more than 55 million years. It supports a number of endemic
species (species found only there) because of this great age. For example, the unusual gymnosperm
Welwitschia mirabilis is the only extant species of an entire order of plants. There are also five species
of reptiles considered endemic to the Namib.
In addition to subtropical deserts there are cold deserts that experience freezing temperatures during
the winter and any precipitation is in the form of snowfall. The largest of these deserts are the Gobi
Desert in northern China and southern Mongolia, the Taklimakan Desert in western China, the Turkestan
Desert, and the Great Basin Desert of the United States.
Figure 13.21 Many desert plants have tiny leaves or no leaves at all to reduce water loss. The leaves
of ocotillo, shown here in the Chihuahuan Desert in Big Bend National Park, Texas, appear only after
rainfall and then are shed. (credit bare ocotillo: "Leaflet"/Wikimedia Commons)
Chaparral
The chaparral is also called scrub forest and is found in California, along the Mediterranean Sea, and
along the southern coast of Australia (Figure 13.18). The annual rainfall in this biome ranges from 65
cm to 75 cm (25.629.5 in) and the majority of the rain falls in the winter. Summers are very dry and
many chaparral plants are dormant during the summertime. The chaparral vegetation is dominated by
shrubs and is adapted to periodic fires, with some plants producing seeds that germinate only after a hot
fire. The ashes left behind after a fire are rich in nutrients like nitrogen that fertilize the soil and promote
plant regrowth. Fire is a natural part of the maintenance of this biome and frequently threatens human
habitation in this biome in the U.S. (Figure 13.22).
Figure 13.22 The chaparral is dominated by shrubs. (credit: Miguel Vieira)
Temperate Grasslands
Temperate grasslands are found throughout central North America, where they are also known as
prairies, and in Eurasia, where they are known as steppes (Figure 13.18). Temperate grasslands have
pronounced annual fluctuations in temperature with hot summers and cold winters. The annual
temperature variation produces specific growing seasons for plants. Plant growth is possible when
temperatures are warm enough to sustain plant growth, which occurs in the spring, summer, and fall.
Annual precipitation ranges from 25.4 cm to 88.9 cm (1035 in). Temperate grasslands have few
trees except for those found growing along rivers or streams. The dominant vegetation tends to consist
of grasses. The treeless condition is maintained by low precipitation, frequent fires, and grazing (Figure
13.23). The vegetation is very dense and the soils are fertile because the subsurface of the soil is packed
with the roots and rhizomes (underground stems) of these grasses. The roots and rhizomes act to anchor
plants into the ground and replenish the organic material (humus) in the soil when they die and decay.
Figure 13.23 The American bison (Bison bison), more commonly called the buffalo, is a grazing
mammal that once populated American prairies in huge numbers. (credit: Jack Dykinga, USDA ARS)
Fires, which are a natural disturbance in temperate grasslands, can be ignited by lightning strikes.
It also appears that the lightning-caused fire regime in North American grasslands was enhanced
by intentional burning by humans. When fire is suppressed in temperate grasslands, the vegetation
eventually converts to scrub and dense forests. Often, the restoration or management of temperate
grasslands requires the use of controlled burns to suppress the growth of trees and maintain the grasses.
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Temperate Forests
Temperate forests are the most common biome in eastern North America, Western Europe, Eastern
Asia, Chile, and New Zealand (Figure 13.18). This biome is found throughout mid-latitude regions.
Temperatures range between 30oC and 30oC (22oF to 86oF) and drop to below freezing on an annual
basis. These temperatures mean that temperate forests have defined growing seasons during the spring,
summer, and early fall. Precipitation is relatively constant throughout the year and ranges between 75 cm
and 150 cm (29.559 in).
Deciduous trees are the dominant plant in this biome with fewer evergreen conifers. Deciduous trees
lose their leaves each fall and remain leafless in the winter. Thus, little photosynthesis occurs during
the dormant winter period. Each spring, new leaves appear as temperature increases. Because of the
dormant period, the net primary productivity of temperate forests is less than that of tropical rainforests.
In addition, temperate forests show far less diversity of tree species than tropical rainforest biomes.
The trees of the temperate forests leaf out and shade much of the ground; however, more sunlight
reaches the ground in this biome than in tropical rainforests because trees in temperate forests do not
grow as tall as the trees in tropical rainforests. The soils of the temperate forests are rich in inorganic
and organic nutrients compared to tropical rainforests. This is because of the thick layer of leaf litter on
forest floors and reduced leaching of nutrients by rainfall. As this leaf litter decays, nutrients are returned
to the soil. The leaf litter also protects soil from erosion, insulates the ground, and provides habitats for
invertebrates and their predators (Figure 13.24).
Figure 13.24 Deciduous trees are the dominant plant in the temperate forest. (credit: Oliver Herold)
Boreal Forests
The boreal forest, also known as taiga or coniferous forest, is found roughly between 50o and 60o north
latitude across most of Canada, Alaska, Russia, and northern Europe (Figure 13.18). Boreal forests are
also found above a certain elevation (and below high elevations where trees cannot grow) in mountain
ranges throughout the Northern Hemisphere. This biome has cold, dry winters and short, cool, wet
summers. The annual precipitation is from 40 cm to 100 cm (15.739 in) and usually takes the form of
snow; little evaporation occurs because of the cold temperatures.
The long and cold winters in the boreal forest have led to the predominance of cold-tolerant conebearing plants. These are evergreen coniferous trees like pines, spruce, and fir, which retain their needleshaped leaves year-round. Evergreen trees can photosynthesize earlier in the spring than deciduous trees
because less energy from the Sun is required to warm a needle-like leaf than a broad leaf. Evergreen
trees grow faster than deciduous trees in the boreal forest. In addition, soils in boreal forest regions
tend to be acidic with little available nitrogen. Leaves are a nitrogen-rich structure and deciduous trees
must produce a new set of these nitrogen-rich structures each year. Therefore, coniferous trees that retain
nitrogen-rich needles in a nitrogen limiting environment may have had a competitive advantage over the
broad-leafed deciduous trees.
The net primary productivity of boreal forests is lower than that of temperate forests and tropical
wet forests. The aboveground biomass of boreal forests is high because these slow-growing tree species
are long-lived and accumulate standing biomass over time. Species diversity is less than that seen in
temperate forests and tropical rainforests. Boreal forests lack the layered forest structure seen in tropical
rainforests or, to a lesser degree, temperate forests. The structure of a boreal forest is often only a tree
layer and a ground layer. When conifer needles are dropped, they decompose more slowly than broad
leaves; therefore, fewer nutrients are returned to the soil to fuel plant growth (Figure 13.25).
Figure 13.25 The boreal forest (taiga) has low lying plants and conifer trees. (credit: L.B. Brubaker,
NOAA)
Arctic Tundra
The Arctic tundra lies north of the subarctic boreal forests and is located throughout the Arctic regions
of the Northern Hemisphere (Figure 13.18). Tundra also exists at elevations above the tree line on
mountains. The average winter temperature is 34C (34F) and the average summer temperature is
3C12C (37F 52F). Plants in the Arctic tundra have a short growing season of approximately 5060
days. However, during this time, there are almost 24 hours of daylight and plant growth is rapid. The
annual precipitation of the Arctic tundra is low (1525 cm or 610 in) with little annual variation in
precipitation. And, as in the boreal forests, there is little evaporation because of the cold temperatures.
Plants in the Arctic tundra are generally low to the ground and include low shrubs, grasses, lichens,
and small flowering plants (Figure 13.26). There is little species diversity, low net primary productivity,
and low aboveground biomass. The soils of the Arctic tundra may remain in a perennially frozen state
referred to as permafrost. The permafrost makes it impossible for roots to penetrate far into the soil
and slows the decay of organic matter, which inhibits the release of nutrients from organic matter.
The melting of the permafrost in the brief summer provides water for a burst of productivity while
temperatures and long days permit it. During the growing season, the ground of the Arctic tundra can be
completely covered with plants or lichens.
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Figure 13.26 Low-growing plants such as shrub willow dominate the tundra landscape during the
summer, shown here in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. (credit: Arctic National Wildlife Refuge,
USFWS)
Watch this Assignment Discovery: Biomes (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/biomes) video for an

overview of biomes. To explore further, select one of the biomes on the extended playlist: desert,
savanna, temperate forest, temperate grassland, tropic, tundra.
13.4 | Aquatic and Marine Biomes

Describe the effects of abiotic factors on the composition of plant and animal communities in
aquatic biomes
Compare the characteristics of the ocean zones
Summarize the characteristics of standing water and flowing water in freshwater biomes
Like terrestrial biomes, aquatic biomes are influenced by abiotic factors. In the case of aquatic biomes
the abiotic factors include light, temperature, flow regime, and dissolved solids. The aquatic
mediumwater has different physical and chemical properties than air. Even if the water in a pond
or other body of water is perfectly clear (there are no suspended particles), water, on its own, absorbs
light. As one descends deep enough into a body of water, eventually there will be a depth at which the
sunlight cannot reach. While there are some abiotic and biotic factors in a terrestrial ecosystem that shade
light (like fog, dust, or insect swarms), these are not usually permanent features of the environment. The
importance of light in aquatic biomes is central to the communities of organisms found in both freshwater
and marine ecosystems because it controls productivity through photosynthesis.
In addition to light, solar radiation warms bodies of water and many exhibit distinct layers of water
at differing temperatures. The water temperature affects the organisms rates of growth and the amount
of dissolved oxygen available for respiration.
The movement of water is also important in many aquatic biomes. In rivers, the organisms must
obviously be adapted to the constant movement of the water around them, but even in larger bodies of
water such as the oceans, regular currents and tides impact availability of nutrients, food resources, and
the presence of the water itself.
Finally, all natural water contains dissolved solids, or salts. Fresh water contains low levels of
such dissolved substances because the water is rapidly recycled through evaporation and precipitation.
The oceans have a relatively constant high salt content. Aquatic habitats at the interface of marine and
freshwater ecosystems have complex and variable salt environments that range between freshwater and
marine levels. These are known as brackish water environments. Lakes located in closed drainage basins
concentrate salt in their waters and can have extremely high salt content that only a few and highly
specialized species are able to inhabit.
Marine Biomes
The ocean is a continuous body of salt water that is relatively uniform in chemical composition. It is a
weak solution of mineral salts and decayed biological matter. Within the ocean, coral reefs are a second
type of marine biome. Estuaries, coastal areas where salt water and fresh water mix, form a third unique
marine biome.
The ocean is categorized by several zones (Figure 13.28). All of the oceans open water is referred
to as the pelagic realm (or zone). The benthic realm (or zone) extends along the ocean bottom from
the shoreline to the deepest parts of the ocean floor. From the surface to the bottom or the limit to which
photosynthesis occurs is the photic zone (approximately 200 m or 650 ft). At depths greater than 200 m,
light cannot penetrate; thus, this is referred to as the aphotic zone. The majority of the ocean is aphotic
and lacks sufficient light for photosynthesis. The deepest part of the ocean, the Challenger Deep (in the
Mariana Trench, located in the western Pacific Ocean), is about 11,000 m (about 6.8 mi) deep. To give
some perspective on the depth of this trench, the ocean is, on average, 4267 m or 14,000 ft deep.
Ocean
The physical diversity of the ocean has a significant influence on the diversity of organisms that live
within it. The ocean is categorized into different zones based on how far light reaches into the water.
Each zone has a distinct group of species adapted to the biotic and abiotic conditions particular to that
zone.
The intertidal zone (Figure 13.28) is the oceanic region that is closest to land. With each tidal
cycle, the intertidal zone alternates between being inundated with water and left high and dry. Generally,
most people think of this portion of the ocean as a sandy beach. In some cases, the intertidal zone
is indeed a sandy beach, but it can also be rocky, muddy, or dense with tangled roots in mangrove
forests. The intertidal zone is an extremely variable environment because of tides. Organisms may be
exposed to air at low tide and are underwater during high tide. Therefore, living things that thrive in the
intertidal zone are often adapted to being dry for long periods of time. The shore of the intertidal zone
is also repeatedly struck by waves and the organisms found there are adapted to withstand damage from
the pounding action of the waves (Figure 13.27). The exoskeletons of shoreline crustaceans (such as
the shore crab, Carcinus maenas) are tough and protect them from desiccation (drying out) and wave
damage. Another consequence of the pounding waves is that few algae and plants establish themselves
in constantly moving sand or mud.
Figure 13.27 Sea stars, sea urchins, and mussel shells are often found in the intertidal zone, shown
here in Kachemak Bay, Alaska. (credit: NOAA)
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The neritic zone (Figure 13.28) extends from the margin of the intertidal zone to depths of about
200 m (or 650 ft) at the edge of the continental shelf. When the water is relatively clear, photosynthesis
can occur in the neritic zone. The water contains silt and is well-oxygenated, low in pressure, and
stable in temperature. These factors all contribute to the neritic zone having the highest productivity and
biodiversity of the ocean. Phytoplankton, including photosynthetic bacteria and larger species of algae,
are responsible for the bulk of this primary productivity. Zooplankton, protists, small fishes, and shrimp
feed on the producers and are the primary food source for most of the worlds fisheries. The majority of
these fisheries exist within the neritic zone.
Beyond the neritic zone is the open ocean area known as the oceanic zone (Figure 13.28).
Within the oceanic zone there is thermal stratification. Abundant phytoplankton and zooplankton support
populations of fish and whales. Nutrients are scarce and this is a relatively less productive part of the
marine biome. When photosynthetic organisms and the organisms that feed on them die, their bodies fall
to the bottom of the ocean where they remain; the open ocean lacks a process for bringing the organic
nutrients back up to the surface.
Beneath the pelagic zone is the benthic realm, the deepwater region beyond the continental shelf
(Figure 13.28). The bottom of the benthic realm is comprised of sand, silt, and dead organisms.
Temperature decreases as water depth increases. This is a nutrient-rich portion of the ocean because of
the dead organisms that fall from the upper layers of the ocean. Because of this high level of nutrients, a
diversity of fungi, sponges, sea anemones, marine worms, sea stars, fishes, and bacteria exists.
The deepest part of the ocean is the abyssal zone, which is at depths of 4000 m or greater. The
abyssal zone (Figure 13.28) is very cold and has very high pressure, high oxygen content, and low
nutrient content. There are a variety of invertebrates and fishes found in this zone, but the abyssal zone
does not have photosynthetic organisms. Chemosynthetic bacteria use the hydrogen sulfide and other
minerals emitted from deep hydrothermal vents. These chemosynthetic bacteria use the hydrogen sulfide
as an energy source and serve as the base of the food chain found around the vents.
Figure 13.28 The ocean is divided into different zones based on water depth, distance from the
shoreline, and light penetration.
In which of the following regions would you expect to find photosynthetic organisms?
a. The aphotic zone, the neritic zone, the oceanic zone, and the benthic realm.
b. The photic zone, the intertidal zone, the neritic zone, and the oceanic zone.
c. The photic zone, the abyssal zone, the neritic zone, and the oceanic zone.
d. The pelagic realm, the aphotic zone, the neritic zone, and the oceanic zone.
Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are ocean ridges formed by marine invertebrates living in warm shallow waters within
the photic zone of the ocean. They are found within 30 north and south of the equator. The Great
Barrier Reef is a well-known reef system located several miles off the northeastern coast of Australia.
Other coral reefs are fringing islands, which are directly adjacent to land, or atolls, which are circular
reefs surrounding a former island that is now underwater. The coral-forming colonies of organisms
(members of phylum Cnidaria) secrete a calcium carbonate skeleton. These calcium-rich skeletons
slowly accumulate, thus forming the underwater reef (Figure 13.29). Corals found in shallower waters
(at a depth of approximately 60 m or about 200 ft) have a mutualistic relationship with photosynthetic
unicellular protists. The relationship provides corals with the majority of the nutrition and the energy
they require. The waters in which these corals live are nutritionally poor and, without this mutualism,
it would not be possible for large corals to grow because there are few planktonic organisms for them
to feed on. Some corals living in deeper and colder water do not have a mutualistic relationship with
protists; these corals must obtain their energy exclusively by feeding on plankton using stinging cells on
their tentacles.
In
this
National
Oceanic
and
Atmospheric
Administration
(NOAA)
video
(http://openstaxcollege.org/l/coral_organisms) , marine ecologist Dr. Peter Etnoyer discusses his
research on coral organisms.
Coral reefs are one of the most diverse biomes. It is estimated that more than 4000 fish species
inhabit coral reefs. These fishes can feed on coral, the cryptofauna (invertebrates found within the
calcium carbonate structures of the coral reefs), or the seaweed and algae that are associated with the
coral. These species include predators, herbivores, or planktivores. Predators are animal species that hunt
and are carnivores or flesh eaters. Herbivores eat plant material, and planktivores eat plankton.
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Figure 13.29 Coral reefs are formed by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral organisms, which
are marine invertebrates in the phylum Cnidaria. (credit: Terry Hughes)
Global Decline of Coral Reefs

It takes a long time to build a coral reef. The animals that create coral reefs do so over
thousands of years, continuing to slowly deposit the calcium carbonate that forms their
characteristic ocean homes. Bathed in warm tropical waters, the coral animals and their
symbiotic protist partners evolved to survive at the upper limit of ocean water temperature.
Together, climate change and human activity pose dual threats to the long-term
survival of the worlds coral reefs. The main cause of killing of coral reefs is warmerthan-usual surface water. As global warming raises ocean temperatures, coral reefs are
suffering. The excessive warmth causes the coral organisms to expel their endosymbiotic,
food-producing protists, resulting in a phenomenon known as bleaching. The colors of
corals are a result of the particular protist endosymbiont, and when the protists leave, the
corals lose their color and turn white, hence the term bleaching.
Rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide further threaten the corals in other ways;
as carbon dioxide dissolves in ocean waters, it lowers pH, thus increasing ocean acidity.
As acidity increases, it interferes with the calcification that normally occurs as coral animals
build their calcium carbonate homes.
When a coral reef begins to die, species diversity plummets as animals lose food and
shelter. Coral reefs are also economically important tourist destinations, so the decline of
coral reefs poses a serious threat to coastal economies.
Human population growth has damaged corals in other ways, too. As human coastal
populations increase, the runoff of sediment and agricultural chemicals has increased,
causing some of the once-clear tropical waters to become cloudy. At the same time,
overfishing of popular fish species has allowed the predator species that eat corals to go
unchecked.
Although a rise in global temperatures of 1C2C (a conservative scientific
projection) in the coming decades may not seem large, it is very significant to this biome.
When change occurs rapidly, species can become extinct before evolution leads to newly
adapted species. Many scientists believe that global warming, with its rapid (in terms of
evolutionary time) and inexorable increases in temperature, is tipping the balance beyond
the point at which many of the worlds coral reefs can recover.
Estuaries: Where the Ocean Meets Fresh Water

Estuaries are biomes that occur where a river, a source of fresh water, meets the ocean. Therefore, both
fresh water and salt water are found in the same vicinity; mixing results in a diluted (brackish) salt water.
Estuaries form protected areas where many of the offspring of crustaceans, mollusks, and fish begin their
lives. Salinity is an important factor that influences the organisms and the adaptations of the organisms
found in estuaries. The salinity of estuaries varies and is based on the rate of flow of its freshwater
sources. Once or twice a day, high tides bring salt water into the estuary. Low tides occurring at the same
frequency reverse the current of salt water (Figure 13.30).
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Figure 13.30 As estuary is where fresh water and salt water meet, such as the mouth of the Klamath
River in California, shown here. (credit: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers)
The daily mixing of fresh water and salt water is a physiological challenge for the plants and
animals that inhabit estuaries. Many estuarine plant species are halophytes, plants that can tolerate salty
conditions. Halophytic plants are adapted to deal with salt water spray and salt water on their roots. In
some halophytes, filters in the roots remove the salt from the water that the plant absorbs. Animals, such
as mussels and clams (phylum Mollusca), have developed behavioral adaptations that expend a lot of
energy to function in this rapidly changing environment. When these animals are exposed to low salinity,
they stop feeding, close their shells, and switch from aerobic respiration (in which they use gills) to
anaerobic respiration (a process that does not require oxygen). When high tide returns to the estuary, the
salinity and oxygen content of the water increases, and these animals open their shells, begin feeding,
and return to aerobic respiration.
Freshwater Biomes
Freshwater biomes include lakes, ponds, and wetlands (standing water) as well as rivers and streams
(flowing water). Humans rely on freshwater biomes to provide aquatic resources for drinking water, crop
irrigation, sanitation, recreation, and industry. These various roles and human benefits are referred to as
ecosystem services. Lakes and ponds are found in terrestrial landscapes and are therefore connected with
abiotic and biotic factors influencing these terrestrial biomes.
Lakes and Ponds
Lakes and ponds can range in area from a few square meters to thousands of square kilometers.
Temperature is an important abiotic factor affecting living things found in lakes and ponds. During
the summer in temperate regions, thermal stratification of deep lakes occurs when the upper layer of
water is warmed by the Sun and does not mix with deeper, cooler water. The process produces a sharp
transition between the warm water above and cold water beneath. The two layers do not mix until
cooling temperatures and winds break down the stratification and the water in the lake mixes from top to
bottom. During the period of stratification, most of the productivity occurs in the warm, well-illuminated,
upper layer, while dead organisms slowly rain down into the cold, dark layer below where decomposing
bacteria and cold-adapted species such as lake trout exist. Like the ocean, lakes and ponds have a photic
layer in which photosynthesis can occur. Phytoplankton (algae and cyanobacteria) are found here and
provide the base of the food web of lakes and ponds. Zooplankton, such as rotifers and small crustaceans,
consume these phytoplankton. At the bottom of lakes and ponds, bacteria in the aphotic zone break down
dead organisms that sink to the bottom.
Nitrogen and particularly phosphorus are important limiting nutrients in lakes and ponds. Therefore,
they are determining factors in the amount of phytoplankton growth in lakes and ponds. When there is a
large input of nitrogen and phosphorus (e.g., from sewage and runoff from fertilized lawns and farms),
the growth of algae skyrockets, resulting in a large accumulation of algae called an algal bloom. Algal
blooms (Figure 13.31) can become so extensive that they reduce light penetration in water. As a result,
the lake or pond becomes aphotic and photosynthetic plants cannot survive. When the algae die and
decompose, severe oxygen depletion of the water occurs. Fishes and other organisms that require oxygen
are then more likely to die.
Figure 13.31 The uncontrolled growth of algae in this waterway has resulted in an algal bloom.
Rivers and Streams

Rivers and the narrower streams that feed into the rivers are continuously moving bodies of water that
carry water from the source or headwater to the mouth at a lake or ocean. The largest rivers include the
Nile River in Africa, the Amazon River in South America, and the Mississippi River in North America
(Figure 13.32).
Figure 13.32 Rivers range from (a) narrow and shallow to (b) wide and slow moving. (credit a:
modification of work by Cory Zanker; credit b: modification of work by David DeHetre)
Abiotic features of rivers and streams vary along the length of the river or stream. Streams begin at
a point of origin referred to as source water. The source water is usually cold, low in nutrients, and clear.
The channel (the width of the river or stream) is narrower here than at any other place along the length
of the river or stream. Headwater streams are of necessity at a higher elevation than the mouth of the
river and often originate in regions with steep grades leading to higher flow rates than lower elevation
stretches of the river.
Faster-moving water and the short distance from its origin results in minimal silt levels in headwater
streams; therefore, the water is clear. Photosynthesis here is mostly attributed to algae that are growing on
rocks; the swift current inhibits the growth of phytoplankton. Photosynthesis may be further reduced by
tree cover reaching over the narrow stream. This shading also keeps temperatures lower. An additional
input of energy can come from leaves or other organic material that falls into a river or stream from
the trees and other plants that border the water. When the leaves decompose, the organic material and
nutrients in the leaves are returned to the water. The leaves also support a food chain of invertebrates
that eat them and are in turn eaten by predatory invertebrates and fish. Plants and animals have adapted
to this fast-moving water. For instance, leeches (phylum Annelida) have elongated bodies and suckers
on both ends. These suckers attach to the substrate, keeping the leech anchored in place. In temperate
regions, freshwater trout species (phylum Chordata) may be an important predator in these fast-moving
and colder river and streams.
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As the river or stream flows away from the source, the width of the channel gradually widens, the
current slows, and the temperature characteristically increases. The increasing width results from the
increased volume of water from more and more tributaries. Gradients are typically lower farther along
the river, which accounts for the slowing flow. With increasing volume can come increased silt, and
as the flow rate slows, the silt may settle, thus increasing the deposition of sediment. Phytoplankton
can also be suspended in slow-moving water. Therefore, the water will not be as clear as it is near the
source. The water is also warmer as a result of longer exposure to sunlight and the absence of tree cover
over wider expanses between banks. Worms (phylum Annelida) and insects (phylum Arthropoda) can be
found burrowing into the mud. Predatory vertebrates (phylum Chordata) include waterfowl, frogs, and
fishes. In heavily silt-laden rivers, these predators must find food in the murky waters, and, unlike the
trout in the clear waters at the source, these vertebrates cannot use vision as their primary sense to find
food. Instead, they are more likely to use taste or chemical cues to find prey.
When a river reaches the ocean or a large lake, the water typically slows dramatically and any silt
in the river water will settle. Rivers with high silt content discharging into oceans with minimal currents
and wave action will build deltas, low-elevation areas of sand and mud, as the silt settles onto the ocean
bottom. Rivers with low silt content or in areas where ocean currents or wave action are high create
estuarine areas where the fresh water and salt water mix.
Wetlands
Wetlands are environments in which the soil is either permanently or periodically saturated with water.
Wetlands are different from lakes and ponds because wetlands exhibit a near continuous cover of
emergent vegetation. Emergent vegetation consists of wetland plants that are rooted in the soil but have
portions of leaves, stems, and flowers extending above the waters surface. There are several types of
wetlands including marshes, swamps, bogs, mudflats, and salt marshes (Figure 13.33).
Figure 13.33 Located in southern Florida, Everglades National Park is vast array of wetland
environments, including sawgrass marshes, cypress swamps, and estuarine mangrove forests.
Here, a great egret walks among cypress trees. (credit: NPS)
Freshwater marshes and swamps are characterized by slow and steady water flow. Bogs develop
in depressions where water flow is low or nonexistent. Bogs usually occur in areas where there is a
clay bottom with poor percolation. Percolation is the movement of water through the pores in the soil
or rocks. The water found in a bog is stagnant and oxygen depleted because the oxygen that is used
during the decomposition of organic matter is not replaced. As the oxygen in the water is depleted,
decomposition slows. This leads to organic acids and other acids building up and lowering the pH of the
water. At a lower pH, nitrogen becomes unavailable to plants. This creates a challenge for plants because
nitrogen is an important limiting resource. Some types of bog plants (such as sundews, pitcher plants,
and Venus flytraps) capture insects and extract the nitrogen from their bodies. Bogs have low net primary
productivity because the water found in bogs has low levels of nitrogen and oxygen.
KEY TERMS
abyssal zone the deepest part of the ocean at depths of 4000 m or greater
acid rain a corrosive rain caused by rainwater mixing with sulfur dioxide gas as it fall through the
atmosphere, turning it into weak sulfuric acid, causing damage to aquatic ecosystems
algal bloom a rapid increase of algae in an aquatic system
apex consumer an organism at the top of the food chain
aphotic zone the part of the ocean where photosynthesis cannot occur
arctic tundra a biome characterized by low average temperatures, brief growing seasons, the
presence of permafrost, and limited precipitation largely in the form of snow in which the
dominant vegetation are low shrubs, lichens, mosses, and small herbaceous plants
autotroph an organism capable of synthesizing its own food molecules from smaller inorganic
molecules
benthic realm (also, benthic zone) the part of the ocean that extends along the ocean bottom from
the shoreline to the deepest parts of the ocean floor
biogeochemical cycle the cycling of minerals and nutrients through the biotic and abiotic world
biomagnification an increasing concentration of persistent, toxic substances in organisms at each
trophic level, from the producers to the apex consumers
biome a large-scale community of organisms, primarily defined on land by the dominant plant types
that exist in geographic regions of the planet with similar climatic conditions
boreal forest a biome found in temperate and subarctic regions characterized by short growing
seasons and dominated structurally by coniferous trees
canopy the branches and foliage of trees that form a layer of overhead coverage in a forest
channel the bed and banks of a river or stream
chaparral a biome found in temperate coastal regions characterized by low trees and dry-adapted
shrubs and forbs
chemoautotroph an organism capable of synthesizing its own food using energy from inorganic
molecules
coral reef an ocean ridge formed by marine invertebrates living in warm shallow waters within the
photic zone
cryptofauna the invertebrates found within the calcium carbonate substrate of coral reefs
dead zone an area in a lake and ocean near the mouths of rivers where large areas are depleted of
their normal flora and fauna; these zones can be caused by eutrophication, oil spills, dumping of
toxic chemicals, and other human activities
detrital food web a type of food web that is supported by dead or decaying organisms rather than
by living autotrophs; these are often associated with grazing food webs within the same
ecosystem
ecosystem services the human benefits provided by natural ecosystems
ecosystem a community of living organisms and their interactions with their abiotic environment
emergent vegetation the plants living in bodies of water that are rooted in the soil but have
portions of leaves, stems, and flowers extending above the waters surface
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equilibrium the steady state of a system in which the relationships between elements of the system
do not change
estuary a region where fresh water and salt water mix where a river discharges into an ocean or sea
eutrophication the process whereby nutrient runoff causes the excess growth of microorganisms
and plants in aquatic systems
fallout the direct deposition of solid minerals on land or in the ocean from the atmosphere
food chain a linear sequence of trophic (feeding) relationships of producers, primary consumers,
and higher level consumers
food web a web of trophic (feeding) relationships among producers, primary consumers, and higher
level consumers in an ecosystem
grazing food web a type of food web in which the producers are either plants on land or
phytoplankton in the water; often associated with a detrital food web within the same ecosystem
gross primary productivity the rate at which photosynthetic producers incorporate energy from
the Sun
hydrosphere the region of the planet in which water exists, including the atmosphere that contains
water vapor and the region beneath the ground that contains groundwater
intertidal zone the part of the ocean that is closest to land; parts extend above the water at low tide
neritic zone the part of the ocean that extends from low tide to the edge of the continental shelf
net primary productivity the energy that remains in the producers after accounting for the
organisms respiration and heat loss
non-renewable resource a resource, such as a fossil fuel, that is either regenerated very slowly or
not at all
oceanic zone the part of the ocean that begins offshore where the water measures 200 m deep or
deeper
pelagic realm (also, pelagic zone) the open ocean waters that are not close to the bottom or near the
shore
permafrost a perennially frozen portion of the Arctic tundra soil
photic zone the upper layer of ocean water in which photosynthesis is able to take place
photoautotroph an organism that uses sunlight as an energy source to synthesize its own food
molecules
planktivore an animal that eats plankton
primary consumer the trophic level that obtains its energy from the producers of an ecosystem
producer the trophic level that obtains its energy from sunlight, inorganic chemicals, or dead or
decaying organic material
resilience (ecological) the speed at which an ecosystem recovers equilibrium after being disturbed
resistance (ecological) the ability of an ecosystem to remain at equilibrium in spite of
disturbances
savanna a biome located in the tropics with an extended dry season and characterized by a grassland
with sparsely distributed trees
secondary consumer a trophic level in an ecosystem, usually a carnivore that eats a primary
consumer
source water the point of origin of a river or stream
subduction the movement of one tectonic plate beneath another

subtropical desert a biome found in the subtropics with hot daily temperatures, very low and
unpredictable precipitation, and characterized by a limited dry-adapted vegetation
temperate forest a biome found in temperate regions with moderate rainfall and dominated
structurally by deciduous trees
temperate grassland a biome dominated by grasses and herbaceous plants due to low
precipitation, periodic fires, and grazing
tertiary consumer a trophic level in an ecosystem, usually carnivores that eat other carnivores
trophic level the position of a species or group of species in a food chain or a food web
tropical rainforest a biome found near the equator characterized by stable temperatures with
abundant and seasonal rainfall in which trees form the structurally important vegetation
wetland environment in which the soil is either permanently or periodically saturated with water
CHAPTER SUMMARY
13.1 Energy Flow through Ecosystems
Ecosystems exist underground, on land, at sea, and in the air. Organisms in an ecosystem acquire
energy in a variety of ways, which is transferred between trophic levels as the energy flows from the
base to the top of the food web, with energy being lost at each transfer. There is energy lost at each
trophic level, so the lengths of food chains are limited because there is a point where not enough energy
remains to support a population of consumers. Fat soluble compounds biomagnify up a food chain
causing damage to top consumers. even when environmental concentrations of a toxin are low.
13.2 Biogeochemical Cycles

Mineral nutrients are cycled through ecosystems and their environment. Of particular importance are
water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. All of these cycles have major impacts on ecosystem
structure and function. As human activities have caused major disturbances to these cycles, their study
and modeling is especially important. Ecosystems have been damaged by a variety of human activities
that alter the natural biogeochemical cycles due to pollution, oil spills, and events causing global
climate change. The health of the biosphere depends on understanding these cycles and how to protect
the environment from irreversible damage.
13.3 Terrestrial Biomes

Earth has terrestrial and aquatic biomes. Aquatic biomes include both freshwater and marine
environments. There are eight major terrestrial biomes: tropical rainforests, savannas, subtropical
deserts, chaparral, temperate grasslands, temperate forests, boreal forests, and Arctic tundra. The same
biome can occur in different geographic locations with similar climates. Temperature and precipitation,
and variations in both, are key abiotic factors that shape the composition of animal and plant
communities in terrestrial biomes. Some biomes, such as temperate grasslands and temperate forests,
have distinct seasons with cold and hot weather alternating throughout the year. In warm, moist biomes,
such as the tropical rainforest, net primary productivity is high as warm temperatures, abundant water,
and a year-round growing season fuel plant growth. Other biomes, such as deserts and tundra, have low
primary productivity due to extreme temperatures and a shortage of water.
13.4 Aquatic and Marine Biomes

Aquatic biomes include both saltwater and freshwater biomes. The abiotic factors important for the
structuring of aquatic biomes can be different than those seen in terrestrial biomes. Sunlight is an
important factor in bodies of water, especially those that are very deep, because of the role of
photosynthesis in sustaining certain organisms. Other important factors include temperature, water
movement, and salt content. Oceans may be thought of as consisting of different zones based on water
depth, distance from the shoreline, and light penetrance. Different kinds of organisms are adapted to the
conditions found in each zone. Coral reefs are unique marine ecosystems that are home to a wide
variety of species. Estuaries are found where rivers meet the ocean; their shallow waters provide
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nourishment and shelter for young crustaceans, mollusks, fishes, and many other species. Freshwater
biomes include lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, and wetlands. Bogs are an interesting type of wetland
characterized by standing water, a lower pH, and a lack of nitrogen.

1. Figure 13.12 Which of the following
statements about the nitrogen cycle is false?
a. Ammonification converts organic
nitrogenous matter from living
organisms into ammonium (NH4+).
b. Denitrification by bacteria converts
nitrates (NO3-) to nitrogen gas (N2).
c. Nitrification by bacteria converts
nitrates (NO3-) to nitrites (NO2-).
d. Nitrogen fixing bacteria convert
nitrogen gas (N2) into organic
compounds.
2. Figure 13.28 In which of the following regions

would you expect to find photosynthetic
organisms?
a. The aphotic zone, the neritic zone, the
oceanic zone, and the benthic realm.
b. The photic zone, the intertidal zone, the
neritic zone, and the oceanic zone.
c. The photic zone, the abyssal zone, the
d. The pelagic realm, the aphotic zone, the
REVIEW QUESTIONS
3. Decomposers are associated with which class
of food web?
a. grazing
b. detrital
c. inverted
d. aquatic
4. The producer in an ocean grazing food web is
usually a ________.
a. plant
b. animal
c. fungi
d. plankton
5. Which term describes the process whereby
toxic substances increase along trophic levels of
an ecosystem?
a. biomassification
b. biomagnification
c. bioentropy
d. heterotrophy
6. The majority of the water found on Earth is:
a.
b.
c.
d.
ice
water vapor
fresh water
salt water
7. The process whereby oxygen is depleted by the

growth of microorganisms due to excess nutrients
in aquatic systems is called ________.
a. dead zoning
b. eutrophication
c. retrophication
d. depletion
8. Which of the following biomes is characterized
by abundant water resources?
a. deserts
b. boreal forests
c. savanna
d. tropical wet forests
9. Which of the following biomes is characterized
by short growing seasons?
a. deserts
b. tropical wet forests
c. Arctic tundra
d. savanna
10. Why is the tundra treeless?
a. lack of sufficient water
b. permanently frozen ground
c. winters too harsh
d. too many fires
11. Where would you expect to find the most
photosynthesis in an ocean biome?
a. aphotic zone
b. abyssal zone
c. benthic realm
d. intertidal zone
12. A key feature of estuaries is
a. low light conditions and high
productivity
b. salt water and fresh water
c. frequent algal blooms
d. little or no vegetation

13. Compare grazing and detrital food webs. Why
would they both be present in the same
ecosystem?
14. Why are drinking water supplies still a major

concern for many countries?
15. The extremely low precipitation of subtropical

desert biomes might lead one to expect fire to be a
major disturbance factor; however, fire is more
common in the temperate grassland biome than in
the subtropical desert biome. Why is this?
16. In what ways are the subtropical desert and

the Arctic tundra similar?
17. Describe the conditions and challenges facing
organisms living in the intertidal zone.
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APPENDIX A | APPENDIX
APPENDIX
A1 | Periodic Table of the Elements
Figure A1
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A2 | Geological Time Clock
Figure A2
A3 | Geological Time Chart
Figure A3 (credit: Richard S. Murphy, Jr.)
A4 | Measurements and the Metric System

Measurements and the Metric System
Measurement
Length
Mass
Volume
Area
Temperature
Table A1
Unit
Abbreviation
Metric
Equivalent
nanometer nm
1 nm = 109 m
micrometer m
1 m = 106 m
millimeter
1 mm = 0.001
m
mm
centimeter cm
1 cm = 0.01 m
meter
1 m = 100 cm
1 m = 1000
mm
kilometer
km
1 km = 1000 m
microgram g
1 g = 106 g
milligram
mg
1 mg = 103 g
gram
1 g = 1000 mg
kilogram
kg
1 kg = 1000 g
microliter
1 l = 106 l
milliliter
ml
1 ml = 103 l
liter
1 l = 1000 ml
kiloliter
kl
1 kl = 1000 l
Approximate
Standard
Equivalent
1 mm = 0.039 inch
1 cm = 0.394 inch
1 m = 39.37 inches
1 m = 3.28 feet
1 m = 1.093 yards
1 km = 0.621 miles
1 g = 0.035 ounce
1 kg = 2.205 pounds
1 ml = 0.034 fluid ounce

1 l = 1.057 quarts
1 kl = 264.172 gallons
square
2
centimeter cm
1 cm2 = 100
mm2
square
meter
m2
1 m2 = 10,000
cm2
hectare
ha
1 ha = 10,000
m2
1 cm2 = 0.155 square

inch
1 m2 = 10.764 square
feet
1 m2 = 1.196 square
yards
1 ha = 2.471 acres
Celsius
1 C = 5/9 (F 32)
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ANSWER KEY
Chapter 1
1 Figure 1.3 Potassium-39 has twenty neutrons. Potassium-40 has twenty one neutrons. 2 A 3 A 4 A 5
D 6 C 7 C 8 D 9 D 10 A 11 C 12 Hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions form weak
associations between different molecules. They provide the structure and shape necessary for proteins and
DNA within cells so that they function properly. Hydrogen bonds also give water its unique properties, which
are necessary for life. 13 Some insects can walk on water, although they are heavier (denser) than water,
because of the surface tension of water. Surface tension results from cohesion, or the attraction between
water molecules at the surface of the body of water [the liquid-air (gas) interface]. 14 Water molecules are
polar, meaning they have separated partial positive and negative charges. Because of these charges, water
molecules are able to surround charged particles created when a substance dissociates. The surrounding layer
of water molecules stabilizes the ion and keeps differently charged ions from reassociating, so the substance
stays dissolved. 15 Fat serves as a valuable way for animals to store energy. It can also provide insulation.
Phospholipids and steroids are important components of cell membranes. 16 A change in gene sequence can
lead to a different amino acid being added to a polypeptide chain instead of the normal one. This causes
a change in protein structure and function. For example, in sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin chain has
a single amino acid substitution. Because of this change, the disc-shaped red blood cells assume a crescent
shape, which can result in serious health problems.
Chapter 2
1 Figure 2.7 Plant cells have plasmodesmata, a cell wall, a large central vacuole, chloroplasts, and plastids.
Animal cells have lysosomes and centrosomes. 2 Figure 2.13 Because that face receives chemicals from the
ER, which is toward the center of the cell. 3 Figure 2.22 No, it must have been hypotonic, as a hypotonic
solution would cause water to enter the cells, thereby making them burst. 4 C 5 B 6 D 7 A 8 D 9 A 10
A 11 D 12 C 14 D 15 The advantages of light microscopes are that they are easily obtained, and the
light beam does not kill the cells. However, typical light microscopes are somewhat limited in the amount
of detail that they can reveal. Electron microscopes are ideal because you can view intricate details, but
they are bulky and costly, and preparation for the microscopic examination kills the specimen. Transmission
electron microscopes are designed to examine the internal structures of a cell, whereas a scanning electron
microscope only allows visualization of the surface of a structure. 16 Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by
a plasma membrane and have DNA, cytoplasm, and ribosomes, like eukaryotic cells. They also have cell
walls and may have a cell capsule. Prokaryotes have a single large chromosome that is not surrounded by a
nuclear membrane. Prokaryotes may have flagella or motility, pili for conjugation, and fimbriae for adhesion to
surfaces. 17 Form follows function refers to the idea that the function of a body part dictates the form of that
body part. As an example, organisms like birds or fish that fly or swim quickly through the air or water have
streamlined bodies that reduce drag. At the level of the cell, in tissues involved in secretory functions, such
as the salivary glands, the cells have abundant Golgi. 18 The fluidity of the cell membrane is necessary for
the operation of some enzymes and transport mechanisms within the membrane. 19 Water moves through a
semipermeable membrane in osmosis because there is a concentration gradient across the membrane of solute
and solvent. The solute cannot effectively move to balance the concentration on both sides of the membrane, so
water moves to achieve this balance. 20 The cell harvests energy from ATP produced by its own metabolism
to power active transport processes, such as pumps.
Chapter 3
1 Figure 3.6 A compost pile decomposing is an exergonic process. A baby developing from a fertilized
egg is an endergonic process. Tea dissolving into water is an exergonic process. A ball rolling downhill is
an exergonic process. 2 Figure 3.15 After cyanide poisoning, the electron transport chain can no longer
pump electrons into the intermembrane space. The pH of the intermembrane space would increase, and ATP
synthesis would stop. 3 Figure 3.16 The illness is caused by lactic acid build-up. Lactic acid levels rise
after exercise, making the symptoms worse. Milk sickness is rare today, but was common in the Midwestern
United States in the early 1800s. 4 D 5 A 6 C 7 A 8 D 9 B 10 C 11 A 12 B 13 C 14 Physical
exercise involves both anabolic and catabolic processes. Body cells break down sugars to provide ATP to
do the work necessary for exercise, such as muscle contractions. This is catabolism. Muscle cells also must
repair muscle tissue damaged by exercise by building new muscle. This is anabolism. 15 A spontaneous
reaction is one that has a negative G and thus releases energy. However, a spontaneous reaction need not
occur quickly or suddenly like an instantaneous reaction. It may occur over long periods of time due to a large
energy of activation, which prevents the reaction from occurring quickly. 16 Most vitamins and minerals act
as cofactors and coenzymes for enzyme action. Many enzymes require the binding of certain cofactors or
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coenzymes to be able to catalyze their reactions. Since enzymes catalyze many important reactions, it is critical
to obtain sufficient vitamins and minerals from diet and supplements. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a coenzyme
necessary for the action of enzymes that build collagen. 17 If glycolysis evolved relatively late, it likely would
not be as universal in organisms as it is. It probably evolved in very primitive organisms and persisted, with
the addition of other pathways of carbohydrate metabolism that evolved later. 18 The oxygen we inhale is
the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain and allows aerobic respiration to proceed, which is
the most efficient pathway for harvesting energy in the form of ATP from food molecules. The carbon dioxide
we breathe out is formed during the citric acid cycle when the bonds in carbon compounds are broken. 19
Without oxygen, oxidative phosphorylation and the citric acid cycle stop, so ATP is no longer generated
through this mechanism, which extracts the greatest amount of energy from a sugar molecule. In addition,
NADH accumulates, preventing glycolysis from going forward because of an absence of NAD+. Lactic acid
fermentation uses the electrons in NADH to generate lactic acid from pyruvate, which allows glycolysis to
continue and thus a smaller amount of ATP can be generated by the cell. 20 They are very economical. The
substrates, intermediates, and products move between pathways and do so in response to finely tuned feedback
inhibition loops that keep metabolism overall on an even keel. Intermediates in one pathway may occur in
another, and they can move from one pathway to another fluidly in response to the needs of the cell.
Chapter 4
1 Figure 4.7 Levels of carbon dioxide (a reactant) will fall, and levels of oxygen (a product) will rise. As a
result, the rate of photosynthesis will slow down. 2 C 3 B 4 C 5 B 6 C 7 A 8 B 9 C 10 A 11 B 12
To convert solar energy into chemical energy that cells can use to do work. 13 Because lions eat animals that
eat plants. 14 The energy is present initially as light. A photon of light hits chlorophyll, causing an electron
to be energized. The free electron travels through the electron transport chain, and the energy of the electron is
used to pump hydrogen ions into the thylakoid space, transferring the energy into the electrochemical gradient.
The energy of the electrochemical gradient is used to power ATP synthase, and the energy is transferred into
a bond in the ATP molecule. In addition, energy from another photon can be used to create a high-energy
bond in the molecule NADPH. 15 None of the cycle could take place, because RuBisCO is essential in fixing
carbon dioxide. Specifically, RuBisCO catalyzes the reaction between carbon dioxide and RuBP at the start of
the cycle. 16 Photosynthesis takes the energy of sunlight and combines water and carbon dioxide to produce
sugar and oxygen as a waste product. The reactions of respiration take sugar and consume oxygen to break it
down into carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy. Thus, the reactants of photosynthesis are the products
of respiration, and vice versa.
Chapter 5
1 Figure 5.4 D. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. Sister chromatids line up at the
metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks apart and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus reforms and
the cell divides. 2 C 3 B 4 B 5 C 6 A 7 C 8 C 9 C 10 C 11 D 12 Human somatic cells have 46
chromosomes, including 22 homologous pairs and one pair of nonhomologous sex chromosomes. This is the
2n, or diploid, condition. Human gametes have 23 chromosomes, one each of 23 unique chromosomes. This is
the n, or haploid, condition. 13 There are very few similarities between animal cell and plant cell cytokinesis.
In animal cells, a ring of actin fibers is formed around the periphery of the cell at the former metaphase plate.
The actin ring contracts inward, pulling the plasma membrane toward the center of the cell until the cell is
pinched in two. In plant cells, a new cell wall must be formed between the daughter cells. Because of the rigid
cell walls of the parent cell, contraction of the middle of the cell is not possible. Instead, a cell plate is formed
in the center of the cell at the former metaphase plate. The cell plate is formed from Golgi vesicles that contain
enzymes, proteins, and glucose. The vesicles fuse and the enzymes build a new cell wall from the proteins
and glucose. The cell plate grows toward, and eventually fuses with, the cell wall of the parent cell. 14 If
one of the genes that produce regulator proteins becomes mutated, it produces a malformed, possibly nonfunctional, cell-cycle regulator. This increases the chance that more mutations will be left unrepaired in the
cell. Each subsequent generation of cells sustains more damage. The cell cycle can speed up as a result of loss
of functional checkpoint proteins. The cells can lose the ability to self-destruct. 15 A proto-oncogene is the
segment of DNA that codes for one of the positive cell-cycle regulators. If that gene becomes mutated to a
form that is overactive, it is considered an oncogene. A tumor suppressor gene is a segment of DNA that codes
for one of the negative cell-cycle regulators. If that gene becomes mutated to a form that is underactive, the
cell cycle will run unchecked. 16 The common components of eukaryotic cell division and binary fission are
DNA duplication, segregation of duplicated chromosomes, and the division of the cytoplasmic contents.
Chapter 6
1 Figure 6.2 Yes, it will be able to reproduce asexually. 2 C 3 D 4 B 5 C 6 D 7 C 8 B 9 A 10
D 11 B 12 The offspring of sexually reproducing organisms are all genetically unique. Because of this,
sexually reproducing organisms may have more successful survival of offspring in environments that change
than asexually reproducing organisms, whose offspring are all genetically identical. In addition, the rate of
adaptation of sexually reproducing organisms is higher, because of their increased variation. This may allow
sexually reproducing organisms to adapt more quickly to competitors and parasites, who are evolving new
ways to exploit or outcompete them. 13 The two events common to all sexually reproducing organisms
are meiosis and fertilization. Meiosis reduces a diploid cell to a haploid state. The haploid cell may divide
mitotically to produce an organism, some of whose cells will combine during fertilization, or the haploid
cells produced by meiosis may immediately combine in fertilization to produce a diploid cell that divides
to produce an organism. 14 Random alignment leads to new combinations of traits. The chromosomes that
were originally inherited by the gamete-producing individual came equally from the egg and the sperm. In
metaphase I, the duplicated copies of these maternal and paternal homologous chromosomes line up across
the center of the cell to form a tetrad. The orientation of each tetrad is random. There is an equal chance
that the maternally derived chromosomes will be facing either pole. The same is true of the paternally
derived chromosomes. The alignment should occur differently in almost every meiosis. As the homologous
chromosomes are pulled apart in anaphase I, any combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes will
move toward each pole. The gametes formed from these two groups of chromosomes will have a mixture
of traits from the individuals parents. Each gamete is unique. 15 The two divisions are similar in that the
chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate individually, meaning unpaired with other chromosomes
(as in meiosis I). In addition, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids that will be pulled apart.
The two divisions are different because in meiosis II there are half the number of chromosomes that are
present in a diploid cell of the same species undergoing mitosis. This is because meiosis I reduced the number
of chromosomes to a haploid state. 16 The problems caused by trisomies arise because the genes on the
chromosome that is present in three copies produce more product than genes on chromosomes with only two
copies. The cell does not have a way to adjust the amount of product, and the lack of balance causes problems
in development and the maintenance of the individual. Each chromosome is different, and the differences in
survivability could have to do with the numbers of genes on the two chromosomes. Chromosome 21 may
be a smaller chromosome, so there are fewer unbalanced gene products. It is also possible that chromosome
21 carries genes whose products are less sensitive to differences in dosage than chromosome 18. The genes
may be less involved in critical pathways, or the differences in dosage may make less of a difference to those
pathways.
Chapter 7
1 Figure 7.9 You cannot be sure if the plant is homozygous or heterozygous as the data set is too small:
by random chance, all three plants might have acquired only the dominant gene even if the recessive one is
present. 2 Figure 7.10 The possible genotypes are PpYY, PpYy, ppYY, and ppYy. The former two genotypes
would result in plants with purple flowers and yellow peas, while the latter two genotypes would result in
plants with white flowers with yellow peas, for a 1:1 ratio of each phenotype. You only need a 2 2 Punnett
square (four squares total) to do this analysis because two of the alleles are homozygous. 3 Figure 7.16
Half of the female offspring would be heterozygous (XWXw) with red eyes, and half would be homozygous
recessive (XwXw) with white eyes. Half of the male offspring would be hemizygous dominant (XWY) with
red eyes, and half would be hemizygous recessive (XwY) with white eyes. 4 B 5 D 6 A 7 C 8 C 9 A 10
D 11 D 12 C 13 C 14 The garden pea has flowers that close tightly during self-pollination. This helps to
prevent accidental or unintentional fertilizations that could have diminished the accuracy of Mendels data. 15
The Punnett square would be 2 2 and will have T and T along the top and T and t along the left side.
Clockwise from the top left, the genotypes listed within the boxes will be Tt, Tt, tt, and tt. The phenotypic ratio
will be 1 tall:1 dwarf. 16 The Punnett square will be 2 2 and will have T and t along the top and T and t
along the left side. Clockwise from the top left, the genotypes listed within the boxes will be TT, Tt, Tt, and
tt. The genotypic ratio will be 1TT:2Tt:1tt. 17 No, males can only express color blindness and cannot carry
it because an individual needs two X chromosomes to be a carrier. 18 Yes this child could have come from
these parents. The child would have inherited an i allele from each parent and for this to happen the type A
parent had to have genotype IAi and the type b parent had to have genotype IBi.
Chapter 8
1 Figure 8.10 Ligase, as this enzyme joins together Okazaki fragments. 2 A 3 C 4 B 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9
D 10 D 11 B 12 The DNA is wound around proteins called histones. The histones then stack together in
a compact form that creates a fiber that is 30-nm thick. The fiber is further coiled for greater compactness.
During metaphase of mitosis, the chromosome is at its most compact to facilitate chromosome movement.
During interphase, there are denser areas of chromatin, called heterochromatin, that contain DNA that is not
expressed, and less dense euchromatin that contains DNA that is expressed. 13 A single strand of DNA is
a polymer of nucleic acids joined covalently between the phosphate group of one and the deoxyribose sugar
of the next to for a backbone from which the nitrogenous bases stick out. In its natural state, DNA has two
strands wound around each other in a double helix. The bases on each strand are bonded to each other with
hydrogen bonds. Only specific bases bond with each other; adenine bonds with thymine, and cytosine bonds
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with guanine. 14 Telomerase has an inbuilt RNA template that extends the 3' end, so a primer is synthesized
and extended. Thus, the ends are protected. 15 The mRNA would be: 5'-AUGGCCGGUUAUUAAGCA-3'.
The protein would be: MAGY. Even though there are six codons, the fifth codon corresponds to a stop, so
the sixth codon would not be translated. 16 The cell controls which protein is expressed, and to what level
that protein is expressed, in the cell. Prokaryotic cells alter the transcription rate to turn genes on or off.
This method will increase or decrease protein levels in response to what is needed by the cell. Eukaryotic
cells change the accessibility (epigenetic), transcription, or translation of a gene. This will alter the amount of
RNA, and the lifespan of the RNA, to alter the amount of protein that exists. Eukaryotic cells also change the
proteins translation to increase or decrease its overall levels. Eukaryotic organisms are much more complex
and can manipulate protein levels by changing many stages in the process.
Chapter 9
1 Figure 9.7 Because even though the original cell came from a Scottish Blackface sheep and the surrogate
mother was a Scottish Blackface, the DNA came from a Finn-Dorset. 2 B 3 D 4 A 5 B 6 C 7 B 8 D 9
C 10 The polymerase chain reaction is used to quickly produce many copies of a specific segment of DNA
when only one or a very few copies are originally present. The benefit of PCR is that there are many instances
in which we would like to know something about a sample of DNA when only very small amounts are
available. PCR allows us to increase the number of DNA molecules so that other tests, such as sequencing, can
be performed with it. 11 The human insulin comes from the gene that produces insulin in humans, which has
been spliced into a bacterial genome using recombinant DNA technology. The bacterium produces the insulin,
which is then purified for human use. Before there was genetically engineered human insulin, diabetics were
given insulin extracted from pig pancreases, which was similar to, but not exactly like, human insulin. Because
it was not exactly like human insulin, the pig insulin caused complications in some diabetic patients. 12
Genome mapping helps researchers to study disease-causing genes in humans. It also helps to identify traits of
organisms that can be used in applications such as cleaning up pollution. 13 The benefit of such a test is that
the individual can make preparations for having the disease including taking treatments that slow the disease.
The disadvantage of the test is that it might be used by insurance companies to deny coverage to the person.
Chapter 10
1 Figure 10.7 Genetic drift is likely to occur more rapidly on an island, where smaller populations are expected
to occur. 2 B 3 D 4 C 5 A 6 C 7 B 8 C 9 D 10 A 11 B 12 B 13 A 14 B 15 The plants that can
best use the resources of the area, including competing with other individuals for those resources, will produce
more seeds themselves and those traits that allowed them to better use the resources will increase in the
population of the next generation. 16 The Hardy-Weinberg principle of equilibrium states that a populations
allele frequencies are inherently stable. Unless an evolutionary force is acting upon the population, the
population would carry the same genes at the same frequencies generation after generation, and individuals
would, as a whole, look essentially the same. 17 The theory of natural selection stems from the observation
that some individuals in a population survive longer and have more offspring than others, thus passing on more
of their genes to the next generation. For example, a big, powerful male gorilla is much more likely than a
smaller, weaker gorilla to become the populations silverback, the packs leader who mates far more than the
other males of the group. The pack leader will, therefore, father more offspring, who share half of his genes,
and are thus likely to also grow bigger and stronger like their father. Over time, the genes for bigger size will
increase in frequency in the population, and the population will, as a result, grow larger on average. 18 A
vestigial structure is an example of a homologous structure that has apparently been reduced through evolution
to a non-functional state because its function is no longer utilized by the species exhibiting it; therefore, any
mutations which might reduce its structure are not selected against. The fact that the species has vestiges of
the structure rather than no structure at all is evidence that it was present in an ancestor and evolved to nonfunctionality through accumulation of random mutations. 19 Organisms of one species can arrive to an island
together and then disperse throughout the chain, each settling into different niches, exploiting different food
resources and, evolving independently with little gene flow between different islands. 20 It is likely the two
species would start to reproduce with each other if hybridization is still possible. Depending on the viability of
their offspring, they may fuse back into one species. 21 In science, a theory is a thoroughly tested and verified
set of explanations for a body of observations of nature. It is the strongest form of knowledge in science.
In contrast, a theory in common usage can mean a guess or speculation about something, meaning that the
knowledge implied by the theory may be very weak. 22 The statement implies that there is a goal to evolution
and that the monkey represents greater progress to that goal than the mouse. Both species are likely to be well
adapted to their particular environment, which is the outcome of natural selection.
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
1 Figure 12.2 Smaller animals require less food and others resources, so the environment can support more
of them per unit area. 2 Figure 12.6 A: The carrying capacity of seals would decrease, as would the seal
population. 3 Figure 12.11 Stage 4 represents a population that is decreasing. 4 C 5 D 6 A 7 A 8 C 9
B 10 A 11 B 12 C 13 B 14 B 15 D 16 C 17 D 18 The researcher would mark a certain number of
penguins with a tag, release them back into the population, and, at a later time, recapture penguins to see what
percentage was tagged. This percentage would allow an estimation of the size of the penguin population. 19
In the first part of the curve, when few individuals of the species are present and resources are plentiful,
growth is exponential, similar to a J-shaped curve. Later, growth slows due to the species using up resources.
Finally, the population levels off at the carrying capacity of the environment, and it is relatively stable over
time. 20 If a natural disaster such as a fire happened in the winter, when populations are low, it would have a
greater effect on the overall population and its recovery than if the same disaster occurred during the summer,
when population levels are high. 21 Rapidly growing countries have a large segment of the population at
reproductive age or younger. Slower growing populations have a lower percentage of these individuals, and
countries with zero population growth have an even lower percentage. On the other hand, a high proportion of
older individuals is seen mostly in countries with zero growth, and a low proportion is most common in rapidly
growing countries. 22 The competitive exclusion principles states that no two species competing for the same
resources at the same time and place can co-exist over time. Thus, one of the competing species will eventually
dominate. On the other hand, if the species evolve such that they use resources from different parts of the
habitat or at different times of day, the two species can exist together indefinitely. 23 Removing a keystone
species will have dramatic effects on the abundance of individuals in other populations, increasing some and
decreasing others. This affects the interactions between populations such as competition and predator-prey
relationships. In addition, the community may show a loss of diversity.
Chapter 13
1 Figure 13.12 C: Nitrification by bacteria converts nitrates (NO3-) to nitrites (NO3-). 2 Figure 13.28 B. The
photic zone, the intertidal zone, the neritic zone, and the oceanic zone. 3B 4D 5B 6 D 7 B 8 D 9 C 10
B 11 D 12 B 13 Grazing food webs have a producer at their base, which is either a plant for terrestrial
ecosystems or a phytoplankton for aquatic ecosystems. The producers pass their energy to the various trophic
levels of consumers. At the base of detrital food webs are the decomposers, which pass their energy to a variety
of other consumers. Detrital food webs are important for the health of many grazing food webs because they
eliminate dead and decaying organic material, thus clearing space for new organisms and removing potential
causes of disease. 14 Most of the water on Earth is salt water, which humans cannot drink unless the salt
is removed. Some fresh water is locked in glaciers and polar ice caps, or is present in the atmosphere. The
earths water supplies are threatened by pollution and exhaustion. The effort to supply fresh drinking water
to the planets ever-expanding human population is seen as a major challenge in this century. 15 Fire is less
common in desert biomes than in temperate grasslands because deserts have low net primary productivity, thus
very little plant biomass to fuel a fire. 16 Both the subtropical desert and the Arctic tundra have a low supply
of water. In the desert, this is due to extremely low precipitation, and in the Arctic tundra, much of the water
is unavailable to plants because it is frozen. Both the subtropical desert and the Arctic tundra have low net
primary productivity. 17 Organisms living in the intertidal zone must tolerate periodic exposure to air and
sunlight and must be able to be periodically dry. They also must be able to endure the pounding waves; for
this reason, some shoreline organisms have hard exoskeletons that provide protection while also reducing the
likelihood of drying out.
363
364
INDEX
INDEX
A
absorption spectrum, 104,
112
abyssal zone, 342, 349
acellular, 253, 281
acetyl CoA, 84, 93
acid, 32
Acid rain, 333
acid rain, 349
Acids, 20
activation energy, 77, 93
active immunity, 268, 281
active site, 78, 93
Active transport, 61
active transport, 64
adaptation, 230, 248
Adaptive immunity, 266
adaptive immunity, 281
adaptive radiation, 242, 248
adhesion, 19, 32
Age structure, 298
age structure, 311
algal bloom, 346, 349
allele, 173
alleles, 157
allergy, 277, 281
Allopatric speciation, 240
allopatric speciation, 248
allosteric inhibition, 80, 93
alternation of generations,
135, 149
alternative RNA splicing,
197, 198
amino acid, 32
Amino acids, 27
anabolic, 73, 93
anaerobic cellular
respiration, 88, 93
analogous structure, 248
analogous structures, 231
anaphase, 120, 129
aneuploid, 144, 149
anion, 32
anions, 13
anneal, 223
annealing, 207
antibody, 267, 281
antigen, 266, 281
antigen-presenting cell
(APC), 269, 281
apex consumer, 349
apex consumers, 317
aphotic zone, 341, 349
apoptosis, 257, 281
Arctic tundra, 339
arctic tundra, 349
atomic number, 10, 32

ATP, 82, 93
ATP synthase, 87, 93
attenuation, 259, 281
autoantibody, 278, 281
Autoimmunity, 278
autoimmunity, 281
autosome, 149
autosomes, 144
autotroph, 98, 112, 349
autotrophs, 321
B
B cell, 281
B cells, 266
base, 32
bases, 20
benthic realm, 341, 349
binary fission, 125, 129
bioenergetics, 72, 93
biogeochemical cycle, 323,
349
Biomagnification, 322
biomagnification, 349
biomarker, 221, 223
biome, 316, 349
Biotechnology, 203
biotechnology, 223
birth rate, 291, 311
boreal forest, 338, 349
bottleneck effect, 234, 248
buffer, 32
Buffers, 20
C
Calvin cycle, 107, 112
canopy, 334, 349
capsid, 255, 281
carbohydrate, 32
Carbohydrates, 22
carbon fixation, 107, 112
carrying capacity, 291, 311
catabolic, 73, 93
cation, 32
cations, 13
cell cycle, 117, 129
cell cycle checkpoints, 122,
129
cell plate, 120, 129
cell wall, 49, 64
cell-mediated immune
response, 266, 281
Cellulose, 23
cellulose, 32
central vacuole, 51, 64
centriole, 129
centrioles, 118
channel, 347, 349

chaparral, 336, 349
chemical bond, 32
chemical bonds, 13
chemiosmosis, 87, 93
chemoautotroph, 349
chemoautotrophs, 321
chiasmata, 138, 149
chitin, 23, 32
chlorophyll, 100, 112
chlorophyll a, 104, 112
chlorophyll b, 104, 112
chloroplast, 64, 100, 112
Chloroplasts, 50
chromosome inversion, 147,
149
cilia, 45
cilium, 64
citric acid cycle, 85, 93
cleavage furrow, 120, 129
climax community, 310, 311
cloning, 206, 223
codominance, 165, 173
codon, 192, 198
cohesion, 18, 32
competitive exclusion
principle, 304, 311
competitive inhibition, 79,
93
complement system, 264,
281
concentration gradient, 57,
64
Continuous variation, 154
continuous variation, 173
convergent evolution, 231,
248
coral reef, 349
Coral reefs, 342
covalent bond, 14, 32
crossing over, 138, 149
cryptofauna, 343, 349
cytokine, 263, 281
Cytokinesis, 120
cytokinesis, 129
cytopathic, 257, 281
cytoplasm, 44, 64
cytoskeleton, 44, 64
cytosol, 44, 64
cytotoxic T lymphocyte (TC),
281
D
dead zone, 330, 349
death rate, 291, 311
demography, 286, 311
denaturation, 27, 32
dendritic cell, 269, 281
INDEX
density-dependent, 294
density-dependent
regulation, 311
density-independent, 294
density-independent
regulation, 311
deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), 31, 32
deoxyribose, 178, 198
desmosome, 64
desmosomes, 52
detrital food web, 320, 349
Diffusion, 57
diffusion, 64
dihybrid, 162, 173
diploid, 116, 129
diploid-dominant, 135, 149
disaccharide, 32
Disaccharides, 23
discontinuous variation,
154, 173
dispersal, 241, 248
divergent evolution, 231,
248
DNA ligase, 183, 198
DNA polymerase, 183, 198
Dominant, 157
dominant, 173
double helix, 179, 198
E
ecosystem, 316, 349
ecosystem services, 346,
349
effector cell, 281
effector cells, 270
electrochemical gradient,
61, 64
electromagnetic spectrum,
103, 112
electron, 10, 32
electron transfer, 13, 32
electron transport chain, 85,
93
element, 32
elements, 10
Emergent vegetation, 348
emergent vegetation, 349
endergonic, 93
endergonic reactions, 76
Endocytosis, 62
endocytosis, 64
endomembrane system, 45,
64
endoplasmic reticulum (ER),
46, 64
environmental disturbance,
311
environmental disturbances,
309
enzyme, 32, 93
Enzymes, 27
enzymes, 77
epigenetic, 194, 198
epistasis, 171, 173
Equilibrium, 317
equilibrium, 350
Estuaries, 345
estuary, 350
eukaryotic cell, 41, 64
euploid, 144, 149
eutrophication, 328, 350
evaporation, 17, 32
exergonic, 93
exergonic reactions, 76
Exocytosis, 63
exocytosis, 64
exon, 198
exons, 190
exponential growth, 290,
311
extracellular matrix, 51, 64
F
F1, 155, 173
F2, 155, 173
facilitated transport, 58, 64
fallout, 332, 350
fat, 25, 32
Feedback inhibition, 82
feedback inhibition, 93
fermentation, 88, 93
fertilization, 137, 149
Flagella, 45
flagellum, 64
fluid mosaic model, 54, 64
food chain, 317, 350
food web, 319, 350
Foundation species, 307
foundation species, 311
founder effect, 235, 248
FtsZ, 127, 129
G
G0 phase, 121, 129
G1 phase, 117, 129
G2 phase, 118, 129
gamete, 129
gametes, 116
gametophyte, 149
gametophytes, 137
gap junction, 65
Gap junctions, 52
Gel electrophoresis, 204
gel electrophoresis, 223
gene, 129
gene expression, 194, 198
gene flow, 235, 248
gene pool, 232, 248
Gene therapy, 211
gene therapy, 223
genes, 116
genetic code, 192, 198
genetic drift, 232, 248
genetic engineering, 210,
223
genetic map, 214, 223
genetic testing, 223
genetically modified
organism, 210
genetically modified
organism (GMO), 223
genome, 116, 129
genomics, 214, 223
genotype, 157, 173
germ cell, 149
germ cells, 135
Glycogen, 23
glycogen, 32
Glycolysis, 83
glycolysis, 93
glycoprotein, 255, 281
Golgi apparatus, 47, 65
granum, 100, 112
grazing food web, 320, 350
gross primary productivity,
321, 350
H
haploid, 116, 129
haploid-dominant, 135, 149
heat energy, 74, 94
helicase, 183, 198
helper T lymphocyte (TH),
281
hemizygous, 168, 173
heterotroph, 112
Heterotrophs, 98
heterozygous, 158, 173
homologous chromosomes,
116, 129
homologous structure, 248
homologous structures, 231
homozygous, 158, 173
hormone, 33
Hormones, 27
host, 305, 311
humoral immune response,
266, 281
hybridization, 173
hybridizations, 155
hydrogen bond, 15, 33
hydrophilic, 16, 33
365
366
INDEX
hydrophobic, 16, 33
hydrosphere, 323, 350
hypersensitivity, 277, 282
hypertonic, 59, 65
hypotonic, 59, 65
I
immune tolerance, 275, 282
Immunodeficiency, 277
immunodeficiency, 282
incomplete dominance, 165,
173
inflammation, 263, 282
inheritance of acquired
characteristics, 228, 248
Innate immunity, 262
innate immunity, 282
interferon, 263, 282
interkinesis, 140, 149
interphase, 117, 129
intertidal zone, 341, 350
intraspecific competition,
292, 311
intron, 198
introns, 190
ion, 13, 33
ionic bond, 14, 33
Island biogeography, 307
island biogeography, 311
isotonic, 60, 65
isotope, 33
Isotopes, 11
life table, 311

life tables, 286
light-dependent reaction,
112
light-dependent reactions,
101
linkage, 170, 173
Lipids, 24
lipids, 33
litmus, 19
litmus paper, 33
locus, 116, 129
logistic growth, 291, 311
Lymph, 273
lymph, 282
lymphocyte, 264, 282
lysosome, 65
lysosomes, 47
macroevolution, 231, 248

macromolecule, 33
macromolecules, 21
macrophage, 263, 282
major histocompatibility
class (MHC) I, 282
class (MHC) I molecules,
264
class (MHC) II molecule,
282
mark and recapture, 287,
311
J
mass number, 10, 33
mast cell, 282
J-shaped growth curve,
Mast cells, 263
291, 311
Matter, 10
matter, 33
K
meiosis, 134, 149
meiosis I, 137, 149
K-selected species, 296,
Meiosis II, 137
311
meiosis II, 149
karyogram, 143, 149
memory cell, 271, 282
karyotype, 143, 149
keystone species, 307, 311 mesophyll, 100, 112
metabolism, 72, 94
kinetic energy, 75, 94
Metagenomics, 218
kinetochore, 120, 129
metagenomics, 223
metaphase, 120, 129
L
metaphase plate, 120, 129
MHC class II molecule, 267
lagging strand, 183, 198
microevolution, 231, 248
law of dominance, 159, 173
microscope, 38, 65
law of independent
migration, 232, 248
assortment, 162, 173
mimicry, 302, 311
law of segregation, 160, 173
mismatch repair, 186, 198
leading strand, 183, 198
Mitochondria, 49
life cycle, 149
mitochondria, 65
life cycles, 135
mitosis, 118, 129

mitotic, 117, 118
mitotic phase, 130
mitotic spindle, 130
model organism, 223
model organisms, 216
model system, 154, 173
modern synthesis, 231, 248
monocyte, 263, 282
monohybrid, 159, 173
monosaccharide, 33
Monosaccharides, 22
monosomy, 144, 149
mortality rate, 288, 311
mRNA, 188, 198
mutation, 187, 198
mutualism, 305, 311
N
natural killer (NK) cell, 264,
282
Natural selection, 229
natural selection, 248
neritic zone, 342, 350
Net primary productivity,
321
net primary productivity, 350
neutron, 33
Neutrons, 10
neutrophil, 263, 282
nitrogenous base, 178, 198
non-renewable resource,
327, 350
noncompetitive inhibition,
79, 94
nondisjunction, 144, 149
nonpolar covalent bond, 33
Nonpolar covalent bonds,
14
nontemplate strand, 189,
198
nuclear envelope, 46, 65
nucleic acid, 33
nucleic acids, 31
nucleolus, 46, 65
nucleotide, 33
nucleotide excision repair,
186, 198
nucleotides, 31
nucleus, 10, 33, 46, 65
O
oceanic zone, 342, 350
octet rule, 13, 33
oil, 33
oils, 26
INDEX
Okazaki fragments, 183,

198
oncogene, 130
oncogenes, 123
one-child policy, 299, 312
organelle, 65
organelles, 41
origin, 125, 130
osmolarity, 59, 65
Osmosis, 58
osmosis, 65
oxidative phosphorylation,
85, 94
P
P, 155, 173
paper, 19
parasite, 305, 312
passive immune, 268
passive immunity, 282
Passive transport, 57
passive transport, 65
pelagic realm, 341, 350
periodic table of elements,
11, 33
permafrost, 339, 350
peroxisome, 65
Peroxisomes, 49
pH scale, 19, 33
Phagocytosis, 62
phagocytosis, 65
Pharmacogenomics, 218
pharmacogenomics, 223
phase, 117
phenotype, 157, 174
phosphate group, 178, 198
phospholipid, 33
Phospholipids, 26
photic zone, 341, 350
photoautotroph, 112, 350
photoautotrophs, 98, 321
photon, 104, 112
photosystem, 104, 112
physical map, 223
Physical maps, 214
pigment, 100, 112
pinocytosis, 63, 65
pioneer species, 310, 312
planktivore, 350
planktivores, 343
plasma membrane, 43, 65
plasmid, 206, 223
plasmodesma, 65
Plasmodesmata, 51
polar covalent bond, 14, 33
Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR), 205
polymerase chain reaction

(PCR), 223
polypeptide, 28, 33
polyploid, 146, 149
polysaccharide, 23, 33
population density, 286, 312
population genetics, 231,
248
population size, 286, 312
post-transcriptional, 194,
199
post-translational, 195, 199
potential energy, 75, 94
primary consumer, 350
primary consumers, 317
primary immune response,
271, 282
primary succession, 309,
312
primer, 183, 199
producer, 350
producers, 317
prokaryotic cell, 41, 65
prometaphase, 119, 130
promoter, 188, 199
prophase, 119, 130
protein, 34
protein signature, 221, 223
Proteins, 27
proteomics, 221, 223
proto-oncogene, 130
proto-oncogenes, 123
proton, 10, 34
Punnett square, 159, 174
Q
quadrat, 287, 312
quiescent, 130
R
r-selected species, 296, 311
radioactive isotope, 34
radioactive isotopes, 11
receptor-mediated
endocytosis, 63, 65
Recessive, 157
recessive, 174
reciprocal cross, 156, 174
recombinant, 138, 149
recombinant DNA, 208, 223
recombinant protein, 223
recombinant proteins, 208
recombination, 170, 174
reduction division, 141, 149
Relative species
abundance, 307
relative species abundance,

312
replication fork, 199
replication forks, 183
Reproductive cloning, 208
reproductive cloning, 223
resilience, 317
resilience (ecological), 350
resistance, 317
resistance (ecological), 350
restriction enzyme, 224
restriction enzymes, 207
reverse genetics, 210, 224
ribonucleic acid (RNA), 31,
34
ribosome, 65
Ribosomes, 49
RNA polymerase, 189, 199
rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER), 46, 65
rRNA, 191, 199
S
S phase, 118, 130
S-shaped curve, 291
S-shaped growth curve, 312
saturated fatty acid, 34
Saturated fatty acids, 25
savanna, 350
Savannas, 335
secondary consumer, 350
Secondary consumers, 317
secondary immune
response, 272, 282
secondary succession, 309,
312
selectively permeable, 57,
66
semiconservative
replication, 183, 199
septum, 125, 130
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER), 46, 66
solute, 59, 66
solvent, 18, 34
somatic cell, 137, 149
source water, 347, 350
speciation, 240, 248
species distribution pattern,
287, 312
Species richness, 306
species richness, 312
spindle, 118
splicing, 190, 199
sporophyte, 137, 149
Starch, 23
starch, 34
start codon, 192, 199
367
368
INDEX
steroid, 34
steroids, 27
stoma, 112
stomata, 100
stop codon, 199
stop codons, 192
stroma, 100, 112
subduction, 327, 351
substrate, 94
substrates, 78
subtropical desert, 351
Subtropical deserts, 335
surface tension, 18, 34
survivorship curve, 289, 312
Sympatric speciation, 240
sympatric speciation, 248
synapsis, 138, 150
T
T cell, 282
T cells, 266
telomerase, 184, 199
telomere, 199
telomeres, 184
telophase, 120, 130
temperate forest, 351
Temperate forests, 338
temperate grassland, 351
Temperate grasslands, 337
Temperature, 17
temperature, 34
template strand, 189, 199
tertiary consumer, 351
Tertiary consumers, 317
test cross, 160, 174
tetrad, 150
tetrads, 138
Thermodynamics, 73
thermodynamics, 94
thylakoid, 112
thylakoids, 100
tight junction, 52, 66
Tonicity, 59
tonicity, 66
trait, 156, 174
trans-fat, 26, 32
transcription bubble, 188,
199
transgenic, 210, 224
Transgenic, 213
translocation, 150
translocations, 143
triglyceride, 34
triglycerides, 25
trisomy, 144, 150
tRNA, 199
tRNAs, 191
trophic level, 317, 351
tropical rainforest, 351

Tropical rainforests, 334
tumor suppressor gene, 130
Tumor suppressor genes,
123
U
unified cell theory, 40, 66
unsaturated fatty acid, 26,
34
V
vaccine, 259, 282
vacuole, 66
vacuoles, 48
van der Waals interaction,
34
van der Waals interactions,
15
variation, 230, 248
vesicle, 66
Vesicles, 48
vestigial structure, 248
vestigial structures, 237
vicariance, 241, 249
viral envelope, 255, 282
virion, 254, 282
W
wavelength, 102, 112
wetland, 351
Wetlands, 348
white blood cell, 263, 283
Whole genome sequencing,
216
whole genome sequencing,
224
wild type, 166, 174
X
X inactivation, 145, 150
X-linked, 168, 174
Z
zero population growth,
291, 312
INDEX
ATTRIBUTIONS
Collection: Concepts of Biology for the University of Georgia
Edited by: OpenStax College
URL: http://cnx.org/content/col11520/1.5/
Copyright: Rice University
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Based on: Concepts of Biology <http://cnx.org/content/col11487/1.8> arranged by OpenStax
College.
Module: Preface
URL: http://cnx.org/content/m46159/1.6/
Module: Introduction
Module: The Building Blocks of Molecules
Module: Water
Module: Biological Molecules
Module: How Cells Are Studied
Module: Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Module: Eukaryotic Cells
369
370
INDEX
Module: The Cell Membrane

Module: Passive Transport
Module: Active Transport
Module: Energy and Metabolism
Module: Glycolysis
Module: Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation
Module: Fermentation
Module: Connections to Other Metabolic Pathways
Module: Overview of Photosynthesis
Module: The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis
INDEX
Module: The Calvin Cycle
Module: The Genome
Module: The Cell Cycle
Module: Cancer and the Cell Cycle
Module: Prokaryotic Cell Division
Module: Sexual Reproduction
Module: Meiosis
Module: Errors in Meiosis
371
372
INDEX
Module: Mendels Experiments
Module: Laws of Inheritance
Module: Extensions of the Laws of Inheritance
Module: The Structure of DNA
Module: DNA Replication
Module: Transcription
Module: Translation
Module: How Genes Are Regulated
Module: Cloning and Genetic Engineering
INDEX
Module: Biotechnology in Medicine and Agriculture

Module: Genomics and Proteomics
Module: Discovering How Populations Change
Module: Mechanisms of Evolution
Module: Evidence of Evolution
Module: Speciation
Module: Common Misconceptions about Evolution
Module: Viruses
Module: Innate Immunity
Module: Adaptive Immunity
Module: Disruptions in the Immune System
373
374
INDEX
Module: Population Demographics and Dynamics
Module: Population Growth and Regulation
Module: The Human Population
Module: Community Ecology
Module: Energy Flow through Ecosystems
Module: Biogeochemical Cycles
Module: Terrestrial Biomes
Module: Aquatic and Marine Biomes
Module: Appendix
INDEX
375
376
INDEX
INDEX
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CHAPTER 1 | CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

CHAPTER 1 | CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

1.1 | The Building Blocks of Molecules

CHAPTER 1 | CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

How many neutrons do (K) potassium-39 and potassium-40 have, respectively?

CHAPTER 1 | CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

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CHAPTER 1 | CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

CHAPTER 1 | CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

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CHAPTER 1 | CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

CHAPTER 1 | CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

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CHAPTER 1 | CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

Water Stabilizes Temperature

CHAPTER 1 | CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

Click here (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/ice_lattice) to see a 3-D animation of the structure of an ice

Water Is an Excellent Solvent